Študentská Vedecká Konferencia 2015

Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu

ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ KONFERENCIA 2015

ZBORNÍK VEDECKÝCH PRÁC

BRATISLAVA, 9. APRÍL 2015

ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ KONFERENCIA 2015 BRATISLAVA, 9. APRÍL 2015 Zborník vedeckých prác

Za odbornú, terminologickú, grafickú a jazykovú úpravu jednotlivých príspevkov zodpovedajú autori.

Recenzenti: Oľga Kyselovičová Ľudmila Zapletalová Jana Labudová

Zostavovateľ: Peter Mačura

Technický redaktor: Lukáš Chovanec

Rozsah: 140 strán Vydal: Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave Rok vydania: 2015

ISBN 978-80-223-3847-9

ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ KONFERENCIA 2015

OBSAH Príspevky v anglickom jazyku

Tibor Balga ATTITUDE OF SCHOOLGIRLS 5th AND 9th CLASS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS TOWARD THE PHYSICAL AND SPORT EDUCATION...... 5

Csaba Gábriš DEVELOPMENT OF REPEATED SPRINT ABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECT ON MATCH RUNNING PERFORMANCE OF YOUTH FOOTBALL PLAYERS...... 14

Milan Kabát EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RECOVERY STRATEGIES DURING INTERMISSIONS ON SKATING SPEED IN ICE HOCKEY MATC...... 31

Jana Kovárová ACUTE RESPONSE OF BONE TURNOVER TO RESISTANCE EXERCISE... 43

Richard Kucsa DIFFERENCES IN REBOUNDING BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL AND UNSECCSESSFUL TEAMS IN TOP LEVEL FEMALE BASKETBALL...... 55

Gabriela Olosová PEER ASSESSMENT IN SCHOOL BASKETBALL...... 62

Natália Smoleňáková OSTEOPOROSIS RISK SCORE EVALUATION...... 70

Aurel Zelko RESISTANCE TRAINING IS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL AGAINST ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION-INDUCED REDUCTION OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE IN PROSTATE CANCER PATIENTS...... 78

Zuzana Žuffová RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GAME PERFORMANCE AND SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE IN TEACHING FRISBEE ULTIMATE BY DIFFERENT MODELS IN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS...... 85

ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ KONFERENCIA 2015

Príspevky v slovenskom jazyku

Flóra Bergendiová VEDOMOSTI ŽIAKOV ZÁKLADNEJ ŠKOLY O ZDRAVÍ A VÝZNAME POHYBU PRE ZDRAVIE...... 92

Pavol Gregora, Martin Mikulič FAKTOR KALENDÁRNEHO VEKU PRI VÝBERE HRÁČOV DO MLÁDEŽNÍCKYCH REPREZENTÁCIÍ NA VRCHOLNÉ PODUJATIA VO FUTBALE...... 101

Milan Kováč FAKTOROVÁ ŠTRUKTÚRA VZPIERAČSKÉHO VÝKONU Z HĽADISKA ŠPECIÁLNYCH SILOVÝCH PARAMETROV ………………....……....…...… 115

Oliver Poór MAXIMÁLNY A PRIEMERNÝ VÝKON POČAS ROTAČNÉHO POHYBU TRUPU S ČINKAMI RÔZNYCH HMOTNOSTÍ...... 125

Ondřej Štaud MOŽNÉ SYNTÉZY KULTURNÍHO A SPORTOVNÍHO HRDINSTVÍ...... 131

ATTITUDE OF SCHOOLGIRLS 5th AND 9th CLASS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS TOWARD THE PHYSIC AL AND SPORT EDUCATION

Tibor BALGA

Department of Sport Educology and Sport Humanisties, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: doc. PaedDr. Branislav Antala, PhD.

ABSTRACT

In this paper we are presented partial results of our research conducted in resolving doctoral thesis “Attitudes and motivational factors of schoolgirls from urban and rural primary schools in relation to the level of physical performance”. The aim of this project was to find out the level of the attitude of schoolgirls at primary schools in the Bratislava Region. We assumed that schoolgirls in the 5th classes of primary schools and from rural primary schools would prefer positive attitudes towards physical and sport education than schoolgirls from 9th classes of primary schools and schoolgirls from urban primary schools. The research sample consisted of 247 schoolgirls attending urban and rural primary schools in Bratislava Region. The basic research tool we have used was the standardized attitudinal questionnaire designed for the primary schools pupils. We have found out that in the 5th and 9th classes of primary schools the positive attitudes toward physical and sport education prevail over the indifferent attitudes. At primary schools in the Bratislava Region, the schoolgirls in the 5th classes showed more positive attitudes than schoolgirls in the 9th classes (p < 0.05) and that schoolgirls from rural primary schools showed more positive attitudes than schoolgirls from urban schools (p < 0.01). For the purpose of later practice we recommend to improve the educational process in physical and sport education, modernize curricula, improve forms and methods of work with the aim of improving the position of schoolgirls to school physical and sport education.

Key words: attitudes, physical and sport education, schoolgirls, primary school

1 INTRODUCTION

Many literary sources and practical research results show, that the current generation of children and young people does not have such a positive attitude towards sport and movement as it was in the past and does not have enough physical activities. Their interests but also duties are much wider than they were in the past. Once, playgrounds full of kids waiting for “their turn” are much more abandoned. Today we do not see young girls playing volleyball, dodge ball, jumping over an elastic rope or doing other physical activities. Antala (2014) also thinks that in the last 20 years, there has been a considerable increase of kids and the lesson of physical and sport education at school is the only place where they can do some physical activities. 5

Research also shows that 70 % of schoolchildren and youth spend more than four hours of free time working on computers, using the internet, watching TV, playing computer games and playing with cell phones. One of the strong points how we could give children reason for movement is their participation in physical and sport education lessons at school. Physical and sport education as a subject according to Antala et al. (2014) is a space where you can influence their values, attitudes and beliefs of pupils towards healthy and active lifestyle consisting of regular physical activities. Another research shows that physical and sport educations no longer belongs among the most popular subjects as it was in previous years. This is demonstrated in the attitudes of pupils towards physical and sport education. They vary from positive to indifferent. So it is in decreasing of physical performance, increasing number of not participating pupils (pupil sitting on the bench) and exempt pupils. It is significant especially in girl’s groups. Many research results in this problem area show, that in the vast majority of schoolgirls, they have less positive attitude toward physical and sport education than boys have, that girls are less active in movement than boys are and also the increase of not participating pupils is mostly in girls’ way (Bartík, 2009/a, b, c; Bendíková, 2009, 2011; Zapletalová et al., 2011). School age, especially period of child development in primary school, is the key period for obtaining positive attitudes towards physical and sport education and it is also a good baseline for physical performance. Therefore we focus our attention on girls attending 5th to 9th class of primary schools.

2 AIM, HYPOTHESES, TASKS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study

The aim of our research was to identify attitudes toward physical and sport education of schoolgirls from the fifth and ninth grade of selected urban and village primary schools in the Bratislava region.

2.2 Hypotheses of the study

H1: We assume that schoolgirls from 5th classes of primary schools will have more positive attitudes toward physical and sport education than schoolgirls from 9th classes of primary schools.

H2: We assume that schoolgirls in rural primary schools will have more positive attitudes toward physical and sport education as schoolgirls from urban primary schools.

3 METHODS

Participants

Our sample consisted of schoolgirls from 5th and 9th classes of primary schools. Research took place in village primary schools in Bratislava’s region and urban primary schools in Bratislava. Overall, the research involved 247 schoolgirls. 145 of these schoolgirls were from class 5 and 102 from class 9. Total number of schoolgirls from urban primary schools was 132 and from rural primary schools it was 115 schoolgirls.

Procedure

The main research method was attitudinal questionnaire showed by Sivák et al. (2000). The questionnaire contains 51 items and focuses on three separate components attitude - cognitive, emotional and conative component of attitudes. For each of these components is for 17 items. The maximum number of points for the entire questionnaire is 102 points. The intensity of attitudes towards physical and sport education determines the overall score points, namely: • negative attitude - 0-34 points, • indifferent attitude - 35-68 points, • positive attitude - from 69 to 102 points,

Statistical analysis

The results of the questionnaires were evaluated at the percentage of analysis and we applied relational analysis and used the chi-square test (χ2) to find relatives between selected indicators.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tab. 1 Attitudes of schoolgirls from urban and rural primary schools toward physical and sport education.

Attitude Orientation Attitude Orientation Attitude Orientation Primary schools 5th and 9th class together (5th class) (9th class) + i - + i - + i - n 64 64 4 49 39 0 15 25 4 Urban schools % 48.5 48.5 3.0 55.7 44.3 0 34.1 56.8 9.1 n 80 31 4 43 12 2 37 19 2 Rural schools % 69.6 27.0 3.5 75.5 21.0 3.5 63.8 32.8 3.4 Together urban n 144 95 8 92 51 2 52 44 6 and rural schools % 58.3 38.5 3.2 63.4 35.2 1.4 51.0 43.1 5.9 Together urban n n = 247 145 102 and rural schools Legend: n = number of respondents, + = positive attitudes, - = negative attitudes, i = indifferent attitudes, % = percentage

Based on data from Table 1 and Fig. 1, we can see the difference in attitudes toward physical and sport education at schools and sport among schoolgirls from the 5th and 9th class of the primary schools in the Bratislava Region. Of the total number of schoolgirls from the 5th class of the primary schools, 92 respondents adopt a positive attitude what is 63.4 %, 51 respondents with indifferent attitude, it means 35.2 % and two schoolgirls took a negative attitude it means 1.4 %. By schoolgirls from the 9th class of primary schools, we considered the negative fact that up to 43.1 % of respondents have an indifferent attitude toward physical and sport education and 5.9 % of respondents had negative attitude. Of the total number of schoolgirls from 9th class of primary schools, just over one half of schoolgirls adopted a positive attitude it means 52 respondents what is 51 %. Comparing the results of schoolgirls from the 5th and the 9th class, we can see the differences in orientation of attitudes toward physical and sport education. The results of relational analysis confirmed a significant relation between the attitudes of schoolgirls according to the age or class they attended. When comparing the attitudes of schoolgirls in the 5th and 9th class from schools in the Bratislava Region, the results show, that more older the schoolgirls are, the less they have positive attitudes towards schools physical and sport education, on the other hand there is an increase of mainly indifferent attitudes, but also negative attitudes. (Fig. 1)

Fig.1 Attitudes of schoolgirls from primary schools toward physical and sport education according to age

A similar research results were achieved by Bartík (2007), who dealt with the same question in the eastern part of Slovakia. Research done in primary schools in Kežmarok and surrounded area showed that pupils in the 2nd stage of the primary schools had a positive attitude to physical and sport education. Research has found out that the 5th class pupils had more positive attitudes toward physical and sport education than pupils did in the 9th class. It was particularly significant among girls. Further research results carried out by Bartík and Mesiarik (2011) came to the conclusion: they compared the attitudes of pupils from the 4th, 5th and 9th classes of primary school. The find that when the pupils are getting older their positive attitudes towards school physical and sport education is decreasing and on the contrary, there was an increase mainly in indifferent attitudes, and negative attitudes.

Of the total number of schoolgirls from the rural primary schools, 80 respondents adopted a positive attitude it means 69.6 %, 31 respondents adopted indifferent attitude it means 27 % and 4 schoolgirls took a negative attitude what 3.5 %. Of the total number of schoolgirls from urban primary schools 64 respondents adopted a positive attitude it means 48.5 %, the same number of schoolgirls (64) had also an indifferent attitude and 4 schoolgirls had negative attitude it means 3 %.

Fig. 2 Attitudes of schoolgirls toward physical and sport education at urban (city) and rural (village) primary schools

Comparing the results of schoolgirls from urban and rural primary schools, we can see the differences in the orientation of attitudes towards physical and sport education. The results of relational analysis confirmed a significant relationship between the attitudes of schoolgirls of primary schools to physical and sport education, in terms of residence status of the school. Overall, compared to schoolgirls in 5th and 9th classes of primary schools, we can see, that girls from the rural primary schools have achieved more positive attitudes toward physical and sport education than girls from urban primary schools.

Bartík (2009/a,b) and Bartík & Mesiarik (2009) concluded in their research very similar results. Even Gőrner, Starší (2001) dealt with the same problem by examining attitudes toward school physical and sport education within pupils from classes 6 and 8 in selected primary schools of the Central Slovakia region. Comparing the results in the 8th class schoolgirls from selected towns and in villages, he have documented that among girls from rural comparing to girls from cities, the positive attitude outweigh over indifferent attitudes toward physical and sport education. Mesiarik et al. (2012) focused on finding the attitudes to physical and sport education of pupils in class 8 in Zvolen region’s schools. The authors found out that pupils in rural primary schools had more positive attitudes than pupils of urban primary schools and that boys showed more positive attitudes than girls. These observed differences, in the

quality of attitudes among pupils of the different sexes and between pupils in urban and rural schools, were not statistically significant at the level of 5 % of statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

Our research was realized at primary schools in the Bratislava Region where the schoolgirls in the 5th and 9th classes showed their interest in physical activities. We have found some interesting facts about the relationship between schoolgirls and physical and sport education. In the first hypothesis, we assumed that schoolgirls in the 5th classes of primary schools would prefer positive attitudes towards physical and sport education than schoolgirls from 9th classes of primary schools. Based on the results of our research, we conclude that the hypothesis was confirmed. Schoolgirls from the 5th classes had more positive attitudes toward physical sport education than schoolgirls from the 9th classes (p <0.05). One thing that teachers as well as the parents should be worried about is the finding that up to 43.14 % of schoolgirls from the 9th class had indifferent attitudes toward physical and sport educations and 5.88 % of respondents even negative attitudes. Due to the decline in positive attitudes toward school physical and sport education, especially in higher classes of primary school schoolgirls, we suggest that we need to engage our pupils more in physical activities and sports for example through schools competitions. We should increase the opportunities for extra school activity groups particularly for girls and pupils of higher classes of the 2nd stage of primary schools. In the second hypothesis, we assumed that the schoolgirls from rural primary schools would prefer positive attitudes toward physical and sport education than schoolgirls from urban primary schools. Based on the results of our research, we conclude that the hypothesis was confirmed (p < 0.01). For the purpose of future practice, we also recommend to improve teaching and learning process in physical and sport education characterized by versatility, adequate intensity, originality and proper emotionalism, to introduce unconventional and less widespread physical and sports activities, to modernize curricula, and to improve forms and methods of work. We also recommend to improve spatial and material equipment of schools and deepen cooperation between schools, parents and sports clubs in the region with the aim of improving pupils' attitudes to physical and sport education.

References

ANTALA, B. et al. 2014. Telesná a športová výchova a súčasná škola [Physical and sport education and current school.] Bratislava: NŠC, FTVŠ UK, s. 343. ISBN 978-80- 971466-1-0. BARTÍK, P. 2007. Postoje žiakov 5. a 9. ročníkov na vybraných ZŠ k telesnej výchove. [The attitudes of pupils of 5th and 9th classrooms at basic schools to physical education. ] In Optimální pusobení tělesné záteže a výživy. Sborník příspevku ze XVI. Ročníku interdisciplinární konference s medzinárodní účastí. Hradec Králové: PF UHK, s. 210 - 216. ISBN 978-80-7041-513-9. BARTÍK, P. 2009/a. Postoje žiakov základných škôl k telesnej výchove. [ The attitudes of pupils of 9th classrooms at basic schools in region Martin to physical education. ] In Exercitatio corpolis – motus – salus. Slovak journal of sport sciences. Banská Bystrica: FHV UMB, KTVaŠ, Vedecká spoločnosť pre TV a šport, 2009, s. 153 – 159. ISSN 1337-7310. BARTÍK, P. 2009/b. Úroveň postojov k telesnej výchove a športu žiakov ZŠ v stredoslovenskom regióne. [ The level of the attitudes of pupils at basic schools in region of Central Slovakia to Physical Education and Sport. ] In KOLEKTÍV Šport a zdravie 2009. Nitra: UKF PF KTVŠ, str. 19 – 25. ISBN 978-80-8094-578-7. BARTÍK, P., MESIARIK, P. 2009. Postoje žiakov deviateho ročníka základných škôl v stredoslovenskom regióne k školskej telesnej výchove a športu. [ Attitudes of 9th year class of primary school pupils in Centre Slovakia region towards school physical education. ] In Telesná výchova a šport, roč. 19, č. 1, s. 7 – 9. ISSN 1335-2245. BARTÍK, P., MESIARIK, P. 2011. Vplyv záujmovej školskej telesnej výchovy a športu na formovanie pozitívnych postojov žiakov k pohybovým aktivitám. [ The influence of recreational Physical education and sport on creation possitive attitudes of pupils to motor activities. ] In Exercitatio corpolis - motus – salus. Slovak journal of sports sciences. Banská Bystrica: FHV UMB, roč. 3, č. 1, s. 97 – 104. ISSN 1337-7310. BENDÍKOVÁ, E. 2009. Kritický pohľad na príčiny pohybovej nedostatočnosti slovenských školákov. [ Critical view at the to causes of physical insufficiency Slovak schoolchildren. ] In Telesná výchova a sport mládeže. r. 75, č.5, s. 2-5. ISSN 1210- 7689. BENDÍKOVÁ, E. 2011. Hľadajme príčiny poklesu záujmu žiakov o školskú telesnú a športovú výchovu. [ Let us look for the causes of decline in pupils interest in school physical and sport education. ] In Telesná výchova a sport mládeže. r. 77, č.2, s. 18-20. ISSN 1210-7689. GÖRNER, K, STARŠÍ, J. 2001. Postoje, vedomosti a názory žiakov II. stupňa ZŠ na telesnú výchovu. [ Attitudes, knowledge and opinions of pupils primary school to physical education and sports. ] Banská Bystrica: UMB, Fakulta humanitných vied, ISBN 80-8055-565-6. MESIARIK, P., BARTÍK, P., BENDÍKOVÁ, E. 2012. Postoje žiakov 8. ročníka základných škôl v okrese Zvolen k telesnej a športovej výchove. [ Attitude of pupils of 8th classes primary schools in the district Zvolen for the physical and sport education. ] In Studia Kinanthropologica. vol. 13, no. 2, p. 80 – 91.

SIVÁK, J. et al. 2000. Vzdelávací štandard z telesnej výchovy pre 2. stupeň základných škôl. [ The educational standard of physical education for the 2nd stage of primary schools. ] Bratislava: MŠ SR, 31 s. ZAPLETALOVÁ et al., 2011. Sekulárny trend v ukazovateľoch telesného rozvoja a pohybovej výkonnosti 11- až 18-ročnej školskej populácie na Slovensku. [ Secular trend in the indicators of somatic development and physical performance of 11- to 18- year-old school population in Slovakia. ] Bratislava: PEEM, ISBN 978-80-8113-042-7.

POSTOJE ŽIAČOK 5. A 9. ROČNÍKA ZÁKLADNÝCH ŠKÔL K TELESNEJ A ŠPORTOVEJ VÝCHOVE

Tibor BALGA

Katedra športovej edukológie a športovej humanistiky Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. PaedDr. Branislav Antala, PhD.

ABSTRAKT

V príspevku sú prezentované čiastkové výsledky výskumu realizovaného v rámci riešenia dizertačnej práce „Postoje a motivačné faktory žiačok mestských a vidieckych základných škôl vo vzťahu k úrovni pohybovej výkonnosti". Cieľom realizovaného výskumu bolo zistiť, aké postoje k telesnej a športovej výchove majú žiačky 5. a 9. ročníkov ZŠ v Bratislavskom kraji. Predpokladali sme, že žiačky 5. ročníkov a žiačky vidieckych základných škôl budú mať pozitívnejšie postoje k školskej telesnej a športovej výchove a športu, ako žiačky 9. ročníkov a žiačky mestských základných škôl. Výskumný súbor tvorilo 247 žiačok vybraných mestských a vidieckych základných škôl v Bratislavskom kraji. Ako základný výskumný nástroj bol použitý štandardizovaný postojový dotazník určený pre žiakov základnej školy. Zistili sme, že u žiačok 5. a 9. ročníkov základných škôl prevažujú pozitívne postoje k telesnej a športovej výchove nad postojmi indiferentnými, že žiačky 5. ročníkov mali pozitívnejšie postoje ako žiačky 9. ročníkov základných škôl (p < 0,05) a žiačky vidieckych základných škôl mali pozitívnejšie postoje k telesnej a športovej výchove a športu ako žiačky mestských škôl ( p < 0,01 ). Pre potreby praxe odporúčame skvalitniť výchovno–vzdelávací proces v telesnej a športovej výchove, modernizovať obsah vyučovania, zlepšiť formy a metódy práce s cieľom zlepšiť postoje žiačok k školskej telesnej a športovej výchove.

Kľúčové slová: postoje, telesná a športová výchova, žiačky, základná škola

DEVELOPMENT OF REPEATED SPRINT ABILITIES AND THEIR EFFECT ON MATCH RUNNING PERFORMANCE OF YOUTH FOOTBALL PLAYERS

Csaba GÁBRIŠ

Department of Track and Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PaedDr. Tomáš Kampmiller, PhD.

ABSTRACT

Development of repeated sprint ability as one of the most important factor associated with match running performance of football players is a focus of many studies. Therefore the aim of this study was to examine the effect of optimal volume repeated sprint intervention program characterized by controlled intensity and seeking for the relationship between the achieved level of repeated sprint ability and match running performance of the players. 14 elite players of U17 category were divided into control (n = 7) and experimental (n = 7) group. Control group undergone the same training sessions as experimental, except our individualized and controlled intensity repeated short sprint program consisted from 30 m all-out runs interspersed with 40 s of active recovery during 6 weeks. After 6 weeks significant improvements in repeated sprint performance were found in the means of best and average time of the 30 m runs in the experimental group (p < 0.05), while significant decrease in the same parameters was found in the control group (p < 0.05). Results of relational analysis showed that players with higher level of repeated sprint ability covered greater total distance (p < 0.05), distances covered by moderate intensity (8-17.99 km.h-1) and probably most importantly performed more accelerations (p < 0.01). These results suggest, that our optimized and controlled intensity repeated short sprint intervention program was safe, time-saving and effective and has a beneficial effect on the number of high intensity activities during football matches. These activities are currently considered as the most important conditioning factors which could recognize amateur or moderate level players from elite. Therefore we recommend to incorporate repeated short sprint training into the physical preparation of players, however the effect of other factors related to match running performance should not be neglected and could be an objective of future studies. Different volumes repeated sprint interventions with the same principle of controlling intensity should be also examined in next studies.

Key words: repeated sprint ability, development, youth football, match analysis

1 INTRODUCTION

According to Rielly et al. (2003) football is the most popular sport in the world with a rich (modern) history that goes back to the year of 1863 when the Football Association

was established. From this date the development and expansion to every continent was very fast as shown by the currently more than 260 million members actively involved in this game worldwide. It means, that the rivalry between the countries, whether on international, national or club level is extremely high. This is the most evident at the top level, where success is also related with large financial benefits. Success is probably the most important factor why science gets more and more space in football. From the performance perspective it includes a wide range of scope, like injury prevention, rehabilitation treatments or performance enhancement. In terms of match physical demands placed on players the focus during the last five decades progressively moved from the parameters of total distance and aerobic endurance to distances covered by high intensities and sprints or on their sequences, which are more of anaerobic nature. Because of the continuous technological development in player tracking systems, in the last few years the number or lasting of accelerations enriched this group of activities (Dwyer et al., 2012), as metabolically most demanding actions. Reason for this increased attention in the shift of these activities is probably the fact, that exactly these high intensity actions are the physical characteristics, can separate elite players from their moderate or amateur counterparts (Mohr et al., 2003). This was documented in youth football categories, too. Sequences of these high intensity activities were named by Fitzimons as early as the beginnings of 90s as repeated sprint ability (RSA). RSA represents the ability to perform repeated sprints with brief recovery periods. The same term is usually used for the testing protocols monitoring these abilities. Despite the increasing attention dedicated to RSA in the last years, there is still lot of unknown around it. Most confusion is related with effort to find the most effective ways to develop it. According to Bishop et al. (2011) the four majors seems to be the development of: a) explosive strength, b) initial of single sprint performance (speed), c) aerobic endurance through high intenstiy interval training, d) the combination of these.

Objective of some researches was also to answer the question, if is it possible to develop RSA with more sport specific way, thus by small-sided games (Buchheit et al., 2009; Hill- Haas et al., 2009). Results of these studies showed no significant effect on RSA, however other studies revealed other benefits, like improved Vo2max, PCr resynthesis (Bishop et al., 2011) and technical skills (Impellizzeri et al., 2006).

Other authors consider that the most effective way to improve RSA is the application of repeated sprint training programs. However, the comparison of these studies from the view

of effectiveness is very difficult, because of the different participants, absences of control groups or RSA protocols used (Bishop et al., 2011). Common state of the authors is, that the adaptations achieved by the training program will be always specific to its design, when think about duration, number of repetition, nature or duration of recovery. The exercises also should not be very time-consuming, as every team has only a limited time to spend with developing partial tasks alongside with generic football training.

As we mentioned above some difficulties are also associated with the selection of the most appropriate RSA test protocol in the meaning of duration, number of repetitions or series. In this case Haugen et al. (2014) recommend to use RSA tests with higher total volume when investigating the sprint endurance component is the focus, while RSA tests involving lower total volume are probably more appropriate to determine short sprint capacity. This was supported by Pyne et al. (2008), who found a high correlation between total time in a (low volume) RSA protocol and single sprint performance, indicating that these kind of RSA tests are probably more related to short sprint than sprint endurance capacity. The cause of relatively more frequent use of shorter RSA protocols is, that some studies found a relationship between extensive sprint testing/training and harmstring injury risk, however without prior gradual progression in training sessions (Elliot et al., 2011).

Other difficulties are associated with monitoring the transfer of the developed higher levels of repeated sprint ability to the physical performance in regular matches. This is even more important if the aim is to investigate this transfer with respect to the chosen type of test and training protocol, as they induce specific adaptations.

2 AIM, HYPOTHESES, TASKS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of controlled intensity repeated short sprint training program on the selected parameters of repeated sprint abilities and also seeking for the relationship between the level of this ability and match running performance of elite young football players during football matches.

2.2 Hypotheses of the study

1. We assume, that our individualized intervention program consisting from repeated short sprints will result into significant improvements in repeated sprint ability, while

standard football training sessions will not result into significant improvements in the case of control group.

2. We assume, that players with higher level of repeated sprint ability will cover more distance by moderate and high intensity activities during the football matches.

3. We assume, that general football training program with weekly frequency of matches will not represent a sufficient stimulus to maintain the level of repeated sprint ability.

3 METHODS

Participants Participants of our study were elite football players of U17 category. All players had at least 10 years of football training experience. Currently the team playing 1st Slovakian league, however for the first time as novices. More detailed characteristics of the players with respect to the category (control vs. experimental) they belong are shown in table 1.

Tab. 1. Average age, weight and height of the players of the experimental and control group (with SD). (n = 7) Age Weight Height [years] [kg] [m] Experimental group 16.49 ± 0.32 70.2 ± 2.86 182.66 ± 3.01 (ExG) Control group 16.38 ± 0.48 69.9 ± 2.65 183.2 ± 1.06 (CG)

Procedure Players were randomly divided in to two groups (control and experimental) according they results in the repeated sprint ability test, in the meaning of their average time of 21 runs. Repeated sprint ability test was performed during 3 occasions (September – October – December), each time on artificial grass surface, interspersed with 6 weeks. During the first 6-week (competition season) period the experimental stimulus was applied on players belong to the experimental group, while the control group participate in the same football training program, however without extra repeated sprint sessions. In the second 6-week (transition season) period we work with only one group of players (ExG), to investigate the relationship between the level of repeated sprint ability and match

running performance of the players (n = 7) during 3 consecutive friendly football matches. During this transition period we also get a picture about the opportunity of maintaining the level of repeated sprint ability with using mainly specific forms of football exercises and/or with matches, however without non-specific repeated short sprint sessions.

Experimental stimulus and RSA test The experimental stimulus was applied only during the first 6 week period of the study in the frequency of 2 extra sessions per week. Players performed in each of these sessions a number of sprints, which they were able to maintain with maximal 10% decrease from the actual session best time. Two consecutive runs under this treshold meant the end of the session for the given player. The maximal number of repetitions was determined as 21. Every 7th repetitions was interspersed with 2 minutes of passive recovery, while between the single runs 40 s recovery of active nature (jogging back) was performed. The minimum number of repetitions, the players should absolved was set to be 14. In the case when the team had their match on Saturdays instead of Sundays, only max. 14 runs were performed during the second session. Therefore the duration of these extra training sessions lasted from 18 to 12 minutes. Our RSA protocol was very similar to the intervention program. The only difference was, that the players absolved the 21 runs without additional recovery periods between series (every 7th repetitions), while periods of recovery were the same between repetitions. Similar testing approach was previously used by Morin et al. (2011).

Match analysis Match running performance was monitored by GPS devices (Qstarz BT-Q1000eX) working with 10 Hz sampling frequency. The validity and reliability of these devices is well documented (Castellano et al., 2011; Jennings et al., 2010; Aughey, 2011) and depend mostly from the sampling frequency, speed and direction of runs. With respect to the used speed zones, we work with two approaches, as one universally accepted formula does not exist. The first one was used for the relational analysis, because of the more detailed and more speed zones work with. They were very similar to those reported by Da Silva et al. (2013) and Mohr et al. (2003). The second one was used mainly for the comparison of our results with the most relevant studies (Buccheit et al., 2010), however in this case we need to recalculate some match running volumes according the given speed zones.

Statistical analysis To provide sufficient description of our sample, descriptive statistic methods of location (average) and dispersion (standard deviation) were used. Mann-Whitney´s non- parametric U - test was used to compare the results of the control and experimental group. To compare the results of the same groups, but at different testing occasions Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used. Level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Cohen´s d was also used to determine effect size. To test our second hypothesis, to examine the association between the level of repeated sprint abilities and match running performance of the players, Spearman´s correlation coefficient was calculated.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Before the first testing occasion the average time of one 30 m run was 4.31±0.19 s for the experimental and 4.31 ± 0.14 for the control group. Similar and therefore also statistically non-significant differences were found for the fastest and slowest 30 m run of the experimental and control group, 4.15 ± 0.23 s vs. 4.16 ± 0.13 s and 4.45 ± 0.25 s vs. 4.45 ± 0.18, respectively.

After the 6-weeks application of the experimental stimulus in the experimental group we found significant improvements in all monitored parameter. Average time of the 21 runs was improved from 4.31 ± 0.19 to 4.27 ± 0.14 s (p < 0.05). More significant improvements were found in the case of the fastest run, where the best time in the experimental group decreased from the initial 4.15 ± 0.23 to 4.02 ± 0.10 s (p < 0.05) (effect size = 0.35), while the worst running time was slightly increased (4.45 ± 0.25 vs. 4.56 ± 0.22 s), however at non-significant level.

In the case of control group significant deteriorations (p < 0.05) were found also in the meanings of average (4.31 ± 0.14 vs. 4.35 ± 0.14 s) and fastest time (4.16 ± 0.13 vs. 4.21 ± 0.11 s) of the 30 m runs. Worst time was increased from 4.45 ± 0.18 to 4.47 ± 0.19 s (n/s).

Because of this slightly increased time in RSAworst, we also worked with the average time of the best 14 runs. These results revealed more significant improvements (p < 0.01, effect size = 0.25) (4.29 ± 0.19 s vs. 4.20 ± 0.16 s). Similar findings were also reported previously, as higher initial power output is consequently associated with the necessary bigger decrement in the following actions/runs. This is more evident during higher volumes RSA protocols, and also the possible cause, why fatigue index is not always

improved after intervention programs, despite the coupled improvements in other parameters (Enoka-Stuart, 1992; Bishop et al., 2003).

When we compared these two groups in the above mentioned parameters we also get significant differences between them, what suggest that our first hypothesis was confirmed. More details are shown in Fig. 1.

4,70 4,60 n/s 4,50 n/s

4,40 n/s p<0,01 p<0,01

4,30

] s

[ n/s 4,20 Experimental

time time 4,10 Control 4,00 3,90 3,80 3,70 Input Output Input Output Input Output Best Best Average Average Worst Worst

Fig. 1. Comparison and the level of statistical significance between average, best and worst 30 m running time during the first (input) and second (output) testing occasion.

During the second 6-week period the players undergo the same football training sessions without any differences in the loading. Our focus was on the measuring of the time-motion characteristics of the players (n = 7) during three consecutive friendly football matches to answer our second and third hypothesis.

Our second hypothesis was tested by Spearman´s non-parametric correlation coefficient. Therefore we compared the results of the second testing occasions with the average distances covered by the players in the selected speed zones during the monitored matches. Table 3 showed the results of this correlation and also revealed the confirmation of the second hypothesis.

Tab. 3. Spearman´s correlation coefficient with the level of statistical significance as a result of the relationship between the values of repeated sprint ability test and the mean distances covered in the selected speed zones during three consecutive friendly football matches. (HIA - high intensity activitie, TD - total distance).

Low intensity Moderate intensity HIA Reps above Acceleration activities activities [km.h-1] TD [km.h-1] [km.h-1] [km.h-1] 0-0.99 1-7.99 8-11.99 12-14.99 15- 25 < 18 20 time reps 17.99 [2m.s2] [2m.s2] n/s RSAmean 0.8041 -0.8779 -0.8645 -0.861 -0.7878 -0.859 n/s n/s -0.767 -0.871 p<0.10 p<0.05 p<0.05 p<0.05 p<0.10 p<0.05 p<0.10 p<0.01

0,7542 RSAbest n/S -0.7566 -0.8235 -0.777 n /s n/s -0.742 -0.8304 n/s n/s p<0.10 p<0.10 p<0.05 p<0.10 p<0.05

n/s RSAworst 0.8328 -0.9353 -0.8964 -0.866 0.8108 -0.9111 n/s n/s -0.858 -0.932 p<0.05 p<0.01 p<0.05 p<0.05 p<0.10 p<0.05 p<0.05 p<0.01

As we reported above, important part of the correlation were the distances covered by the players in the selected speed zones. Therefore Fig. 2 reported these values.

3500 3295 3000

2500 ]

m 1803 [ 2000

1500 Average distance Distance 972 1000 595 485 500 33 37 0 0-0.99 1-7,99 8-11,99 12-14.99 15-17.99 18-24.99 25 < velocity [km.h-1]

Fig. 2. Average distance covered by the players (n = 7) in selected speed zones during 3 consecutive friendly matches.

To answer our third hypothesis we compared the results of players from the second and third testing occasion. We found significant decrement in average (4.27 ± 0.14 vs. 4.30 ± 0.14 s) and best 30 m running times (4.02 ± 0.10 vs. 4.16 ± 0.13 s) (effect size = 0.52),

both on the level of p < 0.01. Similar results on the same level of significance were observed in the case of worst time (4.6 ± 0.21 vs. 4.56 ± 0.22 s).

These results also suggest that our third hypothesis was confirmed, as the players were not able to maintain the level of their repeated sprint ability without the application of our intervention program, only with generic football sessions with the weekly frequency of matches (Fig.3).

4,70 p < 0.01

4,60

4,50

4,40 p < 0.01

4,30 ]

s p < 0.01 [

4,20 Output time 4,10 Output 2

4,00

3,90

3,80

3,70 Best Average Worst

Fig. 3: Differences with the level of statistical significance between the 2nd and 3rd testing occasion with respect to the monitored parameters of the RSA test.

The two main findings of our study were:

1. After the 6 week period in which the individualized repeated short sprint sessions were applied, significant improvements were found in the meaning of average and best times of the RSA protocol

Significant improvements after repeated sprint sessions were documented in previous studies relatively often (Mohr et al., 2007; Dawson et al., 1998; Bravo et al., 2008). However, these studies usually works with training designs lasts from 8-12 weeks, while only a few examined the effect of shorter program (Buccheit et al., 2010; Schneiker et al., 2008; Serpiello et al., 2011). It is also important to note, that as we reported above the comparison of the results of these studies is difficult as they use RSA protocols with different volume, duration/nature of recovery or participants. Our protocol differs from

each of these with a relatively high volume (21 x 30 m). But in agreement with Haugen et al. (2014b) and earlier Balsom et al. (1992), it is more difficult to detect detrimental effects with short sprints (15 m) compared to slightly longer sprints (30 - 40 m), mainly if the aim of the protocol is to monitoring the sprint-endurance component.

Despite, that relatively lot of studies successfully achieved significant improvements after repeated sprint intervention, this effect was not confirmed in every situation. Buccheit et al. (2008) for example not found significant improvements after 9 week long intervention program consisted from 30 - 40 m sprints in a group of young handball players, both for average and best sprint time. The cause of this could be the relatively low overall volume as the participants performed only 10 to 12 repetitions two times per week. Appropriate volume is therefore probably one of the most important factor to achieve the desired adaptations. This is supported also with the results of Mohr et al. (2007) and Schneiker et al. (2008), where the overall distance travelled by shorts sprints was around 675 – 800 m, what is near to our 630 m. However, participants of these studies trained for a longer time (8 weeks) or with higher frequency (3 times per week). The aim of our intervention program was to design the most time-saving program as possible, which could be still effective from the adaptation perspective and will not exhibit the players to the higher risk of injuries, as was suggest for high volume protocols previously (Elliot et al., 2011). We tried to treat this by the individualized regime of our sessions as each player performed only the number of sprints, he was able to maintain above 90% from the best time for the actual session, however the minimum number of repetition was set to be 14 (two series). To the author´s knowledge, this is the first study deals with controlled intensity repeated sprint training program. However similar and interesting attempts to develop repeated sprint ability were also made recently in the studies of Glaister et al. (2010) and HAugen et al. (2014a). In the first study the effect of self-selected recovery periods during multiple sprint running protocol was investigated with the aim of reliable quantifying an individual´s ability to resist fatigue. The results suggests that the ability to maintain sprinting performance in a series of repeated sprints can be self-regulated by an athlete to a high degree of accuracy without the need for external timepieces. If this approach could work reliable also as a training intervention is questionable and therefore could be an objective future studies. Haugen et al. (2014a) investigated the effect of repeated sprint program on maximal speed and repeated sprint ability through runs at 90% from sprint speed. Although this program seems to be very similar to ours, it is important

to note, that the players of this study performed each run probably as near as they can to the 90% treshold, while our players performed all out sprints until they time did not drop under the 90% from actual session best. Haugen et al. (2014a) did not find significant differences for any of the performance indices they monitored (maximum oxygen uptake, countermovement jump, RSA) when compared with control group. On the basis of these results the authors recommend for future studies to perform intervention programs with either stronger stimulus or at other times during the season. According the authors recommendations it is likely, that they did not try to made just a time-saving, but also a player friendly intervention, where instead of all-out sprints lower intensity was used, probably compensated through higher number of repetition or lower duration of recoveries. According these studies it is clear, that creating an effective, but also time-saving and safe training intervention is not simple.

2. During the second 6 week period players with higher level of RSA covered significantly more distance at moderate and high intensity speed zones during the 3 consecutive friendly matches

The existing positive relationship between the level of repeated sprint ability and distances covered by high intensity activities during football matches was for the first time demonstrated by Rampinini et al. (2007). Similarly like Rampinini et al. (2007) the vast majority of studies investigated this relationship on the groups of adult, mainly elite or high standard soccer player. However, for this time only a few studies examined the match running performance and its relationship to the fitness characteristics of youth soccer players (Buccheit et al., 2010; Buccheit et al., 2012; Castanga et al., 2009). According the results of Buccheit et al. (2010) it seems, that match running performance tended to be related to most physical capacities, while the magnitude of this relationship varied considerably according to physical capacities and playing positions. The expected gradual increase in match running performance with age, as a consequence of growth (also maturity status) was also confirmed and was most marked in the case of very high running speed running (16.1 – 19 km.h-1) and sprinting (> 19.1 km.h-1). In our study the relationship between the monitored parameters of RSA test and distances covered in selected sprint zones was also confirmed. As table 3 showed, players from our study with -1 better RSAmean covered significantly more (p < 0.05) distance in moderate (8 - 14,99 km.h ) and had a tendency (p < 0.10) to perform more high intensity activities (15 km.h-1 <).

This, moderate correlation between high intensity running distance and RSAmean is in

contrast with findings previously reported from elite level adult/male football matches, however more importantly in accordance with the findings of Buccheit et al. (2010). Players of U17 category from this study achieved very similar distances in the selected speed zones as ours when they are expressed relatively as a percentage from total distance. Distance covered by LIA represents 77 vs. 75 %, HIA 11 vs 12 %, VHIA 6 vs 7 %, and sprinting 5 vs 6 % from the total distance, respectively. However because the total distance covered by the players from our study was lower about 1413 m in average (7294 ± 754 m vs. 8707 ± 1101 m), other parameters expressed as absolute values were also lower (HIA - 12 %, VHIA -3 % and Sprint -7 %). When trying to answer the cause of the above - mentioned moderate correlations between RSAmean and total amount of HIA ( >13.1 km.h 1), we agree with Buccheit et al. (2010), who suggest, that these match performance characteristics are strongly position-dependent, therefore physical capacities are more likely to be a limiting factor for players who are required to play as attackers. Despite the relatively small sample size of our group we observed similar tendency, where the two central defenders achieved almost the best results in RSAmean and RSAbest, but probably because of the specific tasks and requirements of this playing position, they match running performance were below average, with respect to high intensity activities.

In the meaning of RSAbest significant relationship with the number of runs above 20 km.h-1 was found. This is also in accordance with other study of Buccheit et al. (2013) in which the relation between changes in maximal sprinting and repeated high speed activities during youth soccer matches was investigated. It is therefore likely, that players with higher maximal sprinting speed also covered greater distance at high intensities, what was confirmed after some training intervention, too (Helgerud et al., 2001; Impellizzeri et al., 2006). Higher maximal sprinting speed could give a player an advantage, however the presence of opponent or the selected tactics may limit his options to took part in a single or repeated sprints during the match, so it seems to be also strongly position-dependent.

The strongest correlation between the parameters of RSA protocol and time-motion characteristics of the matches were found for the number of acceleration performed.

RSAmean and RSAworst, both correlated strongly with the number of acceleration performed by the players (p < 0.01). This is also an important finding as accelerations are currently considered as metabolically the most demanding actions of football matches, despite their very short duration. Dwyer et al. (2012) demonstrated the importance of accelerations as activities representing maximal effort actions, which do not reach high velocities or

velocity tresholds defined for sprinting, because of their very short duration. The difference between the numbers of high intensity activities during matches could be more than 30% when dealing or not with this parameter, what meant, that lot of useful data could be lost. Average number of acceleration during elite male soccer matches was reported as 91 ± 21 (Ingebrigtsen et al., 2015). This number was lower in our study (64 ± 9.44), however according the author´s knowledge, there is no study in this age category to compare these results.

With respect to our third hypothesis, it seems to be clear, (Fig. 3) that the players were not able to maintain the achieved level of repeated sprint abilities during the second period of our experiment. These results suggest, that generic football training with weekly frequency of football matches does not represent sufficient stimulus for developing or even maintaining repeated sprint ability without non-specific intervention program, what is in agreement with previous studies (Buchheit et al., 2008; Hill-Haas et al., 2009).

CONCLUSION

Nowadays the parameters of high intensity activities during football matches are considered as the most important and demanding factors of match physical performance. Although there is no direct relationship between match running performance and success in football, a higher match running capacity might still enable more involvements with the ball and therefore could increase scoring opportunity or preventing an opponent to score. Searching for the most effective, safe and time-saving methods to develop physical capabilities associated with these type of activities is the focus of many studies. In our, the designed intervention program appeared as an effective method as supported by the significant improvements in the average and best times of the 30 m runs from our repeated sprint protocol. It is also for the first time when intensity of each run was controlled during the sessions, as the number of performed repetitions was set as the maximal number of sprints the given player could perform above 90% of intensity from the actual session best. These improvements were associated with higher running performance in matches, in the meanings of more distance covered by moderate and high intensity activites. It is also probably for the first time when the relationship between the level of repeated sprint ability and number of accelerations in matches was demonstrated. This is also an important finding as accelerations are often neglected, despite their very high energy demands. In addition, the level of repeated sprint abilities could not be maintained by generic football

sessions, without non-specific interventions during the second period of our study. These results suggests, that relatively high volume repeated short sprint training sessions could be not just effective, but also a safe alternative to develop repeated sprint ability, when the volume is set according to actual possibilities of the players, and also controlled through intensity. For these reasons we recommend to incorporate similar intervention programs to football conditioning sessions, although attention must be note, when interpreting match running performance as it is always affected by couple of other factors like the presence of opponent, tactics and playing position.

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ROZVOJ ANAERÓBNYCH SCHOPNOSTÍ A ICH VPLYV NA BEŽECKÝ VÝKON V ZÁPASOCH MLADÝCH FUTBALISTOV Csaba GÁBRIŠ

Katedra atletiky, Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. PaedDr. Tomáš Kampmiller, PhD.

ABSTRAKT

Rozvoj schopnosti opakovane vykonávať vysoko intenzívne zaťaženie sa v súčasnosti považuje za limitujúci faktor spojený s lokomočným výkonom hráčov vo futbalovom zápase, a zároveň je aj predmetom mnohých výskumov. Cieľom predloženej práce preto bolo skúmanie vplyvu navrhnutého tréningového programu zameraného na rozvoj uvedenej schopnosti a jeho vplyvu na lokomočný výkon hráčov v zápase. 14 hráčov bolo náhodno-zámerným výberom rozdelených do experimentálnej a kontrolnej skupiny. Hráči kontrolnej skupiny absolvovali futbalový tréningový program, nad rámec ktorého sa hráči experimentálnej skupiny venovali vo frekvencii 2-krát týždenne nášmu programu pozostávajúceho z opakovaných 30 m behov s kontrolovanou intenzitou a optimálnym objemom. Po šiestych týždňoch sme v experimentálnej skupine spozorovali štatisticky významné prírastky v priemernom a najlepšom čase 30 m behov (p < 0,05), kým v prípade kontrolnej skupiny štatisticky významné zhoršenie (p < 0,05). Výsledky vzťahovej analýzy ukázali, že hráči s lepším priemerným časom z 30 m behov prekonali v zápasoch väčšiu celkovú vzdialenosť (p < 0,05), vzdialenosť prekonanú stredne vysokou intenzitou (p < 0,05) a absolvovali viac akcelerácií (p < 0,01). Tieto výsledky naznačujú, že náš optimalizovaný tréningový program s kontrolovanou intenzitou bežeckých úsekov predstavoval bezpečný, časovo-nenáročný a efektívny spôsob rozvoja schopnosti opakovane vykonávať vysoko intenzívne zaťaženie. Táto zvýšená úroveň sa zároveň pozitívne odrazila aj v lokomočnom výkone hráčov v sledovaných zápasoch v podobe väčšieho množstva vysoko intenzívnych aktivít. V druhej polovici experimentu sa nám úroveň sledovanej schopnosti nepodarilo udržať len aplikácou futbalového programu, čiže bez aplikácie nešpecifického programu. Preto navrhujeme podobné kondičné programy zaradiť do prípravy futbalistov, aj keď si uvedomuje, že aj samotný lokomočný výkon hráčov je podmienený mnohými ďalšími faktormi, vplyv ktorých môže byť námetom budúcich prác. Programy s odlišným dávkovaním opakovaných krátkych behov, avšak rovnako kontrolovanou intenzitou môžu byť tiež predmetom ďalších výskumov. Kľúčové slová: opakované vysoko intenzívne zaťaženie, futbal, rozvoj, lokomočný výkon v zápase

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF RECOVERY STRATEGIES DURING INTERMISSIONS ON SKATING SPEED IN ICE HOCKEY MATCH

Milan KABÁT

Department of Track and Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Marián Vanderka, PhD.

ABSTRACT This study was aimed to investigate the effects of immediate recovery strategies during ice hockey matches on skating speed (SS). SS (36 m) was used to evaluate recovery strategies in the intermissions during matches in 2 players using a crossover design (4 matches active and 4 matches passive recovery). Players participated experimental measurements (SS) at the end and beginning of each period. Between testing, player 1 was cycling at intensity of heart rate 130-140 beats.min-1 and player 2 rested seated. We found that players stabilised their performances probably due to active recovery and SS did not decrease. Simultaneously, player M.H. improved SS after active recovery significantly (- 2.66 %, p≤0.05) in pre- and post-measurements, differences between active and passive recovery were in average 0.28 s (5.75 %; p ≤ 0.01). Player P.Z. had differences between active and passive recoveries were 0.21 s (4.61 %; p ≤ 0.05). We concluded active recovery maintains stable SS performance in ice hockey players but other researchers are needed. Key words: active and passive recovery, skating speed, ice hockey

1 INTRODUCTION

Field of increasing performance in competitive matches is a key point in sports training including individual or team sports. Many athletes and trainers are interested in only one part of sport preparation which is determine intensity, number of series, number of repetitions, organization of exercises and rest interval. Rest period means at least partial recovery of lost energy for consecutive activity. It is a process which can be influent by some strategies. Rest interval is common performed by passive recovery (PR), concretely inactivity or insufficient activity of loaded muscle groups. Sitting rest is a typically recovery strategy in ice hockey during intermissions between periods. Theory of PR is based on immediate decrease energy requirements. Effort for improving performances in games leads to search other types of recovery. Active recovery (AR), form of low-intensity

activity seems more appropriate alternative of recovery to increase metabolic process in human body. Superior requirements of performances in sport allow using AR in team sports in competitive matches.

The main role of conditioning training is indirectly postponed or tolerates arising fatigue during games. By analysing of internal and external loads ice hockey players obtaining energy for movement in almost anaerobic conditions. It practically means applying anaerobic stimulus in conditioning training (Laczo, 2011).

Tab.1 External and internal load of ice hockey player in game (by Laczo 2011; corrected)

Structure of external load Structure of internal load Skated distance 7 – 9 km HRmax 85 - 100 % Tackles (team) 80 - 110 n Oxygen debt 80 - 90 % Offensive/defensive 150 - 200 n Lactate (La) 5 - 9 mmol.l-1 period (team) Shots (team) 30 – 50 n Creatinkinase (CK) 9 - 15 (20) mmol.l-1 Ratio load : rest 45“–1’ : 2‘–3‘ Urea 7 - 10 mmol.l-1 -1 Ice-time 16 - 22 ( 25) minutes VO2max 55 - 65 ml.kg Respiratory quotient 1.05 – 1.25 (RQ)

Structure of sport performance in ice hockey indicates engaging anaerobic metabolism players with decreasing pH in human body. Anaerobic production energy degrades ATP and simultaneously increasing inorganic phosphate (Pi), accumulate plenty hydrogen ions (H+), rising level of La. Exactly H+ causes a decrease performance skeletal muscles by reduction activity cross-bridges, reduces rate contraction muscle fibres, inhibits linking Ca2+ on troponine and slow down process anaerobic glycolysis (Westerblad et al., 2002). Nevertheless total share H+ from degrading lactic acid does not exceed ¼ total amount produced H+. Most of produced H+ causes hydrolysis ATP.

Laczo (2011) emphasizes that level VO2max contributes to rapid recovery of organism and may cause better power performances of ice hockey players in games. Resynthesis creatinephosphate (CP) is carried out in aerobic process from glycogen during period of low-intensity activity, at bench-time or in locker room. There are many factors which contribute to onset of fatigue from activity and take place combined. The specific

type of stimulus results in a specific physiological response. Fatigue is not for every athlete identical (Kirkendal, 2000). Marathoner experiences different tiredness as sprinter or weightlifter.

Fatigue as multifactor phenomenon includes central fatigue which mechanism is linked with brain activity and spinal cord and peripheral fatigue. Peripheral fatigue consists of inhibition in transmission impulses at neuromuscular unit, excitation contractions, activity Ca2+ in sarcoplasmic reticulum and in process actin-myosine complex (Kirkendal, 2000).

Active recovery means activity under 65 % VO2max and it is most applying after competitive games or exercises. AR is integrated to training process. Evans and Cureton (1983) demonstrated AR is significant during long-time rest interval (30 min.) after high- intensive workouts. They also referred athletes with superior aerobic capacity during AR manage quicker metabolize La comparing untrained (p<0.05).

Bangsbo et al. (2001) presented work in which footballers acted AR after exercises and at next exercise were obtained higher parameters in oxygen consumption. After repeated speed protocols footballers needed less time to recover (p<0.05).

Connoly et al. (2003) compared AR vs. PR and effect at parameters peak power (PP), average power (AP) and grade of La over repeated series (6x) short, high-intensive exercises (15 s) at the cycling ergometer with 3 minutes rest interval between bouts. Main found was that the AR group with during rest (3 minutes) produced greater PP (775±11.2 W resp. 772±33.4 W; p<0.05) comparing with PR group. In this work was demonstrated AR after high-intensive exercises positive influenced PP and AP although grade La significantly did not decrease in both group.

On the other hand, using AR was not demonstrated on short-time repeated anaerobic loads in work of Jougle et al. (2010). Professional rugby players acted pre-test, rugby match and post-test. The test consists of power loads (sprint + agility + tackles; 6 series with 30 s rest). AR group run back to the start low intensity (50 % maximal aerobic speed, PR group recovered passive. Main findings were that AR causes higher parameter fatigue index and result time was greater too. However, authors pointed at short-time AR what may causes insufficient activity typical for low-intensity running.

Determining optimal intensity during AR is essential. In other works we almost find range of intensity form 40 % to 60 % VO2max (Bellcastro-Bonnen (1975); Nancy et al. (1998); Franchini (2009)) or 40 % to 50 % maximal aerobic speed (Dupont et al. (2003); King–Duffield (2009) or 50 % to 60 % HRmax (Andersson et al. (2010); Vanderthommen et al. (2010)).

Although there is different approach of determining intensity AR in other studies

(% VO2max, % maximal aerobic speed, % best performance of done activity, % power, % HRmax, etc.) is AR performed at approximately 130-155 beats.min-1. Activity in this range of HR may be considered as optimal intensity of AR.

Field of effect AR on after game loads with affinity to performance on following day (match) is most examined in other works. In our study we focus AR which concentrates on acute effect and we expected at least maintain level of skating speed abilities. Parameters of skating speed were compared after applying AR or PR. We hypothesized that AR positive influences skating speed parameter with comparing PR. Main reason of these changes can be sufficient long-time activity in less loaded muscle fibres, lower decrease muscle temperature or increased oxygen consumption during AR. Real competitive load is positive element of this study. We can examine effect of AR on skating speed influenced based on actual load during match. It means that we cannot influence condition of ice hockey match.

2 AIM

Evaluate effect of active and passive recovery during intermissions on skating speed young players in ice hockey match.

3 METHODS

Participants

Two players (I. Slovak junior ice hockey league) from HK Ruzinov underwent this study. Players regularly had ice training (4 times) and dryland training (twice per a week). Players had 2 competitive matches in every microcycle. To provide sufficient description of our participants see Table 2.

Tab. 2. Description of players in selected parameters

SPORT AGE WEGHT HEIGHT VO max PLAYER AGE 2 [y] [kg] [cm] [ml.kg-1.min-1] [y] M.H. 20 77 181 15 52.41 P.Z. 19 81 182 15 51.74

Procedure

Main criterion to consider effect of AR and PR was time in skating speed test (SS, 36 m). Time was recorded by portable timer FreeLap and measured at the end and beginning of each period. FreeLap (Freelap SA, Fleurier, Switzerland) is portable timing system which consists of stopwatch (set on the hip) and at least two transmitters. FreeLap offers several receivers adapted to the different applications. These receivers detect the magnetic signal emitted by the FreeLap transmitters positioned on the side of the track. Accuracy of measuring is 0.01 s. We had realized pre-research for confirming of reliability of timing system (ICC = 0.807, p ˂ 0.01; t – test = ns).

Over intermission between periods one player performed AR by cycling on spinner. Intensity of cycling was determined on 130 -140 HR.min-1 (registered by Polar RS400, Finland) and it lasted 8 minutes. The second player rested by PR, concretely passively sitting. All data were noticed and compared AR vs. PR. Same protocol was repeated by players in second intermissions over game. Every player played 4 matches with AR and 4 matches with PR. It means that we had 8 measurements for AR and 8 measurements for PR in both players. Both recoveries were realized in the same game and both players played together in one line. We tried to secure approximately similar ice-time, bench-time or numbers of bouts in a play.

Statistical analysis

Mann-Whitney´s non-parametric test was used to compare AR and PR. Wilcoxon’s t-test (Paired Samples t-test) was used for 2 dependent means in each player after AR or PR. All calculations were performed using SPSS (version 16.0), where the level of significance was set at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 and to reveal even a tendency in total score to increase or decrease. However due to small data we used effect size (ES) that measures the magnitude of a treatment effect. For evaluating difference between the means we used Cohen’s d.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Main finding in our study was that passive recovery has negative significant effect on skating speed after intermission in ice hockey players. After completion PR between pre-test and post-test players got worse in skating speed test (36 m). Player M.H. after applying PR was worst in test in average +3.9 % (p ≤ 0.05, d = 1.47) and player P.Z. in average +2.40 % (p ≤ 0.05, d = 0.84). Sitting rest is a likely reason of these worsening because of relative very low activity loaded muscle during intermission in ice hockey match. Very low activity or relative inactivity of lower extremities did not increase oxygen consumption in muscle fibres it means insufficient recovery during intermissions.

At the beginning of our study we hypothesized that AR significantly influence skating speed with comparing PR. This hypothesis was only confirmed by player MH. who achieved significant improvements after AR in skating speed in average -2.66 % (-0.12 s; p ≤ 0.05, d = 0.80 large effect) between pre- and post-tested. This improvement is approximately at the level of results which MOHR et al. (2004) had investigated. We hypothesise the occasion can be low aerobic activity during intermission (130 – 140 beats.min-1) which led to superior oxygen consumption and can resulted to shorten time to recover from competitive loading. Other possible reason of improvement can be decreasing and regulating products of anaerobic glycolysis.

On the other hand, we registered improvements after AR in skating speed an average of -2.21 % (-0.10 s) in player P.Z. however, this result was not significant at p ≤ 0.05 with by comparing pre- and post-test. But Cohen’s d was 0.40 and it means medium effect of AR on skating speed. We did notice a worsening in selected parameter so we consider this moment as a key point because player P.Z. at least retained speed abilities. This phenomenon creates relative advantageous starting point for using speed and speed- strength component in performance in ice hockey player during game (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Average time results in speed skating test (36 m) players P.H. and P.Z. after both recoveries

Decrease of heart rate during PR comparing with AR pointed on inactivity lower limbs in both players. Applying AR during intermissions made increasing an average HR +16.9 % in M.H. (p ≤ 0.01, d = 7.06) respectively +8.11% in P.Z (p ≤ 0.01, d = 2.98). Average means HR during intermissions are presented on Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Average HR players M.H. and P.Z. during intermissions (4 matches active recovery (AR) vs. 4 matches passive recovery (PR))

There is assumption that due to inactivity muscles of lower limbs the temperature of muscles could not remain at approximately on the same level which the players had during loading. By Mohr et al. (2004) a Edholm et. al (2014) a temperature of muscle has a significant effect on speed and power performances. They emphasise that lower temperature in loading muscle can get worst power performances. There was effort to limit a negative effect on skating speed through AR. Low aerobic activity was applied on players and AR made not just maintain speed performances, but also we registered slightly improving selected parameters. This moment we considered a positive signal at the field of using low aerobic activity as mean of recovery. Improvements of speed abilities in players M.H. can be caused by relative same intramuscular temperature or body, because of constant activity lower limbs. Edholm et al. (2014) found it out those players, who did AR during intermissions reached higher average intramuscular temperature and they investigated correlation between maximal speed also repeated sprint abilities and temperature of muscles. Players with higher body temperature got improved Players with a higher body temperature improved not only single sprint, but also repeated sprints. Mohr et al. (2004) claims that higher muscular temperature causes quicker contraction of muscle and shortens time to relaxation, it can be considered as key point for muscle contraction. The intensity AR was an important factor of this study. AR was controlled by HR at the level 130-140 beats per minute. In a both players we registered strong problem with the maintaining the prescribed intensity. Players during aerobic activity had to control their HR carefully because they exceeded specified intensity about 10 beats.min-1. The reason can be the aerobic low cycling during intermissions was realised first time by players what it reflected on the heart rate curve. In the last completions players managed control their HR at the level 130-140 beats.min-1. This moment points at the need of regular applying AR. Next important factor which could influenced the results was fact that players after sprint skating test had high values HR; nevertheless sprint test has a typical speed character till 5 seconds. Relative high values of HR were investigated after every test and it did not depend on type of recovery. Average difference HR between PRE- and POST- was 7 beats.min-1 (168.8 resp. 161.8 beats.min-1) in M.H. and in P.Z. 4.2 beats.min-1 (175.7 resp. 171.5 beats.min-1). We think competitive loads cumulate fatigue that means individual

stimulus adds up in ice hockey game and from typical speed character becomes speed- endurance loading. When evaluating HR during intermissions (AR vs. PR) we were forced to delete first and last 3 minutes from averages of HR in intermissions. We tried to clarify and compare HR values during intermissions. In our study players had approximately about 8- 16 % higher HR values in AR with comparing PR, so we has confirmed our assumption. More details about HR differences see Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Average time differences in sprint skating test after applying AR and PR in players P.Z. and M.H.

Results suggested that AR during intermissions can have significant effect on speed abilities in ice hockey players. Player M.H. had time difference between AR and PR nearly 5 % what represents 1.8 m on 36 m long track. This gap could give advantage in speed abilities before your opponent at the beginning of each period. At the same time we would like to point on relative small number registered data. For clarifying effect to AR in ice hockey players is needed more complex and perfect pre- diagnostics monitored players for optimizing AR. Number of monitored games should be extensive because it needs to create an image about effect of AR resp. PR on skating speed. Players alike have to get used to AR and consider it as a step closer to better recovery during games. We realise that PR has a strong habit in intermission as a common used type of recovery especially in team sports in Slovakia. Based on other studies we can emphasize that PR has not to be the most convenient recovery strategies. New strategies

are meeting with misunderstood so it is needed to obtain more information from this field, not just from arguing, but mainly to get improved performances in games.

CONCLUSION

We confirmed that PR during intermission causes significant worsening skating speed abilities in ice hockey players +2.4 % respectively +3.09 % at the beginning of each period.

Low aerobic activity (130-140 beats.min-1) which takes 7-8 minutes during intermission is not time and space obstruction during 15 minutes intermission at the present material conditioning in sport clubs.

Simultaneously, applying AR during intermissions maintains skating speed abilities players at approximately same level all over match at the beginning of periods. Actually, player M.H. got improved his skating speed after AR – 2.66 %.

Differences of test performances (AR vs. PR) both players were at the level 5 %. This gap can make reserve 1.8 m on the 36 m long track.

Regularly applied AR can have a more positive effect to speed and power performances but it depends on specifying accurate intensity of AR and monitoring other selected parameters (LA, CK, etc.)

Despite of more detailed monitoring data about AR at the present we consider applying for appropriate recovery strategy during breaks in the match. Mostly, when AR takes 7-8 minutes constant low aerobic activity at the level 130-140 beats.min-1.

References

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VPLYV ODLIŠNÝCH STRATÉGIÍ ZOTAVOVANIA HRÁČOV ĽADOVÉHO HOKEJA POČAS PRESTÁVOK NA KORČULIARSKU RÝCHLOSŤ V ZÁPASE

Milan KABÁT

Katedra atletiky, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. Marián Vanderka, PhD.

ABSTRACT V práci sme sa zaoberali odlišnými typmi zotavenia počas prestávok v zápase ľadového hokeja. Zotavovacie stratégie boli aplikované na dvoch probandoch (I. hokejová liga juniorov), ktorí sa podrobili v 8 zápasoch 4x aktívnemu (AO) a 4x pasívnemu (PO) odpočinku. AO probandi vykonávali na stacionárnom bicykli, pričom intenzita zaťaženia predstavovala 130-140 úderov.min-1. v dĺžke trvania 8 min. PO bol vykonávaný sedavým spôsobom. Hlavným ukazovateľom posúdenia účinnosti zotavovacích stratégií bola korčuliarska rýchlosť (výkon (s) na 36 m) vykonávaná pred a po skončení každej tretiny. Výsledky preukázali, že po aplikovaní AO sa proband M.H. signifikantne zlepšil medzi vstupnými a výstupnými meraniami v priemere o -0,12 s (-2,66 %, p ≤ 0,05), pričom diferencia medzi priemernými výkonmi medzi AO a PO bola v priemere 0,28 s (5,75 %; p ≤ 0,01). U probanda P.Z. po AO sme zaznamenali signifikantný rozdiel medzi diferenciami AO vs. PO 0,21 s, čo činilo 4,61 % (p ≤ 0,05). Záverom môžeme konštatovať, že PO zhoršuje korčuliarsku rýchlosť hráčov (p ≤ 0,05), pričom AO minimálne udržuje rýchlostné schopnosti na rovnakej úrovni na začiatku tretín. Kľúčové slová: aktívny a pasívny odpočinok, korčuliarska rýchlosť, ľadový hokej

ACUTE RESPONSE OF BONE TURNOVER TO RESISTANCE EXERCISE

Jana KOVÁROVÁ

Department of Sport Kinantropology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. MUDr. Dušan Hamar, CSc.

ABSTRACT

Besides other beneficial effects, physical activity is known to play an important role in the maintenance of bone structure. The study examined the acute effect of resistance exercise on bone metabolism. The aim was to compare the response of serum markers of bone formation (bone alkaline phosphatase and aminoterminal propeptide of type I procollagen) and resorption (sclerostin and beta carboxy-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen) to two single resistance exercise sessions in a group of seven women. Both exercise bouts, an isokinetic resistance exercise with additional mechanical stimuli and one with constant resistance were carried out on a computer controlled horizontal leg press device. Blood samples were taken before, 24 and 48 hours after the interventions. No statistically significant changes in serum concentrations of any bone turnover markers were detected at any time point independently of the exercise. The resistance exercises seem to have no significant effects on bone turnover 24 and 48 hours after the intervention. An explanation could be that the intensity of exercise protocols used in this study might not have been appropriate to cause bone turnover changes. Also the possibility that the selected markers of bone turnover are not sensitive enough to detect the changes may be considered.

Key words: bone turnover markers, isokinetic leg press dynamometer, serial stretch loading, constant resistance loading

1 INTRODUCTION Despite its static appearance, bone is an active and ever-changing tissue. Whole lifetime it undergoes remodelling consisting of two counteracting processes: bone resorption and formation (Seibel 2005). The resorptive activity of osteoclasts is coupled by the anabolic action of osteoblasts and osteocytes. These cells are instrumental in controlling the amount of bone tissue (Phan et al. 2004). Bone can also be influenced, in addition to the naturally occurring bone remodelling, by mechanical loading. The first observation of positive responses of bone tissue to systemic loading environment is generally attributed to German physician Wolff. This more than 100 years old concept is marked as Wolff’s law. It states that bone tissue is formed at those places, where it is exposed to systematic force impacts and in places where such mechanical stimulation is missing, a loss of bone tissue occurs (Turner 1998). 43

Mechanical loading applied to bone causes its temporary deformation, the amount of which, relative to its original length, is described by strains. The response of bone tissue to mechanical loading depends on the characteristics of the strains. Bone tissue does not adapt to static loading, even if producing fairly large strains. Conversely, the magnitude of bone adaptation is greater when the strains are dynamic, fast changing and delivered in unusual directions not encountered during habitual movements/activities (Lanyon et al. 1984). Therefore high impact sports and activities such as squash, triple jumping, badminton or martial arts result in greater osteogenic response than for example swimming, paddling or cycling (Nordstrom et al. 1998). Various densitometrical techniques have been used for the assessment of the effectiveness of interventions that may influence bone density. As bone remodelling is a slow process, the changes in its bone density are manifested only after a long (usually no less than 2-year) period of the application of treatment with a particular stimulus. Proof of the effectiveness of different stimuli in terms of different nature of load, intensity, volume or frequency, under such circumstances is therefore a tedious task. An assessment of acute serum bone turnover markers response to a single exercise session can be used as an alternative. The markers provide information on the acute state and dynamics of bone remodelling. Pronounced disruption of homeostasis by means of mechanical stimulation assumes a higher intensity of bone adaptive changes. In practice, biochemical markers of osteoformation and osteoresorption proven in clinical medicine can be used (e.g. Scott et al. 2011). Using bone turnover markers is a less time consuming approach and enables to obtain information about the differences of stimulation effects of different intensity, or volume. The magnitude of the changes in these markers can be used for the assessment of the efficiency of stimulus tested. A demonstration of a greater bone turnover response to a specific strength exercise, performed on a computer-controlled legpress device capable of evoking repetitive force peaks exceeding the strength produced by a maximum voluntary contraction in comparison with traditional resistance exercises would create a theoretical basement for maintaining or improving bone health.

2 AIM, HYPOTHESIS, TASKS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study The purpose of the study was to examine the acute response of bone turnover markers to two single sessions of different resistance exercises in women.

2.2 Hypothesis of the study The exercise with serial stretch loading (SSL) will cause a more pronounced response of serum bone turnover markers than the exercise with constant resistance (ISOF).

2.3 Tasks of the study 1. Participants recruitment Female students were recruited at Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Comenius University. 2. Familiarization All the subjects familiarized themselves with the resistance exercise device one week prior to the beginning of the study. One repetition maximum test (1RM) was conducted and individual legpress initial position and the range of motion for the exercise protocols were set. 3. Execution of first exercise protocol The testing started with morning fasting blood collection. After the blood sample had been obtained, breakfast for the subjects was provided by the investigators. Twenty minutes after the breakfast, the subjects underwent a 10-minute warm-up aimed to loosen up the lower extremities (stretching, stepping up and down an aerobic stepper, squatting). The exercise protocol was carried out right after the warm-up. 4. Follow-up blood collections Second and third blood samples were collected 24 and 48 hours after the exercise session, respectively, at the same time of day. 5. The performance of the second exercise protocol The second exercise protocol was carried out following the same procedures as during the execution of the first one. 6. Statistical analyses The effect of two exercise protocols on acute bone turnover markers was analysed.

3 METHODS Participants Seven women (age: 23 ± 1.9 years, weight: 65 ± 4.3 kg, height: 169 ± 5 cm) participated in this study. None of them were competitive athletes, smokers, or on hormonal or osteoporosis medications. The study was approved by Ethical Committee of Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Comenius University in Bratislava. Procedure An overview of experimental design Familiarization (1 week prior to the study beginning) → fasting baseline blood sample → breakfast → warm up → exercise protocol (ISOF or SSL) → fasting blood sample 24 hours after the exercise → fasting blood sample 48 hours after the exercise → 3- week break → completion of the second exercise protocol (SSL or ISOF) following the same procedures as during the execution of the first one. The subjects performed the exercise protocols in a random order. Familiarization A familiarization session took place one week prior to the beginning of the study. After the subjects had been informed about the aim of the study, they gave their written informed consent to participate in it. The purpose of this meeting was also for the subjects to familiarize themselves with the resistance exercise equipment. 1RM was carried out on a supine leg press device. The results served for setting the workloads in the subsequent exercise protocols. The individual initial position of pedals and range of motion for leg press exercise were also set. Isokinetic leg press dynamometer Both exercise protocols were carried out on a horizontal leg press device which is operated by a pair of computer controlled linear motors. Each of them can resist maximal force of 1800 N and generate velocity up to 10 m.s-1 both forwards and backwards with potential maximal acceleration of 15 g (nie 15 m.s-2 ?) The computer control of resistance, velocity, acceleration and movement directions make the device truly universal enabling to set an exercise in any mode, e.g. constant resistance, constant velocity (isokinetic) for both concentric and eccentric contraction, as well as serial stretch loading (generating repetitive force peaks in response to sudden changes of velocity and direction of the pedal movements). A constant resistance and a serial stretch loading mode were used in the present study. Exercise protocol with a constant resistance (ISOF)

The initial position of pedals and the resistance need to be set for this mode. The device generates constant resistance independent of external force produced by the subject. The pedals start to move forward from their starting position only when the force produced by the muscles exceeds the preset resistance value. If the exerted force decreases below the preset resistance, the pedals will move backwards to the starting position. The resistance in this study represented 75 % of individual 1 RM and the exercise protocol consisted of 6 sets with 6 repetitions and 2-minute breaks between the sets. Exercise protocol with serial stretch loading (SSL) The pedals in isokinetic mode move according to the preset velocity of concentric and eccentric phase of the movement regardless of the force applied by the subject. The range of lower extremities motion during both phases needs to be set in forward. The pedals accelerate from 0 at the initial position to the specified velocity and then move at this speed uniformly during the whole phase. They decelerate to 0 just before the final position is reached. Immediately after that they accelerate to the preset velocity of the other phase of the movement. The speed is again uniform during the whole phase and the pedals decelerate to 0 just before the initial position is reached. One loading cycle (repetition) represents 1 concentric and 1 eccentric phase of the movement (Fig. 1). If more than 1 repetition is set, the whole process described above starts again. The device in isokinetic mode is also capable of evoking repetitive force peaks of a controllable magnitude and frequency. It is achieved by incorporating short counter movements into concentric and segments of increased velocity into eccentric phase of the movement. The peaks can also be produced by sudden stops during both phases of the movement (Fig. 2). The velocity of concentric and eccentric phase of the movement for this study was set to 50 cm.s-1 and 40 cm.s-1, respectively. Short interruptions, lasting few tens of milliseconds, were incorporated into both phases of the movement after every 20 mm. This setting resulted in a frequency of the force peaks of 10 Hz in concentric as well as in eccentric phase. The subjects performed 6 sets of 6 repetitions with 2-minute resting periods between the sets and were instructed to push against the foot pedals with a maximal effort during the whole repetitions.

Fig. 1 Force and position during one isokinetic cycle

Fig. 2 Force and position during one serial stretch loading cycle

Blood sampling and analysis The response of bone metabolism to two exercise protocols was monitored by serum bone turnover markers: bone alkaline phosphatase (bALP), aminoterminal propeptide of type I procollagen (P1NP), sclerostin and beta-cross laps (beta-CTX). Medical professionals obtained the blood samples by venipuncture of the antecubital vein at baseline (fasting) after 5 minute seated rest, 24 and 48 hours after the exercise. Baseline blood samples were collected between 7:00 and 8:00 AM. For both bone turnover markers, 9 ml of blood was taken into a closed system collection tube containing beads coated with a clotting activator (silicate) and a polyacrylic ester gel (Sarstedt AG & Co, Germany). The samples were centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4 °C no later than 60 minutes after the blood draw. Sera were stored immediately after the centrifugation at -80 °C for subsequent analyses. The follow-up

samples were collected at the same time of day. All the serum bone turnover markers were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit.

Statistical analysis The statistical software package SPSS 10.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA, 2000) was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were computed for all dependent variables for each condition and time point. Using the Shapiro-Wilk test, all dependent variables were found to be normally distributed. Repeated-measures multi-factorial analysis of variance was used to measure the main effect of exercise and interaction of time. The level of statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

None of the bone formation markers’ concentrations measured 24 and 48 hours after the interventions were significantly different from their baseline values, independently of exercise protocol.

The concentration of bALP, prior to the interventions (baseline), was 30.7 ± 3.4 ng/ml and 29.7 ± 1.8 ng/m for SSL and ISOF, respectively. SSL did not cause any significant change in this marker’s concentration 24 nor 48 hours after its cessation (30.0 ± 3.0 ng/ml, 31.0 ± 2.0 ng/ml, respectively). Neither ISOF resulted in any shift of the concentration during the recovery – 24 and 48 hours after the exercise bout (30.5 ± 2.0 ng/ml, 30.5 ± 2.3 ng/ml), as depicted in Fig. 3.

bALP before and after interventions

10 Concentration [ng/ml] Concentration . 0 baseline 24 48 Time [h]

SSL ISOF

Fig. 3 Response of bALP to the interventions (SSL: serial stretch loading, ISOF: constant resistance loading)

The concentration of P1NP, prior to the interventions (baseline), was 74.0 ± 14.2 µg/l and 66.2 ± 21.2 µg/l for SSL and ISOF, respectively. SSL did not cause any significant change in this marker’s concentration 24 nor 48 hours after its cessation (66.1 ± 17.7 µg/l, 70.0 ± 15.7 µg/l, respectively). Neither ISOF resulted in any shift of the concentration during the recovery – 24 and 48 hours after the exercise bout (67.6 ± 19.3 µg/l, 69.6 ± 19.2 µg/l), as depicted in Fig. 4.

P1NP before and after interventions

90 75 60 45 30 15

Concentration [µg/l] . 0 baseline 24 48 Time [h]

SSL ISOF

Fig. 4 Response of P1NP to the interventions (SSL: serial stretch loading, ISOF: constant resistance loading)

No statistically significant difference between baseline and follow-up (24 and 48 hours after the intervention) concentrations of bone resorption markers was detected, independently of the intervention type (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).

The concentration of sclerostin, prior to the interventions (baseline), was 40.6 ± 4.2 pmol/L and 36.1 ± 5.6 pmol/L for SSL and ISOF, respectively. SSL did not cause any significant change in this marker’s concentration 24 nor 48 hours after its cessation (38.8 ± 5.0 pmol/L, 37.0 ± 7.3 pmol/L, respectively). Neither ISOF resulted in any shift of the concentration during the recovery – 24 and 48 hours after the exercise bout (38.0 ± 7.7 pmol/L, 41.3 ± 7.4 pmol/L), as depicted in Fig. 5.

Sclerostin before and after interventions

60 50 40 30 20 10

concentration [pmol/L] . 0 baseline 24 48 time [h] SSL ISOF

Fig. 5 Response of sclerostin to the interventions (SSL: serial stretch loading, ISOF: constant resistance loading)

The concentration of beta-CTX, prior to the interventions (baseline), was 627.0 ± 262.9 pg/m and 604.2 ± 236.9 pg/m for SSL and ISOF, respectively. SSL did not cause any significant change in this marker’s concentration 24 nor 48 hours after its cessation (620.8 ± 244.1 pg/m, 678.0 ± 247.3 pg/m, respectively). Neither ISOF resulted in any shift of the concentration during the recovery – 24 and 48 hours after the exercise bout (600.0 ± 151.3 pg/m, 644.5 ± 207.6 pg/m), as depicted in Fig. 6.

Beta-CTX before and after interventions

1000

800

600

400

200

concentration [pg/ml] . 0 baseline 24 48 time [h]

SSL ISOF

Fig. 6 Response of beta-CTX to the interventions (SSL: serial stretch loading, ISOF: constant resistance loading)

The results show that the response of serum bone turnover markers to two resistance exercise bouts did not differ. None of the exercise protocols caused any change in markers’ concentrations compared with their baseline and follow-up values. Therefore, the hypothesis can not be accepted.

The resistance exercises seem to have no measurable effects on bone turnover 24 and 48 hours after the intervention. Possible reasons could be that the intensity of exercise protocols used in this study might not have been appropriate to cause bone turnover changes. Another explanation could be that the selected markers of bone turnover might not be sensitive enough to detect the changes.

CONCLUSION

The exercise with constant resistance did not cause any significant changes in the concentration of the markers of bone formation (bone alkaline phosphatase, aminoterminal propeptide of type I procollagen) nor resorption (sclerostin and beta carboxy-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen).

Neither did the serial stretch loading exercise cause any significant changes in the concentration the markers of bone formation (bone alkaline phosphatase, aminoterminal propeptide of type I procollagen) nor resorption (sclerostin and beta carboxy-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen).

There was no statistically significant difference between the bone turnover response to constant resistance exercise and serial stretch loading exercise.

The markers used in this study do not seem to be suitable for the detection of bone turnover dynamics after a single bout of neither constant resistance exercise, nor an isokinetic exercise with additional mechanical stimuli.

References

LANYON, L.E. a C.T. RUBIN, 1984. Static vs dynamic loads as an influence on bone remodelling. In: Journal of Biomechanics, 17(12), 897-905. NORDSTROM, P. a PETTERSON, U. a LORENTZON, R., 1998. Type of physical activity, muscle strength, and pubertal stage as determinants of bone mineral density and bone area in adolescent boys. In: Journal of bone and mineral research, 13(7), 1141-1148. PHAN, T.C. a XU, J. a ZHENG, M.H., 2004. Interaction between osteoblast and osteoclast: impact in bone disease. In: Histology and Histopathology, 19(4), 1325-44. SCOTT, J.P. et al., 2011. The role of exercise intensity in the bone metabolic response to an acute bout of weight-bearing exercise. In: Journal of applied physiology, 110(2), 423–432. SEIBEL, M.J., 2005. Biochemical Markers of Bone Turnover Part I: Biochemistry and Variability. In: The Clinical Biochemist. Reviews, 26(4), 97-122. TURNER, Ch., 1998. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. In: Bone, 23(5), 399-407.

AKÚTNA ODOZVA KOSTNÉHO METABOLIZMU NA SILOVÉ ZAŤAŽENIE

Jana KOVÁROVÁ

Katedra športovej kinantropológie, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. MUDr. Dušan Hamar, CSc.

ABSTRAKT Pravidelná pohybová aktivita je, okrem iného, dôležitá aj pre udržanie a zlepšovanie kvality kostného tkaniva. Štúdia sa zaoberala akútnou odozvou biochemických markerov kostného metabolizmu na silové zaťaženie. Cieľom bolo porovnať reakciu ukazovateľov kostnej tvorby (kostný izoenzým alkalickej fosfatázy a aminoterminálny propeptid prokolagénu typu I) a degradácie (sklerostín a beta karboxy-terminálny telopeptidový fragment kolagénu typu I) na dve jednorazové silové cvičenia skupiny 7 žien. Obidve zaťaženia, jedno izokinetické s prídavnými mechanickými stimulmi a druhé s konštantným odporom, boli vykonané na počítačom riadenom izokinetickom horizontálnom leg presse. Krvné vzorky na analýzu akútnej odozvy markerov kostného metabolizmu boli odoberané pred, 24 a 48 hodín po zaťažení. Ani jedno zo zaťažení nevyvolalo štatisticky významné zmeny v koncentrácii markerov kostného obratu tak 24 ako ani 48 hodín po cvičení v porovnaní s hodnotami pred zaťažením. Môže sa zdať, že zvolené silové zaťaženia nemajú na kostný metabolizmus žiaden vplyv. Jedna z možných príčin môže byť, že vybrané markery kostného metabolizmu, i keď sú bežne používané, nie sú dostatočne citlivé na zachytenie týchto zmien 24 a viac hodín po aplikácii intervencií daného charakteru (cvičenie s konštantným odporom a izokinetické cvičenie s prídavnými mechanickými stimulmi). Avšak je možné aj to, že intenzita týchto cvičení nebola dostatočne vysoká na to, aby k týmto zmenám došlo.

Kľúčové slová: markery kostného metabolizmu, izokinetický leg press, zaťaženie so sériovými strečingovými stimulmi, zaťaženie s konštantným odporom

DIFFERENCES IN REBOUNDING BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL AND UNSECCSESSFUL TEAMS IN TOP LEVEL FEMALE BASKETBALL

Richard KUCSA

Department of Sport Games, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: doc. PaedDr. Peter Mačura, PhD.

ABSTRACT Previous studies in basketball performance observed that rebounds are one of the most distinguished factor separating winning from losing teams. The aim of the present study was to detect differences between successful and unsuccessful Euroleague women teams in performing defensive rebounding percentage and offensive rebounding percentage. The data were collected from 42 games in 2014/2015 Euroleague women basketball season. The analysed performance indicators were total rebounds (n = 3069) including defensive rebounds (n = 2231) and offensive rebounds (n = 838). We assumed that successful teams perform significantly higher defensive rebounding percentage and significantly higher offensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams. Successful teams performed more defensive (n = 27.6 ± 4.9) and offensive (n = 10.3 ± 3.6) rebounds than unsuccessful (n = 25.2 ± 5.4) and (n = 9.5 ± 4.3) teams in comparison of average rebounds per game. The comparison of defensive and offensive rebounding percentage between successful (72.9 ± 8.1 % and 27.1 ± 8.1 %) and unsuccessful (72.7 ± 11.5 % and 27.3 ± 11.5 %) teams did not proved statistical significant differences (t = 0.113; p > 0.05). The assumptions that successful teams have significantly higher defensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams and have significantly higher offensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams in Euroleague women were not confirmed. Based on our findings, we concluded that teams on that basketball level are so experienced that they realize the importance of rebounds in game and emphasize the execution of this action. We assume, that the success of team, qualification to the second round, depended on other performance indicators as effective field goal percentage or offensive and defensive rate.

Key words: basketball, rebounding, women Euroleague

1 INTRODUCTION

Performance analysis in basketball is currently an essential tool for coaches and technical staff. This analysis method allows them to collect reliable information about their opponents, competition and, mainly, their own team (García et al. 2013). Game related statistics are the most used performance indicators in basketball. Any basketball team has to keep track of key performance indicators. The most distinguished factor discriminating winning from losing teams are rebounds (Mendes and Janeira 2001; Trninić et al. 2002;

Gómez et al. 2008; Csataljay et al. 2012). According to Kubatko et al. (2007) one of the key performance indicator that increases teams probability of winning the game is offensive rebounding. Many researchers have found significant differences in game-related indicators between winning and losing teams, primarily related to defensive rebounding (Tsamourtzis and Athanasiou 2004; Gómez et al. 2008; Csataljay et al. 2012). Most of the researches are focused on men’s basketball teams. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify the importance of basketball game performance indicators, Defensive Rebounding Percentage (DReb%) and Offensive Rebounding Percentage (OReb%) in elite European women´s basketball – Women Euroleague.

2 AIM AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study

The aim of the study was to detect differences between successful and unsuccessful Euroleague women teams in performing defensive rebounding percentage and offensive rebounding percentage.

2.2 Hypotheses of the study

1. Successful teams have significantly higher defensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams.

2. Successful teams have significantly higher offensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams.

3 METHODS

Participants The data were collected from seven teams in 2014/2015 Euroleague women basketball season. All 42 games played in group A during the first round of competition were analysed. Teams in group A were: Dynamo Kursk, UMMC Ekaterinburg, ZVVZ USK Praha, Galatasaray Odeabank, Wisla Can-Pack Krakow, Basket Lattes Montpellier Agglomeratio and Good Angels Košice. In the first round (group phase) teams played against each other with home-away system. After the first round the four best placed teams in group qualified to second round (Play-Offs). The four best teams, successful teams, qualified to second round were: Dynamo Kursk, UMMC Ekaterinburg, ZVVZ USK Praha and Galatasaray Odeabank. Teams that did not qualified to second round, unsuccessful teams, were: Can-Pack Krakow, Basket Lattes Montpellier Agglomeratio and Good Angels Košice.

Procedure Rebound in basketball is a gained possession of the ball after a missed shot (Krause et al. 2008; Ribas et al. 2012). Instead of using the total value of rebounds from the game related statistics, which don´t give a true indication of rebounding performance, calculation of rebounding percentage was used. Based on the available literature (Kubatko et al. 2007; Oliver 2004), defensive rebounding percentage and offensive rebounding percentage was calculated by the equation: - Defensive Rebounding Percentage (DReb%) = defensive rebounds / (defensive rebounds + opponents’ offensive rebounds). - Offensive Rebounding Percentage (OReb%) = offensive rebounds / (offensive rebounds + opponents’ defensive rebounds). Archive data were obtained from open-access ofﬁcial FIBA Europe (Federation International Basketball Associations Europe) boxscore records for the Euroleague Women (2014/2015) games. All data were gathered by FIBA Europe professional technicians.

Statistical analysis Descriptive statistical parameters were calculated from the raw data – arithmetic mean and standard deviation for successful and unsuccessful teams per game. The assumption of normality was tested with Kolmogorov – Smirnov test of normality and afterwards the independent sample t-test for independent sample was used to examine if there were differences in compared means in defensive rebounding percentage and offensive rebounding percentage between successful and unsuccessful teams. The data were processed by SPSS for Windows, version 17.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) and significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Kolmogorov – Smirnov test showed that data were normally distributed. The Fig.2 shows that the comparison of mean values of defensive and offensive rebounding percentage between successful and unsuccessful teams did not proved statistical significant differences (p > 0.05). Defensive rebounding percentage of successful and unsuccessful teams were very identical (72.9 ± 8.1 % and 72.7 ± 11.5 %) as well as offensive rebounding percentage (27.1 ± 8.1 % to 27.3 ± 11.5 %). Results in Fig. 1 showed the statistics parameters of successful and unsuccessful teams in rebounding. Successful teams

performed more total rebounds (+ 3.3), defensive rebounds (+ 2.4), offensive rebounds (+ 0.8) and had higher defensive rebounding percentage (+ 0.2) than unsuccessful teams in average per game. According to Tsamourtzis and Athanasiou (2004), García (2013) and Monteiro (2013) who argue that winners win most defensive rebounds, after which they attacks more primary fast break and organized attacks (set plays) than the losers, we assume that this fact could affect the difference between successful and unsuccessful teams. Unsuccessful teams comparing to successful teams had better performance only in offensive rebounding percentage (+ 0.2). Tsamourtzis and Athanasiou (2004) suggests that an excellent team goal should be 30 % of offensive rebounding situations, and 80 % of defensive rebounding situations. If we compare the results of teams with these statement, we see that successful teams and also unsuccessful teams almost reached these levels (Fig. 1). TReb [n] Dreb [n] Oreb [n] DReb% [%] OReb% [%] x̅ ± SD x̅ ± SD x̅ ± SD x̅ ± SD x̅ ± SD Teams (min–max) (min–max) (min–max) (min–max) (min–max) 37.9 ± 6 27.6 ± 4.9 10.3 ± 3.6 72.9 ± 8.1 27.1 ± 8.1 Successful teams (27 - 53) (16 - 44) (3-19) (54.8 - 89.7) (10.3 - 45.2) 34.6 ± 6.6 25.2 ± 5.4 9.5 ± 4.3 72.7 ± 11.5 27.3 ± 11.5 Unsuccessful teams (21 - 53) (14 - 42) (0 - 17) (50.8 - 100) (0 - 50) 36.5 ± 6.4 26.6 ± 5.3 9.9 ± 3.9 72.8 ± 9.6 27.2 ± 9.6 Σ (21 - 53) (14 - 44) (0 - 19) (50 - 100) (0 - 50)

Fig.1 Statistics of successful and unsuccessful teams in rebounding parameters

TReb – Total Rebounds, OReb – Ofensive rebounds, DReb - Defensive rebounds, DReb% - Defensive Rebounding Percentage, OReb% - Ofensive Rebounding Percentage

Fig. 2 Teams defensive and ofensive rebounding percentage

CONCLUSION

The assumptions that successful teams have significantly higher defensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams and have significantly higher offensive rebounding percentage than unsuccessful teams in Euroleague women were not confirmed (p > 0.05). We assume that the success of teams, qualification to the second round, was depended on other performance indicators as effective field goal percentage or offensive and defensive rate. Based on our findings, we concluded that teams on that basketball level are so experienced that they realize the importance of rebounds in game and emphasize the execution of this action. Moreover, the high level of tactical and technical preparedness prevent the opponents to gain a significant advantage in defensive or offensive rebounding in a game.

References

CSATALJAY, G. et al., 2012. Performance differences between winning and losing basketball teams during close, balanced and unbalanced quarters. Journal of human sport & exercise. Vol. 7, pp. 356 – 364. FIBAEUROPE. European international basketball federation. [citované 16.02.2015]. Dostupné z . GARCÍA, J. et al., 2013. Identifying basketball performance indicators in regular season and playoff games. In: Journal of Human Kinetics [online] March, 2013, Vol. 36, pp.

163 ‐ 170. [citované 16.02.2015]. Dostupné z . GÓMEZ, MA. et al., 2008. Gamere lated statistics that discriminated winning and losing teams from Spanish men’s professional basketball teams. Coll Antropol. Vol. 32, pp. 451 -456. KUBATKO, J. et al., 2007. A Starting Point For Analyzing Basketball Statistics. Journal of Quantitative Analysis in Sports. Vol. 3. pp.1 – 24.

MONTEIRO, I. et al., 2013. Comparative study of the tactical indicators that characterize the fast break in male and female under 16 basketball teams. In: Revista de Psichologia de deporte [online] March, 2013, Vol. 22, pp. 239 – 244. [citované 16.02.2015]. Dostupné z . ISSN: 1132-239X. OLIVER D. 2004. Basketball on paper – Rules and tools for performance analysis. Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Inc. ISBN – 1-57488-687-8.

RIBAS, R. L. et al., 2011. Analysis of number of players involved in rebound situations in euroleague basketball games. In: The Open Sports Sciences Journal [online] September, 2011, Vol. 10, pp. 10 – 13. [citované. 16.02.2015]. Dostupné z .

TRNINIĆ, S. et al., 2002. Differences between winning and defeated top quality basketball teams in final tournaments of European club championship. Coll Antropol. Vol. 26. pp. 521 ‐ 531. TSAMOURTZIS, E. and N. ATHANASIOU, 2004. Registration of rebound possession zones in basketball. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport. Vol. 4, pp. 34 - 39.

ROZDIELY V DOSKAKOVANÍ MEDZI ÚSPEŠNÝMI A NEÚSPEŠNÝMI DRUŽSTVAMI VO VRCHOLOVOM ŽENSKOM BASKETBALE

Mgr. Richard KUCSA

Katedra športových hier, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. PaedDr. Peter Mačura, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Basketbalové štúdie poukazujú na fakt, že doskakovanie patrí k najvýznamnejším faktorom oddeľujúcim víťazné družstvá od porazených. Cieľom tejto štúdie bolo zistiť rozdiely medzi úspešnými a neúspešnými družstvami v Eurolige žien v percente útočného doskakovania a percente obranného doskakovania. Analyzovaných bolo 42 zápasov zo sezóny 2014/2015 v súťaži Euroligy žien. V pozorovaných zápasoch bolo celkovo 3069 doskokov, obranných (n = 2231) a útočných (n = 838). Predpokladali sme, že úspešné družstvá majú štatisticky výrazne vyššie percento útočného a obranného doskakovania oproti neúspešným družstvám. Úspešné družstvá dosiahli pri porovnaní priemerných doskokov na zápas viac útočných (n = 10,3 ± 3,6) aj obranných (n = 27,6 ± 4,9) doskokov oproti neúspešným družstvám (n = 9,5 ± 4,3 a n = 25,2 ± 5,4). Porovnanie percenta útočného a obranného doskakovania medzi úspešnými (27,1 ± 8,1% a 72,9 ± 8,1%) a neúspešnými (27,3 ± 11,5% a 72,7 ± 11,5%) družstvami nepreukázalo štatisticky významný rozdiel (t = 0,113; p > 0,05). Predpoklady, že úspešné družstvá majú významne vyššie percento útočného a obranného doskakovania než neúspešné družstvá v Eurolige žien, sa nepotvrdili. Na základe našich zistení sme dospeli k záveru, že družstvá na tejto basketbalovej výkonnostnej úrovni sú tak skúsené, že si uvedomujú dôležitosť doskakovania v zápase a kladú dôraz na vykonávanie tejto hernej činnosti. Domnievame sa, že úspešnosť družstva, kvalifikácia do druhého kola Euroligy žien, bola závislá od iných ukazovateľov hernej výkonnosti, ako je efektivita streľby alebo účinnosť obranných a útočných taktických variant družstva.

Kľúčové slová: basketbal, doskakovanie, Euroliga žien

PEER ASSESSMENT IN SCHOOL BASKETBALL

Gabriela OLOSOVÁ

Department of Sport Games, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: doc. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, PhD.

ABSTRACT

Assessment in Physical Education (PE) is an important part of teaching-learning process and pupils should be engaged to it due to its motivational and educational effects. The aim of the study was to verify pupils’ ability to assess themselves and their peers in basketball. 93 pupils and a PE teacher (examiner) participated in the study during PE lessons for 8 weeks. An anonymous questionnaire and a Tally system of Game Performance Assessment Instrument were used to collect the data. For statistical analysis Kendall‘s coefficient of concordance and Spearman’s correlation coefficient were applied. Results showed that a concordance of game performance among pupils was significant and it ranged from moderate to strong. The correlation of game performance between the teacher and pupils was significant and it ranged from moderate to very strong. Furthermore, the correlation between teacher’s order and the calculated game performance from his tally assessment was significant only in 1 class of total 8. On the other hand the correlation between teacher’s order and the calculated game involvement was significant in 6 classes of 8. According to our results we suggest involving pupils in formative peer assessment. Additionally, we suggest using verbal assessment scales rather than the Tally system at schools.

Key words: basketball, peer assessment, Physical Education

1 INTRODUCTION

There appears to be agreement among researchers in sport pedagogy as to the importance of authentic assessment in the teaching-learning process of team sports (Gréhaigne et al. 2005). If assessment is to be truly integrated with the teaching-learning process, an active participation of pupils in assessment should be a must (Wiggins 1993). Pupils can assess themselves (self-assessment or reporting), assess each other (peer assessment) or assess as a group (group problem solving). Peer assessment adds value because pupils may accept feedback from one another that they might not take seriously from their teacher (Mitchell et al. 2006). Moreover, when pupils do a peer assessment in sport games they get a better understanding of the game (Brown and Hopper 2006; Macphail et al. 2008). Pupils can attain a specific learning goal only if they understand that goal and can assess what they need to do to reach it (Black et al. 2004).

2 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to verify pupils’ ability to do a peer assessment of game performance in basketball.

3 METHODS

Participants 5 classes of 6th graders (n = 54) and 3 classes of 5th graders (n = 39) from 3 primary schools participated in the study:

• grades 6: class A (n = 9), class B (n = 10), class C (n = 12), class D (n = 10), class E (n = 13), • grades 5: class F (n = 15), class G (n = 14), class H (n = 10).

All the classes were learning basketball in Physical Education lessons for 8 weeks. 93 pupils participated in basketball classes. Consequently 91 of them filled in a questionnaire and 83 of them played 3-3 basketball on a half court. To increase a validity of the experiment all of the classes were led by the same teacher (examiner) during the intervention.

Procedure An anonymous questionnaire was used to collect the data after the intervention. The questionnaire contained names of all the pupils in the class besides basketball players who attended a basketball club. Each pupil was supposed to put names on the list in order of pupils’ game performance in basketball, including himself. Pupils did not have any particular criteria to make an order, they decided according to their opinions how the basketball player looks like. Best basketball player got number 1, second best got number 2 etc. The teacher also made the order of pupils by filling in the same questionnaires after the intervention.

After the intervention, the Tally system of Game Performance Assessment Instrument (Mitchell et al. 2006) was used to evaluate pupils’ game performance in 3-3 basketball on the half court through a video record. The assessment was made by the same teacher who ran the intervention and made the order of pupils mentioned above. Skill execution and decision-making with the ball were assessed components. Decision-making was assessed like appropriate or inappropriate and pupils had 3 options to choose from: shoot, pass or dribble. Execution of game skills (shooting, dribbling, passing) was assessed like efficient 63

or inefficient. Always when the pupil with the ball made a decision he executed it consequently therefore the number of made decisions equals the number of executed skills. Following indicators of pupils’ performance in basketball were calculated:

Game involvement (GI), [n] = number of efficient skill executions + number of inefficient skill executions. Since the game time of the pupils differed, the game involvement per minute (GI/min), [n/min] was calculated.

Decision-making index (DMI), [%] = number of appropriate decisions made / (number of appropriate decisions made + number of inappropriate decisions made) * 100.

Skill execution index (SEI), [%] = number of efficient skill executions / (number of efficient skill executions + number of inefficient skill executions) * 100

Game performance (GP), [%] = (DMI + SEI shoot + SEI pass + SEI dribble) / 4

For the purpose of the study we only worked with GI/min and GP later.

Statistical analysis The obtained data were processed by Kendall‘s coefficient of concordance (W) to calculate the concordance among pupils. Spearman’s correlation coefficient (R) was used to calculate the agreement between the teacher’s and pupils’ assessment and it was also used to calculate the agreement between teacher’s, GP and GI/min. IBM SPSS statistics, v. 17. Results were considered as significant when p < 0.05. Magnitude of the correlation was interpreted according to Chráska (2007) as:

• very strong when 1.00 > R ≥ 0.90, • strong when 0.90 > R ≥ 0.70, • moderate when 0.70 > R ≥ 0.40.

Similar interpretation of the correlation magnitude was used for W.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The concordance of game performance assessment among pupils ranged from moderate to strong in every class (p < 0.01), (Tab. 1). Therefore there can be stated that pupils’ ability to assess themselves and their peers in playing basketball is not random but very good on the contrary.

Tab. 1 Concordance of game performance assessment among pupils Class W

Class A 0.695**

Class B 0.709**

6 Class C 0.773**

Graders Class D 0.738** Class E 0.489**

Class F 0.736**

5 Class G 0.583**

graders Class H 0.871** Key: ** p < 0.01

The correlation between the teacher’s and pupils’ assessment was significant in 76 cases (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01) however it was not significant in 15 cases. More accurate, the correlation between the teacher and pupils was very strong in 15 cases, strong in 45 cases and moderate in 16 cases (Tab. 2 – 9). According to the results we could say that pupils’ opinion of game performance in basketball is similar to the teacher’s one. It seems that they both most certainly used similar criteria to assess the game performance. Therefore along with WigginS (2003) we suggest that pupils can and should be involved in the assessment in sport games. Additionally, we agree with Mitchell et al. (2006) that the teacher should hold his pupils accountable by taking time to briefly discuss pupils’ results and their meaning because that indicates the importance he places on the assessment process.

Tab. 2 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class A

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6

Teacher 0.633 0.900** 0.483 0.867** 0.950** 0.817** Key for Tab. 2 – 9: P – pupil, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

Tab. 3 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class B

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6

Teacher 0.661* 0.842** 0.479 0.891** 0.685* 0.687* P 7 P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11

Teacher 0.891** 0.588 0.806** 0.827** 0.539

Tab. 4 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class C

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7

Teacher 0.874** 0.937** 0.888** 0.869** 0.732** 0.720** 0.706* P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11 P 12 P 13

Teacher 0.706* 0.762** 0.902** 0.909** 0.825** 0.944**

Tab. 5 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class D P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7

Teacher 0.952** 0.455 0.818** 0.867** 0.879** 0.927** 0.681* P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11 P 12 P 13

Teacher 0 .697* 0.806** 0.648* 0.903** 0.624 0.867**

Tab. 6 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class E P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6

Teacher -0.033 0.055 0.214 0.676* -0.313 0.879** P 7 P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11

Teacher 0.830** 0.775** 0.929** 0.538 0.641*

Tab. 7 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class F P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7

Teacher 0.657** 0.750** 0.821** 0.794** 0.850** 0.694** 0.941** P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11 P 12 P 13 P 14

Teacher 0.855** 0.784** 0.873** 0.944** 0.841** 0.762** 0.846**

Tab. 8 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class G P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6

Teacher 0.582* 0.666** 0.209 0.767** 0.591* 0.679** P 7 P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11 P 12

Teacher 0.829** 0.947** 0.886** 0.692** 0.451 0.380

Tab. 9 Correlations of game performance assessment between teacher and pupils in class H P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6

Teacher 0.830** 0.891** 0.782** 0.867** 0.903** 0.891** P 7 P 8 P 9 P 10 P 11

Teacher 0.733* 0.939** 0.794** 0.806** 0.636*

The correlation between the teacher’s order and the calculated GP from his tally assessment was significant only in class F (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the correlation between teacher’s order and the calculated GI/min was significant in 6 classes (p < 0.05 or

p < 0.01), (Tab. 10). According to the results it is obvious that calculated GP obtained by Tally system is very far from teacher’s and pupils’ opinion of how does a good GP looks like. Although the calculated GP is very precise in a match, it does not take into consideration pupils’ GI, movements without the ball and pupils’ effort. It might be the reason why the teacher’s order agrees with calculated GI/min more. For example, in class C the pupil X who was chosen as the best one by the teacher and a majority of pupils did 50 actions whereas the pupil Y who was 11th did 18 actions during 15 min, both. Furthermore, the pupil X made 15 shots (5 efficient) and dribbled 17 times (13 efficient) whereas the pupil Y made only 1 efficient shot and dribbled 1 time efficiently. However the calculated GP of the pupil X was 75 % and GP of the pupil Y was 96%. We can see that sometimes the most precise assessment tool does not necessarily have to be the fairest one for the pupils. Therefore we suggest using Tally System of GPAI only for an individual assessment what means to compare the game performance of one player in 2 or more games. Such assessment can be suitable for the research purposes when each action of the player with the ball must be evaluated precisely. For school settings we certainly suggest applying the individual assessment where the teacher evaluates a development of each pupil individually. To compare pupils’ performance among themselves we suggest using e.g. verbal assessment scales where pupils can be involved as well. We agree with ANTALA (1997) that this kind of pupils’ contribution might have besides educational also motivational effects because pupils do not see the assessment as a privilege of the teacher anymore. Moreover, we agree with VELENSKÝ (2009) that this way pupils who do not exercise in PE for any reason can be actively engaged in the lesson too.

Tab. 10 Correlations of teacher’s order, GP and GI.min-1 Evaluation of the teacher’s order Class Class Class Class Class Class Class Class A B C D E F G H GP 0.357 -0.042 0.145 0.200 0.379 0.626* -0.250 0.503 0.964* 0.879* 0.867* GI/min 0.091 0.600 0.666* 0.601* 0.784** * * * Key for Tab. 10: GP – Game Performance, GI.mintab – Game Involvement.min-1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

CONCLUSION

Our results confirmed that pupils’ ability to assess themselves and their teammates in basketball is very good. It seems that their assessment is very objective and that they do

not involve a friendship in their decisions. Therefore pupils should be engaged to assessment process what can have both educational and motivational effects for them. Moreover we suggest using the individual assessment rather than the normative assessment. But because human beings like competing and comparing themselves to the others, when the normative assessment should be used, we suggest using verbal scales (e.g. 1 – 5 scoring system of GPAI) rather than the Tally system of GPAI. On the other hand, the Tally system is very precise what can be an advantage for research purposes when the individual assessment of each pupil is to be done.

References

ANTALA, B. 1997. Základy teórie hodnotenia. [Basics of assessment theory]. In: B. ANTALA et al. 1997. Hodnotenie v školskej telesnej výchove (základy teórie a praxe). Bratislava, 1997, p. 8-52. ISBN 80-88901-02-2. BLACK, P.C. et al. 2004. Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. In: Phi Delta Kappan 86(1), p. 9-21. BROWN, S. and T. HOPPER. 2006. Can all students in Physical Education get an ‘A’? In Physical and Health Education Journal, spring 2006, p. 14-21. CHRÁSKA, M. 2007. Metody pedagogického výzkumu: Základy kvantitativního výzkumu. [Methods of pedagogical experiment: Basics of quantitative research]. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1369-4. GRÉHAIGNE, J. F. et al. 2005. Teaching and Learning Team Sports and Games. USA: Tailor and Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-94639-5. MACPHAIL, A. et al. 2008. Throwing and Catching as Relational Skills in Game Play: Situated Learning in a Modified Game Unit. In Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2008, vol. 27, p. 100-115. MITCHELL, S. et al. 2006. Teaching sport concepts and skills: A tactical games approach for ages 7 to 18. 2nd ed. USA : Human Kinetics, 2006, 658 p. ISBN 978-1-4504-1122- 6. VELENSKÝ, M. 2009. Didaktika basketbalu. [Basketball didactics]. In: R. PSOTTA, M. VELENSKÝ et al. 2009. Základy didaktiky sportovních her. Praha: Karolinum, 2009, p. 22-39. ISBN 978-80-246-1694-0. WIGGINS, G. P. 1993. Assessing student behaviour: Exploring the purpose and limits of testing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

VZÁJOMNÉ HODNOTENIE ŽIAKOV NA HODINÁCH BASKETBALU

Gabriela OLOSOVÁ

Katedra športových hier Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Hodnotenie je dôležitou súčasťou výchovno-vzdelávacieho procesu na hodinách telesnej a športovej výchovy a vďaka jeho motivačnej a edukačnej funkcii by doňho mali byť aktívne zapájaní aj žiaci. Cieľom našej práce bolo overiť schopnosti žiakov hodnotiť seba a svojich spolužiakov v basketbale. Na výskume sa podieľalo 93 žiakov a učiteľ telesnej a športovej výchovy (examinátor) počas 8-týždňového obdobia. Na získanie údajov bol použitý anonymný dotazník a objektívna metóda hodnotenia herného výkonu GPAI. Na štatistické spracovanie údajov bol použitý Kendallov koeficient zhody a Spearmanov korelačný koeficient. Výsledky ukázali, že pri posudzovaní herného výkonu bola zhoda ako medzi žiakmi navzájom, tak medzi učiteľom a žiakmi štatisticky významná (p < 0,05, resp. p < 0,01). Ďalej sme zistili, že pri hodnotení herného výkonu bola zhoda medzi subjektívnym a objektívnym hodnotením učiteľa významná len v 1 triede z 8 (p < 0,05). Avšak pri hodnotení hernej aktivity bola zhoda medzi subjektívnym a objektívnym hodnotením učiteľa významná v 6 triedach z 8 (p < 0,05, resp. p < 0,01). Na základe dosiahnutých výsledkov odporúčame zahŕňať žiakov do normatívneho hodnotenia. Na hodnotenie herného výkonu žiakov v školách odporúčame využívať radšej verbálne posudzovacie škály ako objektívne metódy hodnotenia herného výkonu typu GPAI. Naopak, keďže metóda GPAI je omnoho presnejšia, odporúčame ju používať pre výskumné účely pri individuálnom hodnotení žiaka s jeho výkonovou históriou.

Kľúčové slová: basketbal, vzájomné hodnotenie, telesná a športová výchova

OSTEOPOROSIS RISK SCORE EVALUATION

Natália SMOLEŇÁKOVÁ

Department of Sport Educology and Sport Humanistic, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PhDr. Jela Labudová, PhD.

ABSTRACT Osteoporosis is a systemic metabolic disease characterized by structure bone disordes and low bone mass. Disorder leads to fragility and increased risk of osteoporotic fracture (KILLINGER, PAYER, 1998). Important in the osteoporosis management is a healthy lifestyle and lifelong physical activity, which increases the bone density level up to 50 % (BARTOŠOVÁ, 2000). The aim of the study was to evaluate the osteoporosis risk score in the population over 50 years. We expected higher risk of osteoporosis in women section and higher manifestation of vices in men section. Using the questionnaire method we summarized answers of 77 respondents. Based on osteoporosis risk score analysis, we identified that 71.7 % of women have slightly increased risk of osteoporosis development. We noticed higher percentage of more than 5 cm body height decrease in women section (13.2 %) compared to men section at level of 2.6 % (Chi = 3.006, p <0.10). Key words: osteoporosis, healthy lifestyle, risk factors, physical activity

1 INTRODUCTION

Osteoporosis is a systemic metabolic disease characterized by reduced bone mass and disruption of the bone microarchitecture. Increased incidence is caused by prolonging human life, improper diets, unhealthy lifestyle as well as other regional and civilizational factors. Estimated prevalention in the population of Caucas is 6 - 7 % and it is significantly increasing. According to epidemiologists the mankind stands on the threshold of a new pandemic osteoporosis. Every second woman and every eighth man in the age group above 50 years suffer during their lifetime at least one osteoporotic fracture (Killinger et al., 2013).

Bones are metabolically active organs. Bone formation and amount of the bones is increasing in the childhood and adolescence. The ”Peak Bone Mass” achieved in the period from 20 to 30 years. Subsequent equilibration between osteoformation and osteoresobtion is maintained in women up to the menopause, when the deficiency of estrogen leads to bone loss of 1 – 3 % per year. Osteoporotic fracture occurs at most in both bones of the

forearm above the wrist called ”Colles fracture”, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae or in the femoral neck. Fractures occurring in elderly polymorbid patients have a serious impact on morbidity, mortality, and quality of life. Fracture is mainly in the elderly cause of secondary complications. More than third of the patients after fracture of femoral neck has permanent restriction of movement and 20 % of them die a year after the accident from various complications. The risk of osteoporotic fracture is comparable to the risk of cardiovascular disease (Killinger et al., 2013). Etiopathogenetically we describe the primary (postmenopausal, senile), secondary, idiopathic and idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis. In general, osteoporosis occurs symptomatic but already the first signs may be obvious complication of the disease. Back pain can cause spontaneous vertebral compression fracture with subsequent decrease in body size and enlargement of thoracic kyphosis, leading to compensatory lordosis in the distal part of the spine with characteristic bulging abdomen. Modification of the life style in the form of risk elimination, increasing physical activity is an important element in the treatment of osteoporosis. By Zvarka (1998) is adequate physical activity along with diet, medicamentosa prevention and therapy, a crucial factor in comprehensive prevention and treatment of osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis is an uninsulated disease in the majority of elderly patients, often in connection with arthritic changes in joints and degenerative changes in the spine (Řehořková, Špičková, Špičková, 2008). Bartošová (2000) states that the decline in upper limb extensor strength and lower limbs force begin in the age of 30. Targeted exercise is used not only to modify the internal structures of bones with reinforcement and reconstruction trabeculae in the direction of greatest pressure and tension but also to protect the overall skeletal integrity to increases bone mass in adult women, in the lumbar part of backbone by 5.9 %, on the forearm by 4.8 % and total bone mass by 12.8 %. Three- year experiment in the group of 200 women aged 51 years who exercised 45 minutes concluded that the decline of minerals in the experimental group was 4 % lower than in the control group. (Bartošová, 2000; Řehořková, Špičková, Špičková, 2008). The general principle appears to favor tension excercise before swish exercise, endurance over speed, prefer bipedal locomotion with submaximal intensity, the adequacy of the content, form, intensity and time (30 - 60 min, maximum 180 min) (Bartošová, 2000). Mixed static - dynamic load can increase bone density by up to 50 %. For patient it is important to understand that practicing in osteoporosis means to exercise regularly and long term,

because the positive effect of physical activity on bone mineral density is lost after ending (Sojáková, Gályová, 2000).

2 AIM, HYPOTHESIS, TASKS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study

The aim of the study was the incidence of osteoporosis prognosis in a selected sample. The study was part of the project VEGA 1/0915/13- Sporting activities as a part of quality of life of people with disabilities,.

2.2 Hypothesis of the study

We assumed higher risk of developing the disease in the sample of women. We assumed a higher percentage of abuse - smoking and drinking alcohol as part of the risk factors in sample of men.

3 METHODS

Participants

Using the questionnaire method was summarized responses from 77 respondents - 50.6 % men and 49.4 % women. 71.4 % of the respondents belong to the group of active workers, retirees group consisted of 21 respondents (28.6 %). Characteristics of the reference group- average age, height, weight and Body Mass Index (BMI) are presented in the table (Tab.1).

Tab.1 Sample characterisics age height mass BMI MEN 58.3 177.9 89.4 28.2 WOMEN 56.5 167.7 72.7 25.9

Procedure and statistical analysis To obtain the data, we used a combination of two questionnaires. Dichotomous questions forecasting increased risk of osteoporosis (Čápová, 2000) was in the group of women added by questionnaire "Osteoporosis risk score" (Gályová, 2000). The obtained data were evaluated in percentage, individually for each sex. In the group of women we have to determine the significance of differences between the most frequent answer using the t-test. For comparison of the results, we used a statistical method Chi-square. The results were evaluated at the level of significance p <0.05 and p <0.01.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of the results reached the following knowledge. The important factors in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis include determining the risk profile of the patient. Analysing of osteoporosis risk score, we came to the finding that 13.2 % of respondents belongs to a group with low risk of osteoporosis, 15.8 % in the group with an increased risk of developing the disease, with the recommendation significant lifestyle changes. Not more than 71.7 % of them belong to the group with a slightly increased risk and therefore the necessity of subsequent dispensing.

The menopause started at the age of 48 - 52 years in 47.4 % of women respondents, at the age of 45 to 47 years in 26.3% (T = 2.138, p < 0.05 ). Before the 45th year the menopause started in 15.8 % of respondents (T = 5.965, p < 0.01). For reasons other than pregnancy missed menstrual cycle for more than a year 10.5 % of the respondents (T = 6.882, p < 0.01). In the group of men had potency problems, loss of libido or other symptoms of low levels of male sex hormones 25.6 %, other respondents negate health problems associated with low levels of sex hormones (Chi = 2.956, p < 0.10). Based on the results of clinical trials is hormone replacement therapy nowadays indicated for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, but only for the purpose of influencing the climacteric syndrome. Positive effect on bone is therefore an additional positive aspect of this therapy (Killinger et al., 2013).

In contrast to the group of men who experienced height loss of more than 5 cm (Fig. 1, question 4) in 2.6 %, in the group of women occurred with a drop to 13.2 % (Chi = 3.006, p < 0.10). The most important anthropometric determinant of bone mineral density is body weight (Ho - Pham, 2014). We appreciate that 63.2 % of women have normal weight, 34.2 % suffers from overweight (T = 2.557, p <0.05 ).

Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake is an absolute prerequisite for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Most substantial step is to start with prevention during childhood. The preferred source of calcium in the first year of life is breast milk of effective and proper nursed mother, in the case of failure initial and ongoing lactation milk fortified with adequate amount of calcium (Kapellerová, 2002). Kovács (2010) as the best source of calcium recommends milk, yogurts and cheese. Vitamin D is given regardless of the manner of nutrition from 3 weeks of age until at least the second year of life, with recommendation of re-administration during adolescence daily in drip form in case of

premature infants at a dose of 800 IU / day (2 drops / day in a spoon of lukewarm milk). Recommended daily intake of vitamin D in adults is 100 IU/day and calcium 1000-1200 mg/day, ideally in the form of normal nutrition. Most respondents (57.9 %) revenue diet rich in calcium, with sufficient intake of milk and milk products since childhood. 26.3 % reported that their adult intake of calcium and milk products has decreased in general significantly (T = 2.559, p <0.05 ). Respondents also commented on the issue of problems of stool and diarrhea incidence (Fig. 1, question 5), whose regular occurrence identified 12.8 % of men and 7.9 % of women. We believe that a possible reason of mentioned difficulties with the stool could from bloating, flatulence and borborigmi as a result of the income of milk products, which may be associated with a decrease in lactase and justify restrictions intake of milk products. If the patient is unable to receive the recommended amount of calcium in the diet caused by lactose intolerance supplementation using calcium preparations is indicated (Killinger et al., 2013).

Elimination of avoidable risk factors - excessive alcohol intake, smoking, low intake of vitamin D and calcium in the diet and hypokinetic way of life is an important element for prevention of the disease (Killinger et al., 2013). We appreciate that in the sample of women, decreased the number of active smokers. In the past smoked actively 39.5 % currently smoke 15.8 % of respondents. 78.9 % of women drink alcohol occasionally, 18.4 % are abstinents (T = 5.347, p <0.05). In the group of men currently smoke 25.6 %, 30.8 % of respondents drink alcohol regularly (Chi = 6.420 p <0.05). As other risk factors respondents reported diabetes mellitus, liver diseases and osteoporosis in the mother anamnesis.

Only 1 respondent in both samples has hip fracture following a small fall or injury in a family history of (Fig. 1, question 1). Hip fracture had only one women respondent in personal history (Fig. 1, question 2). To reduce the incidence of osteoporotic fracture formation contributes according to Killinger et al. (2013) reducing the risk of falls in the form of removal of architectural barriers, choice of suitable shoes, correction of vision, dizziness and removing inappropriate antihypertensive therapy. Corticosteroid as a part of the drug therapyreported 10.5 % women and 10.3 % men (Fig. 1, question 3).

Fig. 1 Osteoporosis Risk Factors in the Group of Men and Women

1-femoral neck fracture in family history 2 - hip fractures in the personal history 3 - corticosteroid therapy 4- a decrease in the amount of body height 5 - problems with stool.

Sport for All is a type of health-enhancing physical activity. Labudová (2011) states that men aged 51 - 64 years considered as the most important motive for participation in sports health improvement. Bendíková (2010) reported that in a sample of 211 elderly women was the primary motive of participation in sporting activity health improvement. Daily participation in regular physical activity appropriate antigravity character (dance, skiing, gymnastics, brisk walking) has a positive impact not only on bone density but also for improving muscle coordination and movement as a crucial element in the prevention of falls. Alarming is that in the group of women most respondents attend sport activities occasionally (34.2 %) and sporadically (28.9 %), moreover those with sedentary job.

CONCLUSION

The prevention and treatment of osteoporosis use dominant regime recommendations, nonpharmacological and pharmacological intervention. Preventive recommendations are essential, particularly for individuals with increased risk of osteoporosis score (Killinger et al., 2013). We appreciate the reduction of the risk factor impact - smoking in a group of women, where the decrease of active smokers was lowered

and decreased amount of oxygen radicals together with the negative oxidation phospholipid cell membranes were suppressed. Disappointing is the fact that regular sports activity attend only 3 of 38 (7.8 %), despite the financial quirements of physical activities recommended as the prevention of osteoporosis. Physical activity is one of the best natural implements to maintain the bone strength. Most of our women respondents (71.7 %) belong to a group with a slightly increased risk of osteoporosis and therefore the necessity to subsequent dispensing. We suggest to reduce the impact of risk factors, increase the participation in sport and physical activity and adequate income of calcium and vitamin D through natural diet or through supplementation with dietary supplements in both groups of respondents.

References

BARTOŠOVÁ, M. (2000). Osteoporóza a jej vzťah k pohybovej aktivite. In: GÁLYOVÁ, I. Osteoporóza a pohybová aktivita. Šport pre všetkých Bulletin č.22. Bratislava: SZRTVŠ, s. 11-19. BENDÍKOVÁ, E. (2010). Význam pohybových aktivít v spôsobe života senioriek. In: Telesná výchova a šport. XX, 4/2010, ISSN 1335-2245. s. 10-15 ČÁPOVÁ, Ľ. (2000). Čo vieme o osteoporóze. In: GÁLYOVÁ, I. Osteoporóza a pohybová aktivita. Šport pre všetkých Bulletin č.22. Bratislava: SZRTVŠ, s. 5-11. GÁLYOVÁ, I. (2000). Osteoporóza a pohybová aktivita. Šport pre všetkých Bulletin č.22. Bratislava: SZRTVŠ. HO PHAM ET AL. Association between lean mass and bone mineral density: a meta analysis. [cit. 25.2.2014] Dostupné na http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24384013 KAPELLEROVÁ, A., ZVOLENSKÝ M. (2002). Výživa. In: KAPELLEROVÁ, Alica a kol. Propedeutika detského lekárstva. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave, Lekárska fakulta, s.53-69. ISBN 80-223-1624-5. KILLINGER, Z., PAYER J., ŠTEŇOVÁ, E. (2013). Metabolické osteopatie. In: KIŇOVÁ, Soňa, HULÍN et al. Interná medicína. Bratislava: ProLitera, s.987-992. ISBN 978-80-970253-9-7. KOVÁCS, L. (2010). Výživa a jej poruchy. In: KOVÁCS, Lászlo a kol. Pediatria. Bratislava: Arete, s. 159-181. ISBN 978-80-970624-0-8. LABUDOVÁ, J. (2011). Motívy športovania dospelých a ich názory na šport pre všetkých. In: Telesná výchova a šport, Ročník XXI, 1/2011, s. 11-16. ISSN 1335-2245. ŘEHOŘÍKOVÁ, P., ŠPIČKOVÁ, M., ŠPIČKOVÁ M. (2008). Odvápnění kostí čili osteoporóza. Praha: Forsapi, s.r.o., 104 s. ISBN 978-80-87250-00-6

SOJÁKOVÁ, M., GÁLYOVÁ I. (2000) Osteo-fit program. In: GÁLYOVÁ, Iveta. Osteoporóza a pohybová aktivita. Šport pre všetkých Bulletin č.22. Bratislava: SZRTVŠ, s. 19-48. ZVARKA, J. (1998) Zásady rehabilitácie pri osteoporóze. In: SPUSTOVÁ, Viera. Osteoporóza. Bratislava: SAP, s. 116-122. ISBN 80 –88908–10-8

HODNOTENIE RIZIKOVÉHO SKÓRE OSTEOPORÓZY

Natália SMOLEŇÁKOVÁ

Katedra športovej edukológie a športovej humanistiky Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. PhDr. Jela Labudová, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Osteoporóza je systémové metabolické ochorenie charakterizované poruchami kostnej štruktúry a nízkou kostnou hmotou. Porucha vedie ku krehkosti a zvýšenému riziku vzniku osteoporotických zlomenín (KILLINGER, PAYER, 1998). Cieľom štúdie bolo hodnotenie rizikového skóre osteoporózy v populácii nad 50 rokov. Predpokladali sme vyššie riziko vzniku osteoporózy v skupine žien a vyššiu mieru výskytu abúz v skupine mužov. Dotazníkovou metódou sme sumarizovali odpovede 77 respondentov. Analýzou rizikového skóre osteoporózy sme zistili, že 71,7 % žien má mierne zvýšené riziko rozvoja osteoporózy. V porovnaní so skupinou žien, u ktorých došlo k poklesu telesnej výšky o viac ako 5 cm (13,2 %) v skupine mužov táto poklesla u 2,6 % (Chi = 3.006, p <0,10).

Kľúčové slová: osteoporóza, zdravý životný štýl, rizikové faktory, pohybová aktivita

RESISTANCE TRAINING IS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL AGAINST ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION-INDUCED REDUCTION OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE IN PROSTATE CANCER PATIENTS

Aurel ZELKO

Department of Track and Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PhDr. Eugen Laczo, PhD.

ABSTRACT The primary aim of study was to evaluate the effects of 16 weeks of resistance training on the physical capacities of newly diagnosed and long-term treated prostate cancer patients, treated with androgen deprivation therapy. For this purpose we compared physical performances between the groups of newly diagnosed patients (from 0 up to 4 weeks on androgen deprivation) and long-term treated patients (from 24 up to 36 weeks on androgen deprivation). In pre-training diagnostics, we concluded that newly diagnosed patients have higher physical capacities than long-term treated patients, especially the muscular power (EXPN prePmean= 238.82 W, EXPD prePmean= 174.95 W; p ≤ 0.05). Resistance training caused statistically significant increase in the muscular power only in the long-term treated patients (prePmean= 174.95 W, postPmean= 230.32 W; p ≤ 0.05; prePmax= 478.78 W, postPmax= 627.74 W; p ≤ 0.05). Newly-diagnosed patients protected their levels of muscular power (prePmean= 238.82 W, postPmean= 236.60 W; p = n.s.; prePmax= 686.68 W, postPmax= 725.30 W; p = n.s.). Based on these comparisons, we concluded that the resistance training is an effective tool against androgen deprivation- induced reduction of physical performance in both groups, but with different way of action. In newly diagnosed patients resistance training has dominantly protected the level of patient’s physical capacities; in contrast, in long-term treated patients resistance training has restored levels of patient’s physical capacities. The article presents partial results of research project APVV-0518-12.

Key words: strength training, physical performance, oncology patient

1 INTRODUCTION

Prostate cancer is significant public health issue worldwide. Approximately 350.000 newly diagnosed patients and 70.000 prostate cancer dies were reported in the European Union and three million European men are living with prostate cancer (White, 2011). Androgen deprivation therapy is the cornerstone of prostate cancer systematic therapy. Generally confirmed adverse effects of androgen deprivation include decrease in bone mineral density, muscle mass, metabolic changes and increase prevalence of anemia

and fatigue (Cheung et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2014). Consequently, the quality of life of patients is negatively impacted. Exercise interventions shown significant effectiveness in management of selected side effects (Parry et al., 2014; Winters-Stone, 2014; Cormie et al., 2014). However, different methodology of studies focused on adverse effects and exercise benefits demonstrated large variance. Duration of androgen deprivation therapy in patients and different designs of intervention programs in studies are main factors of high results diversity. Therefore, there is a need to describe differences between physiological profile and strength training induced adaptations in groups of prostate cancer patients in initial and late phase of androgen deprivation therapy.

2 AIM, HYPOTHESIS, TASKS OF THE STUDY

2.1 Aim of the study

The primary aim of study was to evaluate the effects of resistance training on the physical capacities of newly diagnosed and long-term treated prostate cancer patients, treated with androgen deprivation therapy.

2.2 Hypothesis of the study

We expect that strength training significantly improve physical capacities of prostate cancer patients, but the direct effects of strength training on newly diagnosed patients and long-treated patients will be different for each group.

2.3 Tasks of the study

1. Recruit research subjects and randomized them into two experimental groups.

2. Realize pre-intervention diagnostics of patients.

3. Realize 14-weeks of intensive strength training program.

4. Realize post-intervention diagnostics of patients.

5. Summarize results and formulate CONCLUSION about the effectiveness of strength training in newly diagnosed and long-term treated cancer patients.

3 METHODS

Participants The trial was conducted at the Saint Cyril and Methodius Hospital, Bratislava, Slovakia. The protocol was approved by the institutional research ethics committee and all participants provided written informed consent. Men were eligible to participate if they had histologically documented prostate cancer, were scheduled to receive androgen deprivation therapy (ADT; from 0 up to 4 weeks or from 24 up to 36 weeks on androgen deprivation), and if the treating oncologist approved participation. Men were excluded if they had severe cardiac disease, uncontrolled hypertension or lived more than 1 hour away. Newly diagnosed patients, from 0 up to 4 weeks on ADT, were placed into newly diagnosed patients group (EXPN; n=7; age: 69.0 ± 8.0 y.; weight: 93.3 ± 19.7 kg; BMI: 30.8 ± 4.4), patients from 24 up to 36 weeks on ADT were assigned into long-term treated patients group (EXPD; n=7; age: 68.0 ± 7.0 y.; weight: 90.4 ± 5.4 kg; BMI: 30.3 ± 2.2).

Procedure The study was a two-armed, parallel group trial that investigate the effects of four months, individualized, progressive, high-intensity strength training (modification of program recommended by Schmitz et al., 2010) on physical capacities of newly diagnosed and long-term treated prostate cancer patients. Consenting participants completed a questionnaire, anthropometric measures, physical fitness tests, blood tests, and a dual energy x-ray absorptiometry scans, for purpose of presentation of partial research results we describe tests and analyzed data related only with physical capacities of patients. Patient-rated outcomes were assessed at baseline, before the intervention (week 0) and at the end of intervention (week 16). Muscular strength was assessed by specific strength tests: A. High pull and B. Bench press. Physical capacity was assessed by specific fitness tests: C. 6 minute walk test and D. Stair walk test. Muscular strength on bench press (BP) test was assessed as the maximum weight that could be lifted six times while maintaining proper form on the horizontal bench press. Muscular strength on high pull (HP) test was assessed by Fitrodyne device (Fitronic corp., Bratislava-Slovakia) that analyzed mean (Pmean) and maximal (Pmax) muscle power during performance of the high pull. Physical capacity was assessed as the maximum walked distance performed during the 6 minute walk test (6WT), or as the best time result performed during the stair walk test (SWT).

Statistical analysis Intra-groups data analyses were performed with use of Wilcoxon T-test, for inter-group data analyses we used Mann-Whitney u-test. Moreover, we used Cohen´s d to analyze size of the experimental effect. Whereas statistical tests of significance (Wilcoxon T-test, Mann-Whitney u-test) tell us the likelihood that experimental results differ from chance expectations, effect-size measurements tell us the relative magnitude of the experimental treatment. Effect sizes are especially important because they allow us to compare the magnitude of experimental treatments from one experiment to another. Although percent improvements can be used to compare experimental treatments to control treatments, such calculations are often difficult to interpret and are almost always impossible to use in fair comparisons across experimental paradigms (Thalheimer - Cook, 2002).

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We conclude that in pre-intervention diagnostics, newly diagnosed patients (Fig. 1) have higher HP muscular power than long-term treated patients (EXPN prePmean= 238.82 W, EXPD prePmean= 174.95 W; p ≤ 0.05; Fig. 1). Resistance training caused statistically significant increase in HP muscular power only in the long-term treated patients (prePmean= 174.95 W, postPmean= 230.32 W; p ≤ 0.05; prePmax= 478.78 W, postPmax= 627.74 W; p ≤ 0.05; Fig. 2). Newly-diagnosed patients protected their levels of HP muscular power (prePmean= 238.82 W, postPmean= 236.60 W; p = n.s.; prePmax= 686.68 W, postPmax= 725.30 W; p = n.s.; Fig. 3). However, only newly-diagnosed patients reached significant improvements in 6WT test (EXPN: pre6WT= 589.86 m, post6WT= 677.14 m, p ≤ 0.05; EXPD: pre6WT= 561.43 m, post6WT= 594.57 m, p = n.s.; Fig. 4). All other data differences analysis did not show any significance of results. Cohen´s d of resistance training effects analyses confirmed results about higher effects in EXPD group (Pmean Cohen´s d= 1.40; Pmax Cohen´s d= 1.15) that in EXPN group (Cohen´s d ≤ 0.20). Effect size analyses of 6WT confirmed high size effect in EXPN (6WT Cohen´s d= 0.85) and low effect in EXPD (Cohen´s d ≤ 0.2). Based on these comparisons, we concluded that the resistance training is an effective tool against androgen deprivation-induced reduction of physical performance in both groups, but with different way of action. In newly diagnosed patients resistance training has dominantly protected the level of patient’s physical capacities; in contrast, in long-term treated patients resistance training has restored levels of patient’s physical capacities.

p = n.s.

p ≤ 0.05

Fig. 1 Power outputs in pull high - pre intervention

p ≤ 0.05

Fig. 2 Power outputs in pull high - EXPD pre/post

p = n.s.

Fig. 3 Power outputs in pull high – EXPN pre/post

p = n.s. p ≤ 0,05

Fig. 4 6 minute walk test – cross group pre/post

CONCLUSION A better knowledge of the functional and musculoskeletal differences between patients in start and prolonged period of ADT administration is needed to optimize the timing and methodology of exercise interventions. Findings from this study provided pioneering work in physical and functional profiling of prostate cancer patients during the exercise interventions. This study provided a potential method that may increase physical function and quality of life and curb the prohibitive costs for the growing prostate cancer patient’s population.

References

CORMIE, P., GALVAO, D.A., ET AL. 2014 Can supervised exercise prevent treatment toxicity in prostate cancer patients initiating androgen deprivation therapy: a randomised controlled trial. BJU International (v tlači). CHEUNG, A.S., ZAJAC, J.D., GROSSMANN, M. 2014. Muscle and bone effects of androgen deprivation therapy: current and emerging therapies. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2014. Vol. 21, pp. 371–94. NGUYEN, P.L., ALIBHAI, S.M., BASARIA, S., D'AMICO, A.V., ET AL. 2014. Adverse Effects of Androgen Deprivation Therapy and Strategies to Mitigate Them. Eur Urol. 2014. Vol. 2, pp. 1–12. PARRY, T.L., HYDOCK, D.S., JENSEN, B.T., ET AL. 2014. Endurance exercise attenuates cardiotoxicity induced by androgen deprivation and doxorubicin. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2014. Vol. 9, pp. 356–62. SCHMITZ, K.H., COURNEYA, K.S., MATTHEWS, C., ET AL. 2010. American college of sports medicine. American College of Sports Medicine roundtable on exercise guidelines for cancer survivors. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010. Vol. 42, pp. 1409–26. THALHEIMER, W., SAMANTHA, C. 2002. How to calculate effect sizes from published research: A simplified methodology. In: A Work-Learning Research Publication. 2002. pp. 2. WHITE A. The state of men´s health in Europe – Extended report, 2011. In: Center for Men´s Health, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK. 2011. pp. 239. ISBN: 978- 92-79-20169-1. WINTERS-STONEM, K.M., DOBEK, J.C., BENNETT, J.A., MADDALOZZO, G.F. 2014. Skeletal response to resistance and impact training in prostate cancer survivors. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014. Vol. 46, pp. 1482–8.

SILOVÝ TRÉNING JE ÚČINNÝM PROSTRIEDKOM PRI POTLÁČANÍ ZNIŽOVANIA POHYBOVEJ VÝKONNOSTI V SKUPINÁCH ONKOLOGICKÝCH PACIENTOV S KARCINÓMOM PROSTATY

Aurel ZELKO

Katedra atletiky Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. PhDr. Eugen Laczo, PhD.

ABSTRAKT V štúdií sme sa snažili preukázať vplyv šestnásť týždňového silového programu na úroveň pohybovej výkonnosti onkologických pacientov s karcinómom prostaty. Tento zámer sme sa pokúsili naplniť porovnaním pohybovej výkonnosti medzi skupinou novodiagnostikovaných pacientov, ktorým je podávaná androgénna deprivačná terapia v dĺžke 0-4 týždňov a dlhodobo liečených pacientov, ktorým bola podávaná androgénna deprivačná terapia v dĺžke 24-36 týždňov. Vo vstupných meraniach sme v skupine novodiagnostikovaných pacientov preukázali štatisticky vyššiu úroveň silového výkonu v komplexnom motorickom teste – výťah bremena cez spodnú kladku k brade z drepu (EXPN prePmean= 238,82 W, EXPD prePmean= 174,95 W; p≤0,05) ako v skupine dlhodobo liečených pacientov, čo poukazuje na významný vplyv androgénovej deprivácie na kvality pohybovej výkonnosti. Vplyvom špecializovaného silového programu sme dosiahli štatisticky významné zlepšenie priemerného silového výkonu (prePmean= 174,95 W, postPmean= 230,32 W; p≤0,05) aj maximálneho silového výkonu (prePmax= 478,78 W, postPmax= 627,74 W; p≤0,05) v skupine dlhodobo liečených pacientov, kým v skupine novodiagnostikovaných pacientov nedošlo k žiadnej významnej štatistickej či absolútnej zmene v sledovaných parametroch (prePmean= 238,82 W, postPmean= 236,60 W; p=n.s.; prePmax= 686,68 W, postPmax= 725,30 W; p=n.s.). Túto významnú odlišnosť adaptácie medzi skupiny môžeme vysvetliť tak, že v prípade dlhodobo liečených pacientov pôsobil silový program ako faktor obnovy pohybovej výkonnosti, kým v prípade novodiagnostikovaných pacientov pôsobil ako faktor prevencie a zmierňovania vedľajších účinkov androgénovej deprivačnej terapie na pohybový aparát. Štúdia je čiastkovým výstupom výsledkov výskumného projektu APVV-0518-12. Kľúčové slová: silový program, pohybová výkonnosť, onkologický pacient This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract No. APVV-0518-12.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GAME PERFORMANCE AND SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE IN TEACHING FRISBEE ULTIMATE BY DIFFERENT MODELS IN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS

Zuzana ŽUFFOVÁ

Department of Sports Games, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: doc. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, PhD.

ABSTRACT The aim of the study is to determine relationship between game performance and special knowledge in teaching frisbee ultimate by different teaching models in different age groups. 6 groups of female students took part in the experiment: experimental groups 1 – 3 (mean age 11.6, 13.8 and 15.8 years), and control groups 1 – 3 (mean age = 11.7, 13.8 and 15.8 years). Experimental groups was taught by TGfU and control groups by the traditional model based on technical drill. Game performance was evaluated by the method based on GPAI from video record. To verify special knowledge a knowledge test which consisted of questions related to the rules and tactics of frisbee ultimate was used. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to assess the relation between game performance and special knowledge. The level of statistical significance was set at 5 %. and 1 % Experimental groups showed closer relationship between game performance and special knowledge than control groups, as well as older-age categories than the younger ones regardless their participation to the group. In the youngest experimental group significant relationship between game performance and knowledge of rules was found (p < 0.05). In the middle group relationship between game performance and both tactical and total knowledge and in the oldest group between game performance and all components of knowledge test was found significant (p < 0.05, resp. p < 0.01). Among control groups only the oldest one showed significant relations between game performance and all components of the knowledge test (p < 0.05).

Key words: frisbee ultimate, teaching models, age, game performance, special knowledge

1 INTRODUCTION Tests of special knowledge have been used in physical education (PE) rarely. Common opinion among unprofessional community is displayed as „There is no possible way to write a test from PE“. The reaction of students from other faculties is mostly the same, e.g. „How can you write a test from basketball, football, etc.“, „What questions are in such tests?“. In our study we try to find out whether there is a relation between game performance and special knowledge. Whether there is transfer between game experience and special knowledge.

In some studies can be found a correlation of decision-making and game performance according to age and specific experience, off-the-ball tactical knowledge and off-the-ball tactical performance, game performance and academic ability. Araújo et al. (2012) found out in their study that adult teams and more experienced players present more goal concepts, on the other hand there was no relationship between game performance and decision making according to age group and experience. Auld (2006) verified, if there was a relationship between off-the-ball knowledge and off-the-ball performance. The results showed that correlation between off-the- ball knowledge and performance did not apply to experience. Dexter (1999) confirmed relationship between game performance and academic ability, and relationship between game performance and gender.

The mentioned area has been little explored in PE. For this reason we are trying to expand the knowledge regarding the different teaching models and the age of pupils.

2 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to find out, if there was a relationship between game performance and special knowledge in teaching frisbee ultimate by different teaching models and in different age groups of female pupils.

3 METHODS

Participants

The experiment was performed with the female pupils of 3 age groups of grammar school, i.e.: EG 1 (n = 8, mean age = 11.6), experimental group 2 (n = 11, mean age = 13.8), experimental group 3 (n = 12, mean age = 15.8), control group 1 (n = 10, mean age = 11.7), control group 2 (n = 9, mean age = 13.8), control group 3 (n = 9, mean age = 15.8). Experimental groups were taught by TGfU and control groups by traditional model based on technique drills. The experiment was carried out at 12 PE lessons in each class.

Procedure Game performance assessment was performed by Gpai (Game Performance Assessment Instrument) according to Žuffová, Zapletalová (2014). Six matches with playing time of each player was 20 minutes were analyzed. The ability of decision making and the game skill execution (throwing and catching the disc) were evaluated.

1. Decision making: who to pass, where in the final zone to pass

Assessment: suitable – a pass to a free team-mate, resp. the team-mate who cooperates actively – releases and offers himself for the pass unsuitable – a pass to an occupied team-mate who is being closely defended and who is not releasing for the pass

2. Skill execution: pass, final pass and disc catching Pass Assessment: successful – a processable pass directed to the area of the trunk or the head, it is possible to catch it easily; it is assessed as successful even if it is not caught unsuccessful - an unprocessable pass directed either high or low, out of the area of the trunk; it is assessed as unsuccessful even if it is caught Final pass Assessment: successful – caught pass in the final zone unsuccessful – not caught pass, caught or struck to the ground by the defender Disc catching Assessment: successful – catching of the disc, possibility to continue in the offence unsuccessful – the player touched the disc, but he managed it badly and he/she did not catch the disc or dropped it, the players cannot continue in their offence, they are becoming defenders

Knowledge level was checked by written test which consisting of 8 questions; 4 of them were related to the game rules and 4 to tactical knowledge.

Statistical analysis

Spearman's correlation coefficient was used for statistical processing of data at the 5 % and 1 % significance level.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the youngest experimental class (EG1) only the relationship between game performance (GP) and knowledge of rules (DK) was found significant (p < 0.05). According to Chráska (2007) we can consider this relationship as moderate. A rather high negative correlation was found between game performance and procedural (tactical) knowledge (PK). The relationship between game performance and total knowledge (TK)

was very low, probably influenced by negative relationship between game performance and tactical knowledge (Tab. 1). In elder experimental class (EG2) was the dependence between game performance and the rule knowledge moderate. On the other hand there was found a statistically significant relationship between game performance and tactical knowledge and between game performance and total knowledge (p < 0.05). These relations could be considered as medium to strong (Tab. 1). In the oldest experimental class (EG3) there were all relationships (GP - DK, GP - PK, GP – TK) statistically significant (p < 0.01). All relations could be considered as strong (Tab. 1).

Tab. 1 Correlation between game performance and special knowledge in experimental groups

Declarative Procedural Total knowledge knowledge knowledge (rules) (tactics) EG 1 0.67* -0.56 0.13 11.6 years EG 2 0.52 0.71* 0.65* 13.8 years EG 3 0.75** 0.71** 0.77** 15.8 years Key to Tab. 1 EG - experimental group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

The results in younger control classes with average age of 11.7 and 13.8 years (CG1 and CG2) showed a non significant relationship between game performance and special knowledge. The relationships are low to moderate. In the class of 13.8 young girls there was practically no correlation between game performance and special knowledge. On the other hand in the class of oldest girls (CG3) there were all relationships (GP - DK, GP - PK, GP - TK) statistically significant (p < 0.05), and these relations could be considered as medium to strong (Tab. 2).

Tab. 2 Correlation between game performance and special knowledge in control groups

Declarative Procedural Total knowledge knowledge knowledge (rules) (tactics) CG 1 0.31 0.41 0.17 11.7 years CG 2 -0.07 0.16 -0.14 13.8 years CG 3 0.61* 0.69* 0.74* 15.8 years Key to Tab. 2 CG - control group, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

The results showed that the relationship between game performance and special knowledge can be affected by used teaching model. The relationship was stronger in classes taught by TGfU, and many cases also statistically significant. This model pays more attention to tactical performance than to technique of game skills, and therefore the tactical experience from game could be better transferred to theoretical knowledge, and probably also vice versa. In the groups taught by traditional model that prefers training of game skills to the game itself the younger students were not able to find relation between the game itself and the questions in the test. They were not able to reflect the obtained game performance and game experience into the knowledge test, and on the other hand their acting in the game was probably more random than purposeful. Therefore PE teachers should develop students´ special knowledge all the teaching time. One possibility how to do that is the use of game based teaching models.

The results show also an age-related relationship between game performance and special knowledge. In the youngest groups no relation between game performance and special knowledge, above all the tactical knowledge, was found. The youngest girls were not able to transfer achieved game experience to knowledge test, and vice versa. On the other hand, the oldest showed a strong relationship between game performance and results of knowledge test girls regardless the teaching model. It seems that the abstract thinking could be a crucial determinant because it is considerably developed in this age than in 12 or 14 year olds.

CONCLUSION

The aim of the study was to find out the relationship between game performance and special knowledge in teaching the frisbee ultimate by different teaching models in different age groups. The results confirmed a certain relationship, from two points of view. In relation to usage of teaching model the relationship between game performance and special knowledge was proved most in classes taught by TGfU, in relation to the age in the eldest group categories.

Integration of knowledge tests is in our geographical area still more exception than the rule. Based on our results we would recommend to PE teachers to use knowledge tests like an advisory tool for enhancement of students´ intellectual activity in PE classes. For this reason we think that special knowledge tests should be also part of evaluation in PE.

References

ARÚJO, R. M. F. et al., 2012. Procedural knowledge, decision making and performance in women’s volleyball according to age group and specific experience. In: The Open Sport Science Journal, no 5, pp. 167-173. AULD, R. K., 2006. The relationship between tactical knowledge and tactical performance for varying levels of expertise. Rhode Island. Ph.D. Thesis. Univerzity of Rhode Island and Rhode Island College. DEXTER, T., 1999. Relationship between sport knowledge, sport performance and academic ability: empirical evidence from GCSE Physical Education. General Certificate of Secondary Education. In: Journal of sport science, no 17, pp. 283-295. CHRÁSKA, M., 2007. Metody pedagogického výzkumu: Základy kvantitatívního výzkumu. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1369-4.

ŽUFFOVÁ, Z., L. ZAPLETALOVÁ, 2014. Reliability of Assessment of Game Performance in frisbee ultimate. In: Sport, Stress, Adaptation, Scientific Journal, Extra Issue, pp. 989-992. ISSN 2367 - 458X

VZŤAH MEDZI HERNÝM VÝKONOM A ŠPECIÁLNYMI VEDOMOSŤAMI PRI VYUČOVANÍ FRISBEE ULTIMATE RÔZNYMI VYUČOVACÍMI MODELMI

Zuzana ŽUFFOVÁ

Katedra športových hier, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Cieľom príspevku bolo zistiť, aký vzťah je medzi herným výkonom a špeciálnymi vedomosťami pri vyučovaní frisbee ultimate rôznymi vyučovacími modelmi a v rôznych vekových skupinách. . Experimentu sa zúčastnili dievčatá 6 tried: experimentálne skupiny 1 – 3 (priemerný vek = 11,6; 13,8 a 15,8 rokov) a kontrolné skupiny 1 – 3 (priemerný vek = 11,7; 13,8 a 15,8 rokov). Vyučovanie experimentálnych skupín bolo realizované herným modelom TGfU(Teaching Games for Understanding) a vyučovanie kontrolných skupín tradičným modelom založeným na nácviku techniky.Herný výkon sme hodnotili metódou založenou na GPAI (Game Performance Assessment Instrument) z videozáznamu.Pre overenie špeciálnych vedomostí sme použili vedomostný test, ktorý sa skladal z otázok z pravidiel a taktiky frisbee ultimate. Na vyjadrenie vzťahu medzi herným výkonom a špeciálnymi vedomosťami sme použili Spearmanov korelačný koeficient. Hladinu významnosti sme stanovili na 5 % a 1 %. Experimentálne skupiny preukazujú silnejší vzťah medzi herným výkon a špeciálnymi vedomosťami ako kontrolné skupiny, rovnako vyššie vekové kategórie ako mladšie bez ohľadu na príslušnosť k skupine. V najmladšej experimentálnej skupine bol zistený signifikantný vzťah medzi herným výkonom a pravidlami (p < 0,05). V strednej experimentálnej skupine bol signifikantný vzťah medzi herným výkonom a taktickými a celkovými vedomosťami a v najstaršej skupine medzi herným výkonom a všetkými komponentmi vedomostného testu (p < 0,05 resp. p < 0,01). V kontrolných skupinách iba v najstaršej skupine bol preukázaný signifintný vzťah medzi herným výkonom a komponentmi vedomostného testu (p < 0,05).

Kľúčové slová: frisbee ultimate, modely vyučovania, vek, herný výkon, špeciálne vedomosti

VEDOMOSTI ŽIAKOV ZÁKLADNEJ ŠKOLY O ZDRAVÍ A VÝZNAME POHYBU PRE ZDRAVIE

Flóra BERGENDIOVÁ

Katedra športovej edukológie a športovej humanistiky, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. PhDr. Jela Labudová, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Zdravie je základom plnohodnotného života každého z nás. Cieľom nášho výskumu bolo rozšírenie poznatkov o úrovni vedomostí žiakov základnej školy o zdraví a význame pohybovej činnosti v ich živote. Výskumnou metódou na získavanie údajov bol dotazník. Výskumný súbor pozostával zo 66 žiakov 5.- 6. triedy a 8.- 9. triedy, pričom starší žiaci svoj zdravotný stav pokladali za dobrý len v 46 %, mladší žiaci to hodnotili prevažne za dobrý (76 %). Zistili sme, že 71,4 % starších žiakov vie správne definovať pojem zdravia, kým u mladších žiakov je to 60,5 %. Pre viac, ako polovicu opýtaných mladších žiakov (51,7 %) je zdravie najdôležitejšou hodnotou ľudského života, kým u starších žiakov je to iba 39,6 %. Starší žiaci v 40,0 % športujú pravidelne každý deň, kým mladší žiaci iba v počte 32,0 %. Kľúčové slová: zdravie, starší žiaci, mladší žiaci, pohybový režim

1 ÚVOD Zdravie je telesný a duševný stav, ktorý sa vyznačuje dobrou činnosťou celého organizmu, všetkých funkcií a aktívnymi životnými prejavmi. Je podmienkou dlhého života bez prítomnosti choroby (Uhereková a kol., 2011). Zdravie je pretrvávajúca rovnováha telesných, emocionálnych, sociálnych, intelektových a duševných komponentov človeka, ktoré zabezpečujú šťastie a vysokú kvalitu života (Labudová, 2012). Je to „súhrn vlastností organizmu, ktoré umožňujú vyrovnávať sa s meniacimi vplyvmi vonkajšieho prostredia, vrátane interpersonálneho, bez narušenia fyziologicky dôležitých funkcií“ (Hartl, Hartlová, 2000). Zdravie, ako celkový dobrý stav umožňuje človeku dosahovať optimálnu kvalitu života (Křivohlavý, 2001). Zdravie podľa Svetovej zdravotníckej organizácie je schopnosť viesť „sociálne a ekonomicky produktívny život“. V rámci definovania zdravia sa objavuje koncepcia tzv. interakčného zdravia, ktoré akceptuje zdravie v troch interakčných sústavách (Blahutková, Řehulka, Dvořáková, 2005):

 individuálne zdravie, ktoré tvoria u jednotlivca 4 zložky jeho existencie: telesné zdravie - fyzické zdravie, duševné zdravie - psychické zdravie, sociálne zdravie, osobné zdravie.  komunitné zdravie, ktoré je spojené so zdravím určitej komunity, v ktorej človek žije alebo pracuje,  globálne zdravie, je zdravie jednotlivca, ktoré je spojené so zdravím jednotlivých spoločenstiev, v ktorých jednotlivci žijú alebo pracujú a ktoré je spojené so zdravím celého sveta (Wiegerová, 2002). Pohybová aktivita predstavuje jeden zo základných fenoménov ľudského bytia a podieľa sa na všetkých zložkách modernej spoločnosti. Je jedným zo základných elementov procesu prispievajúceho ku kvalite života a ku zdraviu (Blahutková, Řehulka, Dvořáková, 2005). V súvislosti s otázkou zdravia a duševnej hygieny sa najčastejšie stretávame s problematikou nedostatočnej pohybovej aktivity. Pohybová aktivita má veľký vplyv na zdravie jednotlivca a je označovaná ako základný prvok zdravia. Pohybová činnosť je jedna z najvýznamnejších potrieb človeka, najmä v detskom veku (Mužik, Krejčí, 1997). V aktuálnych štátnych vzdelávacích programoch ISCED 2 vo vzdelávacej oblasti Človek a príroda v rámci vyučovacieho predmetu biológia má nezastupiteľné miesto tematický okruh zdravie a život človeka. Štruktúra učiva umožňuje pochopenie, osvojovanie si zdravého životného štýlu a ochranu pred škodlivými vplyvmi, rozvíjanie poznatky o činnosti ľudského tela, ako celostného systému z hľadiska ochrany zdravia a zdravého životného štýlu. Vo vzdelávacej oblasti Zdravie a pohyb sú vytvorené okrem iného moduly Zdravie a jeho poruchy a Zdravý životný štýl, ktoré cielene upozorňujú na osvojenie si vedomostí o zdraví a jeho vnímanie cez pohybovú činnosť. Toto všetko sú podnety na inovovaný trend výučby so zvýraznením poznatkov k starostlivosti žiaka o svoje zdravie. (http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/2stzs/isced2). Preberaním daného učiva by sa malo prispieť k zlepšeniu vedomostí žiaka o zdraví, k pochopeniu súvislostí zdravia a pohybu a k tvorbe osobného pravidelného pohybového režimu žiaka.

2 CIEĽ, HYPOTÉZY A ÚLOHY PRÁCE 2.1 Cieľ práce Cieľom práce bolo rozšírenie poznatkov o úrovni vedomostí žiakov Základnej školy Smetanov háj v Dunajskej Strede o zdraví a význame pohybovej činnosti v ich živote.

2.2 Hypotézy práce H. Predpokladali sme, že medzi žiakmi staršieho a mladšieho veku nebude existovať štatisticky významný rozdiel : a) v definovaní zdravia, b) v názore na hodnotu zdravia, c) v posúdení hodnoty športu v ich živote a pre zdravie. 2.3 Úlohy práce Ú1. Zistiť aktuálne vedomosti starších a mladších žiakov z hľadiska definovania pojmu zdravie. Ú2. Porovnať názor respondentov na hodnotu zdravia a na negatívne činitele zdravia. Ú3. Zistiť a porovnať názor starších a mladších žiakov na hodnotu športu v ich živote.

3 METODIKA PRÁCE Charakteristika výskumného súboru Výskumný súbor tvorilo 66 žiakov Základnej školy Smetanov háj v Dunajskej Strede. Zo 66 žiakov zapojených do výskumu bolo 55 % chlapcov a 45 % dievčat rôznych sledovaných ročníkov. Na základe jednotlivých ročníkoch sme ich rozdelili na mladších (5. - 6. ročník) a starších žiakov (8. - 9. ročník) (Tab. 1.). Tab. 1 Frekvenčný výskyt a percentuálne zastúpenie žiakov z hľadiska jednotlivých ročníkov pohlavie žiakov počet (n) žiakov podiel (%) žiakov mladší žiaci chlapci 19 29 38 58 (5. a 6. ročník) dievčatá 19 29 starší žiaci chlapci 17 26 28 42 (8. a 9. ročník) dievčatá 11 16 SPOLU 66 66 100 100

Metódy výskumu Hlavnou výskumnou metódou na získavanie údajov o zdraví a o pohybovej činnosti žiakov bola opytovacia metóda dotazníka. Používali sme neštandardizovaný, nami zostavený dotazník, aby sme získali informácie o vybraných osvojených vedomostiach o zdraví a názoru na šport. Dotazník bol anonymný a vyplňovali ho žiaci základnej školy

z jednotlivých ročníkov, ktorú sme vybrali zámerným výberom. Výskumný dotazník pozostával z osobnej anamnézy a 5 uzavretých otázok, súvisiacich s riešenou témou: Čo je zdravie?, Ktoré činitele pôsobia najčastejšie zle na zdravie?, Čo pre teba znamená zdravie?, Čo pre teba znamená šport? Má v súčasnosti v tvojom dennom režime miesto telovýchovná a športová činnosť?. Metódy spracovania a vyhodnocovania výsledkov Dostupné údaje respondentov sme spracovali základnými štatistickými metódami a interpretovali pomocou základných logických metód. Výsledky sme vyjadrili percentuálne a pre lepšiu orientáciu aj pomocou obrázkov a tabuľky. Pri posudzovaní štatistickej významnosti rozdielov medzi jednotlivými premennými vo vybraných skupinách žiakov základnej školy a pri hľadaní súvislosti v jednotlivých ukazovateľov sme aplikovali metódu výpočtu podľa Chí- kvadrát testu.

4 VÝSLEDKY A DISKUSIA

Obr. 1 Definovanie zdravia z pohľadu starších a mladších žiakov ZŠ Legenda: Zdravie: 1. je podmienkou dlhého života 2. je to stav, keď nie som chorý 3. je dobrý telesný a duševný stav 4. vyznačuje sa dobrou činnosťou celého organizmu 5. neviem odpovedať, neviem sa vyjadriť Chi = 5,085 N – nie je štatistická významnosť

Testovanie nulovej hypotézy ukázalo, že neexistuje štatisticky významný rozdiel v jednotlivých odpovediach na požiadavku definovania zdravia. Teda môžeme konštatovať, že nie je rozdiel medzi mladšími a staršími žiakmi v percentuálnom vyjadrení na jednotlivé odpovede čo je zdravie, preto Ha prijímame. Analýza jednotlivých odpovedí však naznačuje (Obr. 1), že iba 71,4 % starších žiakov vie správne definovať pojem zdravia, kým u mladších žiakov je to len 60,5 %. Toto naše konštatovanie je potvrdené skutočnosťou, že správna definícia zdravia bola vlastne obsiahnutá v bodoch 3 a 4 (zdravie je telesný a duševný stav, ktorý sa vyznačuje dobrou činnosťou celého organizmu). Ako sa ukázalo, aj keď sa definícia na vyučovaní preberala, nie všetci žiaci ju majú už osvojenú. Preto odporúčame systematickejšie utváranie potrebných vedomostí nielen na biológii, ale aj na vyučovaní telesnej a športovej výchovy. Ďalej sme zistili, že u mladších žiakov prevládal názor, že zdravie je podmienkou dlhého života, alebo je to stav bez prítomnosti choroby (39,5 %). U starších žiakov uvedené názory mali početnosť po 10, 7 %. Zistili sme (Obr. 2), že pre viac, ako polovicu opýtaných mladších žiakov (51,7 %) je zdravie najdôležitejšou hodnotou ľudského života, kým u starších žiakov je to iba 39,6 %. Výsledky tiež poukázali na to, že obidve skupiny respondentov pokladali zdravie za najcennejšie čo majú, v tom istom percentuálnom zastúpení (41,9 %). Testovaním hypotézy sme zistili, že neexistuje štatisticky významný rozdiel v názore na jednotlivé hodnoty zdravia medzi žiakmi mladšími a staršími a preto hypotézu Hb prijímame. Prekvapujúcim bolo, že mladší žiaci si zdravie vážia vo väčšom počte ako starší žiaci. Možno sa tu prejavuje už laxnejší prístup starších žiakov k zaoberaniu sa o otázke zdravia a uprednostňovania iných životných hodnôt. Dokonca 6,9 % starších žiakov sa nevedelo vyjadriť k hodnote zdravia. Ak k tomu pripočítame anamnestický údaj, že 1/5 respondentov nevedela zhodnotiť svoj momentálny zdravotný stav, že ďalších 34 % žiakov nebolo spokojných so svojím zdravotným stavom, nemôžu takéto výsledky byť uspokojujúcimi pre pedagóga, ani pre žiaka. Znamená to venovať väčšiu pozornosť nielen nadobúdaniu vedomostí o zdraví, ale aj k vykonávaniu činností pre zlepšenie zdravia. Mladší žiaci pri hodnotení negatívnych činiteľov, pôsobiacich zle na ich zdravie uviedli nasledovné činnosti: fajčenie, požívanie alkoholických nápojov a návykových látok. U starších žiakov v tomto hodnotení bolo na prvom mieste fajčenie, na druhom mieste nesprávna výživa a alkohol a na tretom návykové látky a obezita.

Obr. 2 Dôležitosť zdravia z pohľadu starších a mladších žiakov ZŠ Legenda: Zdravie : 1. je to najcennejšie, čo mám 2. nie je pre mňa prioritou 3. sú dôležitejšie životné hodnoty ako zdravie 4. je to najdôležitejšia hodnota ľudského života 5. neviem Chi = 4,282 N – nie je štatistická významnosť

Našou ďalšou úlohou bolo posúdiť, či respondenti športujú a čo pre nich šport znamená. Hodnotenie zastúpenia telovýchovnej a športovej činnosti v dennom režime starších a mladších žiakov nebolo štatisticky významné (Obr. 3). Je ale vidieť, že starší žiaci v 40,0 % športujú pravidelne každý deň, kým mladší žiaci iba v počte 32,0 %. Z výsledkov tiež môžeme vyčítať, že viac ako polovica opýtaných respondentov má iba niekedy v dennom režime zaradenú telovýchovnú a športovú činnosť. Podľa nášho názoru, príčinou tejto skutočnosti môže byť, že dnešné deti trávia veľa času pred televízorom a počítačom, ako aj nemajú možno vhodné a dostatočné podmienky na športovanie.

Obr. 3 Zastúpenie telovýchovnej a športovej činnosti v dennom režime starších a mladších žiakov ZŠ

Analýzou odpovedí na otázku „Čo pre teba znamená šport?“ sme zistili, že existuje rozdiel v jednotlivých hodnotách športu medzi staršími a mladšími žiakmi na 5 % hladine významnosti (Obr. 4) a stanovenú hypotézu Hc môžeme zamietnuť.

Obr. 4 Význam športu z pohľadu starších a mladších žiakov ZŠ Legenda: Šport znamená: 1. upevnenie zdravia 2. zlepšenie výkonu 3. možnosť súťažiť 4. spoločenské vyžitie 5. pohyb v príjemnom prostredí, prírode 6. stratu času 7. vylepšiť si známku z TaŠV 8. nezaujímam sa o šport

Pre mladších žiakov v prvom rade šport slúži na zlepšenie výkonu (32,6 %), na druhom mieste šport pre nich znamená upevnenie zdravia (31,6 %) a na treťom mieste sa 98

radi pohybujú v príjemnom prostredí alebo v prírode. Dôležitá je skutočnosť, že tak ako mladší žiaci aj starší žiaci uviedli v približne rovnakom percentuálnom rozpätí zlepšenie výkonu a upevnenie zdravia (53,7 %).

ZÁVER Na základe dosiahnutých výsledkov nášho výskumu môžeme konštatovať: - 71,4 % starších žiakov vie správne definovať pojem zdravia, kým u mladších žiakov je to 60,5 %. Hypotéza Ha sa potvrdila a nenašli sme rozdiel medzi staršími a mladšími žiakmi vo vyjadrení pojmu zdravie. Odporúčame systematickejšie utváranie potrebných vedomostí nielen na biológii, ale aj na vyučovaní telesnej a športovej výchove. - Pri analýze jednotlivých odpovedí sa ukázalo, že pre viac, ako polovicu opýtaných mladších žiakov (51,7 %) je zdravie najdôležitejšou hodnotou ľudského života, kým u starších žiakov je to iba 39,6 %. Nenašli sme štatisticky významný rozdiel v odpovediach a teda hypotéza Hb sa potvrdila, čo znamenalo, že nie je rozdiel medzi mladšími a staršími žiakmi. - Mladší žiaci v 32 % pravidelne vykonávajú telovýchovnú a športovú činnosť a starší žiaci v 40,0 %. Pre 32,6 % mladších žiakov a pre 27,8 % starších žiakov šport znamená predovšetkým zlepšenie výkonu. Rozdielnosť jednotlivých odpovedí znamenalo nepotvrdenie hypotézy Hc a teda medzi staršími a mladšími žiakmi existuje štatisticky významný rozdiel hodnoty vykonávania športu. Odporúčame už v školskej telesnej výchove vytvárať viac pohybových príležitostí aj s bezprostredným upozorňovaním na zdravie.

Zoznam použitej literatúry BLAHUTKOVÁ, Marie, Evžen ŘEHULKA a Šárka DVOŘÁKOVÁ. Pohyb a duševní zdraví. Brno: Paido, 2005. ISBN 80-7315-108-1. HARTL, Pavel a Helena HARTLOVÁ. Psychologický slovník. Praha: Portál, 2000. ISBN 978-80-7367-569-1. KŘIVOHLAVÝ, Jaro. Psychologie zdraví. Praha: Portál, 2001. ISBN 80-7178-774-4. LABUDOVÁ, Jela. Teória zdravia a podpora zdravia. Bratislava: UK, 2012. ISBN 978- 80-223-3264-4. MUŽÍK, Vladislav a Milada KREJČÍ. Tělesná výchova a zdraví. Olomouc: Nakladatelství HANEX, 1997. ISBN 80-85783-17-7.

Štátny vzdelávací program pre 2. stupeň základnej školy v Slovenskej republike - ISCED 2 - nižšie sekundárne vzdelávanie [online]. [cit. 20-1-2015]. Dostupné na: http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/2stzs/isced2/vzdelavacie_oblasti. UHEREKOVÁ, Mária, et al. Biológia pre 7. ročník základnej školy a 2. ročník gymnázia s osemročným štúdiom. Bratislava: EXPOL PEDAGOGIKA, s.r.o., 2011. ISBN 978-80- 8091-221-5. WIEGEROVÁ, Adriana. Pojmotvorné východiská k vymedzeniu termínu zdravotnej pedagogiky. In: Švec, Š. a kol. Jazyk vied o výchove. Bratislava: Gerlach print, 2002.

KNOWLEDGE OF STUDENTS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL ABOUT HEALTH AND THE IMPORTANCE OF EXERCISE FOR HEALTH

Flóra BERGENDIOVÁ

Department of Sport Educology and Sport Humanities, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PhDr. Jela Labudová, PhD.

ABSTRACT Health is the basis of the fully valuable life of each of us. The main aim of the research was to widen the level of knowledge of primary school students about health and the importance of physical activity in their lives. The main research method for information gathering was unstructured questionnaire. The sample consisted of 66 students who expressed their views. We found out that 71.4 % of older students can correctly define the concept of health, while by younger students it was 60.5 %. For more than half of the younger respondents, it was 51.7 %, was health the most important thing in their lives, while by older students it is only 39.6 %. 40.0 % of older students do sports regularly every day, while just 32.0 % of younger students do. Keywords: health, older students, younger students, daily routine

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FAKTOR KALENDÁRNEHO VEKU PRI VÝBERE HRÁČOV DO MLÁDEŽNÍCKYCH REPREZENTÁCIÍ NA VRCHOLNÉ PODUJATIA VO FUTBALE

Pavol GREGORA, Martin MIKULIČ

Katedra športových hier, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: doc. PaedDr. Pavol Peráček, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Faktoru kalendárneho veku sa vo svojich výskumoch venovalo mnoho zahraničných autorov v rôznych športových odvetviach. V našom výskume sa venujeme faktoru kalendárneho veku vo futbale, ktorý môže zohrávať dôležitú úlohu pri výbere hráčov do mládežníckych reprezentácií. Využitie antropometrických a kognitívnych predispozícii môže v celkovom kontexte výberu hráčov na vrcholné mládežnícke podujatia nielen vo futbale, pôsobiť ako značná výhoda. Cieľom nášho výskumu bolo zistiť a dokázať existenciu faktoru kalendárneho veku (FKV) pri výbere mládežníckych reprezentantov na Majstrovstvách Európy U17 a U19 vo futbale. Predpokladáme, že nami sledované reprezentačné výbery budú tvoriť najmä hráči narodení v prvom štvrťroku kalendárneho roku. Súbor tvorilo 1298 elitných futbalistov vo vekových kategóriách U17 a U19 na 9 Majstrovstvách Európy. Získané údaje sme zaznamenávali do zberných hárkov, ktoré sme následne spracovali pomocou párového t-testu. Vo výskume sme potvrdili existenciu faktoru kalendárneho veku vo všetkých sledovaných súboroch na Majstrovstvách Európy 17-ročných hráčov (p < 0,01) a 19-ročných hráčov (p < 0,01 resp., p < 0,05). Na základe našich výsledkov odporúčame využiť výhody vyplývajúce z faktoru kalendárneho veku pri adresnom výbere hráčov v danej vekovej kategórii na konkrétnu účasť v dlhodobej súťaži klubových družstiev (dnes napríklad Ligy Majstrov juniorov alebo republikové súťaže) resp. v kvalifikácii o postup na Majstrovstvá Európy do 17 alebo do 19 rokov alebo na záverečnom turnaji Majstrovstiev Európy resp. Majstrovstiev sveta v uvedených vekových kategóriách.

Kľúčové slová: faktor kalendárneho veku, futbal, výber talentov, Majstrovstvá Európy

1 ÚVOD Futbal ako kolektívna športová hra je multifaktoriálny šport. O tom, či bude družstvo úspešné môže rozhodnúť každý detail. Komplex herného výkonu obsahuje veľké množstvo činiteľov, podľa ktorých sa kompetentní ľudia rozhodujú o výbere do mládežníckych reprezentačných družstiev vo futbale. Jedným z týchto faktorov, ktorý sa v ostatnej dobe vyskytuje, je aj vplyv kalendárneho veku hráčov na ich výber do mládežníckych klubových elitných družstiev alebo do reprezentačných družstiev. V zahraničnej literatúre je označovaný ako Relative age effect – RAE. Tento faktor sa môže prejaviť ako uprednostňovanie hráčov s vyšším kalendárnym vekom, resp. s 101

dátumom narodenia v prvom štvrťroku kalendárneho roka (január - marec). Dlhé roky si tento jav nikto nevšimol. Až v polovici 80. rokov kanadský psychológ Barnsley upozornil na fenomén relatívneho veku. Barnsley, Barnsleyová a Thompson (1992) zhromaždili štatistické údaje o všetkých hráčoch hokejovej ligy juniorov v Ontáriu. Najviac hráčov sa narodilo v januári, potom februári a potom v marci príslušného kalendárneho roka. Januári takmer 5,5-krát viac ako v novembri. Neskôr Barnsley et al. (1992) rozšírili svoj výskumný zámer aj na iné športy. Jadro tohto efektu vychádza z predpokladu, že hráči narodení v prvom štvrťroku môžu mať značnú výhodu oproti hráčom, ktorí sú narodení v neskorších mesiacoch roka. Potencionálna výhoda sa môže prejavovať vo forme kondičných, morfologických a kognitívnych daností. Tento jav sa však môže negatívne prejaviť vo vyšších vekových kategóriách, kedy somatotyp a vybrané antropometrické ukazovatele už nezohrávajú takú podstatnú úlohu v hernom výkone, čo sa môže neskôr demonštrovať ako zvýšené množstvo nie najvhodnejších hráčov pre profesionálny futbal. Helsen et al. (2005) upozorňujú, že množstvo trénerov pri identifikácii a selekcii talentov v mládeži v nižších vekových kategóriách, si zamieňa ich akceleráciu vo vývoji v danom čase za futbalový talent. Kvantitatívnou a kvalitatívnou analýzou v tejto oblasti sa zaoberalo viacero zahraničných autorov v rôznych športových odvetviach, ako volejbal (Grodin et al., 1984), tenis (Giacomini, 1999), plávanie (Baxter-Jones et al., 1995, Ryan, 1989), hádzaná (Ryan, 1989), americký futbal (Daniel, Janssen, 1987), kriket (Edwards, 1994), basketbal (Saaverda et al., 2014), hokej (Hurley et al., 2001, Wattie et al., 2007) a baseball (Grodin, Koren, 2000). Faktor relatívneho veku pri výbere hráčov vo futbale v mládežníckych vekových kategóriách bol zistený v mnohých krajinách (Jimenéz, Pain, 2008, Barnsley, Thompson, 1992, Cobley, Schorer, Baker, 2008, Augste, Lames, 2011, Barnsley et al., 1992; Baxter-Jones et al., 1995; Vincent, Glamser, 2006; Helsen et al., 2005; Simmons, Paull, 2001). V Belgicku býval hraničný dátum narodenia vo futbale august. Vtedy bola takmer štvrtina hráčov narodená v mesiacoch august september. Potom čo belgická futbalová federácia zmenila dátum na 1. január (ako aj ostatné futbalové federácie na základe dohovoru UEFA), v priebehu niekoľkých rokov nebolo takmer nijakých elitných futbalistov narodených v decembri, ale drvivá väčšina sa narodila v januári (Helsen et. al, 2000). Helsen a Winckel (2005) sa zaoberali problematikou kalendárneho veku v 10 krajinách v Európe, reprezentantov do U15, U16, U17 a U18. Ich výsledky ukázali, že

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hráči narodení v prvom štvrťroku (v prvých troch mesiacoch) kalendárneho roku mali nadmerné zastúpenie v sledovaných družstvách. Mujika, Vaeyens (2009) porovnávali vplyv FKV pri výbere hráčov do družstiev v grassroots družstvách (najnižšia výkonnostná úroveň) a v elitných mládežníckych futbalových akadémiách v Španielsku. Zistili, že miera výskytu FKV je signifikantne vyššia v elitných mládežníckych futbalových akadémiách. Vaeyens, Philippaerts, Malina (2005) sa zamerali na vzťah medzi FKV a počtom odohratých minút poloprofesionálnych a amatérskych hráčov v Belgicku. Výsledky preukázali, že hráči narodení v prvom štvrťroku dostali štatisticky významne viac príležitostí v zápase, ako hráči narodení v ďalších 9 mesiacoch. Augste a Lames (2011) zistili významnú koreláciu medzi FKV a konečným umiestnením futbalových družstiev 17- ročných hráčov v súťaži na vzorke 41 tímoch v Nemecku. Početný výskum, ktorý bol vypracovaný na elitných španielskych futbalistoch sledoval existenciu FKV vo vzťahu k hráčskej funkcii. Výsledky preukázali zníženie výskytu FKV od sezóny 2005-2006 a 2008- 2009 (DEL CAMPO et al, 2010). Naopak vo Francúzsku zisťovali výskyt FKV v mužských profesionálnych súťažiach, kde v záveroch autori nepreukázali výskyt FKV (Delorme, Boiché,, Michel Raspaud, 2010). Hamnvik et al. (2014) vo svojom výskume porovnávali futbalové reprezentácie Nórska, Švédska a Portugalska (U17, U19 a A družstvo), kde predpokladali, že Portugalsko ako vyspelá futbalová krajina, ktorá svojim chápaním futbalu preferuje hráčov technicky samostatných bez mimoriadneho akcentu na somatotyp, bude mať menej hráčov narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch ako škandinávske krajiny. Výsledky nepreukázali štatisticky významné rozdiely medzi vybranými družstvami. FKV neplatí iba v športe, napr. takto forsírovaní študenti (mladí ľudia) mali preukázateľne lepšie výsledky dosiahnuté počas štúdia (Thompson, Barnsley, Dyck, 2007). Najväčší vplyv kalendárneho veku bol zistený na základnej škole resp. strednej škole. Evidentné rozdiely boli zistené vo Veľkej Británii, kde Sykes a VidaL (2009) analyzovali vplyv kalendárneho veku študentov na výsledok z maturitnej skúšky. Faktor kalendárneho veku môže výrazne ovplyvniť výber hráčov do mládežníckych reprezentačných družstiev. Zvyšovaním vekových kategórií sa však význam FKV stráca, pretože všetky antropometrické, kognitívne a fyziologické parametre sa začínajú vyrovnávať s ostatnými požiadavkami (faktormi) herného výkonu.

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2 CIEĽ, HYPOTÉZY A ÚLOHY PRÁCE

2.1 Cieľ práce Cieľom práce je zistiť existenciu fenoménu FKV pri výbere hráčov do mládežníckych futbalových reprezentačných družstiev na Majstrovstvách Európy hráčov do 17 a 19 rokov.

2.2 Hypotézy práce H1: Predpokladáme, že sledované družstvá vo futbale do 17 rokov budú tvoriť štatisticky významne viacej hráči narodení v prvých troch mesiacoch v porovnaní s hráčmi narodenými v posledných štyroch mesiacoch kalendárneho roku na všetkých nami sledovaných turnajoch ME. H2: Predpokladáme, že sledované družstvá vo futbale do 19 rokov budú tvoriť štatisticky významne viacej hráči narodení v prvých troch mesiacoch v porovnaní s hráčmi narodenými v posledných štyroch mesiacoch kalendárneho roku na všetkých nami sledovaných turnajoch ME. H3: Predpokladáme, že veková kategória 17-ročných hráčov (do 17 rokov) bude mať štatisticky významne vyššie zastúpenie hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku ako hráči vekovej kategórie do 19 rokov na všetkých nami sledovaných turnajoch ME.

3 METODIKA PRÁCE Charakteristika výskumného súboru Súbor tvorilo 1298 hráčov reprezentačných výberov, ktorí sa zúčastnili na záverečnom turnaji Majstrovstiev Európy U17 a U19 vo futbale. Analyzovali sme 9 šampionátov ME (ME U17, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 a 2014 a ME U19, 2007, 2009, 2010 a 2014).

Metodika získavania údajov Na získavanie potrebných údajov sme využili oficiálne dokumenty a materiály UEFA z Majstrovstiev Európy U17 a U19. Nadobudnuté údaje sme zapisovali do nami vopred pripravených zberných hárkov. Zberný hárok tvorili 2 časti. V prvej časti sme zaznamenávali dátumy narodenia podľa jednotlivých mesiacov v roku a v druhej časti sme údaje rozdelili na prvý a posledný štvrťrok, ktorý sme rozšírili o mesiac september

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z dôvodu nástupu detí do povinnej školskej dochádzky (definuje ju Zákon č. 245/2008 nazývaný „školský zákon“).

Metodika spracovania a vyhodnocovania výsledkov Pri spracovaní a vyhodnocovaní získaných údajov sme okrem základných logických metód – analýzy, syntézy, induktívnych a deduktívnych postupov – aplikovali aj základné štatistické metódy. Na zistenie, či medzi výsledkami toho istého súboru (U17, U19) sú štatisticky významné rozdiely vo výskyte hráčov narodených v jednotlivých štvrťrokoch sme použili test významnosti dvoch relatívnych hodnôt (Zapletalová, 2010).

4 VÝSLEDKY A DISKUSIA Pri študovaní vedeckej literatúry zaoberajúcou sa touto problematikou sme našli viacero výskumov venujúcou sa faktoru kalendárneho veku v rôznych športových hrách (Grodin et al., 1984, Giacomini, 1999, Baxter-Jones et al., 1995, Ryan, 1989, Daniel, Janssen, 1987, Edwards, 1994, Saaverda et al., 2014, Hurley et al., 2001, Grodin, Koren, 2000). Najviac zastúpené športy vo vedeckých výskumoch boli ľadový hokej (Baker et al., 2009; Barnsley, Thompson, 1988; Cobley et al., 2009; Musch, Grondin, 2001; Simmons, Paull, 2001; Sherar et al., 2007; Lames, 2008) a futbal (Barnsley et al., 1992; Bäumler, 2000; Baxter-Jones, 1995; Brewer et al., 1995; Cobley, 2008; Campo et al., 2010; Helsen et al., 2005, Costa et al, 2012). Typickým znakom všetkých preštudovaných vedeckých prác bol klesajúci priebeh zastúpenia jednotlivých dátumov narodenia v po sebe nasledujúcich mesiacoch v roku, tzn. že ho môžeme považovať za charakteristickú črtu faktoru kalendárneho veku. V našom výskume sme zistili obdobnú klesajúcu tendenciu zastúpenia dátumov narodenia v mesiacoch nasledujúcich po prvých troch mesiacoch v kalendárnom roku (obr. 1). V rozsiahlom výskume Teolda da Costu et al. (2012) sa autori zaoberali štúdiou vplyvu FKV na zaraďovanie hráčov do súpisiek jednotlivých klubov v Brazílii. Išlo o 202951 futbalistov registrovaných v rokoch 1921 – 1996. Zistili že v rokoch 1921 - 1981 sa faktor kalendárneho veku neprejavoval vôbec. Až v 80. rokoch minulého storočia sa početnosť hráčov narodených v prvom kvartály súťažného ročníka, v porovnaní so zvyšnými mesiacmi sledovaných súťažných ročníkov, stala štatisticky významná (p < 0,01). Hlavná príčina FKV, ktorá je charakterizovaná vo výskumoch DELORME a kol. (2009, 2010), je biologická maturácia (zrelosť, dospelosť). Zvýhodňuje hráčov v skorých mesiacoch v roku. Taktiež sme sa stretli aj s výskumami (Giacomini, 1999, Agricola et al., 2013), ktoré

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potvrdili FKV aj v intaktnom športe, v tenise. Vo výskume sme sa najprv zamerali na nižšiu vekovú skupinu, konkrétne na reprezentačné družstvá do 17 rokov, ktoré sa kvalifikovali na nami sledované ME.

ME do 17 rokov

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Početnosť hráčov 21 21 20 20 16

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Obr. 1 Prehľad zastúpenia hráčov s uvedenými mesiacmi narodenia na sledovaných ME.

Priemerne dosiahla početnosť hráčov v prvých troch mesiacoch roka x = 72,4 hráča. Najväčšia štatistická významnosť bola zistená na ME 2009 do 17 rokov v prevahe hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku (p < 0,01). Na ME 2008 bolo zastúpenie hráčov, ktorí sa narodili v prvom štvrťroku 47,2 % (n = 68). Faktor kalendárneho veku sa najviac prejavil pri reprezentácii Srbska, kde 10 hráčov z 18 bolo narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch a len dvaja hráči v posledných štyroch mesiacoch resp., 16 hráčov z 18 (89%) bolo vybraných pre tieto ME s akcentom na mesiac narodenia jednotlivých hráčov. Najväčší vplyv FKV je zrejmý na ME 2009, kedy zo 145 futbalistov, ktorí boli na tento turnaj nominovaní, až 85 hráčov (58,6 %) sa narodilo práve v prvom štvrťroku. Najvýraznejšie sa tento faktor objavuje pri reprezentácii Turecka, kde 72 % hráčov malo dátum narodenia v prvých troch mesiacoch v danom kalendárnom roku. Na ME 2010 sa zo 143 hráčov narodilo 65 hráčov v januári, februári a marci, čo predstavuje 45,5%. Je to zároveň najmenej hráčov narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch s pomedzi všetkých ME. V roku 2011 bola týmto faktorom ovplyvnená futbalová reprezentácia Holandska, ktorá mala na svojej súpiske až ⅔ hráčov (n = 72) narodených v prvom štvrťroku. V roku 2014 sa ME zúčastnilo najviac hráčov (149) v porovnaní s ostatnými nami sledovanými turnajmi. Z nich 48,3% tvorili hráči narodení v prvých troch

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mesiacoch. Je zaujímavé, že zo všetkých hráčov tohto turnaja, len šestnásti futbalisti (11%) sa narodili až po 1. septembri.

ME do 19 rokov

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Obr. 2 Prehľad zastúpenia hráčov s uvedenými mesiacmi narodenia na sledovaných ME.

Na všetkých nami sledovaných turnajoch ME do 19 rokov sme potvrdili najvyšší počet hráčov narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch roka (p < 0,01), okrem ME 2007 (p < 0,05). Priemerne dosiahla početnosť hráčov Priemerne dosiahla početnosť hráčov narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch roka x = 54,8 hráča. Najväčšiu štatistickú významnosť sme zistili na ME 2010 do 19 rokov (p < 0,01). Na ME 2007 do 19 rokov boli nominovaní 48 hráči (33 %) s dátumom narodenia v prvých troch mesiacoch roka, čo predstavuje najmenšie percentuálne zastúpenie hráčov v 1. štvrťroku zo všetkých sledovaných ME. Na týchto ME sme potvrdili štatistický významný rozdiel (p < 0,05 ) v počte hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku roka a hráčov narodených v posledných štyroch mesiacoch roka. Zastúpenie hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku je najnižšie z pomedzi všetkých sledovaných turnajov. V roku 2009 bolo 37,4% hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku roka, čo predstavuje nárast o 7 hráčov (4,5%) oproti ME 2007. Na ME 2010 bolo na súpiskách reprezentačných družstiev 38,4% hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku. Zo získaných výsledkoch sme potvrdili štatistickú významnosť (p < 0,01) medzi hráčmi narodenými v prvom štvrťroku roka a hráčmi narodenými v posledných štyroch mesiacoch kalendárneho roka. Na ME 2014 bolo 41,4 % hráčov narodených v 1. štvrťroku roka. Zistili sme najväčší štatistický významný rozdiel medzi početnosťou hráčov narodených v 1. a 3. sledovanom časovom úseku.

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Na obr. 3 uvádzame početnosť hráčov narodených v jednotlivých mesiacoch roka. Vplyv faktoru kalendárneho veku resp., celkový počet hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku kalendárneho roka pri družstvách na ME do 19 rokov, nie je tak výrazný, ako pri družstvách na ME do 17 rokov. Naše výsledky potvrdzujú aj závery z výskumu Jimenéza a Paina (2008), ktorí dospeli k poznaniu, že s narastajúcim vekom vplyv FKV klesá.

Početnosť hráčov narodených v jednotlivých mesiacoch roka na ME

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200 179 166 164 148 150 121 107 107 101 83 100 88 78 71 Početnosť hráčov Početnosť 72 65 67 81 56 54 59 50 51 42 56 38 44 50 51 31 26 28 36 29 27 25 25 26

jún júl apríl máj január marec február august október september november december U17 U19 Spolu Lineárny (U17) Lineárny (U19) Lineárny (Spolu) Obr. 3 Početnosť hráčov narodených v jednotlivých mesiacoch roka na ME.

Na obr. 4 je uvedené porovnanie vybraných hráčov zaradených do reprezentačných družstiev a narodených v uvedených mesiacoch na ME U17 a U19. Porovnávali sme početnosť hráčov kategórie sedemnásťročných a deväťnásťročných futbalistov narodených v prvých troch mesiacoch. Zistili sme, že hráči, ktorí boli vybraní na Majstrovstvá Európy do 17 rokov je štatisticky významne viac ako hráčov, ktorých vyberali národné reprezentácie do kategórie 19 ročných (U17 > U19, ( p < 0,01 ). Porovnávali sme tiež početnosť hráčov narodených od mesiaca september až po mesiac december. Výsledky preukázali štatistické rozdiely na 5% hladine štatistickéj významnosti (U17 < U19, p < 0,01 ). V celkovom ponímaní to znamená, že s narastajúcim kalendárnym vekom, vplyv FKV hráčov na ich výber do reprezentačných družstiev na významné podujatia ako sú Majstrovstvá Európy klesá. Z predchádzajúcich výskumov vieme, že faktor kalendárneho veku v profesionálnom seniorskom futbale nebol potvrdený (Delorme, Boiché,, Michel Raspaud, 2010). Viacerí autori (Mujika, Vaeyens 2009, Del Campo et al, 2010) uvádzajú, že pri tvorbe hráčskych seniorských kádrov, FKV už nezohráva takú úlohu a nemá taký

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vplyv na herný výkon ako v nižších vekových kategóriách. Preto by sa nemalo prihliadať na kalendárny vek hráčov. Je to hlavne z dôvodu, že všetky parametre hráčov sa začínajú v dospelosti vyrovnávať resp. faktor kalendárneho veku stráca svoj význam.

Komparácia početnosti hráčov U17 a U19 na ME

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100 Početnosť hráčov Početnosť 50 0 január - marec apríl - august september - december

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Obr. 4 Komparácia všetkých vybraných hráčov na ME U17 a U19 narodených v jednotlivých štvrťrokoch.

V ostatných mesiacoch (apríl, máj, jún, júl, august) je početnosť hráčov približne rovnako rozložená. Jednoznačne sa najmenej vyskytujú hráči narodení v posledných troch mesiacoch. Dôkazom vyrovnávania rozloženia dátumov narodenia v jednotlivých mesiacoch v roku je klesajúca početnosť hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku a naopak stúpajúca početnosť hráčov narodených v ostatných štvrťrokoch. Môžeme predpokladať, že faktor kalendárneho veku nebude platiť pri výbere hráčov v grassroots kluboch, kde je malý počet hráčov a zvyčajne tí, ktorí sú v kádri spravidla všetci hrajú. Pri výbere resp. nábore hráčov do klubu dochádza k obmedzenému počtu prílevu nových hráčov.

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Komparácia vybraných hráčov na ME nerodených v prvom a poslednom kvartály (sept., okt., nov., dec.)

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0 U17 U19 Spolu

Obr. 5 Komparácia vybraných hráčov na ME narodených v prvom a poslednom štvrťroku (september - december).

Na obr. 5 uvádzame výsledky porovnania hráčov narodených v prvom a poslednom štvrťroku (spolu so septembrom) v jednotlivých kategóriách a celkový sumár zo sledovaných ME U17 a U19. Vo všetkých kategóriách ako aj v sumári sa nám potvrdili stanovené hypotézy. V celkovom resumé najväčšiu skupinu tvorilo 581 hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku, čo je signifikatne viac ako hráčov (n = 232) narodených v posledných štyroch mesiacoch v roku ( p < 0,01 ). Vo vekovej kategórii 17-ročných sme našli výrazné signifikatné rozdiely pri narodení hráčov v prvých troch mesiacoch oproti posledným mesiacom v roku ( p < 0,01 ). Pri kategórii 19-ročných sme tiež zaznamenali signifikatné rozdiely ( p < 0,01 ), ale už neboli také výrazné ako pri celkovom počte 17-ročných hráčov. Výsledky preukazujú, že tréneri, ktorí vyberajú hráčov do reprezentačných družstiev U17 a U19 sú výrazne ovplyvnení vplyvom faktoru kalendárneho veku. Podobný spôsob akým Kanaďania vyberajú hokejistov, je dobrým príkladom toho, čo sociológ Merton (1968) príslovečne pomenoval „seba napĺňajúcim proroctvom“ - čo je situácia, v ktorej „chybná definícia na začiatku..., vyvolá nové správanie, ktoré spôsobí, že pôvodná chybná predstava sa stane skutočnosťou“. Kanaďania začínajú chybnou definíciou toho, kto sú najlepší deväťroční a desaťroční hokejisti. No spôsob, akým zaobchádzajú s týmito „hviezdami“, napokon spôsobí, že ich pôvodný chybný úsudok bude vyzerať správne. Ako povedal Merton,“. Táto zavádzajúca opodstatnenosť seba naplňujúceho proroctva zachraňuje vládu omylu. Prorok bude totiž uvádzať momentálny chod udalostí ako dôkaz, že mal od samého začiatku pravdu.“ Asymetrické vekové rozloženie existuje všade tam, kde dochádza k trom veciam: selekcii, deleniu podľa schopností a rozdielnym skúsenostiam. Ak v ranom veku rozhodneme, kto je dobrý (s použitím a využitím FKV)

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a kto nie, ak oddelíme talentovaných od netalentovaných a ak talentovaným umožníme získavať skúsenosti na vyššej úrovni (napr. ME, MS mladých hráčov), v konečnom dôsledku poskytneme obrovskú výhodu malej skupinke hráčov narodených bližšie k hraničnému dátumu. V USA sa v americkom futbale a v basketbale neselektuje, nedelí a nediferencuje až tak výrazne. V dôsledku toho môže byť dieťa v týchto športoch trochu telesne pozadu a predsa bude hrať toľko ako jeho zrelší rovesníci. Telesne nezrelý hráč basketbalu v niektorom americkom meste môže hrať počas roka toľko hodín ako relatívne staršie dieťa, pretože existuje mnoho ihrísk a mnoho ľudí ochotných hrať. Nie je to ako ľadový hokej, kde potrebujete klzisko. Basketbalu pomáha jeho dostupnosť a všade prítomnosť. S relatívnym vekom možno dať do súvisu mnohé ďalšie sociálne javy. Ľadový hokej a futbal sú ale športové hry, ktoré sa týkajú len niekoľkých vybraných osôb. Rovnaké systematické chyby sa však ukazujú v oblastiach s oveľa širším dopadom, ako je napríklad vzdelávanie. Rodičia, ktorých dieťa sa narodilo na konci kalendárneho roka, často uvažujú nad tým, že odložia vstup dieťaťa do materskej škôlky: päťročné dieťa musí držať tempo s deťmi narodenými o mnoho mesiacov skôr. Myslíme si, že väčšina rodičov si myslí, že nech je nevýhoda, s ktorou sa mladšie dieťa stretáva v škôlke akákoľvek, napokon sa stratí. No nie je to tak. Malá počiatočná výhoda, ktorú má dieťa narodené začiatkom roka nad dieťaťom narodeným koncom roka pretrváva. Uzatvára deti do modelov dobrých výsledkov, povzbudenia a znechutenia, ktoré sa s nimi ťahajú dlhé roky.

ZÁVER

V našom výskume sme preštudovali množstvo zahraničnej literatúry a pokúsili sa overiť niektoré poznatky v našej štúdii. Vo výskume sme potvrdili všetky stanovené hypotézy. Na všetkých sledovaných ME do 17 rokov a do 19 rokov sme zistili štatisticky významný rozdiel hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku a hráčov narodených v posledných štyroch mesiacoch. To znamená, že sa nám potvrdila hypotéza č.1 a č.2. Hypotézu č.3 sme potvrdili pomocou komparácie početnosti hráčov U17 a U19 na ME narodených v prvom štvrťroku kalendárneho roka a v posledných štyroch mesiacoch príslušného roka. Výsledky komparácie 17 a 19 ročných hráčov preukázali štatisticky významný rozdiel v početnosti hráčov narodených v prvom štvrťroku (U17 > U19, p < 0,01 ). V praxi to znamená, že tréneri, ktorí vyberajú hráčov do reprezentačných družstiev sú ovplyvnení faktorom kalendárneho veku. Možnosť získať fyzickú a kognitívnu prevahu nad súperom zohráva veľkú rolu pri ich rozhodovaní. Netreba ale zabúdať, že faktor kalendárneho veku (FKV) nie je indikátorom pri identifikácii talentov (pravdepodobne

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momentálna fyzická vyspelosť hráčov sa nerovná hráčovi, ktorý má talent), ale slúži len ako pravdepodobná výhoda pri vyberaní hráčov na konkrétny turnaj (sútaž, pretek) v presnom čase a vo vymedzenej vekovéj kategórii. „Vrchol zrelosti“ športovca nastáva až okolo 21. roku života. Z toho pramení základný poznatok pre športovú prax, ktorým je eliminovať faktor kalendárneho veku pri identifikácii talentov a posudzovaní budúcej úrovne výkonnostných predpokladov.

Zoznam použitej literatúry

AGRICOLA, A. ZHÁNĚL, J. HUBÁČEK, O, ZVONAŘ, M. PSALMAN, V. 2012. Age effect v juniorskom tenise. Studia sportiva, Brno: FSpS MU Brno, 2012, roč. 6, č. 2, s. 38-45. ISSN 1802-7679. AUGSTE, C. LAMES, M. 2011. The relative age effect and success in German elite U-17 soccer teams, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29:9, 983-987 BARNSLEY, R. H., THOMPSON, A. H., LEGAULT, P. 1992. Family Planning: Football Style. The Relative Age Effect in Football. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 27(1), 77-86. BAXTER-JONES, A., HELMS, P., MAFFULLI, N., BAINES-PREECE, J. C., PREECE, M. 1995. Growth and development of male gymnasts, swimmers, soccer and tennis players: a longitudinal study. Annals of Human Biology, 22(5), 381-394. CAMPO, D.G., VICEDO, J.C., VILLORA, S.G. JORDAN, O.R. 2010. The relative age effect in youth soccer players from Spain. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9(2), 190-198. COSTA, I. T. D., ALBUQUERQUE, M. R., GARGANTA, J. 2012. Relative age effect in Brazilian soccer players: a historical analysis. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 12(3), 563-570. DANIEL, T. E., JANSSEN, C. T. L. 1987. More on the Relative Age Effect. Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 53(3), 21-24. DELORME, N., BOICHÉ, J., RASPAUD, M. 2009. The relative age effect in elite sport: the French case. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 80(2), 336-344. DELORMÉ, N., BOICHÉ, J., RASPAUD, M. 2010. Relative Age Effect in Elite Sports:Methodological Bias or Real Discrimination? Europen Journal of Sport Science 10(2), 91-96. EDWARDS, S. 1994. Born too late to win? Nature, 370(6486), 186. GIACOMINI, C. P. 1999. Association of Birthdate with Success of Nationally Ranked Junior Tennis Players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89(2), 381-386. GRONDIN, S., KOREN, S. 2000. The Relative Age Effect in Professional Baseball: A Look at the History of Major League Baseball and at Current Status in Japan AVANTEONTARIO, 6(2), 64-74

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GRONDIN, S., DESHAIES, P., NAULT, L.-P. 1984. Trimestres de naissance et participation au hockey et au volleyball. Revue Quebecoise de l'Activite Physique, 2, 97-103. HELSEN, F. WINCKEL, J. WILLIAMS, M. 2005. The relative age effect in youth soccer across Europe. Journal of Sports Science. Vol. 23.Issue 6. ISSN 1466-447X HELSEN, F. WINCKEL, J.,STARKES. J. Z. 2000. Effects of a change im Selection Year on Succes im Male Soccer Players. American journal of human biology. 12, 2000, č.6, s.729-735. HURLEY, W., LIOR, D., TRACZE, S. 2001. A Proposal to Reduce the Age Discrimination in Canadian Minor Hockey. Canadian Public Policy, 27(1), 65-75. KAMPMILLER, T., et al. 2010. Základy metodológie výskumu v telesnej výchove a športe. Bratislava: ICM Agency. ISBN 978-80-89-257-27-0 MERTON, R., M.1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. New York, Free Press, 1968. MUJIKA, I., VAEYENS, R., MATTHYS, S., SANTISTEBAN, J. M., GOIRIENA, J., PHILIPPAERTS, R. 2009. The Relative Age in a Professional Club Setting. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(11), 1153-1158 JIMENEZ, P. I. PAIN, M.T.G., 2008. Relative age effect in Spanish association football: its extent and implications for wasted potential. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26 (10), pp.995–1003. SIMMONS, C., PAULL, G. C. 2001. Season-of-birth bias in association football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19, 677-686. THOMPSON, A. H., BARNSLEY, R. H., STEBELSKY, G. 1991. "Born to Play Ball" The Relative Age Effect and Major League Baseball. Sociology of Sport Journal, 8, 146- 151. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-19 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2007 – Austria, 2007. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-17 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2008 – Turkey, 2008. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-17 AND UNDER-19 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2009 – Germany and Ukraine, 2009. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-17 AND UNDER-19 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2010 – France and Liechtenstein, 2010. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-17 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2011 – Serbia, 2011. UEFA TECHNICAL REPORT EUROPEAN UNDER-17 AND UNDER-19 CHAMPIONSHIPS, Final rounds 2014 – Malta and Hungary, 2014. VAEYENS, R., PHILIPPAERTS, R. M., MALINA, R. M. 2005. The relative age effect in soccer: a match-related perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(7), 747-756.

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VINCENT, J., GLAMSER, F. D. 2006. Gender differences in the relative age effect among US Olympic development program youth soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(4), WATTIE, N., COBLEY, S., MACPHERSON, A., HOWARD, A., MONTELPARE, W., BAKER, J. 2007. Injuries in Canadian youth ice hockey: the influence of relative age. Paediatrics, 120(1), 142-148

RELATIVE AGE EFFECT ON THE PLAYER SELECTION IN YOUTH NATIONAL TEAMS ON TOP EVENTS IN SOCCER

Pavol GREGORA, Martin MIKULIČ

Department Sport of Games, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: doc. PaedDr. Pavol Peráček, PhD.

ABSTRACT

Many foreign authors deals with relative age effect in various sports. In our research we deal with relative age effect in soccer, which is an important part in selection of players in youth national team in soccer. In the overall context of the selection of players for top national youth events may use anthropometric and cognitive predisposition as a significant advantage. But not only in the soccer. The aim of our research was to identify and to prove the existence of Relative age effect in the selection for the European Championships U17 and U19 soccer. We expect, the majority of players was born in first quarter of calendar year. The group consisted of 1,298 elite soccer players in the age groups U17 and U19 at 9 European Championship. The obtained data were recorded in a data collection sheets, which we then processed by statistical test of significance (paired t- test). The analysis research, confirmed the existence of the relative age effect in all samples at the European Championship Under-17 players (p <0.01) and Under 19 players (p <0.01). Based on our results, we recommend to used relative age effect in the specific age category for genuine participation in long-range club competition (Champions League Youth, for example, Youth or nation competition) respectively the qualification round of the European Championships in 17 or 19 years, or for the final round of European Championship respectively, World Championships in those age groups, but not in talent selection. Key words: relative age effect, football, selection of talent, The European Championship

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FAKTOROVÁ ŠTRUKTÚRA VZPIERAČSKÉHO VÝKONU Z HĽADISKA ŠPECIÁLNYCH SILOVÝCH PARAMETROV

Milan KOVÁČ

Katedra atletiky, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školiteľ: prof. PhDr. Eugen Laczo, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Formovanie modelu štruktúry športového výkonu (ŠŠV) v jednotlivých športových odvetviach odhaľuje vzájomné podmienenosti jednotlivých vlastností a schopností športovcov. Pre vzpieranie je charakteristické poukazovanie faktorových závislostí ŠV v teoretickej a teoreticko-praktickej rovine. Našou snahou je objektívne odhaliť parciálnu faktorovú výstavbu ŠV na základe vybraných špeciálnych silových parametrov. Cieľom našej pilotnej štúdie bolo zistiť mieru závislosti vybraných špeciálnych silových parametrov na výkone vzpierača v jednotlivých súťažných disciplínach (trh a nadhod). Hypotézou našej práce bolo preukázanie vzťahu jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov k súťažným disciplínam. Náš súbor pozostával z výkonnostných vzpieračov (n = 4), ktorí sa podrobili piatim testovaniam. Každé testovanie pozostávalo z diagnostických sérií vybraných špeciálnych testov s využitím diagnostického zariadenia Fitrodyne Premium, ktorým sme sledovali vybrané špeciálne silové parametre: jednorazové maximum (1RM) a výkonové maximum (Pmax). Pre hodnotenie empirických údajov sme použili vzťahovú analýzu (Spearmenov korelačný koeficient) a logické postupy. Po analýze empirických údajov môžeme konštatovať vysoké závislosti (p ≤ 0,01) medzi športovým výkonom (ŠV) v trhu technickom a nasledovnými špeciálnymi silovými parametrami: trh do polodrepu (1RM), drep vzadu (1RM), pozdvih nadhodový (1RM), trh do polodrepu (Pmax), drep vzadu (Pmax). Taktiež môžeme konštatovať vysoké závislosti (p ≤ 0,01) medzi ŠV pri premiestnení do drepu a nasledovnými špeciálnymi silovými parametrami: drep vzadu (1RM), pozdvih nadhodový (1RM), drep vpredu (1RM), trh do polodrepu (1RM), výrazový tlak (1RM). Zistením parciálneho modelu štruktúry ŠV sa vytvoria predpoklady na tvorbu a korekciu tréningových plánov, ako aj overovanie priebežného stavu rozvoja špeciálnej trénovanosti.

Kľúčové slová: vzpieranie, špeciálnej silové parametre, športový výkon, štruktúra športového výkonu

1 ÚVOD

Objektivizácia dlhodobej športovej prípravy vo výkonnostnom a vrcholovom športe si vyžaduje neustále sledovanie efektivity adaptačných mechanizmov vo smere formovania špeciálnej trénovanosti. Určitým objektívnym kritériom účinnosti systému tréningového zaťaženia je prírastok športového výkonu. Významným pomocníkom na ceste rozvoja špeciálnej trénovanosti a ladenia športovej formy je sledovanie a vyhodnocovanie

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čiastkových zmien stavov a ich transformácie do štruktúry športového výkonu (ŠV). Vo vzpieraní sa nachádzajú určité schémy a teoretické modely, ktoré vychádzajú z vedomostí a empirických skúseností odborníkov z praxe. Zawieja (2008), Féher (2006) vytvorili na základe teoretických poznatkov a osobných skúseností jednoduchú štruktúru športového výkonu. Vo svojich publikáciách naznačili jednotlivé faktory ovplyvňujúce športový výkon vo vzpieraní, ide však skôr o vymenovanie jednotlivých faktorov ako o matematickú kvantifikáciu jednotlivých faktorov. Ako aj Drechsler (1998) zdôrazňuje viacero faktorov, ktoré majú diferencovaný vplyv na zvyšovanie úrovne športovej výkonnosti. Z teoretických modelov potvrdených a upravených praxou vychádzajú aj jednotlivé vzpieračské školy (poľská, ruská alebo bulharská škola).

2 CIEĽ, HYPOTÉZY A ÚLOHY PRÁCE

2.1 Cieľ práce Cieľom práce je zistiť mieru závislosti špeciálnych silových parametrov meraných špeciálnymi testami k jednotlivým súťažným disciplínam (trh a nadhod) vo vzpieraní. 2.2 Hypotézy práce H1: Očakávame, že preukážeme štatisticky významnú závislosť (1 ˃ r ≥ 0,7) medzi športovým výkonom v trhu a špeciálnymi silovými parametrami trh do polodrepu (1RM), drep vzadu (1RM) a pozdvih nadhodový (1RM). H2: Očakávame, že preukážeme štatisticky významnú závislosť (1 ˃ r ≥ 0,7) medzi športovým výkonom v nadhode resp. premiestnení do drepu a špeciálnymi silovými parametrami trh do polodrepu (1RM), drep vzadu (1RM), drep predu (1RM) a pozdvih nadhodový (1RM).

2.3 Úlohy práce

Ú1: Zistiť závislosť medzi jednotlivými špeciálnymi silovými parametrami a súťažnou disciplínou trh. Ú2: Zistiť závislosť medzi jednotlivými špeciálnymi silovými parametrami a súťažnou disciplínou nadhod resp. premiestnenie do drepu. Ú3: Na základe výsledkov interpretovať stratégiu výberu špeciálnych testových položiek a špeciálnych tréningových prostriedkov.

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3 METODIKA PRÁCE Dizajn našej práce je ex post facto výskumom, ktorý má charakter pilotnej štúdie. Pre nedostatok probandov kombinujeme intra- a inter- individuálne porovnávanie získaných údajov. Získané výsledky overíme v ďalšom výskume, ktorý bude porovnávať intraindividuálne výsledky 20 meraní a taktiež interindividuálne merania 20 probandov.

Charakteristika súboru Do realizovanej pilotnej štúdie sme zapojili štyroch probandov, ktorí spĺňali výberové kritéria a teda parametre výkonnostných vzpieračov (adekvátna športová prax, technická vyspelosť, športová výkonnosť). Všetci probandi v čase výskumu súťažili v najvyššej dlhodobej súťaži na Slovensku – Extralige vo vzpieraní, a zároveň boli ochotní zúčastniť sa viacerých meraní špeciálnych silových schopností. Každý proband sa podrobil 5 meraniam, ktoré sme uskutočnili počas ich tréningového procesu v prvom polroku 2012, čo nám poskytlo spolu 20 meraní.

Priebeh výskumu Empirické údaje sme získavali metódou merania, zisťovali sme špeciálne silové parametre pomocou meraní špeciálnymi testami. Vybrané špeciálne silové parametre sme zisťovali pomocou špeciálnej testovej batérie (Kováč ml., 2014). Dve testové položky reprezentovali súťažné disciplíny vo vzpieraní (trh a nadhod resp. pre účely našej práce sme pracovali s premiestnením do drepu). Označili sme ich ako závislé premenné. Ostatné položky testovej batérie nám poslúžili na zistenie nezávislých premenných (trh do polodrepu, premiestnenie do polodrepu, výrazový tlak, drep vzadu, drep vpredu, pozdvih nadhodový) (Buzgó, Korpa, Kováč 2012). Testovanie spočívalo z vykonávania úplnej diagnostickej série s využitím diagnostického zariadenia Fitrodyne Premium. Vzhľadom na náročnosť jednotlivých testov bola testová batéria rozdelená na tri dni, medzi každým testovacím dňom bol zachovaný odstup odpočinkového dňa. Diagnostická séria poskytla informácie o jednorazovom maxime (1RM) a výkonovom maxime (Pmax). P max označujeme najvyššiu hodnotu priemerného výkonu v diagnostickej sérii.

Metodika spracovania a vyhodnocovania výsledkov Získané dáta sme spracovali a vyhodnocovali pomocou - vzťahovej analýzy (Spearmanov korelačný koeficient, koeficient determinácie). Získané dáta sme spracovali v programe MS Office Excel. Pri spracovaní a interpretácii výsledkov sme využívali

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základné logické postupy. Hodnotenie tesnosti korelácie sme prebrali od Chrásku (2007) (tab.1).

Tab. 1 Približná interpretácia veľkosti korelačného koeficientu (Chráska, 2007)

Koeficient korelácie Interpretácia r = 1,00 úplná (funkčná) závislosť 1,00 ˃ r ≥ 0,90 veľmi vysoká závislosť 0,90 ˃ r ≥ 0,70 vysoká závislosť 0,70 ˃ r ≥ 0,40 stredná závislosť 0,40 ˃ r ≥ 0,20 nízka závislosť 0,20 ˃ r ≥ 0,00 veľmi slabá závislosť r = 0 úplná nezávislosť

4 VÝSLEDKY A DISKUSIA Na základe vyhodnotenia výsledkov meraní pomocou vzťahovej analýzy môžeme konštatovať, že naša práca poukazuje na viacero štatisticky významných závislostí. Z dôvodu pilotáže nemôžeme výsledky zovšeobecňovať, ale môžeme poukázať na viacero významných vzťahov medzi súťažnými disciplínami a špeciálnymi silovými parametrami. Súťažná disciplína trh technický (do drepu) vykazuje vysokú závislosť s výkonmi v nasledovných špeciálnych silových parametroch: trh do polodrepu (1RM) – R = 0,863; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 74,2 %, drep vzadu (1RM) – R = 0,861; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 74,5 %, pozdvih nadhodový (1RM) – R= 0,916; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 83,9 %, trh do polodrepu (P max) – R = 0,794; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 63 %, drep vzadu (P max) – R = 0,811; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 65,8 %. Medzi súťažnou disciplínou trh technický (do drepu) a špeciálnymi silovými parametrami premiestnenie do polodrepu (1RM) – R = 0,45; p ≤ 0,05; R2 = 20 %; výrazový tlak (1RM) - R = 0,59; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 35 %, drep vpredu (1RM) R = 0,66; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 43,5 %, premiestnenie do polodrepu (Pmax) - R = 0,54; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 28,7 %, drep vpredu (Pmax) - R = 0,46; p ≤ 0,05; R2 = 21 % sme zaznamenali strednú závislosť. Špeciálne silové parametre výrazový tlak (Pmax) a pozdvih nadhodový (Pmax) nemali štatisticky významný vzťah k súťažnej disciplíne trh technicky (do drepu). Predchádzajúce zistenia pre ilustráciu zobrazujú aj obr. 1,2,3.

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Obr. 1 Korelácia jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov trhu do drepu (1)

Obr. 2 Korelácia jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov trhu do drepu (2)

Obr. 3 Parciálny model faktorovej štruktúry ŠV súťažnej disciplíny trh technický

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Legenda k obrázkom 1,2,3,4,5,6: TP 1RM – trh do polodrepu 1RM PP 1RM – premiestnenie do polodrepu 1RM VT 1RM – výrazový tlak 1RM Db 1RM – drep vzadu 1RM Da 1RM – drep vpredu 1RM PN 1RM – pozdvih nadhodový 1RM TP Pmax – trh do polodrepu Pmax PP Pmax – premiestnenie do polodrepu Pmax VT Pmax – výrazový tlak Pmax Db Pmax – drep vzadu Pmax Da Pmax – drep vpredu Pmax PN Pmax – pozdvih nadhodový Pmax

Súťažnú disciplínu nadhod technicky, pozostávajúci z dvoch pohybových častí, sme pre zjednodušenie merali len v prvej časti, čo predstavuje premiestnenie do drepu. Vysokú závislosť sme zaznamenali s nasledovnými špeciálnymi silovými parametrami: drep vzadu (1RM) – R = 0,86; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 74 %, pozdvih nadhodový (1RM) - R = 0,82; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 67,1 %, drep vpredu (1RM) - R = 0,74; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 55,13 %, trh do polodrepu (1RM) - R = 0,71; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 50,48 %, výrazový tlak (1RM) - R = 0,73; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 52,59 %. V prípade remiestnenia do polodrepu (1RM) - R = 0,64; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 41,52 %, trhu do polodrepu (Pmax) - R = 0,68; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 46,10 %, premiestnenia do polodrepu (Pmax) - R = 0,64; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 41,33 %, drepu vzadu (Pmax) - R = 0,66; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 43,38 %, drepu vpredu (Pmax) - R = 0,65; p ≤ 0,01; R2 = 42,3 % sme zaznamenali strednú závislosť k premiestneniu do drepu. V prípade špeciálneho silového parametru výrazový tlak (Pmax) - R = 0,37; p ≤ 0,05; R2 = 13,68 % sme zistili nízku závislosť. Špeciálny silový parameter pozdvih nadhodový (Pmax) so závislou premennou premiestnenie do drepu významne nesúvisel (p ˃ 0,05). Na obrázku 4-6 vidíme znázornenie závislostí jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov k premiestneniu do drepu.

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Obr. 4 Korelácia jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov premiestnenia do drepu (1)

Obr. 5 Korelácia jednotlivých špeciálnych silových parametrov premiestnenia do drepu (2)

Na obr. 3 a 6 naznačujeme model faktorovej štruktúry z hľadiska špeciálnych silových parametrov, resp. rozdelenie jednotlivých závislostí do viacerých úrovní (veľmi vysoká, vysoká, stredná a nízka závislosť a bez štatistickej významnosti) pre jednotlivé súťažné disciplíny.

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Obr. 6 Parciálny model faktorovej štruktúry ŠV súťažnej disciplíny premiestnenie do drepu

Predpokladané hypotézy H 1 a H 2 boli potvrdené, čo znázorňujú aj obrázky 1 až 6. V štruktúre ŠV pre jednotlivé súťažné disciplíny vidíme aj rozdiely, ktoré nám poukazujú na mierne odlišný charakter súťažných disciplín. Avšak vidíme aj prienik v prípade troch položiek, čo naznačuje nevyhnutnosť vysokej úrovne rozvoja týchto špeciálnych silových parametrov pre dosahovanie vysokej úrovne výkonnosti vo vzpieraní. Výsledky poukazujú na skutočnosť potreby rozvíjania nielen maximálnej sily, ale aj výkonovej resp. rýchlej sily a výbušnosti. Štatistiky významný vzťah sme zaznamenali u viacerých položiek z výkonovej stránky k obom súťažným disciplínam. Hlavne v prípade nasledovných špeciálnych silových parametrov: drep vzadu (Pmax), drep vpredu (Pmax), premiestnenie do polodrepu (Pmax) a trh do polodrepu (Pmax). Výsledky práce naznačujú východiská pre výber špeciálnych tréningových prostriedkov, ktoré majú rovnakú alebo podobnú kinematickú aj dynamickú štruktúru k ŠV. Ich optimálna periodizácia v objeme a intenzite v rôznych časových úsekoch môže významne ovplyvniť rozvoj špeciálnej trénovanosti a ladenie športovej formy.

ZÁVER

Efektivita športovej praxe významne závisí od poznania obsahovej analýzy ŠŠV v danom športovom odvetví. Syntéza výsledkov jednotlivých parciálnych modelov môže prispieť k objasneniu problematiky ŠSV. Vytvorenie ŠŠV je v mnohých smeroch zložité,

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preto parciálne modely ŠŠV môžu byť užitočné pri tvorbe tréningových plánov, pri overovaní účinnosti tréningového zaťaženia a korekciách dlhodobej športovej prípravy. Výsledky práce naznačili určitú možnosť objektivizácie úrovne rozvoja špeciálnych silových schopností, ktoré významne limitujú úroveň športového výkonu vo vzpieraní. Systém priebežnej kontroly prostredníctvom zisťovania úrovne špeciálnych silových parametrov v jednotlivých testových položkách významne prispieva k objektivizácii korekcií tréningových podnetov pre optimálny rozvoj špeciálnej trénovanosti.

Zoznam použitej literatúry

BUZGÓ, G., KORPA, Š., KOVÁČ, M. Terminologia a kategorizácia tréningových prostriedkov vo vzpieraní. In KOLEKTÍV Vzpieranie I.. Učebné texty pre trénerov. Bratislava: ICM Agency, 2012, s. 66-72. ISBN 978-80-89257-56-0. DRECHSLER, A. 1998. The Weightlifting encyklopedia A guide to world class performence. 1. vydanie. Whitestone, USA: A is A Comunications, 1998. ISBN 0- 9659179-2-4, 550 s.

FÉHER, T. 2006. Tamás Féherʹs Olympic weightlifting. 2. vydanie. Vescés, HU: Tamas Strenght Sport Libri Publishing House 2006. ISBN 9630601397, 325 s.

CHRÁSKA, M., 2007. Metódy pedagogického výzkumu: Základy kvantitatívneho výzkumu. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1369-4. KOVÁČ, M. 2014. Dynamika vybraných silových parametrov v jednotlivých obdobiach ročného tréningového cyklu vo vzpieraní. Diplomová práca. Bratislava: FTVŠ UK, 2014.

ZAWIEJA, M. 2008. Leistungsreserve Hanteltraining. Műnster, D: Philippka-Sportverlag, 2008. ISBN 978-3-8941-175-9, 142 s.

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FACTORIAL STRUCTURE OF WEIGHLIFTING PERFORMANCE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF SPECIAL STRENGTH PARAMETERS

Milan KOVÁČ

Department of Track and Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PhDr. Eugen Laczo, PhD.

ABSTRACT Generation of sports performance structural models of different sports creates dispositions for structural analysis of factorial dependence between single characteristics and capabilities. In Olympic weightlifting, factorial structure of sport performance were based on theoretical or theoretical-practical levels. The aim of our study is to partially clarify the factorial structure of sport performance based on specialized strength parameters. Our pilot study analyzed dependence of selected specialized strength parameters on sports performance in Olympic weightlifting (snatch and clean&jerk). We expected the statistically significant dependences between the sport performance and specialized strength parameters. Four elite weightlifters participated in our study, and they completed five test sessions. Maximal power and one repetition maximum were analyzed by Fitrodyne Premium device. Statistical significances of obtained results were analyzed with Spearman correlation coefficient and rational and logical methods. High statistical correlations were conformed between the sport performance on snatch (p ≤ 0,01) and: power snatch (1RM), back squat (1RM), deadlift with tight grip (1RM), power snatch (Pmax), back squat (Pmax). Also, we concluded high statistical correlations between the sport performance on clean (p ≤ 0,01) and: back squat (1RM), deadlift with tight grip (1RM), front squat (1RM), power snatch (1RM), push press (1RM). Our partial model of sport performance structure in Olympic weightlifting bringing the conditions and knowledge that are important for creation and corrections in training programs and verification of actual progress in the sport performance status.

Key words: Olympic weightlifting, specialized strength parameters, sport performance, sport performance structure

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MAXIMÁLNY A PRIEMERNÝ VÝKON POČAS ROTAČNÉHO POHYBU TRUPU S ČINKAMI RÔZNYCH HMOTNOSTÍ

Oliver POÓR

Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Katedra športovej kinantropológie

Školiteľ: prof. Erika Zemková, PhD.

ABSTRAKT Štúdia porovnáva výkon pri rotačnom pohybe trupu s 1, 5.5, 10.5, 15.5 a 20 kg činkou na pleciach. Skupina 9 študentov Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu (vek 22.3 ± 3.1 rokov, výška 180.7 ± 5.5 cm, hmotnosť 83.6 ± 4.8 kg) vykonala 2 rotácie trupu do pravej, respektíve ľavej strany. Analyzovali sme hodnoty maximálneho a priemerného výkonu akceleračnej fázy rotačného pohybu trupu. Maximálne hodnoty maximálneho výkonu boli dosiahnuté s 15,5 kg činkou (516.16 W ± 164.09) a potom začali klesať. Maximálne hodnoty priemerného výkonu ale boli dosiahnuté s činkou nižšej hmotnosti, 10,5 kg (251.19 W ± 96.4 ), následne začali podobne klesať. Tieto fakty je potrebné brať v úvahu pri posudzovaní výkonu rotačného pohybu trupu.

Kľúčové slová: priemerný výkon, maximálny výkon, rotačný pohyb trupu

1. ÚVOD

Svaly trupu sú zapojené do takmer všetkých kinematických reťazcov. Zohrávajú kľúčovú úlohu pri prenose vyprodukovanej svalovej sily medzi hornou a dolnou polovicou tela (Shinkle a kol. 2012). Pokiaľ sa v tele vytvorí energia, ktorá sa nedokáže takto transformovať, negatívne to ovplyvní produkovaný výkon rotačného pohybu trupu (Hibs et al. 2008). Sila svalov trupu posudzuje najmä výdržami v určených polohách (napr. podpor vpred, vzad), kde sa meria maximálny čas výdrže. V laboratórnych podmienkach sa používajú izokinetické zariadenia, ktorých režim pohybu je však umelý. Pre športovú prax sú často drahé a ťažko dostupné. Na posudzovanie sily a výkonu sa používajú dynamometre, ale dráha a rozsah pohybu sú striktne dané a nie sú dostatočne špecifické pre rôzne druhy športov. Sila a výkon svalov trupu sa posudzuje najčastejšie v predozadnom alebo bočnom smere. Väčšina športov však kladie požiadavky na produkciu svalového výkonu pri rotačnom pohybe trupu. Preto bolo vyvinuté zariadenie FiTRO

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Torso Dyne, ktoré umožňuje monitorovať základné biomechanické parametre. Zo sily a rýchlosti sa vypočítava výkon. Nie je však známy priebeh výkonu pri rôznych hmotnostiach činky. Ten je dôležité sledovať, pretože niektoré športy kladú vysoké nároky na výkon rotačného pohybu trupu bez náčinia (napr. karate, bojové športy), iné pri odpore náčinia (tenis, hokej) alebo vyššom odpore prostredia (vodný slalom, plávanie).

2. CIEĽ PRÁCE

2.1 Cieľ práce

Porovnať maximálny výkon a priemerný výkon v akceleračnej fáze rotačného pohybu trupu s rôznymi hmotnosťami.

2.2 Hypotézy práce

Predpokladáme, že: H1: Maximálne hodnoty maximálneho výkonu dosiahneme pri rotácií trupu s 15,5 kg činkou H2: Maximálne hodnoty priemerného výkonu dosiahneme pri rotácií trupu s 15,5 kg činkou

3. METODIKA PRÁCE

Skupina 9 študentov Fakulty telesnej výchovy a športu (vek 22,3 ± 3,1 rokov; výška 180.7 ± 5,5 cm, hmotnosť 83,6 ± 4,8 kg) vykonala po individuálnom rozcvičení 2 opakovania rotačného pohybu trupu do ľavej strany a 2 opakovania do pravej strany. Probandi boli poučení, aby cvičenie vykonávali s maximálnym úsilím v akceleračnej fáze pohybu a aby postavenie chodidiel počas testovania ostalo v nezmenenej polohe. Po vycentrovaní činky v základnom postavení dostali slovný pokyn, aby vykonali náprah rotáciou trupu do pravej strany (obr. 1). Bezprostredne po dosiahnutí maximálneho rozsahu pohybu vykonal rotáciu do ľavej strany s maximálnym úsilím v akceleračnej fáze pohybu. Použili sme činky s hmotnosťami 1, 5,5; 10,5; 15,5 a 20 kg (v uvedenom poradí) s pripevneným zariadením FiTRO Torso Dyne.

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Obr. 1 Posudzovanie svalového výkonu rotačného pohybu trupu zariadením FiTRO Torso Dyne s 20 kg činkou na pleciach

Obr. 2 Zariadenie FiTRO Torso Premium pripevnené na os činky

Senzor upevnený v strede osi činky (obr. 2) zaznamenával uhlové zmeny rotačného pohybu. Prepočty sily a výkonu boli založené na druhom Newtonovom zákone mechaniky. Silu produkovanú v akceleračnej a deceleračnej fáze pohybu zariadenie vypočítalo z hmotnosti činky a zrýchlenia jej ťažiska. Uhlové zrýchlenie vypočítalo deriváciou uhlovej rýchlosti. Na transformáciu uhlovej rýchlosti a zrýchlenia na využiteľné hodnoty použilo vypočítaný polomer otáčania (vzdialenosť medzi osou otáčania a centrom gravitácie činky). Výkon vypočítalo ako súčin sily a rýchlosti. V práci sme analyzovali hodnoty maximálneho výkonu a priemerného výkonu akceleračnej fázy pohybu.

4 VÝSLEDKY PRÁCE A DISKUSIA Maximálny výkon rotačného pohybu trupu so zvyšujúcou hmotnosťou stúpal a po dosiahnutí maximálnych hodnôt (516,16 W ± 164,09) pri 15,5 kg činke začal klesať (obr.

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3). Hypotéza 1, dosiahnutie maximálnych hodnôt maximálneho výkonu pri rotácií trupu s 15,5 kg činkou, sa potvrdila.

Obr. 3 Maximálny výkon rotačného pohybu trupu s činkami rôznych hmotností

Priemerný výkon rotačného pohybu trupu so zvyšujúcou hmotnosťou stúpal a po dosiahnutí maximálnych hodnôt (251,19 W ± 96,4) pri 10,5 kg činke začal klesať (obr. 4). Hypotéza 2, dosiahnutie maximálnych hodnôt priemerného výkonu rotácie trupu s 15,5 kg činkou sa nepotvrdila.

Obr. 4 Priemerný výkon akceleračnej fázy rotačného pohybu trupu s činkami rôznych hmotností

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Tak ako sme očakávali, hodnoty maximálneho a priemerného výkonu so zvyšujúcou sa hmotnosťou činky stúpali a po dosiahnutí maximálnych hodnôt začali klesať. Výsledky ale ukázali malý rozdiel medzi hodnotami výkonu s hmotnosťami 10,5 resp. 15,5 kg. Pri podrobnejšej analýze dát, sme zistili, že najvyššie hodnoty maximálneho výkonu dosiahlo 5 probandov pri hmotnosti 10,5 kg a 4 probandi pri 15,5 kg. Najvyššie hodnoty priemerného výkonu dosiahlo 6 probandov pri hmotnosti 10,5 kg a 3 pri hmotnosti 15,5 kg. Nižší výkon rotácie trupu s 20 kg by sme mohli vysvetliť 44,5% poklesom rýchlosti (289,2 uhlov/sek pri 10,5 kg resp. 160,6 uhlov/sek pri 20 kg). V tréningovej praxi je dôležité poznať pri akej hmotnosti činky sú dosahované najvyššie hodnoty výkonu. Táto hmotnosť býva vyjadrená percentami z jedno - rázového maxima (1RM). Pri tlakoch na lavičke je najvyšší výkon dosiahnutý pri 57,1% 1RM (Zemková – Hamar 2013). Pri drepoch s činkou na pleciach pri 67% 1RM (Zemková et al. 2013). V našej práci nebolo možné posúdiť 1RM, a odvodiť tak percentuálnu hodnotu, kedy sú dosiahnuté najvyššie hodnoty výkonu. Preto je nutné ďalej hľadať vhodné metódy na posúdenie 1RM rotačného pohybu trupu pri izotonickej svalovej činnosti.

ZÁVER Maximálne hodnoty maximálneho výkonu sa dosahujú pri vyššej hmotnosti činky ako pri priemernom výkone (15,5 resp. 10,5 kg). Skutočnosť, že rozdiely boli malé, si vyžaduje sledovania vo väčšej skupine a s vyššou variabilitou. Presné hodnoty výkonového maxima sú dôležité pre overenie účinnostis tréningového procesu a zároveň ako ukazovateľ trénovanosti v mnohých športoch.

Zoznam bibliografických odkazov HIBS, A. E. et al., Optimizing performance by improving core stability and core strength. Sports med 38, 2008: 995 - 1008. SHINKLE, J. et al., Effect of core strength on the measure of power in the extremities in The Journal of strength and conditioning research, vol 26, nr 2. Colorado Springs, National strength and conditioning association 2012: 373 - 380. ZEMKOVÁ, E. – HAMAR, D., Utilization of elastic energy during weight exercises differs under stable and unstable conditions in Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, vol 53, nr. 2, 2013: 119-129 ZEMKOVÁ, E. et al., Enhancement of peak and mean power in concentric phase of squats with different weight in European College of Sport Science. - Barcelona: National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia, 2013: 204 129

PEAK AND MEAN POWER DURING THE TRUNK ROTATIONS WITH DIFFERENT WEIGHTS

Oliver POÓR

Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Department of Sports Kinanthropology

Supervisor: prof. Erika Zemková, PhD.

Abstract The study compares the power during rotations of the trunk with 1, 5.5, 10.5, 15.5 and 20 kg barbell placed on the shoulders. A group of 9 physical education students (age 22.3 ± 3.1 years, height 180.7 ± 5.5 cm, body mass 83.6 ± 4.8 kg) performed 2 repetitions of trunk rotations to the left and right side, respectively. Peak power and mean power in the acceleration phase of trunk rotations were analyzed. Maximal values of peak power were achieved at 15,5 kg (516.16 W ± 164.09) and than started to decline. Maximal values of mean power were achieved at 10,5 kg (251.19 W ± 96.4 ) and than started to decline similarly. This fact has to be taken in account, when maximal power is evaluated. Key words: mean power, peak power, trunk rotations

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MOŽNÉ SYNTÉZY KULTURNÍHO A SPORTOVNÍHO HRDINSTVÍ

Ondřej ŠTAUD

Katedra športovej edukológie a športovej humanistiky, Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave

Školitel: prof. PhDr. Josef Oborný, PhD.

ABSTRAKT

Práce vychází z etymologické analýzy významu slovního spojení „sportovní hrdina“ a jeho slučitelnosti s výrazem kulturního hrdiny. Cílem je definovat kulturní hrdinství a najít jeho možné syntézy s hrdinstvím sportovním. Práce tak rozvádí diskuzi na téma etymologie a hermeneutiky hrdinství kulturního a potom zvláště rozdíly ve výkladu a možnostech hrdinství sportovního. Částečně tak navazuje na problematiku vymezenou sportovními sociology, kteří rozpracovávali náhled na proměny sportovního hrdinství na přelomu dvacátého a jednadvacátého století (například SMART, 2005 či SEKOT, 2008). Metodologicky je práce jednak postavena na diskriminační a selektivní analýze a jednak na komparaci mezi kulturním a sportovním hrdinstvím. Klíčové slova: kulturní hrdinství, sportovní hrdinství, etymologie

1 ÚVOD

V dnešní době jsme svědky velké terminologické svévole, kdy jsou často nevhodně a necitlivě uváděny některé výrazy, nevyjímaje právě naše termíny hrdina a hrdinství. To je také základní pohnutkou pro napsání této studie. Ta tak částečně navazuje na některé postřehy z publikace „Sociologické problémy sportu“ A. Sekota a „The Sport Star“ B. Smarta, kde byly prezentovány myšlenky konceptu sportovních hrdinů, přičemž byly dané termíny zpracovány převážně v sociologickém úhlu pohledu. My se budeme tímto konceptem zabývat spíše z etymologického a filozofického hlediska. V první části práce nás tak čekají interpretace různých definic hrdinství, od starořeckého až po socialistické pojetí. Ve druhé části bychom se seznámili s možnými teoriemi hrdinství sportovního, kde se postupně setkáme s názory sportovních sociologů a filozofů, kteří také pojednávali s daným tématem (Zdebská, Jirásek, Robertson, Sheler, Hyland a Kosiewicz). V závěru bude nabídnuta syntéza obou přístupů a především zhodnocení možností sportovního hrdinství v konfrontaci se zmíněnými definicemi.

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2 CÍL A ÚKOLY PRÁCE

Základním cílem je poukázat na možné syntetické prvky při komparaci kulturního a sportovního hrdinství. Kulturnímu hrdinství se v práci bude rozumět jako klasické či světské hrdinství, které bude přesněji popsáno a interpretováno v několika základních definicích. Na sportovní hrdinství bude pohlíženo jako na experimentální nepřesné pojmenování, ke kterému budou v závěru práce přisuzovány možné syntézy s kulturním hrdinstvím.

V návaznosti na cíle si jsou vymezeny tři hlavní úkoly práce. Prvním z nich je vymezení a přesné definice kulturního či klasického hrdinství. Druhým je interpretace a vysvětlení názorů vybraných sportovních sociologů a filozofů na problematiku hrdinství sportovního, kde bude především hodnocena samotná možnost existence a smyslu tohoto slovního spojení. Třetím úkolem tedy bude hledat možné syntézy v daných definicích a z toho vyplývající etymologická interpretace.

3 METODIKA PRÁCE

Práce je založena na teoretických metodách, proto bude postrádat popis klasických náležitostí z empirického výzkumu (charakteristiku výzkumného souboru, průběh výzkumu a metodiku zpracování). Z metodologického hlediska se tak budou prolínat zejména dva teoreticko-kvalitativní přístupy. První aplikuje historickou metodu a etymologickou metodu vymezení hrdinství prostřednictvím diskriminační nebo selektivní analýzy. Analogicky se potom postupuje ve výzkumu sportovního hrdinství, v němž se pracuje také metodou kritické analýzy. Druhým přístupem bude syntéza těchto vymezení a z toho vycházející komparace mezi hrdinstvím klasickým a sportovním. Vyhodnocení výsledků bude částečně zpracováno při analýze myšlenek sportovních sociologů a filozofů. Hlavní výsledky (možné syntézy) budou generalizovány v závěru.

4 VÝSLEDKY A DISKUZE

4.1 Etymologie slova hrdina a koncepty kulturního hrdinství

Na začátku výzkumu vyjděme z definice Velkého sociologického slovníku, kde je v prvotním významu hrdina jedinec, který vykonal významné odvážné činy, většinou

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s nasazením vlastního života, a je proto prezentován jako vzor chování1. Běžně se hrdinovi připisují tyto vlastnosti: statečnost, neohroženost, schopnost riskovat, obětavost, vytrvalost, někdy i chytrost, která však není jeho podstatnou vlastností (Velký sociologický slovník, 1996)2.

Termínem „heros“ označovali původně staří Řekové přežívající duši zemřelého, jíž připisovali sílu zasahovat do života žijících. Později tak pojmenovávali lidi, kteří se vyznamenali výjimečnými činy, přičemž se předpokládalo, že to dokázali díky své božské krvi (měli božský původ po jednom z rodičů). Prototypy těchto polobožských hrdinů jsou postavy jako Achilles nebo Herakles (Souriau, 1994). Kolem každého takového hrdiny se zpravidla vytvořil mýtus. Později byli mezi hrdiny zařazování i významní občané, filozofové, učenci (např. zakladatel antické Sparty Likurgos nebo Aischylos, Sofokles, Platón, apod.). V pozdějších dobách můžeme hovořit o specifickém kultu, který kolem nich vznikl a značně se rozšířil.

Mýtus světských hrdinů se začal vytvářet v 9. a 10. století, kdy vznikl ideál rytířství, který se stal inspirativním zdrojem novodobé představy romantického hrdiny, ochotného obětovat život za ideál, lásku, vlast apod (Le Goff, 2002). Např. Eco (2006) říká, že nejobecnější formou hrdinského mýtu představuje právě románová podoba hrdiny. Takový hrdina je typický především tím, že se podobá obyčejnému člověku, ačkoliv v mnoha ohledech vyniká. Přitom tyto výjimečné schopnosti mají stále určitý lidský rozměr a stávají se jen jeho neobvyklou realizací - může jít o inteligenci, hbitost, umění boje a další.

Kategorií hrdiny se zabývá kromě historie a sociologie zejména sociologie morálky, protože hrdina představuje vypjaté morální cítění, maximální identifikaci s určitými morálními normami. Z psychologického hlediska je hrdina zajímavý tím, že potlačuje pud sebezáchovy, je zvýrazněním role superega. Archetypem hrdiny se zabýval zejména Jung (2009) ve svém díle Hrdina a archetyp matky. Sociologicky funguje označení hrdiny i jako labelling (označování), spojený většinou s velkou prestiží, případně

1 Ještě i ve „starém“ Etickém slovníku se hrdinství definuje jako „zvláštní forma lidského jednání, která je z hlediska morálky hrdinským činem. Hrdina se odhodlá řešit výjimečnou úlohu, bere na sebe větší odpovědnost a více povinností, než se obyčejně vyžaduje od lidí obecně přijatými normami jednání a překonává při tom mimořádné překážky (KON, 1978, p. 79). 2 Antropologický slovník vymezuje hrdinu v historické a kulturní perspektivě následovně: v řadě mytologií, případně starých historiografií různých oblastí světa je hrdinou zvíře, člověk, polobůh či bůh, který přináší lidem různé kulturní vymoženosti (oheň, zemědělské plodiny, písmo apod.); někdy je za to ovšem bohy ztrestán (Prométheus) (MALINA a kol., 2009). 133

s pozitivně vnímanou známkou abnormality. Hrdinství je ovšem hodnota různě interpretovaná a různě ceněná v závislosti na referenční skupině, resp. společnosti a době. Hrdinové se vyskytují zejména ve vypjatých historických okamžicích (za válek, revolucí apod.), kdy také stoupá význam tohoto pojmu, který je využíván motivačně i propagačně (Velký sociologický slovník, 1996).

Klapp (1962) tvrdí že, hrdina a hrdinné vyprávění obsahují celou řadu sociálních funkcí: jako vzory ztělesňující veřejné zájmy a ideály, jako veřejnou sílu spojenou s přemístěním obecenstva zprostředkovaně z každodenních rolí do nového druhu reality, která má práva a formy rozdílné od obyčejných sociálních struktur. Dle něj byli hrdinové také kompenzační symboly, které utěšovaly lidi pro jejich „poznaný nedostatek toho, co hrdina představuje“ (1962, p. 139). Tím můžeme říct, že je hrdina osoba velkolepých činů a měli bychom si také uvědomit, že hrdinové jsou pojatí v interaktivním procesu. Expert na mediální studia StratE (1994) argumentuje pravidlem, kterým jsou členové společnosti separování od svých hrdinů časem, prostorem a také sociálními třídami a proto znají jejich hrdiny pouze prostřednictvím příběhů, obrázků a jiných forem informací. V tom případě nemáme hrdiny v pravém slova smyslu, ale pouze komunikaci, která nám je připodobňuje. Bez komunikace by zde hrdinové nebyli (Strate, 1994, cit. podle Vande Berg, 1998).

Hrdinu můžeme ovšem vidět i v pejorativnější podobě a spadá do období padesátých let v zemích východního bloku, kde hrdinu představoval zpravidla pracující dělník, který byl vzorem nejen socialisticky realistického umění, ale také symbolem komunistické vize světa. Zaujal místo dřívějších hlavních postav, klasických hrdinů. „Mohutný, zdravý, silný, plný života a optimismu, opojený radostí z práce“ měl být soudobý dělník, či spíše jeho idealizovaný obraz socrealisticky věrný (Pavis, 2003).

Kdybychom tedy syntetizovali výše jmenované definice a tvrzení, můžeme akcentovat, že v zásadě každá společnost i každá ideologie aspirující na hromadnou akceptaci, a zejména ta, která má státotvorné ambice, potřebuje hrdiny jako vzory chování. Ideální typy hrdinů se opírají o reálné lidi a skutky, jsou ale dotvářeny v mýtotvorném procesu. Nápodoba chování hrdiny je často provázena stylizací. Nedostatek hrdinů v rovině vzoru i nápodoby bývá považován za známku úpadku sociální integrity a životaschopnosti společnosti. Pro nás je především důležité uvědomit si, že kult národních a válečných hrdinů částečně přetrvává dodnes.

4.2 Syntéza hrdinských konceptů s koncepty hrdinství sportovního

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Možnostmi hrdinství ve světě sportu se zabývalo hned několik teoretiků a zde budou nabídnuty zkrácené pohledy několika z nich. Přímo konfrontací mytického hrdinství a formami sportovního hrdinství se zabývala Zdebska (2006). V její analýze se dozvídáme, že potenciální sportovní hrdiny musí participovat na nejvyšším stupni daného sportu, jeho sportovní odvětví musí být v dané lokalitě populární, sportovec musí mít zároveň kladný postoj k pravidlům a morálním normám a také být dokonalý v ostatních životních sférách. Nicméně na rozdíl od ostatních zmíněných definic klasického hrdinství nepožaduje sport hrdinské skutky v reálných okamžicích. Můžeme zde tedy vypozorovat jistou podobnost se světem filmu, divadla či opery. Sport je vlastně událost uzavřená ve svém odděleném území, je blízký divadlu, nicméně s jednou značnou výhradou: je to divadelní hra s otevřeným scénářem. Hra, u které neznáme konec, i když ho můžeme někdy předpokládat (Zdebska, 2006).

Sportovní hrdina je také postavený mezi duchovní a světskou sféru sociálního života. Sport sám o sobě již neobsahuje nějaké náboženské hodnoty (zde je zásadní rozdíl od starořeckých či křesťanských hrdinů), spíše ho můžeme vidět jako připomínku prvku zprostředkovávajícího jistý druh kultury - zábavu, která je umístěná mezi tyto dvě zmíněné sféry; i když sport může dávat i jistou sakrální dimenzi (pokud sportovní činnost vstupuje do světa ceremoniálních hodnot, jako jsou slavnostní obřady, aj.). Takže sportovní hrdina nakonec za jistých podmínek může být přijímán jako kulturní hrdina (Zdebska, 2006).

Klíč můžeme hledat i ve fenomenologickém přístupu Schelera (1996), kde je hrdina „dědic krve“, která ho posouvá do větší šíře než jen k tomu být géniem. Hrdinský čin je také něco jiného než obyčejná lidská činnost. Hrdina je ze všeho nejvíce člověk vůle, která naznačuje lidskou sílu. Hrdinům jsou obvykle připisovány znaky jako jsou chrabrost, statečnost, vědomí velkého ducha, radost z boje a síla rozhodování. Hrdinové mají také takové atributy jako fyzickou krásu, zdatnost, šikovnost při hře, galantní chování a dobrou disciplínu. Jsou dobrosrdeční ve svojí štědrosti, oddanosti přátelům a společnosti. Vzor hrdiny je tak ztělesněním vitálních duchovních hodnot (morálky, poznání, estetiky) (Scheler, 2003). Proto se zdá být sportovní hrdina velmi podobný právě pojetí hrdiny od Schelera. Sportovní hrdina je ovšem poněkud chudší, jako by byl zbaven jedné důležité vrstvy. Může být sice pojímán jako dědic krve, ale toto dědictví by mělo být vnímáno v tom smyslu, že tento hrdina reprezentuje pouze jistou kulturu či jistou společnost. Reální hrdinové se vztahují k reálnému světu, bojují za skutečný svět. Hrdinové přinášejí pro svět

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vždy nějaké oběti. To je také důvod, proč sportovní hrdinové nemohou být považováni za rovnocenné např. hrdinům válek.

Dalšími teoretiky, kteří se věnovali danému tématu, jsou Jirásek s Robertsonem. Ti se v souvislosti se sportovním hrdinstvím zabývali tzv. vítězství za každou cenu, kdy taková adorace vítězství nad osobními hodnotami (zdraví či čest) není a nemůže být znakem hrdiny. Sportovním hrdinou jsou také často nazýváni ti, kteří zapadají do soudobého obrazu jednodimenzionálního tělesného hrdiny, jehož hlavním cílem je pouze dosažení vítězství. Společně také upozorňují na transformaci archetypu homérovského hrdiny, propojujícího tělesnou sílu s intelektem a soucitem („velké srdce“) v hrdinu jedné dimenze - tělesnosti (Jirásek & Robertson, 2010).

Jirásek potom také zdůrazňuje, že hrdina (i jako sportovec) pochopitelně vzbuzuje pozornost svými odvážnými činy, u nichž je dokonce možno vnímat jakýsi vyšší účel. Podmínkou hrdinství je nejenom postoj a čin, ale také fakt, zda hrdina „sám sebe překročil (transcendoval) či nikoliv“. Rovněž sportovní hrdina může být jako příklad dokonalosti dosažené lidským úsilím v boji o vítězství a být znakem transcendence v rovině fyzické, psychické, duchovní a sociální. Hrdina se ovšem nestal hrdinou proto, že se k tomu rozhodl. Hrdinství není záležitostí vůle či racionálního kalkulu (Jirásek, 2005).

Podobně jako např. Zdebska se k této problematice staví i Hyland (1990). Svůj pohled na věc vysvětluje zvýšeným obdivem sportovců zejména z důvodů jejich zručnosti a agilitě. Dle něj lidé dříve uctívali své hrdiny právě kvůli schopnostem boje, síle a statečnosti, které lze nyní spatřovat právě u sportovců. Nicméně podobně jako Zdebska zdůrazňuje, že nyní na rozdíl od dřívějších dob, je sport a sportovní utkání pouze jakýmsi divadlem, které nemá až takové přesahy do reálného světa. Hyland přímo říká, že při sledování sportu je neplodnou činností a jeho sledování je v podstatě ztrátou času. Ještě dále došel americký sociolog Edward Shils, který nejen, že sportovce nepřirovnává k hrdinům, ale označuje je za baviče nejhorší sorty a diskutabilní tvůrce tzv. brutální kultury (Schils, 1961). Kvůli objektivitě můžeme ještě uvést názor Kosiewicze (2006) na problém sportu a divadla. Fotbalista nebo basketbalista provádí s míčem velmi podobné „kousky“ jako cirkusový umělec v manéži. Upozorňuje však také na některé vznešené analogie sportovního pohybu, například v umělecké sféře. „Základním materiálem divadelní a sportovní podívané je i pohyb. Hlavní aktéři vytvářejí s jeho pomocí scénické akty i situace ve sportovní aréně. Ve sportu máme stejně tak co do činění s dynamickými a

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komplikovanými formami pohybu charakteru show, například volejbal, rugby, bojové sporty, gymnastika (Kosiewicz, 2006, p. 356).“ Hrdinský čin ve sportu tedy není na počátku sportovního dění (jako zámysl vykonat hrdinský sportovní čin), nýbrž v jeho završení v konkrétní objektivní a reálné podobě výjimečného lidského činu.

ZÁVĚR

Při pohledu na všechny zmíněné teorie můžeme říct syntetizující prvky korelující s potenciální podobou sportovního hrdiny. Ty můžeme hledat ve fyzické agilitě, možnosti podoby normálnímu člověku, i přes jeho vynikající schopnosti, jistou formou separace (Strate, 1994), ale i potřeby společnosti upírat se hrdinům – sportovcům. Nicméně potenciální sportovní hrdina postrádá mnoho z determinací – je de facto sekularizován, zpravidla nebývá zdrojem morálních hodnot a také je zde zřejmá absence transcendence (Jirásek, 2005). Musíme též připomenout Shelerovu teorii, kde je zdůrazňována především hrdinova velká vůle a další vlastnosti, které sportovní hrdina splňuje, jsou zde ovšem námitky teoretiků konceptu sportovního hrdinství, že se jedná pouze o uzavřené divadlo, nemající žádné přesahy do reálného světa. Otázkou zde také zůstávají otázky vítězství za každou cenu a jednodimenzionálnost sportovních triumfů. Hrdinové tedy musí být stvořeni sami sebou a své heroické schopnosti musí prokázat v době nedostatku, válek či v době, kterou si společnost žádá. Při generalizaci bychom tak mohli říci, že sportovní hrdinové můžou být sportovci, kteří nesou nějakou ideu, přesahující význam sportu samotného a prostřednictvím sportu jsou její šiřiteli. Takže nejsou jen mistři sportovní disciplíny, ale i morální autority, které bojují za nějakou věc a jsou jejími nositeli. Sportovec – hrdina by měl být také velkou autoritou ve společnosti.

Seznam použité literatury

ECO, U. 2006. Skeptikové a těšitelé. 367 s. Praha: Argo. HYLAND, D. 1990. Philosophy of sport. 161 p. St. Paul: Paragon House. JIRÁSEK, I. 2005. Filosofická kinantropologie: setkání filosofie, těla a pohybu. 354 s. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci. JIRÁSEK, I., ROBERTSON, D. 2010 The Hero in Victory and Loss. In Acta Univ. Palacki, Gymn. 2010, Vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 7-14. JUNG, C. 2009. Hrdina a archetyp matky: (symboly proměny II). 478 s. Brno: Nakladatelství Tomáše Janečka.

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KLAPP, O. 1962. Heroes, Villians, and Fools: The Changing American Character. 176 p. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. KON, I. S. 1978. Etický slovník. Bratislava: Pravda 1978. KOSIEWICZ, J. 2006. Filozoficzne aspekty kultury fizycznej i sportu. Wydanie III. Warszawa: Wydawnictvo BK. LE GOFF, J., SCHMITT, J., & ALESSIO, F. 2002. Encyklopedie středověku. 935 s. Praha: Vyšehrad. MALINA, J. a kol. 2009. Antropologický slovník (s přihlédnutím k dějinám literatury a umění) aneb co by mohl o člověku vědět každý člověk Brno: Akademické nakladatelství CERM v Brně, 2009. PAVIS, P., & JOBERTOVÁ, D. 2003. Divadelní slovník: [slovník divadelních pojmů]. 493 s. Praha: Divadelní ústav. SCHELER, M. 2003. Můj filosofický pohled na svět. 284 s. Praha: Vyšehrad. SEKOT, A. 2008. Sociologické problémy sportu. 223 s. Praha: Grada. SMART, B. 2005. The sport star. 217 s. London: SAGE Publications. SOURIAU, É. 1994. Encyklopedie estetiky. Praha: Victoria Publishing. VANDE BERG, L. 1998. The Sports Hero Meets Mediated Celebrityhood. In Wenner, L. (1998). Mediasport. 336 p. London: Routledge. VELKÝ SOCIOLOGICKÝ SLOVNÍK. 1996. Praha: Karolinum. ZDEBSKA, H. 2006. The sports hero phenomenon. In Journal of Lithuanian sports science council, Lithuanian olympic academy, Lithuanian academy of physical education and Vilnius pedagogical university, Vol. 45 (3), pp. 15-21.

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POSSIBLE SYNTHESIS OF CULTURAL AND SPORTING HEROISM

Ondřej ŠTAUD

Department of Sport Educology and Sport Humanities, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University in Bratislava

Supervisor: prof. PaedDr. Josef Oborný, PhD.

ABSTRACT

Paper is based on etymological analysis of meaning of phrase “sport hero” and its compatibility with expression cultural hero. Goal of paper is to define cultural heroism and to discover possible synthesis with sport heroism. Thus word elaborate discussion about etymology and hermeneutic of cultural heroism and particularly difference between explanation and possibility of sport heroism. We partially follow issue delimited of sport sociologists who dealt with view of changes of sport heroism at the turn of 20th a 21th century (e.g. Smart, 2005 or Sekot, 2008). In methodological way is word based on discriminative and selective analysis and on comparison between cultural and sport heroism.

Key words: Cultural heroism, sport heroism, etymology

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ŠTUDENTSKÁ VEDECKÁ KONFERENCIA 2015 BRATISLAVA, 9. APRÍL 2015 Zborník vedeckých prác

Recenzenti: Oľga Kyselovičová Ľudmila Zapletalová Jana Labudová

Zostavovateľ: Peter Mačura

Technický redaktor: Lukáš Chovanec

Rozsah: 140 strán Vydal: Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu, Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave Rok vydania: 2015

ISBN 978-80-223-3847-9