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Childhood Tuberculosis: a Preventable Disease Not Being Prevented

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Childhood Tuberculosis: a Preventable Disease Not Being Prevented Childhood Tuberculosis: A Preventable Disease Not Being Prevented In March 2012, childhood tuberculosis (TB) was the focus of World TB AUTHORS: Andrea T. Cruz, MD, MPH,a,b,c Anna M. Day. This neglected disease still accounts for at least 1 million annual Mandalakas, MD, MSEpi,a,d and Jeffrey R. Starke, MDa,c cases and 100 000 deaths in children. The World Health Organization aThe Tuberculosis Initiative of Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, b c 1 Texas; and Sections of Emergency Medicine, Infectious (WHO) estimates that 9.7 million children have been orphaned by TB. Diseases, and dRetrovirology and Global Health, Department of The articles in this edition of Pediatrics by Wu et al2 from China Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas and Winston and Menzies3 from the United States remind us of the ABBREVIATIONS ongoing scourge of this ancient disease in both high- and low- LTBI—latent tuberculosis infection prevalence countries and highlight many issues that need to be TB—tuberculosis TST—tuberculin skin test addressed to control it. WHO—World Health Organization The study from the Beijing Children’s Hospital reveals the continued Dr Cruz conceptualized the commentary, drafted the initial high global morbidity and mortality of childhood TB. This study details article, and approved the final article as submitted; Dr Mandalakas conceptualized the commentary, reviewed and many unsolved problems in childhood TB globally: huge burden of revised the article, and approved the final article as submitted; disease; high propensity for severe forms of extrapulmonary disease; and Dr Starke conceptualized the commentary, reviewed and incomplete protection afforded by BCG vaccines; diagnostic delays; revised the article, and approved the final article as submitted. high treatment failure rates; and lost opportunities for prevention.4,5 Opinions expressed in these commentaries are those of the We wonder how many of these cases could have been prevented with author and not necessarily those of the American Academy of Pediatrics or its Committees. routine use of isoniazid preventive therapy, an effective and cost- www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2012-2832 effective intervention among child household contacts.6 However, in doi:10.1542/peds.2012-2832 most high-burden settings, use of isoniazid preventive therapy to treat Accepted for publication Sep 18, 2012 children identified through contact investigation is not common Address correspondence to Jeffrey R. Starke, MD, 1102 Bates St, practice nor recommended for school-aged immunocompetent chil- Suite 1150, Houston, TX 77030. E-mail: [email protected] dren by the WHO.7 Although this article did not address drug sus- PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275). ceptibility, high rates of multidrug resistance have been reported Copyright © 2012 by the American Academy of Pediatrics recently in China,8 potentially contributing to the 14% treatment FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE: The authors have no financial failure rate in the children. This article aptly illustrates the significant relationships relevant to this article to disclose. need to develop new strategies for the treatment and prevention of FUNDING: No external funding. childhood TB to improve global child survival, as detailed in the WHO COMPANION PAPERS: Companions to this article can be found Millennium Development Goals.9 on pages e1433 and e1425, and online at www.pediatrics.org/ 10 cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2011-3742 and www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/ In 2011, over 60% of US TB cases occurred in foreign-born persons. The 10.1542/peds.2012-1057. study by Winston and Menzies3 demonstrates the major influence of the global TB burden on control of domestic childhood TB. Only one-quarter of children with TB lacked international birth or travel history for the child or parent, and one-half of US-born children with TB had known contact with a foreign-born case. The most effective and cost-effective strategy to prevent future cases of disease in foreign-born individuals is to diagnose and treat latent TB infection (LTBI) at or shortly after entry into a low-prevalence nation.11 Recent modifications to US immigration guidelines require tuberculin skin tests (TSTs) on children 2 to 14 years of age,12 a population that previously went unscreened. However, LTBI treatment rarely occurs before immigration and is predicated on having entry into the US health care system, a notorious barrier for recent immigrants. A complementary strategy would be to invest in the TB in- frastructure of nations with high TB prevalence sending large numbers of immigrants to the United States.13 e1672 CRUZ et al Downloaded from www.aappublications.org/news by guest on September 25, 2021 COMMENTARY Assessing TB risk factors should not integrate preventive services (con- It is likely that rates of drug-resistant stop at the border. In 2000, the Centers sisting of risk assessment and re- LTBI also are higher among children for Disease Control and Prevention and ferral of identified children for testing) with risk factors related to foreign the American Academy of Pediatrics into the schools, which are used birth or travel of the child or parents. recommended against universal test- by the vast majority of high-risk High rates of isoniazid resistance call ing with the TST.14 Instead, the recom- families. A second unintended con- into question current strategies rec- mendation was to screen all children sequence may have been minimiz- ommending 9 months of isoniazid for for TB risk factors by using a validated ing the role of parental foreign birth. all children with LTBI unless contact questionnaire and to perform TSTs Two-thirds of US-born children with with a specific drug-resistant case is only on children with identified risk.15 TB had at least 1 foreign-born par- determined. Perhaps further exami- There may have been 2 unintended ent. This is not 1 of the risk factors nation of the data as reported by consequences of this policy shift. First, identified in most screening ques- Winston and Menzies3 can provide TB risk factor screening may have tionnaires but warrants further insight to help pediatricians decide been de-emphasized when routine tu- investigation. when the risk of isoniazid resistance berculin testing for all children at well- Another emerging trend in US TB is is high enough to consider using a child visits was eliminated. Additionally, the increased rate of drug resistance rifampin-containing regimen for treat- the Centers for Disease Control and in isolates from foreign-born per- ing LTBI.16 Prevention and the American Academy sons.3,10 Winston and Menzies3 dem- The majority of childhood TB is pre- of Pediatrics recommendations as- onstrated that 18% of Mycobacterium ventable. These articles reveal what sume that children have a medical tuberculosis isolates from foreign- happens when prevention strategies home. With rising numbers of un- born children with foreign-born par- are inadequately addressed. Better insured children, alternative venues ents were resistant to isoniazid, application of risk questionnaires and for providing preventive health ser- and 8% were multidrug-resistant, improved contact tracing would pre- vices are critical. One possible strategy as compared with 6% and 0.4%, re- vent many of the US cases of childhood to maximize coverage would be to spectively, for all US-born TB cases.10 TB. REFERENCES 1. World Health Organization. Global Tuber- a high-burden setting [published online 12. Centers for Disease Control and Pre- culosis Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World ahead of print June 20, 2012]. Thorax. vention. CDC Immigration Requirements: Health Organization; 2011 7. World Health Organization. Guidance for technical instructions for tuberculosis 2. Wu X-R, Yin Q, Jiao A, et al. Pediatric tu- national tuberculosis programmes on the screening and treatment. 2009. Available at: berculosis at Beijing Children’s Hospital: management of tuberculosis in children. www.cdc.gov/immigrantrefugeehealth/pdf/ 2002-2010. Pediatrics. 2012;130(6): (in press) Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organi- tuberculosis-ti-2009.pdf. Accessed September 3. Winston C, Menzies H. Pediatric and ado- zation; 2006. Available at: http://whqlibdoc. 6, 2012 lescent tuberculosis in the United States, who.int/hq/2006/WHO_HTM_TB_2006.371_ 13. Bloom BR, Salomon JA. Enlightened self- 2008-2010. Pediatrics. 2012;130(6): (in eng.pdf. Accessed September 6, 2012 interest and the control of tuberculosis. press) 8. Zhao Y, Xu S, Wang L, et al. National survey N Engl J Med. 2005;353(10):1057–1059 4. Lobato MN, Mohle-Boetani JC, Royce SE. of drug-resistant tuberculosis in China. 14. American Thoracic Society. Targeted tu- Missed opportunities for preventing tu- N Engl J Med. 2012;366(23):2161–2170 berculin testing and treatment of latent berculosis among children younger than 9. United Nations. Millennium develop- tuberculosis infection. MMWR Recomm five years of age. Pediatrics. 2000;106(6). ment goals. Available at: www.un.org/ Rep. 2000;49(RR-6):1–51 Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/ millenniumgoals. Accessed September 6, 15. Froehlich H, Ackerson LM, Morozumi PA; full/106/6/e75 2012 Pediatric Tuberculosis Study Group of 5. Du Preez K, Hesseling AC, Mandalakas AM, 10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kaiser Permanente, Northern California. Marais BJ, Schaaf HS. Opportunities for (CDC). Trends in tuberculosis - United Targeted testing of children for tuberculosis: chemoprophylaxis in children with culture- States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. validation of a risk assessment questionnaire. confirmed tuberculosis. Ann Trop Paediatr. 2012;61(11):181–185 Pediatrics. 2001;107(4). Available at: www. 2011;31(4):301–310 11. Pareek M, Watson JP, Ormerod LP, et al. pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/107/4/e54 6. Mandalakas AM, Hesseling AC, Gie RP, Screening of immigrants in the UK for 16. Finnell SM, Christenson JC, Downs SM. La- Schaaf HS, Marais BJ, Sinanovic E. Modelling imported latent tuberculosis: a multicentre tent tuberculosis infection in children: the cost-effectiveness of strategies to cohort study and cost-effectiveness analy- a call for revised treatment guidelines.
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