THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE NCORA AREA
By
Gcobani Mkwela
Submitted in accordance with the requirements of the degree
of
MASTER OF ART (Development studies)
in the Faculty of Business and Economic Science
at the
NELSON MANDELA METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY
Supervisor: Dr Noluntu Stella Dyubhele
November 2013
Port Elizabeth
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thank the GOD ALMIGHTY for granting me the strength and courage to conduct this study. I would like to thank my Supervisor, Dr Noluntu Dyubhele for her assistance, encouragement and dedicated guidance in preparation of this study. Thank you for your availability as you always made time even though you had other commitments. I also thank the staff at NMMU’s Department of Development Studies for all their assistance during the course. My family, especially my mother Sindiswa Mkwela for her unconditional support and funding throughout my studies. Pauline Visser for her sincere assistance in editing this study. Lastly and most importantly, the Centre Manager of Ncora irrigation scheme, Mr Polisi and Mr. Junqa of Qamata irrigation for providing me with the supporting documents that informed me well of this study.
Port Elizabeth
November 2013
Gcobani Mkwela
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DECLARATION
I declare that
The Role of Agriculture in the Ncora Area
is my own work, that all the resources used or quoted have been duly acknowledged by means of complete references, and that I have not previously submitted the dissertation for a degree at another university.
Gcobani Mkwela
Signature:………………………………….
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ABSTRACT
Despite 19 years of democracy and public action by civil society, policy makers continue to neglect the role of agriculture in improving the quality of life in rural areas such as Ncora in the Eastern Cape. The communities in the Ncora area still experience poverty despite the fact people receive state grants. Agriculture is declining in this area without basic infrastructure. The study argues that communities in the Ncora area need assistance from government in order to increase agricultural activities. These activities are an important route through which these communities can reduce poverty.
The primary objective of this study was to obtain a better understanding of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in the Ncora rural areas. The conditions necessary to sustain agriculture in the rural areas were identified. This was mainly done to help alleviate the plight of rural areas in the Ncora area and to improve the quality of life of the rural population.
The study was based on three research objectives. The first objective was to investigate the constraints to agricultural production in Ncora. The second objective was to ascertain what has been done by the Eastern Cape government in increasing agricultural activities. The third objective was to investigate the contribution of agriculture in reducing poverty in Ncora.
The main finding in terms of the first research objective is that constraints to agricultural production in Ncora are structural constraints. These include inadequate infrastructure such as poor roads, lack of transport and equipment, lack of farming skills, poor quality seed, no access to markets, inadequate and unaffordable services.
In terms of the second research objective, the main finding is that the government has encouraged investment in infrastructure using labour-intensive methods will eliminate service backlogs in underserviced areas such as Ncora. Secondly, it has encouraged the revival of irrigation schemes such as the Ncora irrigation scheme and is investing in human capital
4 through the empowerment of people in order to improve the quality of life of the Ncora community. Empowerment involves skills and training, education and access to basic services, expertise regarding credit, land and the growing of vegetables.
The development of human capital is an important determinant of the pace of economic development. Human, social, natural, financial and physical capital are essential elements of reducing poverty.
In fact, the Ncora community has lobbied Intsika Yethu Municipality for community development Community development through education and community participation in development programmes. Efforts have to be made to increase the skills that will enable them to complete development projects. These include technical skills in areas such as vegetable and crop production during the year. A key component of the success of development projects is to involve communities in the planning and decision-making processes.
Community development is linked to empowerment, in other words, empowered people are able to contribute to the development of their community because they have knowledge of the economic, social and political goals of development. Therefore, empowerment enables people to participate in and have an influence on the decisions that affect their lives.
The main finding in terms of the third research objective is that people in the Ncora community are using their own labour to improve food production to reduce poverty. The Ncora community has been shown when and how to make, grow and plant seeds, and look after the vegetables of their choice. The community of Ncora has learnt about cropping practices that are appropriate to their situation. The intention is to sell vegetables and crops to local communities and markets in order to generate income. The community has to do it for themselves or else they will wait forever.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
Acknowledgement ii
Declaration iii
Abstract iv
Table of contents vi
List of figures ix
List of tables ix
List of acronyms x
CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 2
1.2 The nature of the problem 3
1.3 Research aim and objectives 4
1.3.1 Primary Objective 4
1.3.2 Secondary Objective 4
1.4 Importance of the study and development relevance 5
1.5 Previous research 5
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1.6 Research design and methodology 7
1.6.1 Secondary research 8
1.7 Structure of the research Project 9
CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OUTLINING THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN RURAL AREAS
2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 The importance of Agriculture 11 2.3 Modernisation theory 11 2.3.1 Rostow’s stages of economic development 12
2.3.1.1 Traditional or subsistence society 13
2.3.1.2 Pre-conditions for take-off 13
2.3.1.3 The take-off period 13
2.3.1.4 Drive to maturity 14
2.3.1.5 High mass consumption 14
2.3.2 Placing South Africa in the context of the stages of economic development 15
2.3.3 Criticism of Modernisation theory 16
2.4 Dependency theory 17
2.4.1 Criticism of Dependency theory 19
2.5 The Basic needs approach 19
2.5.1 Criticism of basic needs approach 20
2.6 Conclusions 22
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Nature of the research 25 3.3 Justification for the approaches 26 3.4 Method of analysis 27
3.5 Conclusions 27
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN NCORA
4.1 Introduction 29 4.2 Constraints to agricultural development 30 4.2.1 Lack of infrastructure 30 4.2.2 Insufficient access to markets 31 4.2.3 Lack of access to land 32 4.2.4 Inadequate education and social services 32 4.3 Overview of Agriculture in the Ncora Area 32 4.4 Irrigation 34 4.4.1 Ncora Irrigation scheme 34 4.4.1.1 Climate 35 4.4.1.2 Challenges at Ncora Irrigation scheme 36 4.5 Farming Activities in the Ncora Area 36
4.5.1 The state of Smallholder Schemes in South Africa 37
4.6 Important factors in Agriculture 38
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4.6.1 Crop production 38
4.6.2 Livestock production 39
4.6.3 Marketing 40
4.6.4 Weaknesses and strengths of the Ncora Area 40
4.6.5 Gender imbalances in Agriculture in Ncora 42
4.6.6 Farmer training and skills development 43
4.6.7 Rehabilitation attempts at Ncora and Qamata 44
4.7 The contribution of agriculture to GDP in South Africa and the Eastern Cape 45
4.7.1 Contribution of agriculture to GDP in South Africa 45
4.7.2 Contribution of agriculture to GDP in the Eastern Cape 46
4.8 Lessons learnt from developing countries 47
4.9 Conclusion 49
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AREAS OF FURTHER RESEARCH AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
5.1 Introduction 51
5.2 Summary of the findings 51
5.3 Conclusion 52
5.3.1 Conclusions on the constraints to agricultural activities in Ncora 52
5.3.2 Conclusions on development practitioners addressing the needs of the rural area
of Ncora 53
5.3.3 Conclusions on role of agriculture in reducing poverty 54
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5.4 Recommendations 58
5.4.1 Improving local economic development strategies for the rural poor 58
5.4.2 Adequate investments in infrastructure 60
5.4.3 Enabling environments for grassroots initiatives of communities 60
5.4.4 Improving the human capital of rural communities 61
5.5 Further research areas on this topic 61
5.6 Limitations of the study 62
6. Bibliography 63
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Rostow’s stages of development theory 13
Figure 4.1 Map of Ncora 33
Figure 4.5 Gross Value Added (GVA) for Eastern Cape sectors 46
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Estimated rainfall at Ncora 35
Table 4.2 Reasons given for the failure of initiatives in the past 41
Table 4.3 Business opportunities at Ncora irrigation scheme 42
Table 4.4 Contribution of Agriculture to the economy 45
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ANC African National Congress CHDM Chris Hani District Municipality EC Eastern Cape ECDA Eastern Cape Department of Agriculture GDP Gross Domestic Product GGP Gross Geographical Product GVA Gross Value Added HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IYSDM Intsika Yethu Sub district Municipality IDP Integrated Development Plan LDC Least Developed Countries LED Local Economic Development MDGs Millennium Development Goals MLL Minimum living level NMMU Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University NGO Non Governmental Organisations RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SA South Africa Stats SA Statistics South Africa UFH University of Fort Hare UN United Nations USA United States of America UDHR United Declaration of Human Rights PGDP Provincial Growth and Development Plan
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CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTINGS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All over the world, agricultural activities are important in reducing poverty in rural areas (Kabeer 2003:93; Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:22). In South Africa, as in all other developed and developing countries, agricultural activities continue to make a significant and increasing contributions to reducing poverty in poverty stricken areas. Governments, economists, politicians and civil society agree that agricultural production plays a critical role in reducing poverty in rural areas (Barker, 2007:187–188). The importance of agricultural activities in reducing poverty cannot be overemphasised. The efforts of development practitioners in addressing constraints that hinder agricultural production are critical to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Poverty has a strong rural bias in South Africa and in the world (Dyubhele, 2008:1). While there are other forms of socio-economic disparities in society, such as racial differences, rural bias causes and increases poverty. This is mainly because of the nature of rural areas. Poverty is influenced by the nature of urban-rural interaction. The main sources of income in rural areas are state welfare benefits. However, the poorest rural households are those who have no links to the urban labour market through own employment or migration remittance (Van der Berg & Burger, 2001:23).
Agriculture, that has been part of development policies in South Africa, is declining. Despite the challenges of agriculture, the government has made rural agricultural development a key priority for reducing poverty. This has been done by improving small-scale agricultural production and increasing participation of famers in the mainstream of the economy (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:137). The aim is to increase household food security and reduce poverty in rural areas.
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1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The Ncora Area is situated in Cofimvaba, a rural area under the Intsika Yethu Local Municipality. It is approximately 80 km from Queenstown, which is in the Chris Hani District Municipality. According to Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) Report, 2004:123), the Chris Hani district is one of the 10 poorest districts in South Africa. This is mainly because the apartheid government relocated the people that occupied and owned the land in the Ncora area and re-established their homesteads in 10 smaller villages around the edge of the irrigated land (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:8). The Ncora area consists of 10 villages administered by the traditional authority for the government. These villages include Ncora Flats, Lower Ncora, Ngcaca, Nomadamba, Damane, Ngqwaru, Choto, Botani, Mathafeni and Ndenxa.
The Ncora area has a dam and an irrigation scheme that were built to assist with agricultural activities. The scheme is classified as one of the largest gravity-fed irrigation schemes in Africa. Olst and Chimbuya (2011:8) indicate that the water from the dam and high rainfall levels put Ncora at an advantage over many of the other schemes in the area. Despite its natural advantages, the scheme has been faced with challenges from the outset due to the top-down nature of the creation, planning and operation of the scheme.
After 1994, the government re-established the scheme under a new structure where it could be more economically sustainable. Agricultural projects in the area have in and gone. This is mainly because these projects have not generated sufficient income to improve the quality of life of the community of Ncora. Moreover, sufficient assistance has not come their way to reduce poverty. According to Dyubhele (2011:4-5), the process of rural development has to be a learning process for communities to become empowered to address their problems. Furthermore, rural development literature suggests that genuine grassroots participation of communities in agricultural development programmes is an important vehicle of a rural development strategy (Todaro and Smith, 2009:342 & Dyubhele, 2011:4-5).
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1.2 NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
Poverty has forced rural people to work strenuously and for long hours, (often outside the home in a hot climate) in areas such as agriculture (Blau, Ferber & Wrinkler, 1998:18; Kabeer, 2003:93). They perform tasks associated with agricultural production with primitive tools. This is not unique to Ncora village. In Asia and the Congo, rural people contribute more towards the production of cash crops and food production (Todaro & Smith, 2009:440; Kabeer, 2003:103). In Pondoland in the Transkei, rural communities play a significant role in the production of maize and wheat, whilst in the Ngqushwa Municipality the contribution is towards pineapple and vegetable production (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:10).
According to Todaro and Smith (2009:422), over two-thirds of the world’s poorest people who live in rural areas are engaged in primarily subsistence agriculture. These statistics are consistent with those reported in South Africa. However, agriculture is declining, mainly because it has been neglected in rural areas due to the urban or industrial bias of development programmes (Dyubhele, 2011:2). In addition, there is a lack of resources, such as tractors, fertilisers and crop products, to enhance agriculture. This situation has worsened rural poverty, because rural societies are unable to produce enough food for the growing population.
Like other municipalities, the Intsika Yethu Municipality has been tasked by the Constitution (in partnership with provincial and national governments) to reduce poverty (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009: 28). In doing this, it has to ensure that the community in Ncora has access to basic services such as water. However, the municipality suffers from a lack of sufficient and sustainable revenue. The participation and involvement of rural people in agricultural activities is not sufficient to improve rural life. According to Kabeer (2003:95), the development of rural agriculture can be seen as a way to give employment to the growing labour force in rural areas.
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1.3 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is to obtain a better understanding of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in rural areas. The main question investigated is how agriculture can reduce poverty in many rural areas, specifically in the Ncora area. This is mainly because agriculture is declining in rural areas, despite the agricultural nature of rural areas. The purpose of the study is to contribute to the understanding of poverty that is so prevalent in rural areas, such as the Ncora area, by identifying the constraints to agricultural production and ascertaining the contribution of agriculture in reducing poverty.
1.3.1 Primary Objectives The main objective of the study is to obtain a better understanding of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in Ncora village. Furthermore, the necessary conditions required to sustain livelihood in the rural areas were identified. This was mainly done to help alleviate the plight of rural people in Ncora.
1.3.2 Secondary Objectives The secondary objectives include the following:
To investigate the constraints to agricultural production in Ncora; To ascertain what has been done by the Eastern Cape government in addressing agricultural production or increasing agricultural activities; To investigate the contribution of agriculture in reducing poverty in Ncora.
1.4 Importance of the study and development relevance The study is important because the area under study has been under-researched. The research investigated the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in Ncora, as the village is agricultural in nature. The demographic, social and economic trends of rural economies have generated the need for rural people to increase their participation in agricultural production (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2002:45). This is due to increasing poverty, especially in rural areas in Africa (Kabeer, 2003:12; Roberts, 2005:486).
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Poverty is not just a state of affairs, but an unacceptable state of affairs, and something has to be done about it (Alcock, 1997:3–4). The current study was undertaken due to the fact that there is plenty of land yet there is no production and poverty is rising. In the past, rural people lived on the land because of agricultural production (Dyubhele, 2011:6). This situation made significant contributions to the improvement of the standard of living in the rural area of Ncora, despite limited resources at their disposal. Resettlement made households in Ncora worse-off due to factors such as loss of arable land and lack of or poor provision of services (Coetzee, Graaff, Hendricks & Wood, and 2001:332). The resettled communities are therefore unable to attain satisfactory economic development without assistance from those who resettled them.
The results of the current research offer the potential to assist in reducing poverty and improving the quality of life of the rural population in Ncora and Intsika Yethu Municipality in particular. It can lead to the subsequent improvement in the quality of life of the Eastern Cape population.
1.5 PREVIOUS RESEARCH
According to the Skillshare International organisation (2007:1), 75% of rural households are living below the minimum living level (MLL). Rural households find it difficult to secure food (Macanda, 2007:9). The poverty level is a key criterion in the assessment of livelihoods. Various measures can be used to develop an absolute ‘poverty line’ measure based on income or consumption levels (Scoones 1998:6). Scoones argues that sustainable livelihoods are achieved through access to a range of livelihood resources (natural, economic, human and social capitals) which are combined in the pursuit of different livelihood strategies (agricultural intensification or extensification, livelihood diversification and migration. According to Chambers and Conway (1992:43), livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base. The government has made some progress in reducing poverty, yet poverty is rising in rural
17 areas. Furthermore, development programmes have favoured urban areas at the expense of rural areas (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:19; Todaro & Smith, 2009:342- 343). This is mainly due to constraints in agricultural production. The agricultural sector in rural areas is still very impoverished, dominated by low-input and labour-intensive production.
The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP in South Africa is declining (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:4). Since 1994, reforms have resulted in low levels of government support for producers in South Africa. The Government has been very slow and ineffective in assisting rural communities with agricultural skills and equipment. Black farmers are mostly found in the rural areas which make up to 13% of the agricultural land. These areas were established under the Land Act No 27 of 1913 and 1936 and are characterised by traditional forms of land tenure (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:4).
There is a marked difference in the nature and level of economic activity and levels of welfare in rural areas (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:28). These inequalities are accompanied by uneven distribution of income in agriculture. This has contributed to a disproportionate prevalence of poverty in rural – compared to urban – areas. There are also questions regarding the distribution of access to land between different groups in the rural areas. The land distribution in some rural areas is still under the management of traditional leaders, who at times distribute land in an unjust and unfair manner (Dyubhele, 2011:79). Land redistribution by the government to redress the imbalances in land ownership has also been slow.
According to Pereet (2002:45), insufficient security of land tenure and ‘free rider’ problems associated with communal land ownership are widely considered to be obstacles to agricultural development in rural areas. Land tenure security would improve the performance of agriculture for smallholders. Despite the problems faced by agriculture in South Africa, there are also various opportunities for this sector. These opportunities include greater access to foreign markets, smallholder participation in
18 value chains, increased funding for agricultural research and greater co-operation among major role players in agriculture (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:56).
Effective agricultural production is essential for sustaining rural livelihoods. According to Nieuwoudt and Groenewald (2003:178), assets contribute to agricultural production. These include tractors, cattle or garden tools for ploughing. Some rural households do not own these assets and they have to borrow these items from neighbours.
Nel and Davis (2003:57) argue that agriculture should contribute to rural development. Not only do large numbers of South African populations reside in rural areas, but agriculture must contribute to the development of the economy through production of food at reasonable prices. The real challenge is modernising all aspects of agriculture in South Africa. According to Mosher (1981:74), agriculture has four functional components:
There should be continuous improvement in the technology and efficiency of farming; Commodities that are produced must change continuously according to change in market demand; There must be a steady and continuous improvement in the quality of land; The agricultural sector should be served by private and public agencies that are continuously adapted to serve the functions in new ways.
1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The study investigated the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in Ncora. This was done by analysing existing records, surveys and data. Descriptive research provides characteristics of a particular situation, describes what exists and discovers new meaning (Newman, 2000:251). According to Davies and Crombie (2001:7), high-quality descriptive research takes care to find relevant published and unpublished studies, assess each study, combine the findings in an unprejudiced manner and produce a representative and independent summary of the findings with due consideration to any flaws in the evidence.
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Secondary research was undertaken to achieve the objectives of this research.
1.6.1 Secondary research The secondary research was used to contribute to a better understanding of how agriculture can reduce poverty in rural areas. This research included elements of both quantitative and qualitative procedures, and not exclusively one or the other (Wolcott, 1990:63). This is mainly because information was obtained from existing surveys, data and biographical data. Secondary data in the form of records left by people about their activities was used as a primary resource.
The study involved a comprehensive literature search in order to obtain an understanding of agriculture as a poverty alleviation strategy. Books used came from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and the University of Fort Hare libraries, academic journals, Google searches, government reports, newspapers and feasibility studies. An official census conducted by Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) about the population of the study area was also used.
The document analysis looked into main crops that are produced in the Ncora area, marketing, finance and irrigation challenges. The performance indicators such as number of years the scheme had been operating and cropping productivity were taken into account (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:15).
According to Biscoe (2003:1), case studies provide an in-depth study of situations. This research involves analysing any type of existing data such as newspaper articles, speeches and letters from public figures or existing surveys. The goal of descriptive research is to obtain factual, accurate and systematic data. This enables case studies to become more comprehensive, minimise the chance of bias and become more reliable.
A case study was a valuable and credible method to use for this study because it provided knowledge that can be used by development practitioners to reduce poverty (Newman, 2000:251). Case studies do not necessarily reflect the views of the authors but contain an inclusive summary of available evidence (Davies and Crombie 2001:8).
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1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT
In gathering knowledge and understanding of agricultural production in rural areas, the researcher used Ncora as the case study. The structure of the study is as follows:
Chapter 1 presents the research problem and the setting. It introduces the research problem, the aim of the study, the objective, the methodology and the deployment of the study.
Chapter 2 gives an overview of the theories outlining the importance of agriculture in sustaining livelihoods in rural areas.
Chapter 3 outlines the research methodology, and describes the different methodologies used for the research.
Chapter 4 presents an analysis of agriculture in the Intsika Yethu Municipality in the Eastern Cape, and lessons from other countries. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the most important findings, the conclusion and tentative recommendations.
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CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OUTLINING THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN RURAL AREAS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Policy makers attach primary importance to theories, as these inform policy and action (Averbeke, 2012:413). Such theories are instructive to governments and can help to forecast the development of agriculture in rural areas. Theories provide explanations of certain trends and patterns found in data (Coetzee et al. 2001:15). They explain different kinds of causes, such as individual behaviours, different sectors and structural imbalances in society. In addition, theories differ in scope. Micro theories focus on specific issues in the economy, while macro theories focus on phenomena that affect the whole economy. Micro theories, more specifically those concentrating on people and communities, took the lead after 1970 (Davids, Theron & Maphunye, 2005:4). New theories have emerged in the conceptualisation of development in rural areas. This is mainly due to the fact that agricultural activities have declined and non-agricultural activities do not generate sufficient income. In South Africa, the experience of activists and policy makers has given rise to revised theoretical formulations of development concerns.
Theories allow individuals to see, understand, explain and change the social world. Each theory represents a way of looking at the social world. Many theories have been formulated to address the problems of developing societies. One of these problems is poverty, which is more visible in rural areas (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:19).
The objective of this chapter is to give an overview of the theories that outline the importance of agriculture in sustaining livelihoods in rural areas. This is done in order to obtain a better understanding of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty. However, before the theories are outlined, it is necessary to highlight the importance of
22 agriculture. The chapter sets the theoretical framework and its relevance to the study. The theoretical framework is outlined in the following paragraphs.
2.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture includes activities, such as farming, that provide more food (Owen, 2006:4). Owen argues that rural economies may benefit from agriculture through enhancing food production, employment opportunities and increase in welfare of rural people. Better inputs must be utilised in order to increase income of farmers. However, the increase in income of farmers results in increasing demand for food. It is the agricultural sector which not only provides employment opportunities, but also gives rise to diversification in such job opportunities. Whenever agricultural productivity and income increase, the demand in the rural sector increases. For example, the demands for small farmers and weavers will increase. In this way, agricultural development will promote the development of other sectors. In addition, the quality of life will improve in the rural areas.
2.3 MODERNISATION THEORY
Modernisation occurs when a traditional society changes to such an extent that it reflects social characteristics of ‘advanced’ societies (Dyubhele, 2011:15). An advanced or modern society has a Western culture and can handle social problems. According to Boeke (1953:45), a traditional society has limited capacity to solve social problems. Modern society consists of capital-intensive agricultural production and produces for the world market. A modernised society strives to bring its own development in line with those of developed societies (Van Averbeke, Marete, Igodan & Belete, 1998:5).
Most modern theories assume that all societies progress in a linear fashion from a traditional state to modernity. According to Giddens (2005:138), most developing countries are seen as traditional and Western industrial countries are seen as modern. Even within developing countries, certain sectors such as agriculture and mining are seen as modern and others as traditional. The modern sector may expand and be dynamic, while the traditional sector remains static.
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Modernisation theorists argue that the causes of poverty are internal to a country. The key to productivity in the agricultural sector is to shift from human and animal labour- intensive technologies to a labour-saving machine-intensive approach (Van Averbeke et al., 1998:5). The use of modern technology is seen as crucial to growth in the industrial sector and transfer of technology and knowledge from Western nations to Third World is seen as crucial to the development of the Third World (Van Averbeke et al., 1998:6). In the modernisation process of agriculture, farmers are encouraged to try new crops, new production methods and new marketing skills, and introduce hybrids, greenhouse technology and the use of artificial fertilisers and other scientific knowledge to replace traditional knowledge (Giddens, 2005:140).
The essence of Nurkse’s theory of balanced growth is that the limited market opportunities are obstacles to development in rural areas (Nurkse, 1963:12). Development is seen to increase production, including agriculture. The possibility of structural hindrances is not included in the line of thinking, as are market dependencies. The emphasis is on capital investment, not on the ways and means of achieving capital formation. This is mainly because in a traditional society there is ability and willingness for rational investment decisions, which are limited to small sectors of the society.
Another prominent proponent of the modernisation theory was Rostow (1960:3). His theory is discussed below.
2.3.1 Rostow’s stages of economic development The essence of Rostow’s theory is that it is logically and practically possible to identify stages of economic development, and to classify societies according to these stages (Rostow, 1960:4). He distinguishes five stages, namely, traditional, preconditions, take- off, maturity and high mass consumption. The stages are outlined below in Figure 2.1.
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Developed countries
Developing countries
Figure 2.1 Rostow’s stages of development theory
Source: Adapted from Dyubhele 2011:18
2.3.1.1 Traditional or subsistence society According to Boeke (1953:44), a traditional sector consists of small-scale agriculture and handicraft, and has a high degree of labour intensity, low capital intensity and little division of labour. Traditional society has to provide the resources, labour and capital to expand the modern sector. This is mainly because it has more than 75% of the population engaged in food production. A traditional society is one where structure is developed within limited production functions (Carter, 1987:113). Most of the resources of the society are devoted to providing the basics of livelihood, such as food, clothing and shelter. This economy is of a subsistence nature and predominantly agricultural. Rostow argues that the economic system is dominated by agriculture with traditional cultivating forms (Giddens, 1991: 138).
2.3.1.2 Preconditions for take-off According to Gow (2005:7) and Dyubhele (2011:16-17), the shift from a traditional or subsistence society to the preconditions for the take-off stage occurs because technological improvement raises output enough to produce a series of surpluses or profits beyond the subsistence level. These surpluses provide for investment. The transition phase is characterised by new methods of cultivation in agriculture (Davids et
25 al., 2005:10). The length of this phase depends on the modernisation of resources (Nafzinger, 1990:98).
2.3.1.3 Take-off During the take-off stage, labour is released from farming to join the urban industrial workforce. The take-off stage is characterised by declining agricultural production accompanied by increases in and the expansion of new agricultural industries. Profit is reinvested in new ventures and industries, which stimulates the growth of further agricultural industries (Matunhu, 2011:65).
The commercialisation of agriculture spreads new techniques and new methods in order to improve the quality of life in rural areas. The revolutionary changes in agricultural productivity are an essential condition for successful take-off, as modernisation of a society increases radically its bill for agricultural products (Gow 2005:8). The revolutionary changes in agricultural are an essential condition for successful take-off.
2.3.1.4 Drive to maturity This stage is characterised by the ability to include sophisticated technology and work processes. Therefore, society encounters structural changes that may hinder the development of rural areas. According to Todaro and Smith (2009:115), structural constraints hinder development. Structural constraints include economic and institutional constraints. Economic constraints refer to resource endowments, while institutional constraints refer to government policies (Dyubhele, 2011:25). Agriculture is worsened by inadequate infrastructure in rural areas due to the dual economy of developing countries.
2.3.1.5 High mass consumption During the high mass consumption stage, the economy is dominated by the manufacturing of consumer goods and the provision of services. This stage is attained when real per capita income has risen to a level at which consumption requirements of the population are beyond the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. According to
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Rostow (1960:12), this stage has been reached by Japan, Western European countries and the United States of America (USA).
2.3.2 Placing South Africa in the context of the stages of economic development Model
The stages of the economic development model assume that all countries progress from underdevelopment to development. Development of developing countries means adopting Western practices (Dyubhele, 2011:20). Development is seen as the suppression of the traditional sector by concentrating on and expanding the modern sector. The productive employment of labour in the modern sector would increase the total production of the economy. Therefore, investment in the agricultural industry is necessary. Development had concentrated on the modern sector, and this led to a decrease in agricultural production and hindrance in industrial development because of a lack of purchasing power in the rural areas (Lewis, 1965:26). This situation emphasises the important role of agriculture at the beginning of development (Mellor, 1976:30).
In South Africa, development did not take place according to the stages of the economic development model. It was not a smooth process due to many obstacles, such as isolation, disinvestment, influx control and discriminatory customary laws (Ntshona, 2001:99). Liberation movements, activists and trade unions in South Africa recognise the importance of new methods in food production. Subsistence food production tasks were performed with primitive tools. Today, the South African government and the Eastern Cape government in particular have development policies that consider agriculture as an important element of reducing poverty in rural areas. Therefore, while some sections of the dual economy are in the drive to the maturity stage, others, especially those in the rural areas, are still in the preconditions for the take-off stage (Dyubhele, 2011:22).
The development of rural areas was ignored in Rostow’s theory and the apartheid era. Poverty may be reduced through the development of people (Davids et al., 2005:25). It
27 is rather ironic that development of agriculture has not reduced poverty after 19 years of democracy.
2.3.3 Criticism of Modernisation theory The modernisation theory encouraged capital-intensive techniques in poor countries, while ignoring labour-intensive technologies (Van Averbeke et al., 1998:6). This theory focused on constraints inherent to Third World countries, while ignoring the limitations imposed by outside factors, the need for self-resilience and popular participation (Giddens, 2005:140). The participatory approach has been applied worldwide and has gained acceptance as a suitable vehicle for agricultural and community development.
Matunhu (2011:65) argues that modernisation is associated with development aid from developed countries. However, this relation tended to benefit the metropolitan states more than the recipient countries such as Africa. Modernisation impoverished Africa because it failed to recognise the creativity and initiative of Africans. The theory emphasises supremacy of the metropolis (developed countries) that changed Africa’s superstructure of beliefs and value systems (Matunhu, 2011:65).
One criticism against the modernisation theory is that it assumes that all societies progress along the same path towards development. It argues that the development experiences of Western industrialised societies can be applied to developing countries (Dyubhele, 2011:24). The modernisation theory does not take into account the global situation and views obstacles to change as internal. Modernisation theorists state that internal deficiencies create underdevelopment (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:37–38).
The simplistic nature of the traditional and modern dichotomy is rejected by critics such as Webster (1984:62–63). These critics argue that the stages do not progress in a linear fashion from traditional to modern societies. Modernisation is influenced by many variables, including technological progress, agriculture, diversification and differentiation. Modernisation is a process that can differ from society to society (Coetzee et al., 2001:33–38; Davids et al., 2005:12).
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According to Rostow’s (1960:12) model of stages of economic development, investment and savings are important elements of economic development. Economic development brings about social transformation (Coetzee et al., 20012:35). For example, the movement from subsistence production to cash crop production occurs as a result of the commercialisation of agriculture, which leads to economic development.
Another criticism of the modernisation theory is that in many developing countries, modern society benefits at the expense of traditional society (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:34). This situation perpetuates poverty in traditional societies, because traditions form a significant part of development of rural areas.
Irrigation schemes in the former Transkei and Ciskei were aimed at providing participating farmers with an acceptable income from full-time farming using simple and inexpensive technology (Van Averbeke et al., 2000:7). Van Averbeke et al. (1998:8) state that the objective of the schemes was to provide local people with opportunities to grow food for their families and to produce crops that could be sold for cash to cover production costs, and also to make small profits. Eventually, the irrigations schemes, such as Ncora, are considered to be technically insolvent. This is mainly because these schemes used sophisticated technology managed by outside agents (Van Averbeke et al., 1998:9). In addition, previous development policies and programmes did not recognise the need for consultation and community participation (Davids et al., 2005:10).
2.4 DEPENDENCY THEORY
The prominent proponent of the dependency theory is Frank (1967:5). The dependency theory emerged due to the failure of the modernisation theory to address the underdevelopment of developing countries (Dyubhele, 2011:29-30). The focus is on the fact that developing countries are dependent on developed countries. They have to adapt Western technologies to their own conditions, circumstances and needs (Davids, et al., 2005:15). Developing countries end up with underdeveloped areas. Furthermore, Davids et al. (2005:15-16) state that under-development is the result of vicious circles of
29 factors. For example, developing countries have low real incomes which are the result of low labour productivity. This low labour productivity, in turn, is a consequence of capital shortage, which is a result of the population's low saving ability.
The cause of underdevelopment is the dependence on industrialised countries, while internal factors of developing countries are considered irrelevant or seen as symptoms and consequences of dependence. The development of industrialised countries and the underdevelopment of developing countries are parts of one historical process. Underdevelopment is seen as a historical process that results from certain deficiencies. Hence, economic dependency generates the development of underdevelopment in certain areas and may help to perpetuate this position (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:42; Schuurman, 1996:5).
According to Davids et al. (2005:13–14), developing countries are not self-reliant. They are characterised as having a great potential for agriculture. The dependency theory shows that development has created urban bias; that is, urban areas are developed in preference to rural areas. Many developing countries remain underdeveloped, but are dependent on activities in developed countries (Todaro & Smith, 2009:118). Rural areas continue to bear the consequences of underdevelopment.
Rural economies such as Ncora village are predominantly agricultural in nature. They are dependent on both subsistence and commercial agriculture (Matunhu, 2011:67). Technological progress in primary production results in lower prices because of the inelastic demand. This weakens the relationship between the agricultural and the modern sectors (Prebisch, 1959:254)
Agriculture can become a major source of income if the budget for agriculture is increased (Ngqushwa Municipality, 2009:13–14). The municipality in Ncora can develop the agricultural sector – given the nature of the area – by focusing on sustainable entrepreneurial agricultural development. According to Petrin (1994:1), entrepreneurship is the central force of agricultural development. It has to operate in an enabling environment, especially in deep rural areas. The environment depends on policies that promote entrepreneurship (Dyubhele 2011:141).The community at Ncora
30 can help itself by lobbying authority for agricultural allocations, given its position of poverty.
2.4.1 Criticism of dependency theory
Developing countries adopt Western technology without adapting such technology to their needs, circumstances and value systems. They have to learn from the experiences of developed countries and adapt the experiences to their own conditions. The dependency theory argues that the cause of underdevelopment is exploitation by Western countries (Davids et al., 2005:13–14).
Levels of unemployment measure poverty and are also affected by lack of access to agriculture. Rural areas receive less education on agricultural methods. This situation increases the economic dependency burden on the state, as the state has to support the high population growth rate in rural areas. Poverty can be reduced by improving the role of agriculture through improved education (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:47; Todaro & Smith, 2009:376–379).
2.5 THE BASIC NEEDS APPROACH
The basic needs approach was introduced by the International Labour Organisation’s World Employment Conference in 1976. The basic needs strategy aims to provide minimum levels of needs satisfaction for the poorest members of a society. It seeks to create conditions whereby people can achieve at least a minimum standard of living. This basic approach is defined in terms of an individual's consumption of food, shelter and clothing, and relates to access to essential social services; for example, safe drinking water, sanitation, health care, public transport and educational and cultural opportunities (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:209).
The basic needs approach explicitly seeks a redistribution of the economic benefits of development in favour of the poor. It aims at a more direct satisfaction of the most urgent needs of the poor than that which occurs through the indirect effects of a general growth in national income (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:209). This approach implies not only
31 a redistribution of the social product, but also seeks a change in its composition. Streeten and Burki (1978:411) submit that the basic needs approach includes normative themes, and stresses the interdependence of needs and calls for a greater degree of social participation on the part of the poor. Streeten and Burki (1978:411) argue that the basic needs approach represents a reversal of conventional development strategy by seeking to stimulate a 'trickle up' process. The basic needs approach implies the following procedure: a set of basic needs is identified and given objective character, minimum human requirements of needs satisfaction are qualified, connections between the various needs are explored, present levels of basic needs satisfaction are measured to discover possible 'shortfalls', and a calculation of costs is arrived at to determine the capital and recurrent costs of activities intended to erase these shortages (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:212).
Basic human needs seem to be influenced most directly by the work of the 'humanistic' psychologist, Abraham Maslow. According to Maslow, one must proceed up the hierarchy, from considerations of biological survival to 'self-actualisation'. Satisfaction of needs at one level presupposes a certain degree of satisfaction at a lower level (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:224).
Streeten and Burki (1978:418) assert that the present doctrine of basic needs might be seen as an effort to wed a notion of ‘need', such as Maslow's, to the concern of ensuring a minimum standard of living across the globe. This latter goal dates back at least to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in which the present lists of basic needs were defined as rights. A favourable terrain for the take-off of this hybrid conception of basic needs was found in the 1970s when global economic setbacks became expressed in new currents of thought on social issues (Streeten & Burki, 1978:418). The optimistic code of the 1960s gave way to a growing dissatisfaction with the process and the fruits of industrialisation. There was a growing concern about population growth and environmental deterioration (Streeten & Burki, 1978:419).
2.5.1 Criticism of Basic Needs According to Somers (1996:174), an educated and healthy population is a key element in promoting sustainable development. Before 1994, the benefits of economic growth
32 did not benefit all members of society, especially in the rural areas. There was an increase in the inequality of basic needs (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:49). Investment in research to produce new technology was based on local conditions and investing in capacity for local agricultural industry and farmers so that they were able to use modern inputs. It is hoped that sustainable development will improve the quality of life of the present population through the equitable allocation and utilisation of resources.
It can hardly be said that the response to basic needs has been one of singular acceptance by representatives of developing countries. Foremost among concerns about basic needs is the charge that it is a disguised attempt to block the 'transfer' of high technology to developing countries (Matunhu, 2011:72). This hesitation is seen to reflect the desire on the part of developed countries to protect their industries from competition with developing ones (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:214)
Basic needs can be criticised from another direction. So far, attention has been paid to the conceptual side of the basic needs message. The political and pragmatic response to basic needs has meant that little has been made of the hidden but distinct cultural and conceptual biases to the notion of basic needs (Allen & Anzalone, 1981:215). Policy makers and critics seem inclined to accept the existence of basic needs as an ontological given, and that the only relevant questions arise in connection with identifying specific needs and determining minimum levels of satisfaction. Therefore, poverty can be reduced by improving the role of women through improved education and literacy (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:47; Todaro & Smith, 2009:376–379).
According to Greenberg (2003:14), the land reform programme has encountered problems. The goals of the land reform programme are: firstly, to strengthen tenure rights for the rural poor; secondly, to make land restitution to those who could prove that their or their family's land had been stolen under the apartheid system; and lastly, to redistribute 30% of agricultural land to the rural poor. The problems of the land reform programme include the fact that beneficiaries were not supported in carrying out economic activities once people were settled. Infrastructure to improve agricultural activities is still inadequate in Ncora village (Ngqushwa Municipality, 2006:29–50). This
33 means that people in rural areas still do not have the means of earning a livelihood despite land redistribution projects.
2.6 CONCLUSION
Research on the role of agriculture requires an understanding of development theories such as modernisation and basic needs. A theory can be criticised and redefined in another context or for specific circumstances. Modernisation sees development as a natural and linear process that embraces Western values rather than traditional social and economic practices. It assumes that development policies of developed countries would enable developing countries to ‘take off’. The aim of modernisation is to turn economies into high mass consumption and industrialised societies without consideration of their local development. As a result, the benefits of growth in developing countries did not trickle down to all societies.
Poverty is rising and agricultural production is declining in rural areas, even though the Government has made some progress in reducing poverty. Development programmes of governments have favoured urban areas at the expense of rural areas. The dependency approach states that modernisation is the cause of underdevelopment in rural areas rather than the solution to problems in such areas. Agriculture has been overlooked and marginalised, although it is the driver of sustainable development in many rural areas of Africa.
The top priority of development policy makers is to create policies that encourage grassroots participation in agricultural programmes, and the education and training of farmers in areas such as Ncora. Moreover, the demographic, social and economic trends of rural economies have generated the need for rural areas to increase their participation in agricultural strategies, as these are key elements of reducing poverty in rural areas.
After 18 years of democracy, poverty is a predominantly rural problem. Agriculture is central to rural livelihoods and remains the driving force in many rural areas. History has
34 shown that many developing countries cannot industrialise without significant improvements in the performance of agriculture. Therefore, income improvements for the rural poor have a major impact on poverty. Investment and growth in agriculture is an important route in reducing poverty in rural areas. This is mainly because the main forms of support are state pensions and child grants, which are far below the levels required for a dignified life.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Poverty studies have made a contribution towards addressing poverty at national or macro levels because poverty has a strong rural bias in South Africa and in the world (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:18–22). Despite this contribution, poverty is rising in rural areas especially, as development officials were quick to identify problems facing rural communities of South Africa, but not as quick to find solutions to these problems. This has resulted in a policy response to rural areas that is welfare-oriented instead of economic development-oriented (Dyubhele, 2011:44).
According to Slabbert (1997:35), disaggregated data on rural poverty have to be produced if meaningful solutions are to be found to reduce poverty in practice. Agriculture is an industry that has the potential to reduce poverty in rural areas such Ncora because of the availability of land and the agricultural nature of the area. Key factors in increasing agricultural output include access to land, seeds, fertilisers, transport and roads (Dyubhele, 2011:102-103). The community would need assistance from development agents such as governments to provide resources to enable them to take care of themselves.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide and explain the research design and restate the research objectives. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used and the justification for the approaches. Brynard and Hanekom (1997:20) assert that the planning, structuring and execution of any research is informed by the research methodology.
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3.2 NATURE OF THE RESEACH
The purpose of this research is to contribute to the understanding and possibly to reducing poverty that is rife in rural areas, by identifying constraints to agricultural production in the Ncora area of Intsika Yethu Municipality. Secondly, the aim is to contribute to policy development that will enable the Government and development practitioners to help alleviate the plight of rural communities. This is mainly because, in some cases, poverty is a consequence of deliberate policy decisions that affect rural areas. This research was done as a descriptive case study; it first determined and then describes the way things are in a particular area. It uses research evidence that already exists and provides a complete description of the situation (Jacobson, Rutzel & Hollingsworth, 1992:277; Davies & Crombie, 2001:8; Struwig & Stead, 2001:3).
The research included elements of both quantitative and qualitative procedures and not exclusively one or the other (Wolcott, 1990:63). This is mainly due to the fact that information was obtained from a comprehensive literature search in order to understand the role of agriculture in the Ncora area. Quantitative studies show results that are based on numeric analysis and statistics, while results of qualitative studies are in words or pictures. The results of this research may enable development practitioners to consider agriculture as the driving force in reducing poverty in rural areas.
Secondary analysis or document research was undertaken in order to achieve the objectives of this study. Document research, as a form of data collection technique, can be treated as a source of data in its own right and is an alternative to questionnaires, interviews and observation (Silverman, 2005:28). Existing data was obtained from libraries such as those of the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and the University of Fort Hare, journals, archives, government reports, Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) of the Intsika Yethu Municipality and NGOs. According to Descombe (2003:212), books and journals contain the accumulated wisdom on which the research project should build and the latest cutting-edge ideas which can shape the direction of the research. Documents were also obtained from the centre managers of irrigation schemes. This approach is considered appropriate when the purpose is to describe,
37 explain and understand the role of agriculture in reducing poverty in South Africa (Creswell, 2009:18–19; Leedy, 2005:106).
3.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE APPROACH The existing body of knowledge from literature on the importance of agricultural activities in reducing poverty was reviewed in Chapter 2. Research objectives were formulated on the basis of what seemed to be the most important points to consider. The purpose of the research objectives is to obtain a better understanding of how agriculture can reduce poverty in rural areas in South Africa, specifically in Ncora, in order to help alleviate the plight of rural areas and to improve the quality of life of the rural population.
According to De Beer and Swanepoel (2000:22–23), the plight of rural areas can be addressed using the following ways:
The agricultural sector in rural areas should be developed to improve the standard of living. However, the development of the agricultural sector involves addressing constraints, such as inadequate infrastructure, that prevent communities from engaging in economic activities;
Infrastructural services can contribute to job creation using labour-intensive methods, because more labour relative to capital can be employed. Therefore, investments in infrastructure can improve the quality of life in rural areas (Dyubhele, 2011:47-48).
Data were therefore gathered from secondary sources. Furthermore, the secondary data included information from news and analyst reports and a comprehensive literature search. A comprehensive literature search is important because it sharpens the theoretical framework of the study (Mouton, 2001:143).
The research objectives were tested using data gathered from the in-depth analyses of documents such as existing surveys and data. In-depth analysis was chosen because
38 the primary objective of the study was to identify the constraints to agricultural development in rural areas. In-depth analysis allows for accuracy and structure (Dyubhele, 2011:47-49). Case studies help to understand the way in which certain communities and groups respond to poverty (Hart & Sitas, 2004:37).
Data from most of the Eastern Cape irrigation schemes indicated that most of the former major schemes were either not operating or had only a handful of farmers farming on small plots (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:20). For example, the visit to Xonxa irrigation schemes in the Chris Hani district indicated that there is little agricultural activity taking place. However, at Ncora a large number of plots were being actively cropped. Therefore, the Ncora area presented a more suitable place to conduct this study.
3.4 METHOD OF ANALYSIS Basic descriptive techniques and content analyses were used as the means of analysis. The emphasis of this study was on what, how and where. The research provides insight into the contributions of agriculture in reducing poverty in rural areas.
3.5 CONCLUSION
Data for the study was collected from documents such as existing surveys, speeches and letters from public figures. This was done to understand the role of agriculture in sustaining livelihoods in depth. South Africa is a middle-income country, with social indicators that suggest living standards closer to those of lower-middle-income or even low-income countries. The country has high levels of material inequality and therefore many rural areas are left outside the economic mainstream. This situation is mainly due to the long history of segregation and discrimination that has left a legacy of inequality and poverty.
One consequence of apartheid is a lack of comprehensive social indicator data that could assist in policy formulation. Data available on rural areas are not rural-sensitive, hence the need for research on poverty. Policy makers need to see how the
39 programmes vary between urban or rural areas in terms of community characteristics, such as in communities with and without access to land.
The relationship between poverty, education and training of communities is particularly important, because of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty. The improvement of education and skills development is clearly a high priority for improving living standards and reducing poverty.
This chapter discusses the methodological framework that this study will use. The Ncora area is the main area used in the study. The study investigated the main crops that are grown in the Ncora area and the challenges faced by the community. Agriculture has shaped the history and development of South Africa in the past, and has a potential to play a critical role to growth. The Ncora irrigation scheme produces food and crops. Therefore, it has a potential to reduce poverty in Ncora rural areas.
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN NCORA
4.1 INTRODUCTION All over the world, agriculture is recognised as an engine to reduce poverty in rural areas (World Bank, 2007:40). However, the agricultural sector in many developing countries has been neglected and is underperforming. This is mainly because communities – who represent a crucial resource in agriculture and the rural economy through their roles as farmers, labourers and entrepreneurs – encounter constraints and have no access to productive resources. In South Africa, the democratic government is committed to improving the living standards of those who were denied access to productive resources; namely; rural communities (ANC, 1994:102).
The national government and the Eastern Cape government in particular have instituted agricultural development policies to reduce poverty. These policies have not yet brought about an improvement in the livelihoods of communities because there are structural and institutional constraints to agricultural development. According to Dyubhele, le Roux and Mears (2009:230-231), structural constraints concern resource endowments, and institutional constraints relate to state policies. Historically, communities produced agricultural crops and agriculture contributed to the development of agricultural enterprises (Byerlee, de Janvry & Sadoulet, 2009; Timmer & Akkus, 2008). This was an important route to reducing poverty.
This chapter describes the current situation in Ncora. It provides an account of how agriculture can reduce poverty in a rural area such as Ncora. Furthermore, the chapter analyses the information obtained from documents. It concludes with the identification of key development issues of the study area. The area is analysed under the following headings: constraints to agricultural development; overview of agriculture in the Ncora area; irrigation; farming activities; important factors in agriculture; contribution of agriculture to GDP in the Eastern Cape and South Africa; lessons learnt from developing countries and conclusions.
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4.2 CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
4.2.1 Lack of infrastructure Rural areas do not have adequate roads to increase access to agricultural inputs and markets (Farhart and Hayes, 2013:10). Without roads, they are cut off from communication via media such as newspapers, emerging markets and technological development. This situation exists in Ncora. In Ncora, irrigation systems are poor. These poor irrigation systems result in poor agricultural yields because there are few crops as the supply of water is uncertain. Lack of transport makes it difficult for members of the scheme to gain access to the commercial market where they would be able to sell their goods. The improvement of irrigation schemes through participatory and community-driven processes stimulates employment opportunities, agricultural productivity, and food and income security (Denison & Manona 2007:23). An agricultural production increase of 32% in Bangladesh resulted in an increase in household income and access to inputs and technology (Raisuddin & Mahabub, 1990:42).
According to Nel, Binns and Motteux (2001:4), a meaningful agricultural development project does not only depend on the existence of a facilitating environment but also requires certain factors such as usable physical resources, human and social capital and external support. Nel et al. (2001:4) argues that human capital includes the skills, talents and leadership capacity possessed by members of a community. A number of agricultural development schemes have failed due to increased dependency and inadequate human capital to fill the role of an external body when it withdraws from a project (Nel et al., 2001:4). Therefore, social capital measures the degree to which a community can co-operate towards achieving its desired results. Community-based initiatives are usually impeded by a fairly standard list of constraints such as lack of finance, technical expertise and knowledge of the commercial market in which they are operating. One can therefore see that it is important for an agricultural project to possess these factors in order to be sustainable.
Investment in physical and institutional infrastructure is inadequate in the Ncora area. For example, in terms of infrastructure, the hazardous conditions of roads in Ncora have increased the cost of transport. This has contributed to the difficulty for markets and the
42 private sector to gain access to the Ncora community. Crime prevention and control is also poor as many famers and family members have been robbed and theft of livestock is a major problem that has financially crippled some smallholder farmers (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:54). The livestock is used to plough the fields.
Marketing services to the small farmers in the area are often poor due to poor roads, telecommunication, physical marketing infrastructure and financial services. Lyne (1996:188) argues that no upliftment of the rural poor can occur in the absence of significant improvements in the marketing set-up serving these areas and people. There is also a drain of human capital from agriculture with educated youth seeking vocations in urban areas. Inadequate investment and the flow of capital out of rural areas are problems that need urgent attention by the government. Schultz (1968:99 in Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:132) quotes that ‘the real culprit causing the poor performance of agriculture in the less-developed countries is the lack of economic opportunities in agriculture; opportunities that are rewarding for farmers’.
Furthermore, the wastage and under-utilisation of scarce resources also creates a considerable problem in the Ncora communities (Vink & van Rooyen, 2009:37). For example, the absence of well-defined, secure and tradable water rights results in substantial wastage of scarce water resources. In addition, the absence of secure and tradable property rights in communal areas has led to the degradation of land in those areas. This creates an opportunity for induced institutional change that could benefit agriculture and the economy (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:55).
4.2.2 Insufficient access to markets In rural areas such as Ncora, there are few job opportunities outside of agriculture. The nature of farming may result in food and income insecurity (Denison & Manona, 2007:3). The workers often work in a hot climate and in low-paying jobs in agriculture that have seasonal fluctuations and give little income security. They are unable to save and obtain credit to increase supply of raw materials. They need support from local government in order to have access to markets.
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4.2.3 Lack of access to land The community of Ncora has little or no access to land (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:30). This contributes to increasing poverty in the area. In fact, there is serious food insecurity in the area and in the Eastern Cape in general. Many communities are trapped in a poverty cycle where neither modern science nor food systems have eliminated hunger (Alamgir and Arora, 1991:2–3). There is no simple recipe for reducing poverty. The solution for rural areas such as Ncora is government support and intervention over the short term. The government has to focus on circumstances, needs and legislative reform and redistributive policies for the very poor to reduce poverty (De Beer & Swanepoel, 2000:228–229). The best solution would be to teach the people to help themselves.
4.2.4 Inadequate education and social services According to Otsuka Keijiro (2009:20), many people in rural areas work in agriculture as subsistence farmers, due to low levels of education. This is the situation in Ncora. There is under-nutrition or malnutrition due to inadequate education regarding nutritional and health needs. Moreover, inadequate roads and poor access to information makes it difficult for rural residents to obtain health care (Denison & Manona, 2007:5). Inadequate education and social services are not unique to Ncora. In African countries such as Burkina Faso, Mali and Nigeria, 74% of adults have no education (Sahn and Stiffel, 2003:50).
4.3 Overview of Agriculture in the Ncora area At present, agricultural production in this area consists of community gardens and farming. Farming occurs through the irrigation scheme. Farmers participated in a limited number of production activities such as irrigating, weeding and harvesting (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:53). When confronted with the task of producing on their own, farmers wished to emulate practices adhered to by the scheme in the past. This involved a high level of input and a number of tractorised operations (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:53). Indigenous operations are perceived as inferior and there is no evidence of a wish to revive these operations by the Government. As a result, in all aspect of farming – including land preparation, planting, nutrient supply, weed and pest control, and
44 marketing and financing – the level of dependency is extremely high. Those few farmers who were prepared for independent dairy farming lack the financial management skills to sustain production and all these enterprises have reverted to what could be called traditional livestock production on irrigated land (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:54).
Figure 4.1: Ncora area
Source: Intsika Yethu Annual Report 2008.
Farmers have abandoned production or are producing less than 30% of potential crops (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:49) in Ncora. It also appears that many of the farmers are not interested in farming and if the scheme would be handed over to the farmers, it is expected that many would be looking for other people, including outsiders, to make use of the land. In the absence of security of tenure, it appears that many farmers would prefer to leave their land uncultivated, rather than lease it to someone else interested in production (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:49).
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The community in Ncora can benefit from the land resources by cultivating the land. Many households in Ncora cultivate crops in order to provide food for their households. They grow vegetables under poor conditions in which rainfall is unpredictable. Water collected from standpipes is for domestic purposes and often unaffordable. Women rely on water from rain into drums. It is rather sad that agriculture is not a source of income, because they do not have a market for the products. Agriculture is used for subsistence.
There are not many vegetables that can be produced under the bad weather conditions in Ncora. Vegetables such as maize, cabbage and spinach are produced as well as African vegetables such as “utyutu”, “ihlaba” and “umsobosobo”. These are edible plants. African vegetables and maize can survive without adequate irrigation, which is beneficial, as water is scarce. Spinach and cabbage are cash crops that need more irrigation and chemical inputs. The Ncora community uses traditional ways and primitive tools to grow vegetables. They plough “uthuthu” or the ashes from burnt wood and cow dough into the soil of home gardens. This is done to secure food even during poor rainfall seasons (Dyubhele 2011: 153).
4.4 IRRIGATION Irrigation is defined as the provision of measures that enable users to adequately supply their crops with water (Meijer, 1993: 25). Water can be pumped through pipes to the surface and sprinkled onto plants. This water system is used by farmers. In addition, irrigation water can be collected from the river or stream and transported to fields via canals.
According to van Rijn (2004:4), irrigation is a form of agriculture that uses more labour relative to capital. Irrigation skills are developed and farmers have to develop an irrigation culture before implementing an irrigation project. This includes training the farmers, developing water-use, and forming maintenance and operation committees.
4.4.1 Ncora Irrigation Scheme The Ncora irrigation scheme is situated in the Ncora rural community, with incredible natural resources for agricultural activities without being able to access any welfare from these resources. According to Farnadzo, Chiduza and Mnkeni (2010:3514), the poor
46 performance of many smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa is a result of many factors such as socio-economic attributes, political interferences and instability, climatic conditions and design factors, as well as lack of farmer participation.
4.4.1.1 Climate The rainfall, temperature and wind are discussed below.
Rainfall
Table 4.1: The estimated mean of monthly and annual rainfall of Ncora irrigation Scheme. Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
109 99 106 49 30 12 14 19 43 60 83 99 724
Source: Eastern Cape Commission 1996
The government of the Eastern Cape probed a commission of enquiry in 1996 about the weather patterns which affect agricultural production. The dry cycle, with an average annual rainfall of 585 mm for the period 1994-1996, still occurs today (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:6). Relative to the estimates, early summer rains in October and November are heavier, a distinct mid-summer dry spell occurs and July rainfall is very low. All these anomalies cause crop management problems (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:3; Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:6).
Temperature Slightly lower summer temperatures contribute to limited yields in some crops and the elimination of others from the cropping programme. Frost is always expected to last from April to late September.
Wind During early summer, strong winds occur with mean daily wind speeds of 20 km per hour from August to November in some years. This is a negative factor in winter crops such as wheat, because it causes lodging (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:4).
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4.4.1.2 Challenges at the Ncora Irrigation Scheme
The Ncora irrigation scheme is primarily a state-funded social welfare scheme which benefits more than 200 scheme employees (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:9). The scheme was conceived to provide land rights to holding members of the Ncora community with an opportunity to produce their own food requirements in an organised way. The income resulted in estate farming.
During 1996, there were several factors that led to the deteriorating situation and malfunction of the Ncora Irrigation Scheme (Denison & Manona, 2007:23). The way in which support services were supplied to farmers led to farmers doing little farming themselves. Their involvement in farming was limited to a few basic activities such as irrigating, some weeding and harvesting of the crop. Extension staff effectively acted as managers of production on the plots allocated to famers, whereby most of the activities were executed by scheme labour. Olst and Chimbuya (2011:15) argue that extension officers were not involved in developing farmers into independent decision-makers equipped with adequate knowledge of production and marketing practices. In other words, people whom the scheme intended to benefit became passive recipients of the scheme and they were not actively involved in training and establishment of the scheme. When major funders and external actors withdrew, the people were left helpless. They were unable to maintain the sustainability of the scheme as they lacked formal training in scheme management and crop marketing. It is also argued that the design of the scheme was dominated by engineering consultants and extremely static with a high level of technology. This situation does not allow for easy structural change in response to a changing socio-economic environment (Olst and Chimbuya, 2011:15).
4.5 FARMING ACTIVITIES IN THE NCORA AREA Agricultural activities such as farming play a dominant role in the economic development of most rural communities in Africa, including South Africa. Obasanjo and d’Orville (1992:46) argue that African farmers have been poorly treated with respect to the pricing policies of their governments. Many African governments stabilised the prices of commodities produced by the farmers to ensure that their earnings would not
48 be affected by fluctuation of world market prices (Obasanjo & d’Orville, 1992:46). In reality, the farmers have not really benefitted from such stabilisation schemes.
Small-scale farmers in rural areas have many challenges. These include scheme management, project planning and design, security of tenure, size of units, farmer participation, water management, debts, product prices, marketing and services concerned with research and other types of support services. In Ncora, communities play a vital role in day-to-day activities of agriculture. They are involved in ploughing, cultivation and ensuring that crops are not plagued by diseases.
4.5.1 THE STATE OF THE SMALLHOLDER SCHEMES IN SOUTH AFRICA The performances of smallholder schemes that have been set up as part of the post- democratisation land reform programme have performed poorly (Van Averbeke, 2012:413). Smallholder agricultural production has declined in rural areas. Their productivity lags behind the commercial sector and this divide is growing (Vink & van Rooyen, 2009:27). A number of smallholder surveys on agriculture have established that small-scale South African farmers face a number of binding constraints that limit agricultural production and productivity. These include agronomic factors such as disease and climate changes, coupled with a lack of information, namely, expert advice and declining agricultural support services such research on the sector (Vink & van Rooyen, 2009:31).
In smallholder agriculture, insufficient security of land tenure and ‘free rider’ problems associated with communal land ownership are seen to be an obstacle to agricultural development in rural areas (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:49). Land tenure security is regarded as a necessary but insufficient condition for economic and agricultural development. Therefore, strengthening land tenure security in the rural areas of South Africa would improve the performance of smallholder agriculture by strengthening incentives to invest and promoting efficiency through rental transactions in farmlands (Vink & Rooyen, 2009:28).
The relatively small percentage of land that is potentially arable (13.7%) is an indication that most of South Africa receives low rainfall, making crop production limited or
49 impossible. In fact, 32% of the country receives an average rainfall of less than 300 mm per year and 57% receives a rainfall of less than 500 mm per year (Lyne, 1996:188). Therefore, one can see that lack of rainfall hinders quality of crop production and other agricultural activities, especially in rural areas.
Moreover, smallholder agricultural productivity is regarded as being very low in South Africa. Nieuwoudt and Groenewald (2003:52) argue that improving productivity is a crucial though not sufficient condition for alleviation of poverty in rural areas. Increasing smallholder agricultural productivity requires tenure security and improving access to reliable and effective farmer support services, such as extension, finance and marketing. Agricultural service institutions in the past were designed along racial lines, with the result that smallholder farmers’ needs were not met adequately. Lyne (1996:187) submits that smallholder farmers have limited access to factors of production, credit and information. Therefore, improving smallholder agriculture in rural areas requires that support services be accessible to the majority of smallholder farmers. International experience indicates that with adequate access to farmer support services, smallholder farmers can increase productivity and production significantly. For example, smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe doubled maize and cotton production in the 1980s when extensions, marketing and credit services were provided (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:53).
4.6 IMPORTANT FACTORS IN AGRICULTURE
4.6.1 Crop Production According to the White Paper on agriculture in South Africa, approximately 12.0 million ha of land in South Africa is arable (White Paper, 1996: iv). Irrigated crop production has benefitted food security by supplying food at reasonable prices, creating job opportunities and creating foreign capital. It is no exception that as the Ncora irrigation scheme is being rehabilitated, the scheme has great potential to supply vegetables to the market in the Cofimvaba region and contribute to the economic development of Cofimvaba while benefitting the communities of Ncora. The commercially-irrigated production of grains and pastures has the potential of being boosted by more profitable crops such as vegetables, fruits and nuts in the scheme (White Paper, 1996: v). The
50 productivity of irrigation water at Ncora can be enhanced by improving the water use efficiency for crops (White Paper, 1996: v). This can be done with individual crops by better irrigation scheduling, by irrigating at night rather than during the day and by improving water delivery technology (White Paper, 1996: v). It can also be raised by using more or better accompanying input, such as fertilisers and disease control.
Farnadzo et al. (2010:3515) argue that limited knowledge of crop production among farmers has been identified as one constraint to improved crop productivity in smallholder irrigation schemes. Crop production approaches, such as farmer training and good management, must be considered during the revitalisation of smallholder irrigation schemes in rural areas. According to Denison and Manona (2007:23), this situation improves the performance of the schemes. It has also been argued that research and expenditure have tended to focus mainly on rehabilitation/revitalisation of scheme infrastructure while ignoring other important factors such as good management, farmer training and crop production approaches (Denison & Manona, 2007:3523).
The decline in production was ascribed to the impoverishment of the soil over long periods of continuous cropping (Rossouw, 1989:65). This situation prevails in the Ncora Irrigation Scheme. Constraints to crop production include the use of poor quality seed, poor seedbed preparation, insufficient use of fertiliser and manure and labour shortages during critical periods, resulting in less effective weed control (Rossouw, 1989:65). Importantly, the risks attached to crop production are the climatic conditions, occurrence of pests and diseases and insufficient social control systems; these can lead to partial or total crop failure. The development of irrigation schemes may be an effort to reduce the risk of crop failure, but due to inefficiencies in the utilisation of resources, it may result in replacing one risk with another set of risks (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:49).
4.6.2 Livestock Production Rossouw (1989:66) argues that the main technical constraint of livestock production is nutrition and the shortage of bulk fodder. This is prevalent at Ncora during winter and dry seasons, when the mortality rate of livestock increases. It is difficult to identify potential and healthy grazing land for livestock at Ncora due to land degradation. Furthermore, Bembridge (1984:72) notes that there is low productivity in the former
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Transkei areas. This is due to institutional, technological and social factors. Institutional factors include land tenure and lack of input, while technological factors include inappropriate technology. The latter includes effects of migration, remittances from the urban sector and lack of primary healthcare and water supply.
4.6.3 Marketing Marketing in the district surrounding the Ncora area is informal and unorganised (Rossouw, 1989: 73). During periods of abundance, maize can only be sold to local millers and traders or to private individuals. Most vegetables grown at Ncora are sold informally to vendors, individuals and in the towns of Tsomo and Cofimvaba. The Ncora community needs to build relations to supply local stores with the products cultivated in the scheme. This would promote local share and participation, and benefit of the profits made from products cultivated. However, the community cannot market the products on their own. They require assistance from the local Department of Agriculture. Pundo (2005:100-101) asserts that to improve market access by smallholder famers, there needs to be good transport, communication and information systems to link agricultural markets and farmers. This is mainly because educating small-scale farmers in rural areas on efficient farming methods will also enable them to apply better packaging and storage facilities, as these factors affect the price of production.
4.6.4 Weaknesses and Strengths of the Ncora areas In the Eastern Cape, irrigation schemes do not fail due to poor agricultural advice only. Community development is a critical element in agricultural development. Ncora is no exception to this. Some of the best agronomists in the country have been involved in re- establishing the schemes. Today, the land in the Ncora area has been allocated back to the original communities who were moved off the scheme during apartheid. Land is assigned by the chiefs. Each household has access to 2 ha to use for farming. The individual households do not own any land but make use of the land in the scheme for grazing and some crop production. As is evidenced in the erosion, broken pipes inside the scheme and general state of dereliction of the fixed assets, there is very little sense of ownership or individual accountability towards the upkeep of the Ncora irrigation assets (Olst & Chimbuya, 2011:51).
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A large co-operative structure is required in order to ensure the success of any project. Past projects that have isolated one village or left individuals feeling disenfranchised have led to vandalism (for example the old dairy in Ncora) to a point that the project has needed to be scrapped. Co-operation is currently attempted through a ‘Producer Assembly’ that administers the land on behalf of the 10 villages of Ncora, in a way that all villagers benefit fairly from any venture on the land. Olst and Chimbuya (2011:52) argue that this benefit model has not yet been defined, making it difficult for investors to commit. Co-operation takes place through ‘secondary co-operatives’ at a smaller village level. These co-operatives generate income together and have an existing working model for sharing the benefits. Micro co-operatives also exist between families who jointly own and operate a taxi service, for example.
Table 4.2 shows that many initiatives in Ncora have failed in the past largely due to poor management, lack of capacity/mentorship and complicated ownership debates.
Table 4.2: Reasons given for the failure of initiative in the past
Failed Initiatives Reason for failure Bakery Political interference (municipality meddled in running affairs). Dairy New government stopped supporting the technical company running the dairy; vandalism by community. Chicken Lack of skills and mentorship. Crops and vegetables Lack of skills and mentorship. Maize Management issues/poor management). Source: Olst and Chimbuya 2011
Table 4.3 below shows business opportunities available in the Ncora area. The Ncora economy is reliant on the agricultural sector. Nevertheless, the agricultural industry has a potential for development because there is land available. It is important that the physical environment is attractive enough to entice investors to invest in agricultural development. However, it is also important to look at access to land, inputs and markets, and transport and skills development, because these are key factors in
53 increasing agricultural output. Furthermore, these factors can assist the Ncora community to grow vegetables. The community would need assistance from local role players in finding buyers, such as businesses in Cofimvaba and Queenstown, to sell their products.
Table 4.3: Business Opportunities at Ncora irrigation Scheme 1. Cannery (for example, asparagus - a vegetable that has been in cultivation and the portion eaten is the immature shoot referred to as the spear due to its shape). 2. Farmers supply/technical support 3. Nursery- crops 4. Franchised Ncora chicken products (pies, roasted chicken ) 5. Taxi business 6. Chicken abattoir 7. Dried fruit 8. Maize growing Source: Olst and Chimbuya 2011
4.6.5 Gender imbalances in Agriculture in the Ncora area Obasanjo and d’ Orville (1992:124) state that, historically, women are involved in food and crop production. Many women are involved in subsistence farming of crops such as maize, potatoes, cabbage, carrots and spinach. This is mainly because these vegetables are a direct source of food and income for many rural families. In spite of all these substantial contributions, women continue to be excluded from the decision- making process. This situation prevails in Ncora where project meetings are predominantly held and facilitated by men (Olst and Chimbuya, 2011:51-52). According to Obasanjo and d’Orville (1992:83), ignoring women’s contributions and paying little attention to improving their conditions, is a contributing factor to Africa’s food security crisis.
Women work long hours and perform many activities using primitive tools. Technological improvements have simplified some activities. For example, the sprinkler irrigation system has improved the watering of crops (Mwanyama, 2004:44).
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Furthermore, women have to participate in the design, negotiation, maintenance and development objectives of the scheme (2004:45). The scheme members in Ncora indicated that when preliminary discussions on critical design and practicality issues took place, the audience was predominantly male.
4.6.6 Farmer Training and Skills Development Although indigenous knowledge is valuable and plays a vital role in enhancing agricultural production in rural areas, it is essential that farmers receive technical training on how to sustain their agricultural projects. This is because a low level of training limits access to information and understanding. Small-scale farmers do not have technical expertise to operate a profitable crop production entity (Mwanyama, 2004:45). At Ncora, most of the scheme members are not educated and have not received any form of training. Their main occupation is crop production or agricultural activities. They do not possess any commercial farming terms such as production systems and marketing of their products. In this case, Mwanyama asserts that ’in these circumstances, a certain level of enlightenment through awareness campaigns and capacity building should precede provision for grant for irrigation infrastructure’ (Mwanyama, 2004:19). Training and awareness campaigns will enable scheme members to handle and rectify any complexities occurring within the schemes.
Most small-scale farms are filled with broken-down equipment. Poor equipment contributes to inefficient production. A practical step towards rebuilding agricultural productivity in rural areas is for the government to sponsor and provide local workshops where farmers can acquire spare parts and repair their broken machinery. Small farmers lack the technical expertise to maintain their agricultural equipment properly. They need assistance from the Government. This is the key method of delivering practical government assistance where it is really needed. Moreover, long-term consequences of establishing these workshops are important for the sustainability of agricultural projects (Mwanyama, 2004:20).
Obasanjo and d’Orville (1992:40) argue that for African countries to get out of the ’food and debt’ trap, food production must increase to feed the growing population.
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Agricultural research needs to generate new technologies that will facilitate the improved level of crops and livestock production needed to grow the agricultural sector. Agricultural research can be grouped into two types, namely, basic and applied research (1992:41). Basic agricultural research seeks to develop new and fundamental knowledge that can be applied to solve real agricultural problems and applied research adapts the new technologies to solve practical farm problems (Obasanjo & d’Orville, 1992:41).
4.6.7 Rehabilitation attempts at Ncora Eastern Cape Provincial Departments of Agriculture and Public Works and the District Municipalities (DWAF) are the main agencies engaged with infrastructure-centered rehabilitation initiatives, namely, initiatives which only focus on infrastructure repairs of the irrigation schemes (Denison & Manona, 2007:20). The rehabilitation pattern, degradation and the inability of scheme institutions to maintain funded repair initiatives over the last few years is highlighted by the Ncora and Qamata irrigation schemes. In 2001, the Eastern Cape Department of Agriculture (ECDA) and the DWAF combined efforts and funded rehabilitation on the schemes, coordinated through a provincial committee consisting of two institutions and their appointed engineering consultants. The absolute lack of maintenance, institutional failure, political conflict and inappropriate agricultural planning were major concerns (Denison & Manona, 2007:22). A further major issue was that no substantive planning or soil suitably was undertaken and the soils are completely unsuitable to irrigation development under pivots.
It is acknowledged that these interventions are made with the best political and departmental intentions, and it is often difficult to achieve more when working within the limited sectorial brief of any single department. Notwithstanding the good intent, the experiences in these recent interventions reinforce the widely acknowledged limitations of rehabilitating scheme infrastructure alone. There have not been coordinated parallel supporting interventions in the key organisational and agri-business elements leading to a functional scheme, underpinned by financial sustainability. The net result as seen in Ncora and Qamata is rapid physical degradation of the newly-rehabilitated infrastructure and this is also due to the vacuum of activities that took place and complete
56 dependence on the funding institution for ongoing funding and operational support (Denison & Manona, 2007:21).
4.7 THE CONTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURE TO GDP IN SOUTH AFRICA AND
THE EASTERN CAPE
4.7.1 Contribution of agriculture to GDP in South Africa Primary agriculture forms an important part of the South African economy despite its relative small direct share of 4% of the total GDP (Agricultural Statistics, 2003:78).
Table: 4.4 contribution of agriculture to the economy
Gross Value-added broad economic sectors-constant 2005 prices (R1000)
Sectors 2006 Percentage 2008 Percentage
Agriculture 2,781,654 8 2,956,975 7
Mining 22,579 0 22,397 0
Manufacturing 7,963,329 22 8,733,001 7
Trade 5,456,705 15 5,796,581 14
Transport 2,563,190 7 3,729,617 9
Commercial 12,297,154 33 12,610,597 31 Service Source: adapted from Global Insight 2006
Table 4.4 shows that although there are strategies to revive agriculture in South Africa – especially in rural areas where smallholder farmers are based – the sector is still stumbling compared to other sectors. Agriculture’s contribution to the economy is declining when compared to other sectors.
However, the agricultural sector in South Africa has about 240 000 small-scale farmers providing a livelihood for more than a million of their family members. These small-scale farmers are mostly in communal areas of the former homelands that produce food primarily to meet their families’ subsistence needs (Nieuwoudt & Groenewald, 2003:47).
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Field crop production (especially maize) is the main agricultural activity by small-scale farmers in rural areas, followed by livestock production. The Eastern Cape Provincial Department of Agriculture has introduced a programme known as Siyazondla (We are feeding ourselves). This is aimed at strengthening agriculture and reducing poverty in the Province. According to the Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP), the Siyazondla system of homestead production will support production of nutritional food within rural and urban homestead gardens, meeting immediate needs while strengthening household livelihoods and laying the foundation for livelihood diversification and enhanced economic exchange (PGDP Report, 2008:146).The Amadlelo Project at Ncora is also underway. This project is focused on producing and manufacturing dairy within the scheme which would be sold to the markets and communities of Ncora. The initiative is already benefitting the Ncora communities and cattle are growing and provided with nutritional food intake.
4.7.2 Contribution of agriculture to GDP in the Eastern Cape Table: 4.5 Gross Value Added (GVA) for EC sectors
Source: Global Insight 2002
The chart above shows that agriculture has been one of the sectors that are contributing the least to the economy in the Eastern Cape Province. This shows that agriculture is not receiving the recognition that it needs and this is diminishing its potential.
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However, the Eastern Cape government is engaged in a number of reviving agricultural projects, and Ncora is no exception. The aim of these various projects is to reduce the level of poverty and unemployment in the Province. The Eastern Cape Provincial government, as part of its Provincial Growth and Development Plan, has identified agriculture as an economic growth sector for the Province (PGDP Report, 2008:122). Agrarian transformation forms a large part of the PGDP in terms of the economic diversification within the Province. As such, this sector has large-scale investment potential which will contribute significantly to economic diversification and job-creation. The Province currently has over 70 000 farm workers employed on commercial farms and a further 436 000 engaged in small-scale and subsistence farming (PGDP Report, 2008:122). The Eastern Cape is also the ’livestock’ province of the country and is home to 21% of South Africa's cattle, 28% of its sheep and 46% of its goats (PGDP Report, 2008:123). Recent sector research into agriculture in the Eastern Cape has shown that this province offers investors the following competitive and comparative advantages over other agricultural investment destinations.
4. 8 LESSONS LEARNT FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
According to Bembridge (2000:1), the performance of small-scale farmer irrigation systems in Africa has been below expectations, producing low economic and financial returns and discouraging investment in irrigation. It is submitted that the largest production and farm incomes from irrigation schemes have been in Asia and Latin America. There are many lessons that can be learnt from developing countries. Firstly, Seethal (2002:60) argues that bureaucratically-managed schemes are the most common in Africa. In these top-down managed schemes, the economic success of irrigation projects falls far short of the expectations of planners, politicians and development agencies. However, those schemes which involved communities or encouraged grassroots participation processes were successful (Van Averbeke, 2012:413). Grassroots economic structures, such as NGOs and cooperatives, can be recognised for their contribution to economic independence. They reveal the importance of listening to the voices of communities. In fact, communities can establish their own
59 needs and priorities, and work out strategies and achieve their goals through these grassroots structures (Pratt, 1999:23–87).
Secondly, the government has to identify obstacles in existing legislation and traditional practices to ensure the participation of rural communities in the mainstream economy (Mannan, 2010:1–2). This is mainly because constitutional, economic and social challenges have been at the forefront of their exclusion. Constitutional challenges include recognition of rural areas similar to urban areas. Economic challenges include changes in terms of access to land and financial and infrastructural resources. Social challenges include access to welfare benefits and recognition as economic producers.
Thirdly, investment in irrigation was the key mechanism of what was called the ‘green revolution’, which assisted rural Asians to reduce poverty and created conducive conditions for economic development (Van Averbeke, 2012:413). Hence, the rural communities in Ncora cannot survive without government assistance. However, it does not mean that they must only rely on increased handouts from the government, because increased handouts create more dependency. Rural communities have to survive and stand on their own feet. The ’bottom up approach of community development’ can be used to promote self-reliance in Ncora (Philander and Rogerson, 2001:75). This approach focuses on community development with participation as the key element. Ownership of projects by the community can ensure that there is capacity to sustain the project at a local level. A successful project brings more joy, as the community can become a point of reference for other communities (Jackson, 2007:13-14).
Fourthly, community engagement in government programmes may fully realise its potential in well-designed approach that considers public participation as a continuum of well-coordinated rather than isolated activities (Kyohairwe & Tibaijuka, 2013:57). It also emphasised that the principle of community empowerment needs to be appreciated by engaging organisations.
Fifthly, rural communities use indigenous knowledge to increase agricultural productivity. Indigenous knowledge includes the way in which activities are carried out
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(Olatokun and Ayanbode, 2009:1). Furthermore, communities apply their indigenous knowledge in terms of their diet, seed selection, land clearing in preparation for cultivation, the preservation of culture and birth control. This knowledge is transmitted orally or through imitation of and demonstration from past generations (Eller and Harris, 1996:11). Indigenous knowledge is an important resource for agriculture in Ncora. Communities in Ncora have learnt through hardship to use oxen to plough land. This is mainly because they do not have mechanised equipment such as tractors for ploughing. These communities can organise themselves and identify land for growing vegetables and other crops through their leadership.
Lastly, the modernisation of agriculture would benefit from decentralised government structures. Decentralisation had been adopted to ensure good governance, democratic participation and control of decision-making by the people and to improve service delivery and accountability (Kyohairwe & Tibaijuka, 2013:59). Decentralisation of government-empowered local government should undertake increased responsibilities for the delivery of services and promotion of popular participation of local communities in decision-making. The implication of local governance in modernisation of agriculture would therefore suggest a full engagement of politically and administratively organised local communities (Kyohairwe & Tibaijuka, 2013:59).
The South African government, particularly the Eastern Cape government, has to improve agriculture and food security in rural areas. This can be done by promoting community participation in agricultural projects in rural areas and would enable the rural communities to have full ownership of the agricultural interventions.
4.9 CONCLUSION
Agriculture plays a crucial role in sustaining rural livelihoods at Ncora and rural communities in general in South Africa. The Ncora irrigation scheme is a tool used by government to increase agricultural activity in Ncora rural areas. However, it has been faced by many institutional challenges arising from scheme management, ownership debates and lack of adequate training and mentorship. Community alignment and cohesion between various government departments involved in the scheme have to be
61 encouraged. Key mechanisms in increasing agricultural production include training, access to land, grass roots participation, and investments in infrastructure.
Lessons from developing countries show that rural areas are not hopeless. They have people with indigenous knowledge that can be used to develop the declining economies. This involves a collective effort. It is important that community stakeholders participate in the rural development of the economy. Development takes place with the people and not for people. The importance of public–private sector partnerships using local resources and skills cannot be overemphasised in the development of agriculture rural areas. These partnerships can be used to develop the agricultural sector in Ncora.
It is necessary to address the constraints that hinder the development of agriculture in rural areas. For this, appropriate policies that will allow communities to take advantage of the economic opportunities that are generated are needed. Moreover, communities have to do what they want for themselves. They have to plan. They can lobby government for an extension officer. The officer can provide agricultural support services, while the community continues with their indigenous practices of growing vegetables. Local government can use the services of an agricultural extension officer that works with them to assist the Ncora community. Extension officers have agricultural knowledge and understand communities within their jurisdiction.
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CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AREAS OF FURTHER RESEARCH AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The study was undertaken because the Ncora community faces large challenges of poverty and unemployment. Ncora is a rural area in the Intsika Yethu Municipality, which is attempting to formulate sustainable rural development policies that largely ignore the concerns of the community. The revival of the vegetable gardens and the Ncora Irrigation Scheme attests to the importance of agriculture in rural areas. The scheme was revived in order to benefit unemployed people in the area (Velaphi, 2012:1). Although rural areas constitute the majority of the areas in the Eastern Cape, indigenous knowledge of agriculture helps them to reduce poverty. The general purpose of the study is to identify the constraints to agricultural development in Ncora, and is an attempt to move towards a better understanding of the role of agriculture in reducing poverty.
In this chapter, the research findings and conclusions, recommendations, areas for further research and the research limitations of the study are presented. The conclusions have been classified in terms of the three research objectives presented in Chapter 1.
5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Poverty in rural areas is a result of deliberate development policy (Desai, 2007:1). In Ncora village, jobs are difficult to come by. The lives of people in Ncora are more miserable due to factors such as bad roads and lack of infrastructure. The development policies do not cater for the poor if they are unable to help themselves or to lobby for the available support.
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Rural communities use indigenous knowledge to increase agricultural productivity. Indigenous knowledge includes the way in which activities are carried out (Olatokun & Ayanbode, 2009:1). Indigenous knowledge is applied in terms of land-clearing in preparation for cultivation and seed selection. This knowledge is transmitted orally or through imitation of and demonstration from past generations (Eller and Harris, 1996:11)
Indigenous knowledge is an important resource for agriculture in Ncora, hence the revival of the Ncora Irrigation Scheme. The community has requested the use of mechanised equipment such as tractors to plough land. Furthermore, they use indigenous vegetables to ensure food security. Food security plays a vital role in the reduction of poverty (Altman et al., 2009:345). The failure to recognise indigenous knowledge in rural areas has resulted in a policy response to communities that is welfare-oriented instead of economic development-oriented (Dyubhele, 2011:141).
5.3 CONCLUSIONS
5.3.1 Conclusions on the constraints to agricultural activities in Ncora
The development of agriculture in Ncora requires more than the creation of opportunities for the community to earn sustainable livelihoods. It requires the creation of an environment that enables communities to make use of opportunities. In addition, development requires good governments that give communities a voice in policy implementation and decision making. Therefore, ignoring or neglecting to improve the constraints to the agricultural activities and indigenous knowledge increases poverty in rural areas such as Ncora, as these constraints hinder development.
The Ncora community has to define its needs so that they can take responsibility for activities that improve the quality of life in households. It must define its needs through the project committee in order to achieve its goals. The government or the NGO have to engage with these rural communities to determine the assistance, in other words the infrastructural investments which are needed. The Ncora community has to work together to promote its welfare. This will ensure that members of the community benefit from development.
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Poverty in Ncora is measured by the lack of infrastructure and basic needs. This situation is a serious cause for concern, as these are key elements of agricultural development. The most important goal of development in the Wooldridge community is the provision of basic needs and services. Basic needs include food and education. Services include water, transport, access to land and seeds. The Ncora community has lobbied local government for affordable water services for irrigation purposes.
Intsika Yethu Municipality has to ensure that people in Ncora have at least the basic services they need. There are a large number of services provided by municipalities, including water supply and maintenance of roads. These services have a direct effect on the quality of the lives of the people and the agricultural development in communities. For example, if the water services provided are of a poor quality, this will contribute to the creation of an unhealthy living environment, and therefore poor development of agriculture. Poor services can also make it difficult to attract businesses or industry to Ncora and will limit job opportunities for the community. Hence, the community in Ncora needs to draw up a plan and then submit it to the Intsika Yethu Municipality.
5.3.2 Conclusions on development practitioners addressing the needs of the rural area of Ncora
The agricultural trends of Ncora have generated the need for the community to increase its participation in generating household livelihoods through food production. This means that development practitioners need to design policies that include communities in agricultural activities in order to reduce poverty. Agricultural production is the largest contributor to livelihood activity, with many households growing vegetables on small food-growing plots.
For many households in Ncora, agriculture is not a source of income, because they do not have a market for their products. Many households in Ncora cultivate crops in order to provide food for their households. They grow vegetables under poor conditions, in which rainfall is unpredictable. The irrigation scheme can assist in the production of
65 vegetables such as spinach and cabbage. These are cash crops that need more irrigation and chemical inputs.
The Intsika Yethu Municipality can provide agricultural support services, while the community of Ncora continues with its indigenous practices of growing vegetables. Local government can use the services of an agricultural extension officer who works with them to assist the Ncora community. Extension officers have agricultural knowledge and understand communities within their jurisdiction. An extension officer can advise and encourage a community to grow more and better cash crops for the market in the town of Cofimvaba. This involves ploughing fertiliser and manure into the soil of their home gardens, as well as water management. Furthermore, the extension officer from local government can assist in facilitating access to the project, input and infrastructure. Services that can be provided include infrastructure such as irrigation, piping and agrochemicals. The community can be trained to use the income obtained from cash crops to maintain or replace water pumps for irrigation.
The Ncora community can address agricultural development by wanting to make a difference themselves and by doing it for themselves. Developing the community involves addressing the constraints (such as inadequate infrastructure) that prevent communities from engaging in agricultural activities such as growing vegetables. In fact, the government needs to consider how to make these services affordable to rural communities. The Ncora community has the knowledge to develop plans to relieve its plight.
5.3.3 Conclusions on contribution of agriculture in reducing poverty
Poverty is linked to poor agricultural performance in rural areas. Currently, the Ncora community is willing to do draw plans on their own, but do not have the capacity to do it for themselves. They have indigenous knowledge to develop agricultural activities, but the community needs capacity-building so that it is able to work out its goals and to plan projects.
The Ncora community has demonstrated that it has indigenous knowledge through the use of food production. Development practitioners need to assist the community to
66 reflect the needs in this village. Hence, the government has to be aware of the needs of this community. This means that the community has to work through their local government channels such as the ward committee, the councillor or chief and the community should vote for those who respect them and who can contribute to improving their lives.
The role of the government in developing rural areas can be informed by an attitude or a commitment. That is, the government has to make a long-term commitment to supporting rural areas in order for development to be successful. After 1994, the government committed itself to reducing poverty in rural areas. Despite this commitment, poverty is still increasing in rural areas, because development practitioners did not formulate informed policies. Development practitioners should develop policies based on the needs of the communities in order for development to succeed (Dyubhele, 2011:154).
National government has to increase its expenditure on the agricultural sector in order to lower the costs of production, to lower agricultural prices for staple food, such as maize, and to increase output. For example, the national expenditure allocated to agriculture was approximately 1% in 2009 (Matshe, 2009:499). This budget is low and national government should increase its agricultural support to reduce poverty in rural areas such as Ncora. This can enable local government to provide budget support for agriculture.
According to Dyubhele (2011:155), the local community need to take responsibility for its own development. mainly because development has to create to a lifestyle that is desired by the local community. Although it is important for communities to own the process of development, the support and cooperation of the government is necessary for its success. Budget support to the agricultural sector in Ncora on its own cannot achieve the desired result. The government can supplement local resources and coordinate community efforts in order to reduce poverty in rural areas. In doing so, the government has to consider the development structures such as NGOs and co- operatives as instruments of agricultural development and not as instruments of political control.
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Sustainable rural development is not just about increasing yields and economic growth. It requires the redistribution of land and resources including a fair and stable market to be sustainable’ (Ndulo, 2007:28). Many irrigation projects lack effective operation and management. Certain preconditions are required to revitalise present irrigation schemes and to develop new ones. This requires cohesion between the Department of Agriculture and Department of Water Affairs. A multi-disciplinary task team should be set up to undertake appropriate diagnostic analyses to pinpoint major constraints and problems and to make innovative changes in the design, management and thinking of project management and farmers (Discussion Paper, 1996:106). Project performance needs to be improved on an economic basis. This would involve development of a training and extension programme to strengthen management, extension workers and farmers. Top-down and autocratic administration and control of many small-scale farmer irrigation projects have led to inefficiency and placed heavy burdens on government expenditure (Discussion Paper, 1996:106). This should be remedied by the devolution of responsibility to local authorities. Infrastructure should be developed and maintained to ensure the economic and social viability of irrigation projects. This implies that irrigation should not develop in isolation but should be part of area development programmes. Other social and economic infrastructure is important for the economic and social sustainability of irrigation schemes; for example, proper roads, schools, health clinics and communication.
The agricultural sector plays a dominant role in providing employment. Obasanjo and d’Orville (1992:15) argue that in order to attract and retain educated youth in agricultural occupation, farm technologies should be both intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. According to Rossouw (1989:78), the main objective of an irrigation scheme is the creation of farming jobs which provide acceptable income. A knowledge-intensive agricultural system that can also generate considerable employment in the secondary and tertiary sectors will be necessary to create more skilled jobs for people living in rural areas. Obasanjo and d’Orville argue that an integrated approach to on-farm and off- farm employment and to blending traditional and new technologies is needed urgently (Obasanjo & d’Orville 1992:15). Without adequate energy, sources of productivity and efficiency cannot be improved. The agricultural sector must have more energy if the
68 efficiency of agricultural production is to undergo improvement. Energy is particularly needed in dry and drought-prone areas.
Both the government and external funders have a responsibility to realise the potential of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. The challenges that those schemes face need to be addressed adequately. Ncora irrigation scheme and other rural irrigation schemes in South Africa face difficulties which pose threats to the sustainability of the schemes. These difficulties vary from farm produce market to, transport inaccessibility caused by poor roads infrastructure. This is because poor roads make it difficult for the produce to reach the commercial markets. As a result, produce in the schemes ends up in the informal market, such as at street vendors and door-to-door sales. Lack of technological equipment in the scheme also slows production. Lack of farming skills is another impediment faced by smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. Insecurity of tenure has made plot holders reluctant to lease out their land, as they feel that their land could be taken away from them. Therefore, the government needs to speed and improve its policies on land distribution.
The Ncora irrigation scheme can benefit from the comprehensive agricultural support process currently adopted by the National Department of Agriculture, and feasibility studies have been conducted to identify what commodities are suitable for the area (Mwanyama 2004:52). Improved market access through the development of a localised central market facility to reduce transportation costs is being undertaken within the schemes. This could also be done in cooperation with other nearby schemes. This would attract local consumers including hawkers and other informal traders. In order to develop and improve management capacity, extensive support systems would be required to turn such a vision into reality (Mwanyama, 2004:52). Thus appropriate technologies offering ease of operation and maintenance by community members must be investigated. Rural farmers need to be included as partners when it comes to planning the future of rural agriculture. It is also crucial to take into account the fact that rural communities are not homogenous. This means that their values, belief system and practices are important variables that need recognition in the planning and implementation process of agricultural projects (Ndulo, 2007:22). Rural agriculture and
69 development programmes seek to change crucial factors of the social systems of communities.
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
This section aims to provide recommendations for the survival strategies of unemployed women in the Wooldridge community.
5.4.1 Improving local economic development strategies for the rural poor
The first and most important recommendation is that the community must use the Local Economic Development (LED) strategy to address all local constraints. This strategy would include all the ideas and planning included in this section. The benefits of public– private sector partnerships related to this research include the fact that they can leverage innovative approaches to LED. Moreover, this harnesses the power of different sectors to improve local economic development. Formal public–private sector partnerships offer a mechanism to enable each partner to share its own specific competencies and capacities to achieve common and complementary goals more effectively. In addition, this partnership can provide access to more resources from technical knowhow, human resources, social capital, as well as financial resources (Dyubhele, 2011:164).
Community participation – or the direct involvement of ordinary people or communities in the planning, governance of overall development programmes at local level – is an integral part of democratic practice. Community participation has become synonymous with legitimate governance. The Municipal Systems Act No.32 of 2000 (Chapter 4 and Subsections (g) and (h)) states that in the executive mayor’s annual report on the involvement of community organisations, due regard is given to public views and the effect of consultation on the decisions of council (Republic of South Africa, 1998; Williams, 2006:197). However, most community participation in post-apartheid South Africa is largely spectator politics, where ordinary people have mostly become endorsees of pre-designed planning programmes. In many cases, such as Wooldridge,
70 there is little or no community participation because of the distance to the local authority to attend meetings. Such a limited form of democracy leads to an administered society rather than a democratic society. The consent for governance is not earned through rigorous policy debates on specific social programmes within a community, but is often manufactured through the skilful manipulation of think tanks, self-styled experts, opinion polls or the ward representative on behalf of the constituents (Williams, 2006:198; Dyubhele 2011:165).
Furthermore, the Department of Agriculture in the Eastern Cape can utilise the services of an extension officer to encourage the Wooldridge community to grow vegetables and to give advice on vegetable production. Ngqushwa Municipality officials have to mobilise local stakeholders in order to formulate a comprehensive process that includes all the interested parties in Wooldridge. Planning should not be left to government officials only, but should rather include community structures.
Subsection 152(e) of the South African Constitution states that local government has to encourage the involvement of communities in matters of local government. The participatory right of communities is reinforced in development policy documents. This indicates that local government is required by legislation to implement people-driven development at grassroots level. According to Williams (2006:201), the IDP process requires municipalities to establish a development plan for the short, medium and long term. This plan will enable communities to identify their goals, needs and priorities.
Comprehensive intervention strategies which address all aspects of the irrigation farming enterprise are more likely to succeed. For example, interventions which invest equally/heavily in human and institutional elements and infrastructure have higher success rates (Ndulo, 2007:25). Marketing development, information supply and irrigation technology are vital to success.
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5.4.2 Adequate investment in infrastructure
Infrastructural facilities have an impact on the reduction of poverty. They contribute to increasing the mobility of people, resources and outputs, and to improving the working and accessing of markets. Infrastructure is the backbone of development. The development community recognises the key role played by communities in reducing poverty and improving the wellbeing of households. It needs to support communities with significant investments in infrastructure in order to achieve the agricultural developmental goals. Infrastructural services can contribute to job creation using labour- intensive methods, because more labour relative to capital can be employed. Investments in infrastructure using labour-intensive methods can be used in the village to generate income. The only way to address infrastructure constraints at the local level is through the LED strategy.
Holding the right to irrigated land must have its costs attached to it. This would encourage land right holders with limited interest in farming to lease out their land. This would enable the emergence of a class of commercially-oriented farmers from amongst the diverse group of land right holders including scheme workers and outsiders with interests in farming (EC Commission of Enquiry, 1996:61). Another aspect which needs attention – particularly by the South African government – is the issue of security of tenure. Lack of security of tenure must be removed as a factor influencing land right holders’ willingness to lease out their land. This can be achieved by securing and protecting land rights more adequately.
5.4.3 Enabling environments for grassroots initiatives of communities
Rural communities are excluded from economic participation and have contributed to the rise in community-based action and collective organisation. Through grassroots structures such as cooperatives and NGOs, women can decide on their objectives and work out their own strategies. These structures create an enabling environment in which women can exchange ideas and work together to address issues such as transportation. Cooperatives are organisations that can empower communities socially,
72 economically and politically. These cooperatives can be credit or savings groups, and can create employment and increase income-generating assets and capabilities.
The roles of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Water Affairs need to be clearly defined. This would improve efficiency and effectiveness at the schemes and promote responsibility and accountability on the side of the government departments. It is important for government departments to create cohesion and work together for the common goal of improving rural livelihoods
Studies have been undertaken to articulate the real issues confronting the role of communities in the agricultural sector. They show that in spite of the key role of communities in crop production, those responsible for formulating public policies and services for rural areas have often tended to ignore the productive role of communities in agriculture. Socio-economic issues and infrastructure considerations for irrigation development should receive primary consideration.
5.4.4 Improving the human capital of rural communities
According to the culture of the poverty concept, communities in rural areas make little effort to change their situation or do not have the means to change their situation. Children learn this culture from their parents; poverty continues to the next generation and so creates a vicious circle (Browne, 1992:73). Many households in Ncora cannot escape the vicious circle of poverty. This is mainly because these households cannot sustain their livelihoods due to many factors such as low levels of income and education. The Chris Hani District Municipality can cooperate with the Department of Labour and SETAs to conduct skills development and training projects in the district (Intsika Yethu Municipality, 2009:31).
5.5 FURTHER RESEARCH AREAS ON THIS TOPIC
The role of agriculture in the rural economy of Ncora suggests that there are several areas of research that can be most useful to policy makers. Firstly, it will be necessary to focus a study on the role of agricultural enterprises in rural development, as institutions and individuals agree on the urgent need to promote rural enterprises to
73 improve the quality of life of rural areas. Farmers see it as an instrument for improving farm earnings; development agencies see it as having an employment potential; and rural communities see it as an employment possibility near their homes. Secondly, a better understanding of the effects of improving human capital in rural areas is envisaged. This can address what is expected from the new generation of youth.
5.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The problem encountered in the study was the difficulty in obtaining statistical data on rural agriculture. The reason is that there is a lack of government and research data on agricultural production in rural areas. As stated earlier, the government focuses on commercial agriculture while ignoring rural agriculture. The study could have been primary research, but due to time constraints and lack of funds, secondary analysis was conducted in this study.
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