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Emerging Infectious Diseases

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Emerging Infectious Diseases C4D IN EMERGENCY RESPONSE INFORMATION SHEET EMERGING THINGS TO DO SOCIAL MEDIA CASE STUDIES: INFECTIOUS DISEASE COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION PRACTICES IN RISK APPLICATIONS FOR APPLICATIONS IN DISASTERS AND SANDY AND USE OF AND MOBILE PHONE EMERGENCIES THEN CASE STUDIES: GOOD CASE STUDY: HURRICANE CASE STUDY: EMERGENCY SITUATIONS EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS WARNING EARLY ARE OUTBREAKS AND EMERGING 100 a 100 b Helminths Zoonotic unspecified INFECTIOUS DISEASE EVENTS Fungi Zoonotic non-wildlife 80 Protozoa 80 Zoonotic wildlife Viruses or prions Non-zoonotic INCREASING? Bacteria or rickettsiae 60 60 Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are a significant burden on global economies and public health. An 40 40 analysis of a database of 335 EID ‘events’ (origins Number of EID events of EIDs) between 1940 and 2004 demonstrated that 20 20 EID events have risen significantly over time after 0 0 controlling for reporting bias, with their peak incidence 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 (in the 1980s) concomitant with the HIV pandemic. 1 100 c 100 d Drug-resistant Vector-borne The number of outbreaks, and the number of kinds Non drug - resistant Non vector-borne of disease, have both increased significantly between 80 80 1980 to 2013.2 60 60 EID events seem to be dominated by zoonoses (60.3% 40 40 of EIDs) - meaning that they were transmissible to Number of EID events humans by animals, insects and other vectors. These 20 20 include Ebola, HIV, the bubonic plague and Lyme 0 0 disease. The majority of these (71.8%) zoonoses 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 originate in wildlife (for example, severe acute Decade Decade respiratory virus, Ebola virus), and are increasing significantly over time. Zoonotic diseases have been becoming increasingly diverse over time, but only a small number cause the majority of outbreaks in Emerging infectious disease (EID) outbreaks are often each decade. From 1980 to 1990, 80% of all zoonotic driven by socio-economic, environmental, and ecological disease outbreaks were caused by only 25% of factors. EID emergence provides a basis for identifying potential zoonoses in the dataset, and only 22% and regions where new EIDs are most likely to originate 21% of zoonoses from 1990 to 2000 and from 2000 (emerging disease ‘hotspots’). There is a substantial risk to 2010, respectively. Zoonotic disease cases may be of wildlife zoonotic and vector-borne EIDs originating undercounted in the nations affected the most because at lower latitudes where reporting effort is low. The of limited infrastructure and health resources. authors conclude that global resources to counter disease emergence are poorly allocated, with the The researchers also found that 54.3% of EID events majority of the scientific and surveillance effort focused are caused by bacteria or rickettsia, reflecting a large on countries from where the next important EID is least number of drug-resistant microbes in the database. likely to originate.1 Regional Office for South Asia Project PREDICT is enabling global surveillance for began clearing their lands. In a deforested area of pathogens that can spillover from animal hosts to Peru, the malaria-carrying mosquito species bit 278 people by building capacities to detect and discover times more frequently than the same species in an viruses of pandemic potential. The project is part of untouched forest.5 USAID’s Emerging Pandemic Threats program and is led by the UC Davis One Health Institute. Project More recently in Borneo, Malaysia, researchers found Predict estimates that over the past century, the a strong association between patches of deforested number of new infectious diseases cropping up each land and locations of recent malaria outbreaks. As year has nearly quadrupled. Over the past century, the humans worked on recently deforested spaces, vectors number of outbreaks per year has more than tripled. (mosquitoes) that thrived in this new habitat carried the Researchers have been sampling in rain forests (the disease from primates to people.6 planet’s biodiversity laboratory) around the world for zoonotic viruses for seven years and found nearly 1,000 new viruses in more than 20 countries.3 HIV CLIMATE CHANGE came from a rainforest, as did Ebola, Yellow Fever, and Climate change is another major factor that increases Zika. These viruses have been circulating among bats, the risk of infectious disease outbreaks. Climate change monkeys and rodents in the rainforests for thousands refers to long-term shifts in weather conditions and of years as part of the ecosystem. The animals are patterns of extreme weather events. A recent report generally not harmed by the viruses. Rather, it is the from The Lancet Countdown reports that the human interaction between human predators and the animals symptoms of climate change to be “unequivocal and that lead to disease outbreaks in populations. potentially irreversible.” With increase in heat waves, weather disasters and spread of disease-carrying mosquitoes, climate change significantly imperils public WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MAIN CAUSES health globally, and disproportionately affects vulnerable OF THE RISE IN EMERGING INFECTIOUS populations in low and middle-income countries DISEASE EVENTS? (LMICs), where poverty, water scarcity, inadequate housing or other crises are already prevalent. Climate DEFORESTATION change is a “threat multiplier.” 7 Rising deforestation is bringing wildlife vectors closer to human settlements, and increasing the risk of Climate changes include alterations in one or more infectious disease outbreaks. A 2017 study found that climate variables including temperature, precipitation, Ebola outbreaks in West and Central Africa mostly wind, and sunshine. These changes may impact the occurred in deforested hotspots.4 In the 1990s, in survival, reproduction, or distribution of disease pathogens Peru, malaria cases rose from 600 per year to 120,000, and hosts, as well as the availability and means of their just after a road was built into a forest and people transmission environment (see table below). CLIMATE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN CLIMATE VARIABLE ON: VARIABLE Pathogen Vector/Host Disease Transmission TEMPERATURE Pathogens need favourable As temperature contrinues In the highlands of Kenya, temperatures to survive, to rise, insect vectors in hospital admissions develop and reproduce. For low-latitude regions may find for malaria has been e.g. The incubation period for new habitats in mid-or high- associated with rainfall malaria paraiste reduces from latitude regions and in areas and high maximum 26 days to be more active at of high altitude, leading to temperature during the higher temperatures. geographical expansion or preceding 3-4 months. shift of diseases. Mosquito vectors can escape harsh climates by resorting to household containers or water tanks. PRECIPITATION Heavy rain may stir up Larval development of some Evidence shows that sediments in water, leading mosquito vectors accelerates diseases transmitted to the accumulation of fecal with increased rain and by rodents sometimes microorganisms. Drought/low rising temperature. Drought increases during heavy rainfall lead to low river flows, in wet regions can provide rainfall and flooding causing the concentration mosquitpes with more pools events because of altered of effluent water-borne of stagnant water as breeding patterns of human- pathogens places. pathogen-rodent contact HUMIDITY The pathogens of air-borne Mosquitoes survive better infectious disease such as under conditions of high influenza tend to responsive humidity. They also become to humidity condition. For more active when humidity example, absolute humidity rises. and temperature were found to affect influenza virus transmission and survival. SUNSHINE Sunshine hours and In Bangladesh, research temperature act showed that increased synergistically during cholera temperature and prolonged periods to create a favorable sunshine are positively condition for the multiplication related to the monthly cholera of cholera parasite in water. occurrences. WIND Studies have reported a Strong winds ccan reduce Pathogens can spread positive correlaton between the biting opportunities for from endemic regions dust particle association/ mosquitoes, but can extend to other regions through attachment and virus survival/ their flight distance. interregional dust storms. transporting. A society's vulnerability to climate change induced health risk of infectious diseases is related to its social development and existing public health system and infrastructure. The inadequate financial and medical resources coupled with the less-effective communication and public health education in developing countries limit these societies' ability to prepare for and respond to climate change induced health issues.1 In addition, factors like population increase, urbanization, conflict, and migration are also linked with the spread of infectious diseases. CASE STUDY Rise in vector borne diseases (such as Malaria) due to deforestation and climate change Due to deforestation, sunlight directly hits the (once-shady) forest floor increasing the temperature of water on the floor, which can aid mosquito breeding. Leaves that make streams and ponds high in tannins disappear due to deforestation. This lowers the acidity and makes the water more turbid which favor the breeding of some species of mosquito over others. Flowing water is often dammed up and pooled. The water table of the forest rises closer
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