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Organic Architecture and Indigenous Design Tenets: Frank in Relation to the Work of Douglas Cardinal Rebecca Lemire (M.A.) is currently based in > Rebecca Lemire Vancouver. She has held positions at the Preservation Trust in Chicago, the Design Exchange Museum, Indigenous Arts at The Banff Centre, and most recently, Emily Carr University of Art and Design. In 2013 she t is known that Frank Lloyd Wright received the Martin Eli Weil prize, and is also Ihad an interest in Indigenous North the recipient of a University of Toronto fellowship, American culture, as made evident by several architectural commissions and the Mary Ellen Carty residence scholarship, and records from his personal life.1 Scholars a University of Toronto entrance scholarship. She such as Anthony Alofsin, Vincent Scully, has curated exhibits such as Probing McLuhan and Donald Hoffman detail Wright’s for the CONTACT Photography Festival, which was interest as part of a larger discussion the first comprehensive examination of McLuhan’s surrounding the topic of influence. This work in relation to photography, as well as Myth essay is not concerned with influence, into Matter: Inuit Sculpture at the University of but rather a desire to examine the rela- Toronto Art Centre, which included a publication tionship between Wright’s concept of organic architecture and Indigenous in 2006 co-written with Alana Nesbitt, Cecilia North American approaches to the Wagner, and Adam Welch. environment and built form. Architect Douglas Cardinal, who has spent the greater part of his career designing for First Nations communities, outlines sev- eral such approaches in his collected writ- ings, Of the Spirit. In a close analysis of Cardinal’s work for First Nations commun- ities, I intend to demonstrate the rela- tionship between Wright’s architectural philosophies, Cardinal’s design style, and First Nations perspectives on architecture.

Organic Architecture and Of the Spirit

While Wright’s concept of organic archi- tecture has been interpreted in various capacities, he most consistently defines his philosophy as based upon the concept of an integrated and unified whole. In his final revised edition of The Living City, Wright directly addresses the issue:

The use of the term “organic” in architec- ture applies to a concept of intrinsic living and of building intrinsic and natural . . . the term should be a daily working concept of the great altogether wherein features and FIG. 1. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Kamloops Band Use Plan. 2005. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc.

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FIG. 2. Frank Lloyd Wright. Plan for Galesburg Country Homes. Kalamazoo, Michigan. 1946-49. Courtesy The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives (The Museum of Modern Art | Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University). All rights reserved. | The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives (The Museum of Modern Art | Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University). All rights reserved.

FIGS. 3-4. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Masterplan for the Yellowquill Nation. 2009. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc.

parts, congenial in form and substance, are holistic ideology involves living “in sym- the site but integral to the life of its applied to purpose as congenital . . .2 pathy with the natural environment.”5 In inhabitants.7 In his early writings on the architectural form, Cardinal translates this Prairie home, he stated: “there should be In his writings regarding the future of First into structures that are built close to the as many kinds of houses as there are kinds Nations architecture, Cardinal emphasizes ground, address the natural landscape, of people and as many differentiations similar ideas concerning the integrated and employ local materials; all attrib- as there are individuals.”8 It is this aspect whole and intrinsic living. He discusses utes seen to be characteristic of Wright’s of Wright’s philosophy that resonates the holistic philosophy underlying every own work. In their respective writings, the strongest with Cardinal.9 In a state- aspect of First Nations life in which the both Wright and Cardinal describe the ment defining his own organic philoso- interrelated and unified whole is con- ideal building as “growing” from its site phy, Cardinal writes that “The potential sidered sacred.3 In community planning in a manner compatible with its natural users of the project provide feedback and for example, the relationship of buildings surroundings.6 direction to sculpt the plan and facili- to one another and their place within the ties from the inside out . . . Each cell or whole is of the utmost importance to According to Wright’s Usonian vision, space has a particular function, like that Cardinal’s design schemes.4 Similarly, this housing should not only be integral to of the human body.”10 Working within

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this organic philosophy, Cardinal has relates to their arrangement in the land- individual lots are adapted to the gently developed an in-depth form of analysis in scape, and to the structuring of the entire rolling topography. Similarly, Cardinal which he asks at least sixteen basic ques- community (the plan is based on varia- developed his plans for the Yellowquill tions to the client. These answers are then tions of the circle and the octagon). The Nation (figs. 3-4) around the ravine that entered into a database that is scaled in organization of dwellings into clusters is runs through the estate, and developed relation to room samples to establish reflective of the band’s traditional mode the roadways to suggest a continual actual room use and attain maximum of living. These clusters then share a cen- organic flow. He also uses an L-shape functionality.11 His First Nations projects tral communal space and are arranged in formation for his homes, as was typical in particular have involved intense com- a non-hierarchical manner. For Cardinal of Wright’s Usonian designs. For the munity consultation, with Cardinal com- it was essential that there be a disper- Kamloops band use plan, one of the first monly revising his plans according to the sal or “integration” of parks throughout steps for Cardinal was identifying areas of client’s input12 (Wright was not so accom- the plan, as opposed to one centralized environmental concern, and the grounds modating). Indeed, Cardinal’s approach green space.16 It is interesting to look at indigenous to animals and plant life.22 to the client-architect relationship is an this project in comparison to Wright’s extremely democratic one. quadruple housing plan, where Wright In his desire to create a fully integrated has divided houses into distinct groupings master plan, Cardinal conducted several Finally, it is important to mention Wright’s of four, wherein each group is walled-in consultations not just with band lead- belief in the metaphorical significance of to reinforce unity.17 Wright has also con- ers but the entire community, receiving the fireplace as “the heart of the whole, sidered each unit in relationship to the input from every level.23 In designing the and of the building itself.”13 The central entire group,18 using variations on the Ouje Bougoumou community in Northern role of the hearth is evident in his Prairie rectangle/square throughout the block Quebec, he consulted with the community house designs, while in his later Usonian plan. Like in the Kamloops project, areas eight times before finalizing a scheme.24 designs, the kitchen (a related space) of greenery are dispersed throughout, takes on this position within the home.14 and car traffic is relegated to the per- Ultimately, it should be noted that while In Of the Spirit, Cardinal describes the role iphery of the housing groups. There is the homes in Wright’s communities of the fireplace in First Nations commun- also a non-hierarchal structure or “pic- remain aesthetically integrated, they are ities as that element which keeps every turesque standardization”19 (as Wright not socially integrated in the manner of clan in close and constant contact with deemed it) within the block. The four Cardinal’s First Nations communities. In the whole.15 As an architectural compon- houses appear to share a communal gar- fact, most of the homes in Wright’s com- ent, it has informed structures built by den space and shed area in the centre, munities are resolutely isolated in their both Wright and Cardinal. but unlike Cardinal’s plan, the plots are individual lots. While there is opportunity clearly delineated. for communal activity, it is not directly The Masterplans incorporated into the lot design as is seen In his later community designs (1939 in Cardinal’s plans. Wright advocates for The philosophies outlined above can onward), it is easy to observe how Wright an integral relationship with nature, not be identified in Cardinal’s masterplan- directly addresses the existing land- with one’s neighbours. ning projects such as the Yellowquill scape. He also makes more frequent use Community plan and the Kamloops Indian of organic curvilinear forms (as is more An Ideal School Band plan. The influence of Wright on commonly seen in Cardinal’s work). For Cardinal is very much obvious (and a tes- example, in his plan for the 1 pro- Scaling down to the level of individ- tament to his connection with Wright’s ject in East Lansing, Michigan, Wright ual structure, it is most informative principles), yet his plans are uniquely developed the community around the to look at Cardinal’s designs for First Indigenous, as will be demonstrated. landforms and the views.20 He also Nations schools in relation to Wright’s developed the roadways and the plant- concept of organic architecture. For In his design for the Kamloops Reserve ings “to obscure any perception of the example, Cardinal employs fractal and (fig. 1), each structure is considered in underlying geometric structure in favor non-Euclidian geometry (as is typically relationship to the greater whole; the of an emphasis on natural place.”21 In seen in traditional First Nations design geometry of the individual structures his Galesburg community plan (fig. 2), work) in his floor plans to achieve a fully

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semi-hexagonal shapes to create a cen- troidal plan with classrooms opening up into a main assembly hall (fig. 6). In his writings on education and school struc- tures in The Living City, Wright argues against the typically large American high school of his day, calling them “know- ledge factories” and “spiritually impo- tent”28 places. His ideal school would be small in size and have a sense of intim- acy, emphasizing quality in education over quantity.29 He states that the school building “should be well designed and appointed not only as a whole, but so that ‘small’ may be then divided into smaller units in so far as possible.”30 Wright was also a firm believer in learning outside FIG. 5. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. FIG. 6. Frank Lloyd Wright. School Floor Plan. Rossignol (aka Île-à-la-Crosse Elementary) Floor Published in The Living City. 1958. Courtesy The Frank the classroom, in communal settings, Plan. 1973. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives (The Museum of and in nature, declaring that “the young Modern Art | Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University). All rights reserved. | Wright, F. L. worker should learn of the potentialities (1958). The Living City. New York: Horizon Press. of the soil . . . working on the soil and in integrated educational structure (fig. 5). structure is also representative of the it . . . learning to listen to the sounds of Just as Wright looked to geometry as it is “earth to sky” connection, another animal cries, wind in trees, water flowing found in nature, Cardinal’s floor plan for important symbol within First Nations and falling, thus becoming more sensi- Rossignol Elementary (fig. 5) is reminis- culture.27 The structural supports of the tive to nature and appreciative of inte- cent of three flowers clustered together. building are left visible and the wood is gral rhythm.”31 In Of the Spirit, Cardinal Again, the evolution of this design saw left its natural colour (fig. 8), reflecting identifies almost identical approaches to intense participation from the commun- Wright’s penchant for truth in materials. education within his First Nations culture, ity, and the centroidal approach was This visible roofline also serves to inte- writing that the Indigenous concept of considered most reflective of the band’s grate the exterior of the building with education “demands the use of the total values. It was also important that each the indoor space. The building (fig. 10) is environment as the learning setting with space be integrated with the next, and sensitive to the prairie landscape in form the indoor classroom relegated to only that the rooms be placed in intimate (low to the ground, single level) and col- selected uses,”32 continuing on to empha- contact with one another, reinforcing our (the sandy colours reflect those of size the importance of developing an indi- the community’s role in the teaching the prairie grasses). Finally, it is import- vidual relationship with nature. In the process.25 For example, four individual ant to mention that due to the shape of same vein, Wright insists that the school classrooms open onto a single resource the building, there are several sheltered houses of the future American suburb be centre, which in turn opens into the cen- areas for outdoor play all around. By way placed in the “choicest part of the whole tral space (and focal point) of the school: of this architectural element, Cardinal’s countryside.”33 a hexagonal lounge space which serves building embraces the outdoor grounds as a meeting place for all members of the of the school. With regards to structure, Wright’s school community. This central space features a house embraces the landscape in the same sunken lounge area echoing the fire pit It is relevant to compare Rossignol with manner as Cardinal’s in that similar areas (a symbol of unity in the community),26 Wright’s design for an ideal school in of outdoor shelter are inserted into the while the circular skylight above reflects The Living City, a school that would building’s fabric. Wright’s use of the large the smoke holes that would have been eventually be built in Wyoming Valley, overhanging roof is particularly accom- built into traditional structures (fig. 8). (fig. 11). Like Cardinal, Wright modating. Also similar to Cardinal, Wright The use of skylights in this single level uses a combination of hexagonal and brings in light from above. Although he

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FIG. 7. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Rossignol. Main Hall Seating Area. 1973. Photographer Unknown. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc.

FIG. 8. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Rossignol Elementary. Skylight. FIG. 9. Frank Lloyd Wright. Wyoming Valley School. 1956. Skylight in Main Hall. Photo: 1973. Photographer Unknown. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Anthony Thompson. | Eric O’Malley (2012) “Wright & Like 2012: Spring Green Hidden Treasures” Prairiemod: The Art of Living in the Modern World, Web, Accessed: September 13, 2013. uses a clerestory as opposed to a skylight, Guggenheim, , the Larkin Indian Arts. According to Cardinal, New the light is also screened by an overlay Building, Marin County Civic Centre, and and Wright would have long philosophical of wooden beams (fig. 9). Finally, it is the Johnson Wax Factory). This type of conversations, often discussing the inte- interesting to note that Wright places space is frequently used in Indigenous gration of art with architecture and the a fireplace in the centre of the school’s architecture (fig. 12) and relates to trad- idea of a “total art.”37 Indeed, it is diffi- assembly hall, similar to Cardinal’s desig- itional dwellings such as the hooghan and cult to look at the interior of this museum nation of the hallowed seating area, rem- the teepee, in which the fire pit would without being reminded of Wright’s iniscent of a fire pit (fig. 7). Indeed, both be placed at the centre of the structure, famous Guggenheim atrium (fig. 13) and spaces serve a similar function; as Richard with a hole carved in the ceiling (beyond one must speculate as to how much of Joncas denotes in his chapter on Wright’s the obvious practical reasons, the hole an influence Wright’s museum had on Educational Structures, in Wright’s mind, symbolically links earth to sky35). Due to Cardinal and the contributing design- the great hearth was “symbolic of com- the spiritual importance of the fire in ers, John Paul Jones and the Geddes munity and inspiration.”34 First Nations life, the central space of a Brecher Qualls Cunningham (GBQC) building is often designated as sacred. firm. Conversely, it should be noted Centralized Space – Lloyd This is exemplified in designs by Cardinal that this design is the result of years’ Kiva New, Wright, and the for the Kamloops Indian Band, the Ouje worth of consultation with Indigenous National Museum of the Bougoumou village, and most recently, groups from across North America38; ele- American Indian the National Museum of the American ments which are reminiscent of Wright’s Indian (fig. 14). Interestingly enough, one Guggenheim—such as the circular space, In relation to Wright’s designation of of the elders whom Cardinal consulted and a dome open to the sky, were iden- the fireplace as “the heart of the whole, with on this museum, Lloyd Kiva New, tified by the Native American commun- and of the building itself,” is his frequent was a close friend of Wright’s.36 New was ities as “basic requirements” of a building use of the central sky-lit atrium space a renowned Cherokee artist and designer that would embody their cultural and (as observed in buildings such as the who co-founded the Institute of American architectural traditions. In this way, the

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FIG. 10. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Rossignol Elementary. 1973. FIG. 11. Frank Lloyd Wright. Wyoming Valley School. 1956. Photo: Mary Ann Photographer Unknown. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Sullivan. | Maryann Sullivan (2004) “Wyoming Valley School” Bluffton University: Mary Ann Sullivan, Web, Accessed: September 13, 2013.

Guggenheim is also reflective of historic can be drawn between First Nations recognized, or not recognized? What are indigenous structures. In Understanding approaches to architecture and Wright’s, the important differences between these Media, Marshall McLuhan addresses a such as a holistic, integrated design style, approaches, and how can contemporary similar issue relating to Wright’s museum, an architectural respect for the environ- architectural practice be informed? proposing that Wright was influenced by ment, the metaphorical importance of storytelling methods within oral societies: fire, the open plan, and a preference Complementary Bibliography for forms inspired by nature. However, it The Eastern mode of thought tackles prob- should also be recognized that Wright’s Boddy, Trevor, 1989, in Trevor Boddy and Douglas Cardinal (eds.), The Architecture of Douglas lem and resolution, at the outset of a dis- approach to design sharply diverges Cardinal, Edmonton, NeWest Press. cussion in a way typical of oral societies in from First Nations practices in that he Krinsky, Carol, 1996), Contemporary Native general. The entire message is then traced champions individual land ownership, American Architecture: Cultural Regeneration 40 and retraced, again and again, on the privacy , and a secluded relationship and Creativity, New York, Oxford University rounds of a concentric spiral with seem- with nature, while many First Nations Press. ing redundancy. One can stop anywhere cultures require a highly communal way O’Malley, Eric, 2012, “Wright & Like 2012: Spring and have the full message. This kind of plan of life, based on a shared experience of Green Hidden Treasures,” Prairiemod: The Art seems to have inspired Frank Lloyd Wright the environment and its resources.41 of Living in the Modern World, [http://www. prairiemod.com/features/2012/06/connect- in designing the Guggenheim Gallery on a wright-like-2012-spring-green-hidden-trea- spiral concentric basis.39 Looking forward, it would be valuable sures.html], accessed September 13, 2013.

to explore Indigenous approaches to Sullivan, Maryann, 2004, “Wyoming Valley School,” Indeed, McLuhan’s proposal echoes the art and architecture in relation to the Bluffton University: Mary Ann Sullivan, vast amount of scholarship surrounding broader context of Early Modernism [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/wis- Wright’s “non-Western” influences. Yet (from Art Nouveau through to the consin/springgreen/wyoming.html], accessed September 13, 2013. in comparison to the research concern- Bauhaus), and ideas of Gesamtkunstwerk ing Wright’s Japanese and Mayan asso- on an international scale. What are the ciations, there has been little exploration connections between these movements into his connections with the Indigenous and the design tenets of Indigenous culture of his home continent. Looking at cultures from around the world? How the designs of Cardinal, several parallels have these connections been previously

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NOTES

1. Wright makes direct reference to Native American iconography and archi- tectural forms in the following works: , Nakoma Country Club, Lake Tahoe Summer Colony, Bogk House (frieze), Bradley House (windows), Dana House (art glass), Trinity Chapel, Oklahoma.

Personal Interest: According to Douglas Cardinal, Wright was in close contact with Cherokee artist Lloyd Kiva New and frequently spoke with him about art and design, and in particular the idea of a “total art.” (Douglas Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.)

Wright commissioned the artist Orlando Giannini to paint two murals depicting Plains Indians on the wall of his bedroom in Oak Park. These murals still exist today.

According to Anthony Alofsin (1998, Frank Lloyd Wright—The Lost Years, 1910-1922: A Study of Influence [paperback ed.], Chicago, University of FIG. 12. Barry More. Alabama Coushatta Museum and Village. Ceremonial Chicago Press, p. 229), Wright was in close contact with William Guthrie, a building. 1972. Photo: Rick Gardner. Courtesy Houston Public Library, HMRC, preacher who regularly practiced Hako ritual. Alofsin also states (p. 371): MSS 0078-3615. | Houston Public Library, HMRC, MSS 0078-3615. “Wright’s personal interest in Indians was reinforced by an apocryphal story that Olgivanna and her child posed for Nakoma . . . further confir- med by Eric Mendelsohn’s account that, during his visit to Wright in 1924, Wright had the German architect dress up in Indian clothing, replete with Bark shoes, staff, gloves, and tomahawk.”

“Wright stood statuettes of Indians by Heron MacNeil at the door of his first office in downtown Chicago . . . placed same artist’s ‘Primitive Chant’ near inglenook of Winslow House.” (Hoffmann, Donald, 1986, Frank Lloyd Wright, Architecture and Nature, New York, Dover Publications, p. 95.)

2. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1958, The Living City, New York, Horizon Press, p. 16.

3. Cardinal, Douglas, 1977, in George Melnyk (ed.), Of the Spirit: Writings, Edmonton, NeWest Press, p. 56.

4. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

5. Cardinal, 1977 : 101.

6. Id. : 34: “Grand Prairie College must establish a pattern of growth which FIG. 13. Frank Lloyd Wright Guggenheim. Main Hall Atrium. Photo: David Heald is sympathetic to nature. It must grow in a way compatible with the land ©The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. | The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York. Photograph by David Heald©The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York. FLWW-14. on which it rests.” Frank Lloyd Wright, 1908, “In the Cause of Architecture,” in Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Frank Lloyd Wright (eds.), 1992, , Scottsdale (AZ), Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation: “A building should appear to grow easily from its site and be shaped to harmonize with its surroundings.”

7. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1954, , New York, Horizon Press.

8. Wright, 1908, in Pfeiffer and Wright (eds.), 1992, Frank Lloyd Wright Collected Writings..., op. cit.

9. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

10. Cardinal, Douglas, n.d., “Design Philosophy” Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. [http://www.djcarchitect.com/company/designphilosophy.html], accessed December 17, 2009.

11. Id.

12. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

13. Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1896, “Architecture, Art and the Client,” in Pfeiffer FIG. 14. Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. Douglas Cardinal, GBQC Architects, and Wright (eds.), 1992, Frank Lloyd Wright Collected Writings…, op. cit. Johnpaul Jones. Main Hall Atrium. National Museum of the American Indian. 2004. Photographer Unknown. | Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc.

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14. Jackson, Jesse Colin, 2009, Class Lecture, Frank Lloyd Wright Today: The Usonian Projects, ARC 3034, John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, University of Toronto, November 2.

15. Cardinal, 1977 : 57.

16. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

17. Wright, Gwendolyn, 1994, in Terrence Riley and Peter Reed (eds.), Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect, New York, Museum of Modern Art, p. 90.

18. Michael J. Desmond, in David G. De Long, Vitra Design Museum, Exhibitions International, and Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation (eds.), Frank Lloyd Wright and The Living City, Milan (It.), Skira, p. 241.

19. Wright, as quoted by Desmond, id. : 242.

20. Id. : 243.

21. Ibid.

22. Cardinal, Douglas, n.d., “Kamloops Band Land Use Plan,” Douglas Cardinal Architect Inc. [http://www.djcarchitect.com/portfolio/kamloops- band.html], accessed December 17, 2009.

23. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

24. Id.

25. Id.

26. Cardinal, 1977 : 57.

27. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

28. Wright, 1958 : 208.

29. Id. : 209.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid.

32. Cardinal, 1977.

33. Wright, 1958 : 208.

34. Joncas, Richard, in De Long et al. (eds.), Frank Lloyd Wright and The Living City, op. cit. : 121.

35. Cardinal, telephone interview with author, December 14, 2009.

36. Id.

37. Id.

38. Id.

39. McLuhan, Marshall, 2003, in W. Terrence Gordon (ed.), Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (critical ed.), Corte Madera (CA), Gingko Press, : 43.

40. Wright, Gwendolyn : 91.

41. Cardinal, 1977 : 56.

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