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THEMATIC DOSSIER | DOSSIER THÉMATIQUE ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE AND INDIGENOUS DESIGN TENETS: FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT IN RELATION TO THE WORK OF DOUGLAS CARDINAL REBECCA LEMIRE (M.A.) is currently based in > REBECCA LEMIRE Vancouver. She has held positions at the Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust in Chicago, the Design Exchange Museum, Indigenous Arts at The Banff Centre, and most recently, Emily Carr University of Art and Design. In 2013 she t is known that Frank Lloyd Wright received the Martin Eli Weil prize, and is also Ihad an interest in Indigenous North the recipient of a University of Toronto fellowship, American culture, as made evident by several architectural commissions and the Mary Ellen Carty residence scholarship, and records from his personal life.1 Scholars a University of Toronto entrance scholarship. She such as Anthony Alofsin, Vincent Scully, has curated exhibits such as Probing McLuhan and Donald Hoffman detail Wright’s for the CONTACT Photography Festival, which was interest as part of a larger discussion the first comprehensive examination of McLuhan’s surrounding the topic of influence. This work in relation to photography, as well as Myth essay is not concerned with influence, into Matter: Inuit Sculpture at the University of but rather a desire to examine the rela- Toronto Art Centre, which included a publication tionship between Wright’s concept of organic architecture and Indigenous in 2006 co-written with Alana Nesbitt, Cecilia North American approaches to the Wagner, and Adam Welch. environment and built form. Architect Douglas Cardinal, who has spent the greater part of his career designing for First Nations communities, outlines sev- eral such approaches in his collected writ- ings, Of the Spirit. In a close analysis of Cardinal’s work for First Nations commun- ities, I intend to demonstrate the rela- tionship between Wright’s architectural philosophies, Cardinal’s design style, and First Nations perspectives on architecture. ORGANIC ARCHITECTURE AND OF THE SPIRIT While Wright’s concept of organic archi- tecture has been interpreted in various capacities, he most consistently defines his philosophy as based upon the concept of an integrated and unified whole. In his final revised edition of The Living City, Wright directly addresses the issue: The use of the term “organic” in architec- ture applies to a concept of intrinsic living and of building intrinsic and natural . the term should be a daily working concept of the great altogether wherein features and FIG. 1. DOUGLAS CARDINAL ARCHITECT INC. KAMLOOPS BAND USE PLAN. 2005. | DOUGLAS CARDINAL ARCHITECT INC. JSSAC | JSÉAC 38 > No 2 > 2013 > 87-94 87 JRAMESEBECCA A SHBYLEMIRE > THEMA> THEMTICATIC DOSSIER DOSSIER | D OSSIER| DOSSIER THÉMA THÉMTIQUEATIQUE FIG. 2. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT. PLAN FOR GALESBURG COUNTRY HOMES. KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN. 1946-49. COURTESY THE FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT FOUNDATION ARCHIVES (THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART | AVERY ARCHITECTURAL & FINE ARTS LIBRARY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY). ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. | THE FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT FOUNDATION ARCHIVES (THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART | AVERY ARCHITECTURAL & FINE ARTS LIBRARY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY). ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. FIGS. 3-4. DOUGLAS CARDINAL ARCHITECT INC. MASTERPLAN FOR THE YELLOWQUILL NATION. 2009. | DOUGLAS CARDINAL ARCHITECT INC. parts, congenial in form and substance, are holistic ideology involves living “in sym- the site but integral to the life of its applied to purpose as congenital . .2 pathy with the natural environment.”5 In inhabitants.7 In his early writings on the architectural form, Cardinal translates this Prairie home, he stated: “there should be In his writings regarding the future of First into structures that are built close to the as many kinds of houses as there are kinds Nations architecture, Cardinal emphasizes ground, address the natural landscape, of people and as many differentiations similar ideas concerning the integrated and employ local materials; all attrib- as there are individuals.”8 It is this aspect whole and intrinsic living. He discusses utes seen to be characteristic of Wright’s of Wright’s philosophy that resonates the holistic philosophy underlying every own work. In their respective writings, the strongest with Cardinal.9 In a state- aspect of First Nations life in which the both Wright and Cardinal describe the ment defining his own organic philoso- interrelated and unified whole is con- ideal building as “growing” from its site phy, Cardinal writes that “The potential sidered sacred.3 In community planning in a manner compatible with its natural users of the project provide feedback and for example, the relationship of buildings surroundings.6 direction to sculpt the plan and facili- to one another and their place within the ties from the inside out . Each cell or whole is of the utmost importance to According to Wright’s Usonian vision, space has a particular function, like that Cardinal’s design schemes.4 Similarly, this housing should not only be integral to of the human body.”10 Working within 88 JSSAC | JSÉAC 38 > No 2 > 2013 REBJECCAAMES LAESHBYMIRE > THEMATHEMATICTIC DOSSIER | DOSSIER THÉTHÉMAMATIQUETIQUE this organic philosophy, Cardinal has relates to their arrangement in the land- individual lots are adapted to the gently developed an in-depth form of analysis in scape, and to the structuring of the entire rolling topography. Similarly, Cardinal which he asks at least sixteen basic ques- community (the plan is based on varia- developed his plans for the Yellowquill tions to the client. These answers are then tions of the circle and the octagon). The Nation (figs. 3-4) around the ravine that entered into a database that is scaled in organization of dwellings into clusters is runs through the estate, and developed relation to room samples to establish reflective of the band’s traditional mode the roadways to suggest a continual actual room use and attain maximum of living. These clusters then share a cen- organic flow. He also uses an L-shape functionality.11 His First Nations projects tral communal space and are arranged in formation for his homes, as was typical in particular have involved intense com- a non-hierarchical manner. For Cardinal of Wright’s Usonian designs. For the munity consultation, with Cardinal com- it was essential that there be a disper- Kamloops band use plan, one of the first monly revising his plans according to the sal or “integration” of parks throughout steps for Cardinal was identifying areas of client’s input12 (Wright was not so accom- the plan, as opposed to one centralized environmental concern, and the grounds modating). Indeed, Cardinal’s approach green space.16 It is interesting to look at indigenous to animals and plant life.22 to the client-architect relationship is an this project in comparison to Wright’s extremely democratic one. quadruple housing plan, where Wright In his desire to create a fully integrated has divided houses into distinct groupings master plan, Cardinal conducted several Finally, it is important to mention Wright’s of four, wherein each group is walled-in consultations not just with band lead- belief in the metaphorical significance of to reinforce unity.17 Wright has also con- ers but the entire community, receiving the fireplace as “the heart of the whole, sidered each unit in relationship to the input from every level.23 In designing the and of the building itself.”13 The central entire group,18 using variations on the Ouje Bougoumou community in Northern role of the hearth is evident in his Prairie rectangle/square throughout the block Quebec, he consulted with the community house designs, while in his later Usonian plan. Like in the Kamloops project, areas eight times before finalizing a scheme.24 designs, the kitchen (a related space) of greenery are dispersed throughout, takes on this position within the home.14 and car traffic is relegated to the per- Ultimately, it should be noted that while In Of the Spirit, Cardinal describes the role iphery of the housing groups. There is the homes in Wright’s communities of the fireplace in First Nations commun- also a non-hierarchal structure or “pic- remain aesthetically integrated, they are ities as that element which keeps every turesque standardization”19 (as Wright not socially integrated in the manner of clan in close and constant contact with deemed it) within the block. The four Cardinal’s First Nations communities. In the whole.15 As an architectural compon- houses appear to share a communal gar- fact, most of the homes in Wright’s com- ent, it has informed structures built by den space and shed area in the centre, munities are resolutely isolated in their both Wright and Cardinal. but unlike Cardinal’s plan, the plots are individual lots. While there is opportunity clearly delineated. for communal activity, it is not directly THE MASTERPLANS incorporated into the lot design as is seen In his later community designs (1939 in Cardinal’s plans. Wright advocates for The philosophies outlined above can onward), it is easy to observe how Wright an integral relationship with nature, not be identified in Cardinal’s masterplan- directly addresses the existing land- with one’s neighbours. ning projects such as the Yellowquill scape. He also makes more frequent use Community plan and the Kamloops Indian of organic curvilinear forms (as is more AN IDEAL SCHOOL Band plan. The influence of Wright on commonly seen in Cardinal’s work). For Cardinal is very much obvious (and a tes- example, in his plan for the Usonia 1 pro- Scaling down to the level of individ- tament to his connection with Wright’s ject in East Lansing, Michigan, Wright ual structure, it is most informative principles), yet his plans are uniquely developed the community around the to look at Cardinal’s designs for First Indigenous, as will be demonstrated. landforms and the views.20 He also Nations schools in relation to Wright’s developed the roadways and the plant- concept of organic architecture.

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