Insignia Journal of International Relation Vol.5, No.1, April 2018, 46-52 P-ISSN: 2089-1962; E-ISSN: 2597-9868

The Influence of China in Environmental Security and Peace in Mongolia

Muhammad Fachrie International Relations Department, Universitas Jakarta Email: [email protected]

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini mengeksplanasi bagamana Cina mempengaruhi keamanan lingkungan dan perdamaian di Mongolia. Di Mongolia, Cina melibatkan diri di beberapa sektor seperti ekosistem, energi, populasi, makanan dan ekonomi. Aktivitas-aktivitas ini menyebabkan kerusakan lingkungan seperti penggurunan, kepunahan hewan liar, deforestasi, kerusakan lingkungan yang disebabkan pembangkit listrik tenaga air, kesehatan makanan, dan polusi lingkungan yang disebabkan pertambangan. Peter Hough, seorang ahli keamanan lingkungan, dalam bukunya yang berjudul “Memahami Keamanan Global, Edisi Kedua”, menjelaskan bahwa permasalahan- permasalahan lingkungan bisa menjadi sebuah keamanan manusia. Ini berarti bahwa keamanan lingkungan adalah salah satu dari beberapa dimensi-dimensi dari keamanan manusia. Kerusakan lingkungan tidak hanya menjadi permasalahan lingkungan saja, akan tetapi ini juga menjadi permasalahan keamanan. Untuk mengeksplanasi hal tersebut, konsep dimensi keamanan lingkungan dan pendekatan konflik lingkungan digunakan, karena fenomena keamanan ini berfokus pada manusia dan bukan negara.

Kata Kunci: Cina, Lingkungan, Mongolia, Keamanan Tradisional, Perdamaian

ABSTRACT This research explains how China influence environment security and peace in Mongolia. In Mongolia, China enggages itself in several sectors such as ecosystem, energy, population, food, and economy. This activities caused environmental damage like desertification, wildlife extinction, deforestation, damage caused by water-powered plant, food health, and environmental polution caused by mining. Peter Hough, an environment security expert, explained on his book, “Understanding Global Securty, Second Edition”, that environmental problem could be an issue of human security. It means that environment security is a part of human security dimension. Environmental degradation is not just an environmental issue, but also become security issue. To explain this, the concept of environment security dimension and environtmental conflict approach were used, because this security phenomena is focused on men instead of state.

Keywords: China, Environment,Mongolia, Peace, Traditional Security

INTRODUCTION such as respect for sovereignty, non- Mongolia-China Relation and Mongolia’s interference, non-aggression, relations of Non-Traditional Security mutual benefit, and peaceful co-existence, Jeffrey Reeves, in his research, "Sino- the negative effect of threats of non- Mongolian relations and Mongolia's non- traditional security in Mongolia appears traditional security", explains that the from the structural power built by China in dependence of Mongolian economy in its its relations to Mongolia. relations to China and also the weaknesses of In their relation, Mongolia and China its Politic cause China to easily builds the have different views in viewing the existing structural power in dominating Mongolia’s of threat. For China, the threat is the domestic institutions, so that it influences the inability of Beijing to pursue their interests Mongolian people and environmental in Mongolia through the rhetoric of non- security (Reeves (a), 2013: 175). Although interference, mutual relations and mutual China maintaining good relations with respect relation, though the domestic Mongolia by using five principles of peace, problem which is risen from the domination 46 of the structural power of the domestic Mongolia faces the problems of its institutions in Mongolia is a real threat to ecosystem, such as illegal trade of wild Mongolia (Reeves (a), 2013:186). However, animal and desertification. Second, in the relation between these two countries, Mongolia faces energy problems, such as non-traditional security threat faced by the problem of illegal logging and Mongolia is obvious, because of China’s hydroelectric power. Third, Mongolia faces structural power in influencing Mongolia the problems of Mongolian population, such domestic institutions. as uncontrolled migration, urbanization and Imbalance of powers in the relation housing. It also relates to the involvement between Mongolia and China occurs. of Chinese immigration to Mongolia. Fourth, Mongolia has a weakness in the political and Mongolia faces problems of food which are law enforcement, so that China by its related to environmental security, such as structural power can easily intervenes domestic production and dependence on Mongolia domestic institutions. In its foreign food production and food security. unbalanced relation, Mongolia becomes the Fifth, Mongolia also faces the economic country that is not strong in the control, problem, particularly the problem of its management, and protection of its resources. mining. In all of environmental problems It causes the arising of environmental faced by Mongolia, China has a significant problems. Deforestation, desertification, involvement in it. pasture damage and air pollution from the management of coal become some Ecosystem Problem environmental problems in Mongolia In the case of ecosystem, an illegal (Jargalsaikhany, 2001:228). Briefly, the trade of wild animal in Mogolia involves environmental problems relate to the China as an actor. Marmot illegal trade is environmental security in Mongolia, because dominated by China by buying its fur in the environment is the space for people’s life Mongolia. China utilizes the existing and the place for carrying out their activities supplies of marmot fur in Mongolia, sells it in their lives. all back to the Russian market and takes the advantage of it. Chinese demand for Mongolia and its Environmental Problems Marmot fur reduces the population of the Mongolia has a large enough territory population of it in Mongolia. Hunting and populous enough population, so that it animals and illegal trade of it cause many needs the good maintenance of its species of animals to be extinct and nearly environment to prevent environmental extinct over the last 20 years in damages. As a country directly adjacent to Mongolia(Reeves (b), 2011: 445). The China covering its area of 4,630 kilometers extinction of wild animal species become a and Russia covering its area of 3.452 square threat to environmental security in kilometers, Mongolia has a total area of Mongolia, because it surely affects the 1,564,116 square kilometers and a ecosystem in Mongolia. population of 2.953.190 in 2014 (CIA, 2018). Desertification is also a part of the The quite spacious area and high population problem of ecosystem in Mongolia. The become a real threat for Mongolia, because Swiss Agency for Development and China, known as a large and powerful enough Cooperation in Mongolia estimates that 49 country in the world, can easily exploit the percent to 90 percent of the territory of the existing resources in Mongolia. It finally country experience desertification (Reeves impacts on the environmental problems in (b), 2011:456). The increasing demand for Mongolia. goats becomes one of the factors which Mongolia faces several problems that affects the desertification. The increasing affect its environment security. First, demand for that animal from China leads to

47 an increase in the goat husbandry in contributes to energy problem in Mongolia. Mongolia. In the process of it, goats destroy Construction of hydroelectric power plants land, so it certainly damages the environment in Mongolia conducted by China gets in Mongolia. In addition, the increasing goats opposition from local inhabitants and civil population in Mongolia are caused by the society. Opposition not only emerges from demand of Chinese cashmere import. Briefly, the local inhabitants and the civil societies, China plays an important role in constructing but the construction of this project gets a the problems of desertification in Mongolia. feud from international organization. This Another study conducted by Wayne project is loudly commemorated by a Nelles also explains that desertification in conservation organization, research and Mongolia is caused by the exploitation of land restoration of the environment, namely the as a result of the development of animal World Wildlife Fund (WWF). husbandry. Breeders in Mongolia increase goat husbandry to increase exports of Population Problem cashmere to China. This activity only benefits Population problems contribute to breeders for short-term exports of cashmere, environmental problems in Mongolia but the degradation of land and conflict (Jeffrey (b), ,2011: 460-465). Uncontrolled between herder and farmers as a result of the migration becomes one of the problems of seizure of land happen as the impact of one of the population in Mongolia. Without the most environmental destructive activities restriction and regulation, Mongolia’s 1992 (Nelles, 2001: 230). Briefly, the development constitution gives people the freedom to of animals husbandry based on China’s move and live wherever they want. The demand causes the environmental change in loose of mongolian government authorities Mongolia, particularly on the pasture land. in regulating it causes uncontrolled Based on its Law on Land, Mongolian migration happened in Mongolia. Another Land can be used by foreign business entities, problem that arises as a result of organizations, and nationals for a specific uncontrolled migration is urbanization. The purpose, time and condition (KMPG In movement of people from rural to urban Mongolia: 2016). The government can areas becomes easy, because migration determine and approve the payment for the becomes easier by the existing of rules. use of Mongolian Land based on its size and Another problem that arises is housing. location. It gives opportunity to foreign Migration and urbanization cause the entities to collaborate with Mongolian increase of housing demand and the Government. increase price of housing. Between 2007 and 2008, an apartment in the capital city of Energy Problem Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, has a price of 350 The problems of energy contribute to US dollars to 650 US dollars per square environmental security in Mongolia. Illegal meter. The increase in population and the logging becomes one of the problems of price can lead to a shortage of housing and energy in Mongolia. Chinese market controls it is certainly causing environmental the timber sales in Mongolia. It becomes the problems in Mongolia. world's largest timber importer. The high of Beside of the threat of domestic wood demand in China causes the deficit of immigrants, Chinese immigrants also wood for economic growth as much as 75 become threats for environmental security million cubic meters in every year (Jeffrey in Mongolia. In Mongolia, reporters and (b), 2011: 458). The request leads to the politicians view that the number of increase of illegal logging and eventually it outstanding Chinese immigrants as a real causes environmental problems in Mongolia. threat to Mongolia, because the corruption In addition, problem of hydroelectricity conducted by political leaders causes the

48 benefit got by China in relation to Mongolia takes an important role for the majority of (Jeffrey (a), 2013: 182). A large number of small and medium-sized mining in Chinese immigrants to Mongolia threatens Mongolia. The poor track record of the security of the environment in Mongolia. environmental protection problem is Employment, housing, and food needs obtained by Chinese-owned firms operating become the responsibility to be fulfilled by in Mongolia. Violations are attributed to the Mongolian government. Environmental two main of Chinese firms, Da Chin Firm in problems will arise if those needs are not Dormod and Ten Khun in Jargalant, because fulfilled and then it will ultimately threaten both of them cause environmental damages the security of the environment in Mongolia. in Mongolia. Illegal disposal of polluted water, illegal excavation and exploitation Food Problem without liability cause the environmental Mongolia faces food problems that affect damage. In maintaining the mining, environmental problems. It becomes a food Mongolia does not have official legal importer, so that it becomes a market for framework on mining and exploration food products from other countries. China permits. The level of exploitation is only has become a big exporter of food for governed by some rules in the legislation. It Mongolia. The percentage of food instead of finally results in the inequivalent between meat from China reached 90 percent and domestic and foreign firms in the mining partly comes from Russia, such as cereals and sector in Mongolia. Beside of that, without a breads (Jeffrey (b), 2011: 465). Other foods license, a mining exploration by the State is are not produced in Mongolia, such as allowed to do, while exploration conducted poultry, fish, vegetables, fruit, tea, rice, wheat by an individual requires a license. flour, fast drinks and beer. It surely makes The coal industry becomes one of the Mongolia dependence on foreign food mining industry which is developed in production. As the result, China dominates Mongolia and is related to the Chinese the Mongolian food imports. It becomes a industry. The demand from the Chinese security threat to Mongolia. Containers which steel industry secures the market of take food from China do not use the proper Mongolia coal supplies which are expected standard of good health at the time they bring to require 20 million tons of coal imports in the food, so that it threatens the security of a period of more than 5 to 10 years (CEE health. It becomes a health threat to the Bankwatch Network, 2011). China sees population of Mongolia as consumers and Mongolia as an ideal country to dominate eventually it becomes a threat to the security the import market. The demand for coal environment in Mongolia. from China certainly improves exploitation Economic Problem of coal in Mongolia. In the process of Economic problems in the mining sector exploitation, the coal mining industry affect the security environment in Mongolia. impacts on environmental degradation, The mining sector becomes economic activity since excavation of coal causes the existing that has an impact on the environment. The of environmental damage. Soil degradation consequence of mining in Mongolia is acute, becomes one of environmental damages because all rural areas in Mongolia become caused by the exploitation of coal in mining uninhabitable. The problems which arise as a industry in Mongolia. result of mining are water pollution, air, encroachment of protected areas, poisoning of mercury, land degradation, loss of biological diversity, soil erosion and other environmental destruction (Jeffrey (b), 2011: 467). In the mining sector, as investors, China

49 THEORITICAL ANALYSIS support in developing military weapons or The influence of China in Mongolia support traditional security problems, but Environmental Security science and technology can support to Figure.1 (Allenby, 2000: 15) realize security in the environment of human life. For example, the knowledge about the causes and prevention of global warming make the world wiser and more preventive in preventing the use of chemicals which can increase the temperature of the earth. Based on the four dimensions in figure.1, three-dimensions, such as dimension of resource security, energy security, and biological safety are related to To answer about how China influences environmental problems happened in the environmental security in Mongolia, Mongolia. Desertification, extinction of wild concept of environmental security dimension animals, deforestation, environmental and environmental conflict approach are damage caused by hydroelectricity, health used to analyze that question. food, and environmental pollution caused Comprehensively (based on figure.1), the by mining become part of the three- environmental security has four dimensions dimensional. It proves that the of security, namely the security dimension of environmental damages which are occurred resources, energy, biology and traditional in Mongolia are not only environmental security (Allenby, 2000: 14-15). In the problems, but it has become environmental security dimension of resources, the flow of security because its environmental problem resource problems such as nuclear material included in several security dimensions. and competition over resources such as land Before using one approach to explain and water become two of important part in the influence of China on the security of its development. In biological dimension, environment in Mongolia, the author there are three parts of the building describes three approaches that can be dimensions, such as human systems, human used in analyzing environmental security communities and systems of food such as phenomenon. Erika Cudworth and Stephen agriculture and fisheries. In this context, the Hobden in their research, "Beyond environmental security has multiple Environmental Security: Complex Systems, dimensions that became an important part in Multiple Inequalities and Environmental realizing human security. Human security in Risks", explain that there are three the environmental dimension is strongly approaches in understanding influenced resource security, energy, environmental security, namely biological and traditional security in environmental conflict, environmental supporting human life as good, peaceful, security, and ecological security (Cudworth harmonious and fulfilled all the and Hobden, 2011: 43-45). First, in requirements. understanding environmental conflict Four dimensions above make security approach, the research may use the level of become a tangible thing, which becomes a analysis in the form of individual. Source of reflection of the need in building of science insecurity of this approach is and technology in supporting development of environmental change or resource energy and environmental components of depletion. Control and possession of national security (Allenby, 2000: 15-16). economic goods such as resources Science and technology not only become contribute to the future of war.

50 Subsequently, environmental security ecosystems, energy, food and economiy. As approach usually uses the level of analysis of a legal sovereign country in the world, individual or a small part of the community of Mongolia does not enforce strict law against nations and liberal perspectives in illegal activities that impact on China understanding human security in context of environment, especially in matters of environment. It approaches the natural resources. It becomes crucial environmental source of insecurity from the because a sovereign state should have a law change or degrade of the environment or the that can prevent China’s involvement in depletion of resources. But, it is not suitable Mongolia, but in the reality Mongolia is to this research because it focuses on unable to prevent the involvement of China. individual analysis. Third, the last approach is Briefly, the China influence in ecological security. In this approach, the environmental security in Mongolia is as an source of human security is human activity actor which poses a threat to environmental which damages the environment, such as change, because Mongolia does not have a forest fires, illegal logging, hazardous waste strong enough political force to face the disposal in the river, and other destructive structural power of China domination over activities. domestic institutions. From the three approaches used in understanding environmental security, The influence of China in Mongolia Peace environmental conflicts approach becomes a Environmental security relates to the relevant approach in analyzing China peace. In the case of Mongolia, China has influence in environmental security in become a crucial actor in influencing peace Mongolia. To understand the case by in Mongolian society. China contributes to environmental conflict approach, the level of environmental degradation such as analysis in the form of individual with the desertification, extinction of wild animals, perspective of liberalism. Source of insecurity deforestation, environmental damage environmental conflict is environmental caused by hydroelectricity, food safety, change or resource depletion. The control environmental pollution caused of mining and possession of China in economic goods and other environmental destructions. It such as natural resources influences the surely threatens the peace between the two human security in Mongolia. China countries. In the case of population and domination in the various sectors of life in energy in Mongolia, politicians, reporters, Mongolia, such as problem of ecosystem, locals and civil society protest against food, energy, and mining, make itself as the China's involvement, because it threatens actor that influence the environmental the environment in Mongolia. Based on the changes in Mongolia. In the case of the guardian news article, the protest of China’s construction of hydroelectric power plants in domination to Mongolia’s land for Mongolia, China gets opposition from local bussiness comes from individu and group residents and civil society, because the in Mongolia in 2011, because it causes environmental damage rises from the environmental damages (The Guardian, development of it. It can surely lead to the 2011). It means that Mongolian society gets conflict and even war, because the bad impact from economic cooperation environmental changes which occur in between Mongolian government and China. Mongolia get the response from the Briefly, China has become an influential individual and society. actor in creating peace from the threat of China is involved in several environment destruction in Mongolia, since environmental problems that occur in China contributes in a variety of activities Mongolia. It contributes to the environmental that can harm the environment in Mongolia. problems, such as distributions of Exploitation of resources which is

51 conducted by China cause damage or protest come from Mongolian people. Local destruction to the environment in Mongolia inhabitants, civil societies, reporters, and and then it obviously becomes a source of politicians give protest to the destructive conflict between these two countries. activities in Mongolia where China is involved in. Briefly, China is seen as an CONCLUSION influential actor in creating peace in Based on the theoritical analysis above, Mongolia because it involves on various the answer of how China influences activities in Mongolia. In relation to environmental security and peace in Mongolia, China involvement in exploitation Mongolia is as an actor which affects of resources causes environmental damage environmental change, because Mongolia and threatens security. Environmental does not have a strong enough political force damages are an obvious threat in Mongolia. to face the structural power of China in its It possibly creates the higher conflict domination over Mongolian domestic escalation in Mongolian society if the institutions, so that individual and society are exploitation of natural resources in being insecure in their life. It contributes to Mongolia does not pay attention to human desertification, deforestation and other interest. environmental damages. The waves of

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