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Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Journal of Ophthalmology Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Lead Guest Editor: Malgorzata Mrugacz Guest Editors: Marzena Gajęcka, Ewa Mrukwa‑Kominek, and Katarzyna J. Witkowska Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Journal of Ophthalmology Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Lead Guest Editor: Malgorzata Mrugacz Guest Editors: Marzena Gajecka, Ewa Mrukwa-Kominek, and Katarzyna J. Witkowska Copyright © 2018 Hindawi. All rights reserved. This is a special issue published in “Journal of Ophthalmology.” All articles are open access articles distributed under the Creative Com- mons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Editorial Board Steven F. Abcouwer, USA J. M. Gonzalez-Méijome, Portugal Neville Osborne, UK Monica L. Acosta, New Zealand Jakob Grauslund, Denmark Ji-jing Pang, USA Luca Agnifili, Italy Ian Grierson, UK Mohit Parekh, Italy Hamid Ahmadieh, Iran Vlassis Grigoropoulos, Greece Enrico Peiretti, Italy Hee B. Ahn, Republic of Korea Shigeru Honda, Japan Grazia Pertile, Italy Usha P. Andley, USA Pierluigi Iacono, Italy David P. Piñero, Spain Siamak Ansari-Shahrezaei, Austria Takeshi Iwase, Japan Jesús Pintor, Spain Taras Ardan, Czech Republic Vishal Jhanji, Hong Kong Antonio Queiros, Portugal Francisco Arnalich-Montiel, Spain Nathan M. Kerr, New Zealand Miguel Rechichi, Italy Takayuki Baba, Japan Naoshi Kondo, Japan Anthony G. Robson, UK Stefano Baiocchi, Italy Ozlem G. Koz, Turkey Mario R. Romano, Italy Paul Baird, Australia Hiroshi Kunikata, Japan Marta Sacchetti, Italy Angelo Balestrazzi, Italy Toshihide Kurihara, Japan Wataru Saito, Japan Antonio Benito, Spain Sentaro Kusuhara, Japan Juan A. Sanchis-Gimeno, Spain Mehmet Borazan, Turkey George Kymionis, Greece Dirk Sandner, Germany Florence Cabot, USA Achim Langenbucher, Germany Ana Raquel Santiago, Portugal Carlo Cagini, Italy Van C. Lansingh, Mexico Patrik Schatz, Sweden Francis Carbonaro, Malta Paolo Lanzetta, Italy Kin Sheng Lim, UK Gonzalo Carracedo, Spain Theodore Leng, USA Wisam A. Shihadeh, USA Arturo Carta, Italy Hong LIANG, France Bartosz Sikorski, Poland Alejandro Cerviño, Spain Marco Lombardo, Italy ASugar,USA Chi-Chao Chan, USA Antonio Longo, Italy Shivalingappa K. Swamynathan, USA Lingyun Cheng, USA Norberto López-Gil, Spain Nóra Szentmáry, Hungary Chung-Jung Chiu, USA Tamer A. Macky, Egypt Masaru Takeuchi, Japan Colin Clement, Australia Mauricio Maia, Brazil Suphi Taneri, Germany Inés Contreras, Spain Edward Manche, USA Christoph Tappeiner, Switzerland Miguel Cordero-Coma, Spain Flavio Mantelli, USA Stephen Charn Beng Teoh, Singapore Ciro Costagliola, Italy Leonardo Mastropasqua, Italy Panagiotis Theodossiadis, Greece Roberto dell’Omo, Italy Cosimo Mazzotta, Italy Biju B. Thomas, USA Vasilios F. Diakonis, USA Enrique Mencía-Gutiérrez, Spain Oren Tomkins-Netzer, UK Priyanka P. Doctor, India Marcel Menke, Switzerland Lisa Toto, Italy Beth Edmunds, USA CarstenH.Meyer,Switzerland Maurizio Uva, Italy Manuel S. Falcão, Portugal Elad Moisseiev, Israel Manuel Vidal-Sanz, Spain Bao Jian Fan, USA Mário Monteiro, Brazil Paolo Vinciguerra, Italy Michel E. Farah, Brazil Paolo Mora, Italy Gianmarco Vizzeri, USA Paulo Fernandes, Portugal Lawrence S. Morse, USA Suichien Wong, UK Giulio Ferrari, Italy Majid M. Moshirfar, USA Victoria W Y Wong, Hong Kong Michele Figus, Italy Marco Mura, USA Tsutomu Yasukawa, Japan Paolo Fogagnolo, Italy Jean-Claude Mwanza, USA Hyeong Gon Yu, Republic of Korea Joel Gambrelle, France Ramon Naranjo-Tackman, Mexico Vicente Zanon-Moreno, Spain M.-A. Gamulescu, Germany Anna Nowinska, Poland Tomasz Zarnowski, Poland Santiago García-Lázaro, Spain Carlo Nucci, Italy María J. González-García, Spain Naoki Okumura, Japan Contents Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Malgorzata Mrugacz , Marzena Gajecka, Ewa Mrukwa-Kominek, and Katarzyna J. Witkowska Editorial (2 pages), Article ID 7942379, Volume 2018 (2018) Internal Astigmatism and Its Role in the Growth of Axial Length in School-Age Children Liangcheng Wu , Chenghai Weng ,FeiXia , Xiaoying Wang ,andXingtaoZhou Research Article (5 pages), Article ID 1686045, Volume 2018 (2018) Myopia Progression Risk: Seasonal and Lifestyle Variations in Axial Length Growth in Czech Children Stepan Rusnak , Vaclav Salcman, Lenka Hecova, and Zdenek Kasl Research Article (5 pages), Article ID 5076454, Volume 2018 (2018) Effect of Altered Retinal Cones/Opsins on Refractive Development under Monochromatic Lights in Guinea Pigs Leilei Zou, Xiaoyu Zhu, Rui Liu, Fei Ma, Manrong Yu, Hong Liu , and Jinhui Dai Research Article (9 pages), Article ID 9197631, Volume 2018 (2018) Choroidal and Retinal Thickness of Highly Myopic Eyes with Early Stage of Myopic Chorioretinopathy: Tessellation Yanping Zhou, Minlu Song, Minwen Zhou, Yiming Liu, Fenghua Wang ,andXiaodongSun Research Article (9 pages), Article ID 2181602, Volume 2018 (2018) Early Intervention and Nonpharmacological Therapy of Myopia in Young Adults Katarzyna Zorena , Aleksandra Gładysiak, and Daniel Ślęzak´ Review Article (11 pages), Article ID 4680603, Volume 2018 (2018) The Comparison of Regional RNFL and Fundus Vasculature by OCTA in Chinese Myopia Population Yuanjun Li , Hamza Miara ,PingboOuyang ,andBingJiang Research Article (10 pages), Article ID 3490962, Volume 2018 (2018) Long-Term Natural Outcomes of Simple Hemorrhage Associated with Lacquer Crack in High Myopia: A Risk Factor for Myopic CNV? Bing Liu , Xiongze Zhang, Lan Mi, Ling Chen, and Feng Wen Research Article (7 pages), Article ID 3150923, Volume 2018 (2018) Modern Diagnostic Techniques for the Assessment of Ocular Blood Flow in Myopia: Current State of Knowledge Ewa Grudzińska and Monika Modrzejewska Review Article (8 pages), Article ID 4694789, Volume 2018 (2018) Prevalence and Related Factors for Myopia in School-Aged Children in Qingdao Jin Tao Sun ,MengAn ,XiaoBoYan,GuoHuaLi ,andDaBoWang Research Article (6 pages), Article ID 9781987, Volume 2018 (2018) The Influence of Environmental Factors on the Prevalence of Myopia in Poland Maciej Czepita, Damian Czepita, and Wojciech Lubiński Research Article (5 pages), Article ID 5983406, Volume 2017 (2018) Hindawi Journal of Ophthalmology Volume 2018, Article ID 7942379, 2 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7942379 Editorial Myopia: Risk Factors, Disease Mechanisms, Diagnostic Modalities, and Therapeutic Options Malgorzata Mrugacz ,1 Marzena Gajecka,2 Ewa Mrukwa-Kominek,3 and Katarzyna J. Witkowska 4 1Medical University of Bialystok, 15-089 Białystok, Poland 2Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 61-701 Poznan´, Poland 3Medical University of Silesia, 40-055 Katowice, Poland 4Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Wien, Austria Correspondence should be addressed to Malgorzata Mrugacz; [email protected] Received 17 April 2018; Accepted 18 April 2018; Published 26 June 2018 Copyright © 2018 Malgorzata Mrugacz et al. "is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Myopia is a global problem, being particularly prevalent in education, and urbanization. "e interactions between genes the urban areas of East and Southeast Asia. "e distribution and environmental factors may be significant in determining of myopia according to the World Health Organization is individual risks of high myopia and may help explain the not equal in different countries and the age groups. In pathogenetic mechanisms of myopia in human population. children, the prevalence of myopia is 11.7% and ranged from In the past years, various techniques had been used to 4.9% in Southeast Asia to 18.2% in the Western Pacific study ocular blood in myopia, such as fluorescein angiog- Region. In adults, the prevalence of myopia is 26.5% and raphy (FA), indocyanine green angiography (ICGA), color ranged from 16.2% in the Americas to 32.9% in Southeast Doppler imaging (CDI), optical coherence tomography Asia. "e results of metaregression showed that the prev- (OCT), and optical coherence tomography angiography alence of myopia increased from 10.4% (1993) to 34.2% (OCTA). "ese tools provide a noninvasive and quantitative (2016) [1]. In 2050, a total of 4758 million people worldwide approach for monitoring choroidal and retinal changes in (49.8% of the world’s population) are expected to be myopic, pathologic myopia. Especially, OCTA is an imaging tech- and 938 million people (9.8% of the world’s population) are nique that enables high-speed, high-resolution, and depth- expected to suffer from high myopia. In addition to the resolved imaging of the retinal and choroidal vasculatures in economic and social burdens, associated ocular complica- myopia-related complications diagnosis such as chorior- tions may lead to visual impairment [2]. Myopia has a di- etinal atrophy and choroidal neovascularization (CNV). verse etiology, with both environmental and genetic factors Most nearsighted patients observe marked improvement believed to be involved in the myopia’s development and with treatment including corrective lenses, corneal refractive progression. Genetic linkage studies have mapped the dozen therapy, and refractive surgery. Early treatment of myopia loci, while association studies have found more than 70 can prevent social
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