Bottles As Building Materials Case of Watamu

BOTTLES AS BUILDING MATERIALS CASE OF WATAMU

by KIMARU ALEXANDER GATHIRU B02/40012/2011

BAR 613: RESEARCH THESIS

THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI, DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING SCIENCE, SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT.

TUTOR: DR. L. SHIHEMBETSA “Our problems are man-made, therefore they may be solved by man.” -John Fitzgerald Kennedy-

ii DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any other University or Institution for the purpose of awarding a degree to the best of my knowledge.

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the examination requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree, in the Department of Architecture and Building Science at The University of Nairobi.

Author:...... Date...... Kimaru Alexander Gathiru

Supervisor:...... Date...... DR. L. Shihembetsa

Year Master:...... Date...... Arch. Erastus Abonyo

Chairman:...... Date...... Arch. Musau Kimeu

iii To my unborn child

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the almighty God for the gift of health and for providing where need be. I do not take it for granted that I have been able to go throught this academic journey and seeing it through to the end.

To my family who have given me the full support one could ask for. Dad, for the guidance and encouragement all through this journey. Always checkin up on me to make sure I am fine and well. Always leading by example, thank you for you are the man I always look up to. You have inspired me to become the man I am today and most importantly the man I am still becoming. Mum, for all the love and care that you have given to me. Through the rain and the pain, you have always been on my side, always there to help me up when I fall, to show me the way when I am lost, and now your only son has become a man. My big sister, Njoki. Thank you for always setting the bar high and setting records for me to break. I am now an ambitious man always plotting ahead thanks to you. I would also like to thank you for the much joy you bring at home. With all your stories exuberant personality, you always spark any room to life. My small sister, Ciku. Thank you for your support. You might not know this but you always keep me on my toes to keep pushing the limits.

To my tutor, Dr. L.Shihembetsa, for your selfless guidance and input throughout the study. Year coordinator Arch. Erastus Abonyo for the lessons and critique encountered throughout this journey. To the chairman Arch. Musau Kimeu, for the helpful and dedicated input. All lecturers, Department of Architecture and Building science who turned up to give insight and counsel during the long crits organized. All your guidance and direction during my six years in ADD is utterly gratifying.

I would also like to thank Watamu Marine Association for the cooperation they gave me as i counducted my fieldwork. Mr. Streve Trott, the Chairman of Watamu Marine Association, thank you for the direction you gave me on my study. Mr. William Nambuya, who is managing waste management at WMA, thank you for the tour and for sharing the knowledge of the research that was conducted regarding my study. I would also like to thank Nani Croze for your cooperation and for sharing the knowledge of how you constructed your house.

To all my relatives, thanks for the love and support. Special thanks to my cousin Joe Ngechu for the major role he played in the writing of this thesis. To my friends from NYE, thanks for your endless support. Mashall, Alfred, Clinton, Emmanuel, George, Hillary, Bradley, Orlando, Edwin, John and Thomas you are all represented. To my colleagues in studio you made this enjoyable. Thank you for making studio hours lively and memorable.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction...... 1

1.2 Background study ...... 2

1.3 Problem statement ...... 3

1.4 Research objectives...... 4

1.5 Research questions...... 4

1.6 Justification of study...... 5

1.7 Significance of study...... 5

1.8 Scope & limitations...... 5

1.9 Definition of terms...... 6

1.10 Organization of study...... 7

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction...... 9

2.2 Solid waste in general...... 10

2.2.1 What is waste?...... 10

2.2.2 Solid waste generation...... 10

2.2.3 Brief history of waste through time and reclaiming from waste.. . . 14

2.2.4 Progression of reclaiming from waste...... 14

vi 2.2.5 Design concepts of waste in architecture...... 18

2.3 Use of bottles in construction...... 22

2.3.1 Use of bottles throughout history as building materials...... 22

2.3.2 Bottle materials ...... 25

2.3.3 Bottle wall construction...... 28

2.4 Use of bottles as building components...... 34

2.4.1 Roofing with bottles...... 34

2.4.2 Bottles as illuminators...... 35

2.4.3 Bottle heaters...... 37

2.4.4 Bottles in installation...... 38

2.5 Building using bottles...... 39

2.5.1 The Heineken Wobo bottle...... 40

2.5.2 Buddhist Temple...... 45

2.5.3 Tomislav Radovanovic plastic bottle house, Serbia...... 48

2.6 Summary ...... 50

3.0 RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 Introduction...... 53

3.2 Research design...... 53

3.3 Research strategy...... 53

vii 3.4 Time horizon of the study...... 54

3.5 Data sources...... 54

3.5.1 Primary data:...... 55

3.5.2 Secondary data:...... 56

3.6 Data analysis and presentation...... 56

4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction...... 59

4.2 Case Study Projects ...... 59

4.2.1 Case 1: Community Group Workrooms...... 59

4.2.2 Case 2: Eco Tower ...... 66

4.2.3 Case 3: Mr. Samuel’s Residential house...... 73

4.2.4 Comparison of findings...... 78

5.0 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction...... 81

5.2 Summary of findings and conclusions...... 81

5.3 Recommendations ...... 86

5.4 Recommendations for future research...... 87

viii LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1 Fig 2.26. Calico Bottle House,Yermo, CA...... 22 Fig 1.01. Bottles throughout its life , passing through many stages and processes. 1 Fig 2.27. Knott’s Berry Farm Bottle House Buena Park, CA . 22 Fig 1.02. Image of plastic bottles and waste dumped at Watamu beach ...... 2 Fig 2.28. Grandma Prisbrey’s bottle village...... 22 Fig 1.03. Image of plastic bottle in the ocean...... 2 Fig 2.29. The Wimberley Bottle House. 22 Fig 1.04. Figure showing material resource efficiency. . 3 Fig 2.30. The Flowood Bottle House...... 22 Fig 2.01. Image showing waste management hierarchy...... 8 Fig 2.31. The six gabled house. 23 Fig 2.32. The tavern ...... 23 Chapter 2 Fig 2.33. The Chapel . 23 Fig 2.02. Image showing waste management hierarchy...... 8 Fig 2.34. The Washington Court Bottle...... 23 Fig 2.03. Image of secondary material...... 9 Fig 2.35. Bottle House Gift Shop Alexandria, LA . 23 Fig 2.04. Image of post-industrial by-product. 9 Fig 2.36. Image showing a section of glass bottle in compression . . . . . 24. . Fig 2.05. Image of post-consumer waste...... 9 Fig 2.37. Parts of a glass bottle...... 24 Fig 2.06. Image showing three earths ...... 12 Fig 2.38. Internal pressure cause Tension stress in the External surface. . 24 Fig 2.07. Image showing a large dressed stone. . 13 Fig 2.39. Image of glass bottles...... 25 Fig 2.08. Image showing reformulation of products after the end of their life span Fig 2.40. Image of cullet...... 25 in Villa Welpeloo by 2012 Architects. . 13 Fig 2.41. Glass made from recycled glass bottles...... 25 Fig 2.09. The linear economy and waste management...... 14 Fig 2.42. Image of plastic bottles...... 26 Fig 2.10. Linear metabolism – cities consume and pollute at a high rate. 14 Fig 2.43. Plastic bottle wall construction ...... 26 . . Fig 2.11. Traditional Architecture Cycle ...... 14 Fig 2.44. Bottle wall made of Plastic PET bottles...... 27 Fig 2.12. Circular metabolism ...... 15 Fig 2.45. Vertical & horizontal glass bottle wall . 27 Fig 2.13. Circular metabolism – cities minimize new inputs and maximize Fig 2.46. Image showing a horizontal glass bottle wall...... 28 recycling . 15 Fig 2.47. Image showing bottle bricks...... 28 Fig 2.14. Image showing waste hierarchy...... 16 Fig 2.48. Bottle wall made of cut glass bottles...... 28 Fig 2.16. A designed and engineered bottle made of post-consumer Polyethylene Fig 2.49. Making bottle walls using cut glass bottles...... 28 Terephthalate (PET) known as POLLI-BRICK...... 16 Fig 2.50. Bottle wall made of Plastic PET bottles...... 29 Fig 2.15. Proposed Architecture Cycle. . 16 Fig 2.51. Community participation in making bottle bricks...... 29 Fig 2.17. Cradle-to-grave: Covers all stages from materials extraction through Fig 2.52. Method of filling the plastic bottles for using in the building.. . . . 30 manufacture, use and disposal, but does not account for the potential impact of Fig 2.54. Compression test on bottle brick ...... 30 reuse or recycling. 17 Fig 2.53. Making bottle bricks ...... 30 Fig 2.18. Cradle-to-cradle: Addresses all inputs and outputs for each life cycle Fig 2.55. Vertical bottle wall...... 31 stage, including the impact of reuse and recycling...... 17 Fig 2.56. Horizontal bottle wall...... 31 Fig 2.19. The greenest house is that, that is never built ...... 19 . . Fig 2.57. Bottles used as infill for solid concrete forms ...... 32 Fig 2.21. Signs for reduce and reuse...... 19 Fig 2.58. Roofing materials made from flattened plastic bottles...... 33 Fig 2.20. Zero-waste society (1 . Reduce, 2 . Reuse, 3 . Recycle, 4 Recover). . . . 19 Fig 2.59. Plastic bottles making a car shade...... 33 Fig 2.22. A sign for recycle...... 20 Fig 2.60. Roofing using plastic bottles...... 33 Fig 2.23. William F. Peck’s Bottle House built in 1902. 21 Fig 2.61. Bottles used to create light fittings ...... 34 Fig 2.24. Bottle house by Tom Kelly in 1905 ...... 21 Fig 2.62. Interior view of a solar bottle bulb...... 34 Fig 2.25. The Kaleva Bottle House. . 21 Fig 2.63. Exterior view of solar bottle bulb ...... 34

ix Fig 2.64. Section of a solar bottle bulb...... 34 Fig 2.101. Bottles arrange to form patterns on wall ...... 47 Fig 2.65. Thin roof slab: 50 - 60 W light output. Higher surface area of bottle. Less Fig 2.102. Door crafted from plastic bottles . 47 point of contact with roof 1,5 lt bottle = 60 W...... 35 . . Fig 2.103. Coloured bottles used for roofing...... 48 Fig 2.66. Thick roof slab: Reduced light output. Less surface area of bottle. More Fig 2.104. Bottles crafted to make furniture...... 48 point of contact with roof...... 35 Fig 2.105. Bottles crafted to make vases . 48 Fig 2.67. Making a bottle of light...... 35 Fig 2.106. Bottles caps used as washroom flooring ...... 48 Fig 2.68. Image showing bottle heater. . 36 Fig 2.108. Bottles crafted to kitchen furniture...... 48 Fig 2.69. Section showing bottle arrangement ...... 36 Fig 2.107. Ballustrades crafted from bottles. 48 Fig 2.70. Plan showing bottle arrangement...... 36 Fig 2.109. Bottles crafted to make water fountain...... 48 Fig 2.71. Image showing bottles in installation...... 37 Chapter 3 Fig 2.72. Image showing bottles in installation serving as partitions. . . . . 37 Fig 2.73. Neoprene rings suspended between aluminum frame ...... 37 Fig 3.01. The Community Group Work Rooms in Watamu . 52 Fig 2.74. Section. . 37 Fig 3.02. Eco Tower in Watamu...... 52 Fig 2.75. The final design of the World Bottle . 39 Fig 3.03. Mr. Samuel at the construction of his house in Watamu ...... 52 Fig 2.76. Alternate bonding arrangement of the glass bottles...... 39 Fig 3.04. Image showing Mr. William Nambuya, Managing waste management at Fig 2.78. 350mm bottle top and 500mm bottle bottom . 39 WMA (left) and the author (right) ...... 53 Fig 2.77. Stresses on the bottle...... 39 Fig 3.05. A Nikon D3200 camera used to take photographs during fieldwork . . 54 Fig 2.79. The bottles laid horizontally . 40 Fig 3.06. Image showing a sketchpad and a pencil used during fieldwork . . . . 54 Fig 2.81. The WOBO test structure...... 40 Fig 3.07. Image showing a newspaper article . 55 Fig 2.80. 3D Section of the bottle . 40 Fig 3.08. Image showing an article on media...... 55 Fig 2.82. The plan ...... 40 Chapter 4 Fig 2.83. Bonding in both direction to get more stability...... 41 Fig 2.84. The section of the WOBO house reveals the idea of natural ventilation to Fig 4.01. Roof construction of the community group workrooms...... 58 control the heat gain in the interior engendered by the glass material ...... 41 Fig 4.02. Wall construction of the community group workrooms ...... 58 Fig 2.85. The corner solution of the WOBO house...... 42 Fig 4.03. The community group workrooms ...... 58 Fig 2.86. Unrealised project using WOBO bottles, oil drums, Volkswagen bus Fig 4.04. Bottles ready for recycling...... 59 tops ...... 42 Fig 4.05. Prototype wall demonstrating alternative to building blocks. . . . . 59 Fig 2.87. Oil drum for the WOBO Bureau project...... 42 Fig 4.06. Dolphin made from 1,000 glass wine bottles...... 59 Fig 2.88. Volkswagen bus tops for the WOBO Bureau project ...... 42 Fig 4.07. Sketch of plan layout for the community group workrooms. . . . . 60 Fig 2.89. WOBO bottles for the WOBO Bureau project...... 43 Fig 4.08. Sketch of section for the community group workrooms ...... 60 Fig 2.91. Cut down 20% of light...... 43 Fig 4.09. Image and sketchs of elevation section of bottle construction blocks . 60 Fig 2.90. A section for the WOBO Bureau project...... 43 Fig 4.10. Image of a mould used to make a bottle construction blocks. . . . . 61 Fig 2.92. Image of buddhist temple. 44 Fig 4.11. A wooden base with holes cut out to hold bottles in place within the Fig 2.93. Image of statues made of bottles. 44 mould ...... 61 Fig 2.94. Image of railing made of glass bottles . 44 Fig 4.13. Image showing end product of a glass bottle block ...... 61 Fig 2.95. Bottle caps used as decorations. 44 Fig 4.12. Sketches illustrating how bottle construction blocks are made . 61 Fig 2.96. Square-form pattern created by glass bottle used for walling . 45 Fig 4.14. Image of beach cleaning crew ...... 62 Fig 2.97. Bottles arrange as tiles to form roof covering. 45 Fig 4.15. Image of women filling plastic bottles with sand ...... 62 Fig 2.98. Image showing roofing and wall ...... 45 Fig 4.16. Image of plastic bottle bricks, an alternative to coral blocks. . . . . 62 Fig 2.99. Green and brown bottles used in the exterior ...... 46 Fig 4.17. Image showing construction using coral which is the norm for Fig 2.100. Image showing Mr. Radovanovic plastic house ...... 47 Watamu .. 63

x Fig 4.18. Image colourful alternative to building blocks which is relatively Fig 5.02. Glass bottle providing an alternative material for construction . . . 80 aesthetically pleasing. 63 Fig 5.03. Mr. Samuel’s residential house uses the most cost effective technique . 81 Fig 4.19. Dolphin made from 1,000 glass wine bottles for decoration and Fig 5.04. Members of the WMA collecting bottles from village environs. . . 81 aesthetics. . 63 Fig 5.05. Sketch showing roof overhangs acting as sunshading element. . . . 82 Fig 4.20. Wine bottles used for aesthetics...... 64 Fig 5.06. Bottles reused in construction...... 82 Fig 4.21. Wine bottles ready for recycling...... 64 Fig 5.07. Public awareness is created as people tour the facility . 83 Fig 4.22. Plastic bottles ready for recycling...... 64 Fig 5.08. Interesting play of materials for aesthetics...... 83 Fig 4.23. Image showing the Eco tower ...... 65 Fig 5.09. Plastic bottles readily available . 84 Fig 4.24. Image showing the Eco tower ...... 65 Fig 5.10. Glass bottles readily available. 84 Fig 4.25. Image showing a wall with glass bottles and recycled glass blocks. . 66 Fig 5.11. Coral cladding at Bombolulu cultural centre ...... 86 Fig 4.26. Sketches showing how the walls are made...... 66 Fig 5.12. Quartz plastering technique ...... 86 Fig 4.27. Image showing a half wall wih recycled glass. 67 Fig 5.13. Bottles used as infill for solid concrete forms ...... 87 Fig 4.28. Image showing a glass wall known as dalle de verre...... 67 Fig 5.14. Bottles tops used for wall decoration ...... 87 Fig 4.29. Images demonstrating the process of making valle de verre ...... 67 Fig 4.30. Image and sketch showing dalles being arranged in a steel reinforced LIST OF GRAPHS frame ...... 68 Graph 2.01. Variation in MSW composition grouped by country income Fig 4.31. Image showing dalle de verre used as staircase railing ...... 68 levels ...... 10 Fig 4.32. The dalle de verre has also been used to make; exterior furniture, Interior Graph 2.02. World Population 1700 - 2050 ...... 11 furniture, a skylight and also, making of a sculpture installation . 68 Graph 2.03. World material consumption 1950-2007 ...... 12 Fig 4.33. Image showing floor finished with broken tile shards and glass bottle Graph 2.04. Graph showing Cradle to grave ...... 18 base...... 69 Graph 2.05. Graph showing Cradle to cradle ...... 18 Fig 4.34. Image showing infills of reused and recycled bottles ...... 69 Fig 4.35. Image showing use of dalle de verre ...... 69 Graph 2.06. Eco-effectiveness vs eco-efficiency chart ...... 18 Fig 4.36. Sketch section showing free airflow across the building allowing cross LIST OF TABLES ventilation. 70 Fig 4.37. Image showing a balcony...... 70 Table 3.01. Research framework ...... 56 Fig 4.38. Image showing the artistic nature of dalle de verre which creates Table 4.01. Table showing comparison of findings...... 77 interest ...... 71 Fig 4.39. Mr. Samuel’s residential house in Watamu...... 72 Fig 4.40. Walls showing the used coral blocks and wine bottle bricks. . . 72 Fig 4.41. A woman washing off bottle labels...... 73 Fig 4.42. A mason using string guides while layering the wine bottle bricks. . . 73 Fig 4.43. WMA members during waste collection...... 74 Fig 4.44. Sketch of a section projecting the proposal for the roof overhang. . . 74 Fig 4.45. WMA members creating awareness on waste management . . . . . 75 Fig 4.46. Alternating the bottle bricks with concrete vent blocks ...... 75 Fig 4.47. Readily available bottles. 76 Fig 4.48. Image showing the way of putting the bottles on each other ...... 76 Chapter 5 Fig 5.01. Plastic bottle bricks providing an alternative material for construction. 80

xi ABSTRACT

As the human population continues to grow by the day, migration to cities continues and economies develop. Most of these cities are yet to be built increasing the demand on the already strained natural resources. In developing economies, the systems are structured based on the principle of the exhaustion of natural resources for the purpose of production, entailing the fabrication of waste. With the demand for new buildings and refurbishing old ones for better standards of living, their will be great impacts on our environment especially with waste seen as a product excluded from the cycle of an economic system. However, by shifting from a linear economy to a circular economy over the course of time, we can reduce the degradation of the environment. The issue of waste can be tackled at its source through designing out waste, preventing its generation, reusing, recycling and recovering creating a feedback loop.

The purpose for conducting the study was to look into explored techniques on how to reduce society’s impact on the environment through architecture. To look into how to help conserve natural resources which are in high demand and also reduce the increased pollution by solid waste such as bottles. The ultimate aim is to bring to light the possibilities for solid waste to become a resource in design and construction and contribute to the efforts towards a closed loop economy and away from the current detrimental linear system of economy.

The objectives of this study are to investigate the different techniques applied in using bottles as building materials or components of a building and to establish the attributes of using bottles as building materials or components of a building, The last objective recommend possible strategies to enhance the application of bottles as building materials or building components in Watamu.

Based on the literature review, the author brings out the arguement that environmental sustainability should be the core issue to be addressed for development to focus on human well-being and yet stay within the limitations of planet’s capacity. And upon a study into international cases where bottles which were considered as waste have been used as building materials or building components, a number of mitigating factors were singled out from the techniques applied in the exploration of the use of bottles. Further study is conducted using the factors derived to analyse buildings in Watamu that have explored the use of bottles.

The study elaborates the techniques explored in Watamu as well as discusses the attributes of using bottles as building material or as building components. The findings are able to depict the value of using bottles (which are considered as waste material) as a building material or a building component with some of its attributes being more beneficial than the use of virgin materials. This resulted to the author justifiably coming to a number of conclusions one being that designers and architects in schools and in practice should be trained to expand their creativity and ingenuity towards learning how to use bottles among other waste materials in a way that adds value.

xii

Chapter 1 1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Bottles as building materials

1.1 Introduction

Economic systems are based on the principle of the exhaustion of natural resources for the purpose of production, entailing the fabrication of waste. Hebel, Wisniewska & Heisel (2014) say that these systems function at the expense of our social integrity and environmental sustainability.

Following the traditional understanding of waste, its generation is considered to be the biggest cause of pollution but Angélil & Siress (2010) in their article “ Re: Going Around in Circles, Regime of Waste” see it as a huge potential.

When waste is produced, instead of being included in a metabolic cycle (Fig 1.01), it is considered within a dead-end scenario of a linear process to be literally buried from view, out of sight, out of mind, as something that has no value. However, referring to Bataille (1967), waste is a gift that needs to be freed from its “pejorative Fig 1.01. Bottles throughout its life , passing through many stages and processes. stigma”. This is where his call to understand waste as part of Source: Smart reuse of glass bottles, 2011 . societies’ wealth follows.

Waste and its meticulous handling are valued gifts, offered by society to itself. Waste production is an investment that needs to be returned.

1 Bottles as building materials

1.2 Background study

Solid waste management is a challenge experienced by most countries in the world ranging from reduction of the amount of waste generated to its proper disposal. In striving to attain industrial development, there is often little attention given to solid waste management in developing countries, Kenya being one of them.

As urbanisation continues to take place in many developing countries, the management of solid waste has raised major public health and environment concerns. The concerns are serious, especially in villages like Watamu where a growing population and lack of waste Fig 1.02. Image of plastic bottles and waste dumped at management facilities is resulting in solid waste pollution of both terrestrial and marine Watamu beach. environments. (Fig 1.02, Fig 1.03) Source: SEED case studies: Watamu community, 2011 . Today, Watamu beaches are often littered with plastics. Due to a lack of waste collection sites and disposal facilities in the area, people tend to dump waste on roadsides and on wastelands. Also as a result of few didposal sites along the beaches, a lot of people including tourists tend to leave their plastic bottles and bags on the beaches.

The impact of solid waste is deteriorating our local environment resulting in threats to human health, welfare and potentially discouraging tourists from visiting the area. The latter is a serious socio economic concern as many coastal communities depend on tourism as their primary source of income and employment.

Fig 1.03. Image of plastic bottle in the ocean. Source; Global Waste Management Outlook, 2015 .

2 Bottles as building materials

Preferred 1.3 Problem statement

As already discussed above, waste is a gift offered by society to itself and also an investment Reuse/ that needs to be returned. There is huge potential in waste according to Angélil & Siress Refurbishment in (2010). situ The built environment of the future is being constructed at the beginning of a new ecological era with material resource efficiency (Fig 1.04). According to Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2011), governments are structuring Reuse off site markets with regulation and legislation that respond to the challenges of environmental sustainability in order to conserve natural resources and reduce environmental pollution. Addis (2006) asserts that government policies tend to focus on two aspects of environmental impact relating to the use of materials; 1. Reducing extraction of new materials: reusing components and materials more than once brings environmental benefits in several ways. Reducing the demand for primary Recycle/ materials and also the resources needed to process them. Re-processing 2. Reducing materials sent to landfill: reusing components and materials also takes material out of the waste stream before it goes to landfill.

Reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover is the sustainable guideline that has replaced the take, make, waste attitude of the industrial age (Hebel et al., 2014). Architecture is one of the Landfill disciplines which has taken up the mantle through sustainable development practices by viewing waste as a resource, incorporating reclaimed material from solid waste such as bottles into the built environment as a construction material.

With reference to Watamu, a small coastal village in the Kilifi county, very little progress Least Preferred has been made incorporating solid waste into the built environment. High local population density combined with the tourist population means that natural resources in Watamu are in high demand and also increased pollution by solid waste and litter. According to SEED Fig 1.04. Figure showing material resource efficiency. (2011), one-off clean-ups along 5km beaches of Watamu can result in over 3,500kg of waste, Source; Aluminium Recyclability and Recycling; 23% of which is plastic. Solid waste is by far is the most significant threat in the Watamu Towards Sustainable Cities, 2015 . marine protected areas and managing it has so far proved to be a struggle for the town and a large part of the waste ends up in the environment, threatening the ecology of the area.

3 Bottles as building materials

This study aims to investigate the use of solid waste (bottles) as a resource (building material) in the built environment. Looking at bottles as a construction material and the techniques employed in the using them as a construction material.

1.4 Research objectives

1. To investigate the different techniques applied in using bottles as building materials or components of a building. 2. To establish the attributes of using bottles as building materials or components of a building, that is: advantages, shortcomings, physical properties and factors influencing their use. 3. To recommend possible strategies to enhance the application of bottles as building materials or building components locally in Watamu.

1.5 Research questions

1. What are some of the techniques applied in using bottles as building materials or components of a building? 2. What are some of the attributes of using bottles as building materials or components of a building? 3. What are some of the strategies that can be employed to enhance the application of bottles as buildings or building components locally in Watamu?

4 Bottles as building materials

1.6 Justification of study

As mentioned above in the discussion, very little progress has been made in the use of solid waste (bottles) as a resource in the built environment with reference to Watamu. The dominant reason for using solid waste as a resource is to reduce our society’s impact on the environment. To help conserve natural resources in Watamu which are in high demand and also reduce the increased pollution by solid waste and litter.

1.7 Significance of study

This study seeks to establish solid waste as a resource in the built environment with reference to bottles in a bid to reduce societys’ impact on the environment. To help create awareness on importance of conserving our natural resource through the use of bottles as an alternative construction material to virgin material and also reduce the amount of waste going to open or illegal dumpsites resulting to environmental pollution.

1.8 Scope & limitations

The investigation will cover post consumer waste material in form of bottles, both glass and plastic. The author will introduce the reader to solid waste material in general and the categories of solid waste material, general reason for recycling, a brief history and the concepts developed over time.

During this study, the expected limitations would be financial and time constraints that will the amount of data collected prompting the author to focus on bottles as a construction material expressing ways bottles can be used in construction.

5 Bottles as building materials

1.9 Definition of terms

Annealer - This is an oven with controlled temperature where glass is slowly cooled in order to reduce internal stresses and prevent cracking of the glass.

Cullet - Small pieces of crushed glass intended for recycling.

Dalle de verre - This is glass fixed in concrete.

MSW - Municipal solid waste. This is waste consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public.

Overcycle - This is the creative transformation of waste material into a product that is more valuable, practical and attractive than the original.

Post-consumer waste material surplus to requirements following its use by consumers, for example plastic bottles, crushed concrete.

Primary material - A material whose production has involved extraction from natural reserves.

Reclaim - The process of collecting and separating of materials from the waste stream.

Recover - Use of waste materials in order to prevent their disposal to landfill, usually by recycling, composting or energy recovery.

Recycle - collect and separate usable materials from waste and process them to produce marketable products.

Reuse - putting objects back into use, either for their original purpose or a different purpose without major prior reprocessing to change their physical characteristics, in order that they do not enter the waste stream.

Secondary material - Material that has previously been used for a primary purpose.

Waste - This is unwanted or discarded materials.

6 Bottles as building materials

1.10 Organization of study

Chapter 1 gives a general overview of the area of study and proceeds to outline the background of study, problem statement, research objectives, research question, justification of study, significance of study, research scope and limitations, research organisation and definition of terminologies.

Chapter 2 consists of the review of earlier studies done, both published and unpublished works on the topic of study. It examines waste and progression of waste as a resource over the ages. The design concepts of waste and the application of waste as a resource in the built environment with respect to bottles as building materials.

Chapter 3 will illustrate the research methods to be followed during the entire study. A review of the research purpose, research strategy, sampling design, methods of data collection analysis and presentation.

In chapter 4, the information obtained from the field and documentation of the same will be done and analysed comprehensively.

Chapter 5 will summarize the potentials we have for turning waste material (with respect to bottles) to good use in architecture within our local context to benefit the social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainable development.