Fall 2019 Volume 12, no 1
Sustainable Communities Review
Volume 12, no. 1 Contents
From the Editor 1
Articles Youth Corner Sustainability in community organizing: 3 Energy efficient aquaponics 70 lessons from the community organisers by Sheldon Aminzadeh, Emilio programme in England (2011 – 2015) Roman, Jesse Castro, & by Andie Reynolds & Lucy Grimshaw Hanyue Jiang
Sustainability as livability: Two 21 Ethiopia 72 community case studies in East Texas by Brook Lakew Tilahun
by Forbes, W., B. M. Murphy, M. S., et el.
74 Majete: More than family by Brucktawit Endashaw Application of nanotechnology in water 44 and wastewater treatment: A short The Effect of Three Different 76 review Plants: Scindapsus Aureus, by Sujata Mandal, Sheldon Q. Shi Chlorophytum Comosum, and Philodendron on Indoor Air Quality by Samara Amin Postmodern Prometheus: A discourse 50 analysis of energy dominance
by Adam Briggle
Copyright@2017 Sustainable Communities Review
Sustainable Communities Review
ARTICLE
Sustainability in community organizing: lessons from the Community Organisers Programme in England (2011 – 2015)
Andie Reynolds & Lucy Grimshaw Department of Social Work Education and Community Wellbeing, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK. Correspondence to: [email protected]
This article presents findings from an impact evaluation case study of the UK Coalition government’s Community Organisers Programme (2011-2015). Whilst the program achieved some of its objectives, case study participants raised concerns of how sustainability was understood and practised. Five elements undermined the program’s sustainability: (i) a weak definition of sustainability; (ii) the short duration of the training contract; (iii) an over-emphasis on autonomy; (iv) insufficient training and support for volunteer community organizers, and (v) a lack of progression opportunities. The article concludes the lack of conceptualization of sustainability within the program, and the Coalition government’s commitment to austerity, enfeebled a trailblazing experimentation with state-funded community organizing.
Introduction
This article assesses the ambiguous This followed a hung parliament general use of sustainability throughout the election result five days earlier. They Community Organisers Programme (COP) quickly announced a program of public (2011-2015) in England, which was sector reform and austerity to reduce the introduced by the UK Coalition 10% deficit they inherited from the 2007/8 government (2010-2015). On May 12th 2010, financial crisis (Taylor-Gooby & Stoker, the Conservative Party and the Liberal 2011). Prior to the election, the Democrats formed a coalition government. Conservative Party leader was delivering speeches about the need to reduce big
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Sustainable Communities Review government by creating a Big Society government budgets alone (Clayton et al., (Cameron, 2009). This became a significant 2016). This resulted in the closure of two policy driver for the COP. Big Society was hundred and eighty-five public bodies, introduced as the antithesis of the previous including the Community Development New Labour government’s ‘excessive’ Foundation and the Sustainable public spending, bureaucracy and Development Commission. The previous unwelcome interference (Alcock, 2010). Big New Labour administration set-up, and Society offered citizens, communities, the funded, both to independently monitor voluntary and community sector (VCS), and advise UK governments on their and the private sector more opportunities progress in community and sustainable to run British public services without development (Levitt, 2015; SDC, 2010). In excessive red tape (Alcock, 2010; Cabinet 2011, the Coalition government assigned Office, 2010a). Three policy offshoots - the Department for Environment, Food social action, localism and social enterprise and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) to mainstream – germinated from this overarching policy sustainable development and embed it “at agenda (Davoudi & Madanipour, 2013; the heart of each Government department” Dean, 2013; Thornham, 2015). The (Cabinet Office, 2011b, p. 3) whilst also Localism Act 2011 assisted communities, reducing DEFRA’s budget by 30% the VCS and the private sector “…to take (Wheeler, 2015). over public services, community assets and The Department of Communities influence planning and development” (My and Local Government was the hardest-hit Community, 2012, p. 1; Featherstone et al., department with its budget slashed by 51% 2013). Thus, public sector, VCS and private over the five-year span. This resulted in sector professionals, and voluntary groups local governments in England making one- could legitimately ‘bid’ to take over council third to one-half of its public sector assets – including community youth and workers redundant (Bailey et al., 2015; children’s centres – and galvanize social Wheeler, 2015). Local government cuts also action to run them as social enterprises. affected funding available to the VCS, Social action was defined as: “… people ensuing unprecedented losses in giving what they have, be that their time, community development and community their money or their assets, knowledge and work infrastructures in both sectors skills, to support good causes and make (Clayton et al, 2016; Lowndes & life better for all” (Cabinet Office, 2010b, p. McCaughie, 2013). In response, the 4). Coalition government invested over £40 The adoption of austerity as the million in volunteering and social action Coalition government’s principal economic projects, with half allocated to the COP strategy steered these agendas. Austerity (Cabinet Office, 2013; Fisher & Dimberg, proposed £81 billion in spending cuts over 2016). five years, with £53 million cut from This article presents findings from a government departments and local case study of the COP in one local 4
Sustainable Communities Review authority in England. It concludes that the RE:generate’s training had yet to be tested program’s weak conceptualization of on such a large scale (Imagine, 2014; 2015a). sustainability – driven by the Coalition TCOs were based in local VCS government’s unwavering commitment to organisations known as host organisations, austerity and public sector cuts - and allocated to small geographical compromised its impact and legacy. To ‘patches’ in low income neighbourhoods in achieve this, this article divides into five England (Cameron et al, 2015). Their aim sections. The first introduces the COP, its was to work “…closely with communities objectives, methodology and to identify local leaders, projects and understanding of sustainability. The opportunities, and empower the local second presents an overview of how community to improve their local area” sustainability and sustainable (Cabinet Office, 2011a, np). development came to underpin The COP’s methodology fused the community organizing and development works of Saul Alinsky, Paulo Freire, methodologies. The third then discusses Edward Chambers and Clodomir Santos de our methodology. The fourth section Morais who set out to resist and challenge presents the findings and argues that five state authority and power. This was elements of the COP undermined how trailblazing for a national, state-funded sustainability was understood and program (Fisher & Dimberg, 2016). The practised. The final section concludes that COP also incorporated “…long traditions the COP’s problematic interpretation of of English radicalism and self-help” sustainability – driven by the Coalition (Locality, 2010, p. 2). Although community government’s pledge to austerity - organizing is traditionally associated with enfeebled a trailblazing experimentation the left, it has a range of theoretical with state-funded community organizing. underpinnings and practices across the political spectrum (Fisher and DeFilippis, The Community Organisers Programme 2015). Posthumously, Fisher & Dimberg (2011-2015) (2016, p. 100) have labelled the COP the The £20 million state-funded COP “moderate middle” of community set out to train 5,000 community organisers organizing methodologies and strategies. over four years. Five hundred paid, trainee The COP’s objective was to support community organisers (TCOs) were trained the delivery of Big Society and localism for fifty-one weeks and were tasked to through working directly with local people recruit and train 4,500 volunteer to help raise community spirit; encourage community organisers (VCOs). In 2011, local community action; promote two national civil society organizations indigenous leadership in local working in partnership were communities; create new, locally-run commissioned to deliver the program. community groups and social enterprises; Locality led and managed it whilst and inspire democratic and social change RE:generate delivered the training. (Locality, 2010). To achieve this, Locality 5
Sustainable Communities Review set the TCOs four targets to complete in Fourth, to establish community holding fifty-one weeks. First, to listen to at least teams of VCS organizations and other local five-hundred people in their patch on leaders to listen, research, plan and take doorsteps. Second, to recruit at least nine coordinated action (Cameron et al., 2015). VCOs. Third, to co-produce with local Locality also set nine impact indicators to residents three to five community projects. assess each TCO’s impact in their patch.
Figure 1 Nine impact indicators for the Community Organisers Programme
1. Individual possibility – moving individuals from apathy to agency, and building a sense of possibility 2. Early wins – early wins that inspire and invigorate 3. Community spirit – sense of community spirit, coming together and overcoming isolation 4. Activating networks – using the network to solve problems, either one-to-one connections or by mobilizing numbers 5. Neighborhood housework – extending the tidying up and caring work that goes on in households into the wider neighborhood 6. Influencing decisions – influencing decisions about resources and plans for the neighbourhood 7. Assets and services – community takeover of assets and services 8. Enterprise – starting up new businesses, services and projects 9. Democracy – inspiring and transforming democracy
(Locality, 2014, p.1)
Engagement with sustainability is of future generations to do the same” not explicit in these indicators. This is (Cabinet Office, 2011b, p. 2). Reflecting the surprising due to the Coalition three pillars of sustainable development: government’s vow to stimulate sustainable economic, social and environmental, the development (Cabinet Office, 2011b) and a Coalition government argued these pillars prominent COP figure claiming should not “be undertaken in community organizing “… is necessary to isolationbecause they are mutually the long term sustainability of our dependent” (ibid). Arguably, impact neighbourhoods” (Gardham, 2015, np). The indicators 3, 4 and 9 could be included Coalition government defined sustainable under the social pillar, which includes civic development as “stimulating economic and political activity (Cabinet Office, 2007; growth and tackling the deficit, maximising 2011b); 7 and 8 under the economic pillar, wellbeing and protecting our environment, and 5 under the environmental pillar. But, without negatively impacting on the ability this is not explicit in national policy
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Sustainable Communities Review documents discussing the COP nor (Nelson, 2007, p. 2041). In 2015, these were materials released by Locality and superseded by the SDGs which placed RE:generate. There is also no clear further emphasis on environmental definition of sustainability or how the COP sustainability through supporting more understood sustainable development. This participatory and sustainable models of article now turns to explore development on a global scale (Ziai, 2016). conceptualizations of sustainability that Both goals have been endorsed by the UN, underpin community organizing The World Bank and at least 193 methodologies. governments worldwide (Nelson, 2007; Ziai, 2016). Sustainability, Sustainable Development Before the arrival of the MDGs, and Community Organizing environmental sustainability and sustainable development were mainly In the US, UK and beyond, practised separately in community increasing numbers of community development and organizing development and organizing bodies methodologies. Throughout the 1940s and support the three pillars of sustainable 50s, both US community organizing and development model by demanding that UK community development aimed to “…all development should be inherently create empowered and sustainable sustainable, that is, seeing economic and communities through professionals social development within an cultivating indigenous community capacity environmental framework that conserves and leadership skills (Alinsky, 1989; Miller resources and is carbon neutral” (Beck & & Ahmad, 1997). Thus, both community Purcell, 2012, p. 24). This coincides with organizers and development workers were appeals for social and environmental tasked “to work themselves out of a job” justice to underlie community organizing (Miller & Ahmad, 1997, p. 275; Alinsky, and development strategies (cf. Beck & 1989) through fostering indigenous Purcell, 2013; Ife, 2016; Ledwith, 2016). leadership and capacity in communities Community organizing’s growing interest until professionals were no longer in sustainability, sustainable development required. Community organizer Saul and environmental justice stems from both Alinsky (1989) criticized ‘do-gooders’, the Millennium Development Goals public administration workers and (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development charities who remained in community Goals (SDGs) (Beck & Purcell, 2013; leadership roles for years. Established by Blewitt, 2015). Introduced in 2000, the Alinsky in 1940, the US community MDGs were eight international organizing network, also known as the development goals proposing to “improve Industrial Areas Foundation, advocated a the health, nutrition, and well-being of golden rule: “no one should ever do things some of the 1.2 billion humans who live on for people that they can do for themselves” less than the equivalent of a dollar a day” (Pyles, 2014, p. 79). Inherent within this 7
Sustainable Communities Review statement is a debate about capacity in was never a dominant paradigm prior to communities for leadership; specifically, the SDGs (Beck & Purcell, 2013; Ife, 2016). who already has it and who can develop it. Yet, in 1987, the Brundtland Report UK community development echoed this identified “environmental justice and social through its explicit commitment to deprivation as very real problems for many community capacity building (cf. Batten, communities” (Blewitt, 2015, p. 113). The 2008; Mayo, 2008). Banks (2011, p. 6) Rio Earth Summit followed in 1992 and defines capacity building as “the released Agenda 21, also known as the promotion of self-help and participation in Earth Action Plan. This asserted that local civic life on the part of residents in local people and communities were core to neighbourhoods.” In the 1990s, the United achieve environmental sustainability, and Nations Development Programme (UNDP) needed to “foster a sense of personal adopted capacity building as their principal environmental responsibility and greater development strategy and, in conjunction motivation and commitment towards with The World Bank, strove to create sustainable development” (UNCED, 1992, active, entrepreneurial and self-reliant p. 267). Due to their shared principle of citizens that participate in public life fostering self-reliance in communities, both (UNDP, 1993; Ziai, 2016). Both community community organizing and community organizing and community development development were identified as facilitative methodologies became more mainstream in processes that could develop such the majority and minority worlds to build- ecological communities; characterized as up community capacity to cultivate respecting all life and nature, and indigenous leadership and self-reliant committed to reducing their dependency citizens that participate in civic life. This on depleting natural resources (Blewitt, remained a shared definition of sustainable 2008; Ife, 2016; Ledwith, 2016). development in mainstream community Following the methodology section, development and organizing until the this article moves on to scrutinize how MDGs and SDGs in the early 21st century sustainability and sustainable development (Beck & Purcell, 2013; Ife, 2016). was understood and practised in the COP. Although a focus on environmental sustainability and its benefits for local Methodology communities is not new to community development or organizing (cf. Blewitt, Data was collected during an impact 2008; Downie & Elrick, 2000; Fisher, 1994), evaluation of the COP in one local authority district in England. We evaluated
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Figure 2 Five stages of data collection 1. Initial interviews with TCOs and host managers (September to October 2014) 2. Shadowing TCOs for one day (January to February 2015) 3. Interviews with VCOs (April to May 2015) 4. Final interviews with TCOs and host managers (April to May 2015) 5. Questionnaires with local residents in each ‘patch’ (June to July 2015)
develop collaborative solutions it against the nine impact indicators (RE:generate, 2009). The listenings outlined in figure 1. Nationally, fourteen followed residents answering their doors cohorts of community organizers trained and responding to questions written by in groups between October 2011 and June RE:generate and delivered by the TCOs. 2015 (Cameron et al., 2015). Other Topics frequently raised were: (i) evaluation (ibid) and research (Imagine, environment, spaces and places (litter, 2014; 2015a; 2015b) focusses primarily on overgrown trees, speed limits, parking, the earlier cohorts. This case study flooding and dog poo); (ii) well-being includes one of the final cohorts. The data (noise, community spirit, sport facilities, consisted of semi-structured interviews anti-social behaviour); and (iii) public with six TCOs, two host organization services (changes in council services such managers and five volunteer community as children’s centres and libraries; need for organisers (VCOs); and questionnaires activities for children, young people and with fifty-seven residents across the six the aging population). TCOs then patches. Participants were asked to compiled these responses in newsletters participate based on their informed and distributed them locally. These consent and pseudonyms were given to encouraged residents to form local groups assure anonymity. Figure 2 outlines the and work together to overcome issues data collection stages that coincided with raised. TCO Matt noted: the TCOs fifty-one week training contract. “Some [local residents] actually Sustainability in community organizing say to you [that] you are the first person whose ever came Elements of the COP received out and asked me about the considerable praise. Most participants area, about the community. So, viewed the door-knockings, listenings and it’s knowing that you’re giving newsletters as successful in engaging with people a voice.” hard-to-reach local people and promoting community spirit. These were core to the A local resident concurred: “[the COP’s methodology, called Root Solutions- COP] is essential. It can change people’s Listening Matters (RSLM), which lives for the better”. TCOs, VCOs, host emphasized listening to and then managers and some local residents supporting people in their communities to applauded such methods for initiating new
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Sustainable Communities Review relationships, recruiting new volunteers “I question [Locality’s] and reaching those previously inaccessible. definition of a volunteer. [The This resulted in fifteen community projects TCOs] were told a volunteer is developing across the six patches; ranging someone who takes any form from litter-picks and park clean-ups to of action for the community. developing petitions, and creating youth So, that could be introducing services provision and additional needs you to someone, handing out groups. some leaflets… like handing Overall, the TCOs impressed the host out your business card to managers. Ally commented their TCOs someone and them taking it. “were very mature individuals… and we Or, someone who handed had good communication”. Nicky, the flyers out for you. That counts second host manager, praised two TCOs as a volunteer.” for successfully organizing a Christmas party for older, socially isolated Most TCOs, VCOs and host managers community members recruited solely agreed this definition was unsustainable through door-knockings. Nicky reflected: and surprising, given that volunteers were the lifeblood of the program and to whom “Now, a year before [the HO] its legacy was dependent. Ally had emailed ran a project for older people in Locality and challenged them on this the community centre and, definition, explaining that a volunteer “is over the year, you might get someone who has actively engaged in an three, four, five people coming activity on a regular basis” and has “a clear in a week. But, in one day [the understanding of what it is they are TCOs] managed to fill the hall. doing”. TCOs Paula, Heather and Gary also And it gave me a thought, well, raised these concerns with Locality. All you know, it can be done.” four reported not receiving “a satisfactory response”. Similarly scrutinized was the Discussed more were concerns COP’s understanding of a project. Matt regarding how Locality and RE:generate explains: understood sustainability; with TCOs, VCOs and host managers providing “Some [TCOs] have marked converging accounts of how this down a single litter-pick or a compromised the COP’s impact and single coffee morning as a legacy. Locality and RE:generate’s project… But, in my eyes - and understanding of a VCO was criticized; the methodology and theory of defined as local residents taking “social community organizing - the action” resulting from a RSLM listening to projects are supposed to be become “new leaders in their community”. mid-to-long-term in both the TCO Heather elucidates: development and the results.
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Because it is supposed to be a actively discouraged from taking the lead self-sufficient thing with the in bourgeoning projects. Matt was critical people in the community doing of this: it for themselves, to continuously do it for “And it doesn’t matter if you themselves. It is supposed to feel someone can’t do it for take a little longer to build it themselves, that’s not how [the up, but it is supposed to last COP] works. It’s that you have even longer. So, instead of to not do it for them. So, [the talking two weeks to organise a COP] is really saying, if they project and then it runs for say they can’t do it for three weeks, it’s supposed to themselves, they really can. take six months to a year. And [The rule] should be: if they can then run for the next ten kind- do it for themselves, don’t do of-thing.” it. But some people can’t until you show them.” Matt highlights a discord between more traditional community organizing Similarly, the host managers objectives to build-up long-term capacity, appraised the COP as erroneously and Locality and RE:generate’s more assuming that capacity and motivation was target-driven RSLM methodology. This “latent” in neighborhoods and that overlaps with the second element reported residents “just needed somebody just to say as undermining the program: the limited what do you fancy doing and they would timescale of the TCO training contract. All rise up like an army”. To the TCOs, this TCOs, VCOs and host managers concurred was a misguided interpretation of fifty-one weeks was not enough time to Alinsky’s methods. To the host managers build-up sufficient capacity in each patch to and experienced VCOs, it was “poor create new networks. Nicky, who had community work”. Most participants also worked in the area for over twenty years, questioned the COP’s rationale for such a reflected: “with the kinds of communities short training contract. VCOs thought it that we’re working in, the timeframe that was “too short” as the local area needed there is to really develop something strong “somebody who can work with the and lasting is so minimal”. Most TCOs community, and the community can get to found local residents reluctant to take the know them”. TCO Gary was adamant that lead, with Gary reflecting it was “daunting “… training should be at least 18 months… for anybody to think about setting anything that real results won’t start showing until up”. Influenced by Alinsky (1989), one of the 18 month period”. In fact, Locality and the ‘golden rules’ of the program was to RE:generate’s original bid stipulated this not do for others what they could do for (Grimshaw et al., 2018). During training themselves. As a result, the TCOs were RE:generate informed the TCOs:
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“RSLM is supposed to be done actively worked against TCOs achieving over three to five years, rather their targets. Matt explains: than a year. So, I think that definitely comes into play, “I mean [local residents and I] when [RE:generate trainer] first talked about doing a litter says to build relationships she’s pick and straight away I kind of coming from a mentioned this to some foundation where in the past members of [the host she’s always had three to five organization] and they were years to do that.” (TCO Paula) saying ‘oh we know this person who will lend you the This issue of short-termism is equipment. We know someone reflected in national research, with TCOs who will arrange collection of requesting a second year of training the waste…’ But, we’re not (Imagine, 2015a; 2015b). TCOs, hosts and allowed to do that. It makes no some VCOs made connections between the sense whatsoever.” “too-short” training contract and the austere economic climate. TCOs regularly TCOs reported challenging Locality encountered local community and RE:generate on this during supervision organizations barely surviving on reduced and training. Locality’s response was “to public sector funding who were fearful of keep following the methodology” and closure. Like neighboring community focus on creating new networks in their organizations, Ally and Nicky were having patches rather than use existing networks. to “make-do with less”. They concluded This was reported as problematic as TCOs this fate had also befallen the COP, with were using the buildings, office spaces and austerity having “taken over what [the facilities of the host and other VCS COP] potentially could have become” by organizations. Yet, they were prohibited scrapping the second year of the TCO from becoming involved in work these contract. organizations undertook in case they were The third issue reported as “co-opted”. TCOs stated this created compromising the COP was that the RSLM uncomfortable working environments for methodology encouraged TCOs to work all involved. Host managers responded autonomously from their host organization they did not expect to co-opt TCOs. But, and local VCS organizations. In training, they had (falsely) envisaged the TCOs as a TCOs were advised to remain independent means of bringing of bringing additional from existing organizations, to not signpost resources into a sector suffering austerity local residents to these organizations and and funding cuts. They also imagined the “to organize people separately” from them. TCOs working less autonomously, building This perplexed the participants and on existing networks and strengthening local community organizations. Not doing
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Sustainable Communities Review so, they argued, had compromised the year. TCOs maintained that the local survival of both the COP and the local residents encountered did not have the community sector. required capacity, i.e. the time, skills or TCOs also discussed the ethics of not commitment, to develop fledgling projects signposting local residents to existing into social enterprises. They also concluded community organizations. Particularly eye- the COP was not doing enough to build-up opening was Locality’s chastisement of a such capacity. TCO for signposting a suspected alcoholic Frustrating to the TCOs after so to a local drug and alcohol service. The many clashes, Locality’s “goalposts host managers remarked this was unethical changed” at the end of their contract. and regularly advised the TCOs “not to Locality were now encouraging TCOs to struggle with their conscience” and signpost existing VCOs and fledgling signpost as appropriate. They also claimed projects on to other community it compromised local organizations organizations and groups for support. The dependent on new service users to attract TCOs speculated this was due to increasingly scarce funding. TCO Heather community holding teams not forming in reported frequently “clashing” with these patches. This exasperated the TCOs Locality for six months on this issue, and who had argued throughout the training added that Locality were “only interested” year that it made more sense for VCOs and in local residents forming social fledgling projects to work with existing enterprises. Through door-knocking provision rather than “setting-up social Heather met two local residents interested enterprises”. This suggests the RSLM in starting projects; one a French class and methodology was overly fixated on the second an additional needs support achieving its targets at the expense of an group. During supervision, Locality underpinning in sustainable development advised Heather that both residents should where its impact would be measured by form social enterprises even though “[the how many new projects were still running, residents] didn’t want to put in too much at least, a year later. This study time and effort to setting up all that”. recommends that RSLM should be less Heather then informed Locality she had rigid and embrace more traditional located a local community organization community organizing methodologies who would allow these residents use their rooted in capacity building and building to run their projects, and offered development. their charity number to assist funding The fourth element undermining the applications. As this was contrary to the COP’s sustainability was the insufficient RSLM methodology, Locality insisted that training and support for VCOs. TCOs Heather encourage the residents to start a understood the difficulties encouraging social enterprise. Yet, the empirical residents to become VCOs, especially in findings show no social enterprises were poorer areas. Each TCO managed to recruit set up in these patches during the training two or three and were expected to teach 13
Sustainable Communities Review them about community organizing. Since there isn’t a plan of action to TCOs did not have a full understanding of follow it up with.” (VCO Steve) the method themselves, they felt unprepared for this. Although training for In consequence, TCOs reported VCOs developed towards the end of the feeling pressure to continue training the COP and ran in fourteen areas in 2014/15 VCOs after their contracts ended. TCO (Imagine, 2015c), this was not mentioned Louise confided that she had “… heard by the TCOs. In this case study, VCO about people who, when they finish their training consisted of VCOs accompanying [training] year, have ended up as a TCOs on door-knockings to learn RSLM. volunteer having to support people. I have None of the VCOs were in direct contact a problem with that because it’s a job at the with Locality or RE:generate and were end of the day”. The sustainability of the unsure how they could “keep the COP is once again called into question; principles of community organizing alive” particularly its short-termism and after the TCOs’ left. TCOs Paula and insufficient capacity building of VCOs. For Heather challenged both Locality and TCO Paula, building knowledge and RE:generate why the VCOs did not have expertise requires time and money: “access to the training [we] were getting”. They stated they “never received a “But, I think, ultimately for response”. things to be sustainable, like, All VCOs stressed they would not you’ve got to pay people to do undertake door-knocking and listenings jobs. We were given a one year without the TCOs. VCO safety and lack of contract and that’s just not long direction were key concerns: enough… I’m against this whole idea of like sustaining “You can’t just expect people to things by… just lowering all walk the streets as volunteers. the costs associated to it. I think The safeguardings are sometimes things actually do paramount to me. But it’s not cost money and it means you just that, you’d need direction. have to pay people to do things Which comes from having a if you want it to carry on. And structure, like a management that is sustainable.” type structure in place. Somebody to pass down what By the end of their training contracts, the aims and objectives are and most TCOs, host managers and VCOs how they are going to be concluded that the Coalition government’s achieved. There’s no point commitment to austerity had compromised asking a thousand people what the sustainability, impact and legacy of the do you think about litter if COP. As previously outlined, Locality and RE:generate’s original bid specified TCOs
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Sustainable Communities Review needed at least three training years to progression opportunity came directly sustainably learn RSLM and achieve their from their host manager to use both RSLM targets. Academics and participants in this and more community development case study have suggested this pledge to approaches. One TCO did not officially austerity put pressure on Locality and progress but worked for another national RE:generate to also “make-do with less” community organizing program that used (see also Bunyan, 2012; Grimshaw et al., a more “ecological approach to community 2018). A likely compromise between organizing”. Remaining TCOs decided Locality / RE:generate and the government either community organizing was not for was the COP’s part-funded second year. To them or could not obtain sufficient funding progress to second year and become a to progress. This progression rate is much Senior Community Organiser (SCO), TCOs lower than the national average of 60 had to achieve their targets and obtain part- percent (Cameron et al., 2015). The funding from a local VCS organisation for a empirical evidence suggests the RSLM year. This comprised half their salary or at methodology struggled to adapt to this least a quarter contribution towards the particular local authority and required an salary and additional payments “in kind”. additional training year to incorporate The government would then “match” this. more capacity building and development Paradoxically, as previously discussed, the work into its initial stages. TCOs were encouraged to work autonomously from these potential future Conclusions employers, thereby lessening their chances of identifying a progression opportunity. Our case study provides empirical This dilemma was also identified nationally evidence that the COP’s problematic (Imagine, 2015a). This was the final element understanding of sustainability enfeebled a that impaired the program’s sustainability. trailblazing experimentation with state- Host managers recounted increasing funded community organizing. Although pressure to ‘find’ the TCOs a progression the program achieved some of its opportunity even though this was not part objectives, participants recounted five of their role. Nicky admitted that even elements as undermining the program’s obtaining one-quarter of the progression impact and legacy. First, the COP lacked a salary was a significant ask as VCS coherent, and conceptual, definition of organizations were struggling to locate sustainability. It was unclear whether the funding hence “were making staff program endorsed the three pillars of redundant”. RSLM had also excluded sustainable development, with evidence these organizations from working directly further suggesting RSLM was not with the TCOs. Thus, the benefits of grounded in sustainable development having a RSLM-trained, paid staff member practices committed to longevity. Second, were not obvious. Only one TCO the TCO training contract was too short ‘officially’ progressed to SCO. This and required an extension of at least one 15
Sustainable Communities Review year to allow TCOs to carry out vital developed across the patches, the TCOs capacity building and development work. predicted only three would be “running a Third, the TCOs were discouraged from year later”. This was due to a deficit of working with neighboring organizations capacity building training within RSLM. and networks, and could not signpost local Instead, RSLM was consumed by residents to them. This fixation on achieving its short-term targets; leaving bypassing existing provision to encourage TCOs, VCOs and fledgling projects new projects was reported as struggling to achieve longevity. compromising the sustainability of the The external factor was a policy COP and the local community sector. context dominated by austerity. Most Fourth was the insufficient training, participants deduced the Coalition support and resources for the VCOs. Fifth government’s covenant with austerity, and was the TCOs’ progression opportunities the severity of the public sector cuts, had hindered by an overly autonomous RSLM compromised the sustainability of the methodology and severe cuts to public COP. Locality and RE:generate’s original expenditure. bid was clear that TCOs needed at least Further analysis establishes these three training years to sustainably learn five elements can be reduced to one RSLM and achieve their targets. After internal and one external factor. Internally, winning the bid, this reduced to one year the COP did not directly engage with and progression was reliant on TCOs sustainable development theory, policy or locating part-funding from a local VCS practice. Whilst the impact indicators organization. Yet, evidence shows outlined in figure 1 suggest some austerity reduced the capacity of the accountability to the three pillars of community sector by at least one-third sustainable development, this is not (Clayton et al., 2016; Lowndes & explicit in any COP or related McCaughie, 2013). As a result, only one documentation. Also, the TCOs never TCO in our case study progressed to discussed sustainable development as a second year. core component of their training. Whilst Nevertheless, the gains of the COP the COP’s focus on facilitating local should not be overlooked. In this case leadership is compatible with sustainable study, door-knocking, listenings and development, its problematic assumption newsletters all evaluated as successful that capacity and motivation is solely means to engage with local residents; “latent” in poor neighbourhoods is not. bringing them together to forge More traditional community organizing community spirit. This resulted in fifteen and development methodologies fledgling projects developing across the six appreciate that capacity building needs patches. At a national level, the COP’s time, resources and skills. This case study targets were exceeded and the Coalition found time and resources to be lacking in government considered it a success the COP. Of the fifteen community projects (Cameron et al., 2015). Although the 16
Sustainable Communities Review program ended in 2015, several extensions References were granted. In 2015, the Office of Civil Society funded a second round of the Alcock, P. (2010) ‘Building the Big Society: program for one year at the scaled-down a new policy environment for the third cost of £500 000. But its focus had changed sector in England.’ Voluntary Sector to providing start-up grants of up to £16 Review, 1(3), 379-89. DOI: 000 to community organizing projects 10.1332/204080510X538365. using the powers of the Localism Act 2011 Alinsky, S. D. (1989) Rules for Radicals: A (Cabinet Office, 2015). The Company of pragmatic Primer for Realistic Radicals. Community Organisers (COLtd) - formed London: Vintage Books. in 2015 to continue the legacy of the COP – Bailey, N., Bramley, G. & Hastings, A. managed this. In 2017, COLtd then secured (2015) Symposium introduction: local a further £4.2 million to increase the Responses to ‘austerity’. Local number of community organizers in Government Studies, 41(4), 571-581. England over three years (COLtd, 2017). DOI:10.1080/03003930.2015.1036988. Based on our findings, we strongly Banks, S. (2011) ‘Re-gilding the ghetto: recommend that this extension program is community work and community underpinned by a definition of development in 21st-century Britain.’ In sustainability that engages with both Lavelette, M. (ed.) Radical Social Work traditional and modern sustainable Today: Social Work at the Crossroads. development theory and practice. These Bristol: Policy Press, pp. 165-185. foundations should be prominent in all Batten, T. R. (2008) ‘The Major Issues and training materials and explicitly Future Direction of Community incorporated into the extension program’s Development.’ In G. Craig., K. Popple & impact indicators and methodology. M. Shaw (eds.) Community Development Finally, future research on this extension in Theory and Practice: An International program is vital to establish the long-term Reader. Nottingham: Spokesman. pp. sustainability, impact and legacy of the 55-65. COP. Beck, D. & Purcell, R. (2013) International Community Organising: Taking power, Acknowledgements making change. Bristol: Policy Press. Blewitt, J. (2008) ‘Introduction.’ In Blewitt, This article draws on data collected during J. (ed.) Community, Empowerment and evaluation research commissioned by Sustainable Development. Devon: Green Locality and funded by Locality and Books, pp. 13-16. Northumbria University. Blewitt, J. (2015) Understanding Sustainable Development (2nd edn). London: Routledge. Bunyan, P. (2012) Partnership, the Big Society and community organising:
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Progressive Localism and the ommunity-organisers-ltd-learning- construction of political alternatives. reports. Transactions of the Institute of British Imagine (2015a) Community Organisers Geographers, 37(2), 177–182. DOI: Programme Legacy Report. Accessed at: 10.1111/j.1475-5661.2011.00493.x. http://www.corganisers.org.uk/stories/c Fisher, R. (1994) Let the people: Neighborhood ommunity-organisers-ltd-learning- organizing in America. New York: reports. Twayne Publishers. Imagine (2015b) The Power of Listening: Fisher, R. & DeFilippis, J. (2015) Reflections and Learning Over 4 Years. Community organizing in the United Accessed at: States. Community Development Journal, http://www.corganisers.org.uk/stories/c 50(3), 363-379. DOI: 10.1093/cdj/bsv016. ommunity-organisers-ltd-learning- Fisher, R. & Dimberg, K. (2016) The reports. Community Organisers Programme in Ledwith, M. (2016) Community Development England. Journal of Community Practice, in Action: Putting Freire into Practice. 24(1), 94-108. DOI: Bristol: Policy Press. 10.1080/10705422.2015.1129006. Levitt, T. (2015) ‘The closure of the Gardham, N. (2015) ‘Why Community Community Development Foundation is Organising and Community Building a setback for the sector.’ Third Sector, are necessary to the long term 21st December 2015. Available at: sustainability of our neighbourhoods.’ http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/closure- Available at: community-development-foundation- https://www.corganisers.org.uk/stories/ setback-sector/local- why-community-organising-and- action/article/1377601 community-building-are-necessary- Locality (2010) ‘Tender to provide a long-term-sustainability-our National Partner for the Community Grimshaw, L., Mates, L. & Reynolds, A. Organisers Programme.’ Available at: (2018) The challenges and contradictions http://nw.wea.org.uk/assets/files/resour of state-funded community organizing. ces/phmevent/Community%20Organise Community Development Journal. rs%20- Advanced Access. %20Successful%20Locality%20Bid.pdf. DOI:10.1093/cdj/bsy040. Locality (2014) ‘Nine impact indicators for Ife, J. (2016) Community Development in an the Community Organisers Uncertain World: Vision, analysis and Programme.’ Unpublished. practice (2nd edn.). Port Melbourne: Lowndes, V. & McCaughie, K. (2013) Cambridge University Press. Weathering the perfect storm? Austerity Imagine (2014) Learning and change in the and institutional resilience in local Community Organisers Programme. government. Policy & Politics, 41(4), 533- Accessed at: 49. DOI: 10.1332/030557312X655747. http://www.corganisers.org.uk/stories/c 19
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Mayo, M. (2008) ‘Introduction: Community Quarterly, 82(1), 4-15. DOI: Development, Contestations, 10.1111/j.1467-923X.2011.02169.x. Continuities and Change.’ In Craig, G., Thornham, H. (2015) Constructing Popple, K. & M. Shaw (eds.) Community communities: the community centre as Development in Theory and Practice: An contested site. Community Development International Reader. Nottingham: Journal, 50(1), 24-39. DOI: Spokesman. pp. 13-27. 10.1093/cdj/bst088. Miller, C. and Ahmad, Y. (1997) United Nations Development Programme Community development at the (UNDP) (1993) Human Development crossroads: a way forward. Policy & Report: People’s Participation. Available Politics, 25(3), 269-284. DOI: at: 10.1332/030557397782453237. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/re My Community (2012) Community Right to ports/222/hdr_1993_en_complete_nostat Bid: Understanding the Community Right s.pdf to Bid. Available at: United Nations Conference on https://mycommunity.org.uk/resources/ Environment and Development understanding-the-community-right-to- (UNCED) (1992) Agenda 21 - program of bid/. action for sustainable development: Rio Nelson, P. J. (2007) Human Rights, the declaration on environment and Millennium Development Goals, and development. United Nation Conference the Future of Development on Environment and Development, Rio Cooperation. World Development, 35 (12), de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14th June 1992. 2041-2055. DOI: Wheeler, B. (2015) ‘Spending 10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.02.006. review: department-by- Pyles, L. (2014) Progressive Community department cuts guide.’ BBC Organising: Reflective Practice in a News, 24th November 2015. Globalizing World. (2nd edn.) New York: Available at: Routledge. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk RE:generate (2009) A Guide to Root -politics-34790102 Solutions: Listening Matters - Engagement Ziai, A. (2016) Development That Works. Action to RE:generate Discourse and Global History: Community Trust. From colonialism to the Sustainable Development Commission sustainable development goals. (SDC) (2010) The Future is Local: London: Routledge. Empowering communities to improve their neighbourhoods. London: SDC. Available at: www.sd-commission.org.uk Taylor-Gooby, P. & Stoker, G. (2011) The Coalition Programme: A New Vision for Britain or Politics as Usual? The Political 20
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ARTICLE
Sustainability as Livability: Two Community Case Studies in East Texas
Forbes, W., B. M. Murphy, M. S. Guidry, W. R. Cordova, C. L. Davis, L. K. Harris, S. M. Kosovich, E. Oliphant, H. K. Olson Beal, B. Phares, K. Rich-Rice1, C. Runnels, D. M. Rust, C. D. Sams, R. F. Szafran, D. M. Williams, Stephen F. Austin State University, 1University of Texas at Arlington
Correspondence to: William Forbes, Geography and Sustainable Community Development, Box 13047 SFA Station, Nacogdoches, Texas 75962; [email protected]
“Livability” studies were conducted of two small cities in East Texas, analyzing them from the perspective of the “triple bottom line” (economics, environment, society) used in sustainability. Livability tends to be a lesser known, less threatening term for conservatives than sustainability. This paper provides background on the use of the term livability in place of sustainability, summarizes the two small city livability studies, and makes recommendations for future research.
studies of small cities in politically Introduction conservative East Texas. A new research center in sustainable The idea was to assist smaller community development began in 2012. municipalities, typically with limited The goal was to create a niche program planning staff, in analyzing their city different from other programs in the state, through the “triple bottom line” of region, or nation. It would address livability/sustainability. The traditional sustainability mostly through the economic development framework of humanities and social sciences, rather than attracting “big box” stores and large primarily through engineering or natural industries would shift to a focus on science disciplines. mutually-reinforcing economic, The new research center published environmental, and social amenities three anthologies on the human dimensions (McMahon, 2011, 2014; Hammer & Pivo, of sustainability. Named Center for a 2017; Savitz, 2006). Livable World, “livability” was chosen as a The Center conducted livability less contentious term than sustainability, studies of two small East Texas cities: for the purpose of conducting livability Kilgore (pop. ~13,000, in 2012) and
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Nacogdoches (pop. ~33,000, in 2014-17). (Elkington 1998; Savitz 2006). Many firms This paper provides background on the use have since conducted analyses and of the term livability in place of implemented sustainability measures such sustainability, summarizes the two small as reducing packaging to save costly waste city livability studies, notes how livability, and retrofitting buildings to save on costly sustainability, and the triple bottom line energy bills (Hume, 2011). were addressed, and addresses concerns for Triple bottom line performance future Center work. measures have recently entered the framework of municipal planning, Literature Review including the comprehensive, 500-indicator The term sustainable development STAR Community Rating System (Hammer arose in the 1980s, primarily to insert & Pivo, 2017; STAR Communities, 2016). environmental concerns into mainstream Examples of the triple bottom line approach economic development. Commissioned by also include planning by Salt Lake City in the United Nations, the Bruntland Report 2011 and the City of Boulder, Colorado in outlined a more expansive view of 2007 (The National Association of Regional economic development that raised the Councils, 2012). profile of environmental (and social) issues Triple bottom line efforts have also to more equal status with economics. moved into economic development. Concern for the future is also included in Hammer and Pivo (2017) state: their definition summary: “Sustainable “Technically, TBL (triple bottom line) development is development that meets the development refers to strong needs of the present without compromising environmental, social, and economic the ability of future generations to meet performance, and sustainable development their own needs” (World Commission on refers to environmental, social, and Environment and Development, 1987). economic performance that can endure over Critiques emerged from the time. The two terms are often used academic and environmental communities, interchangeably...” many bemoaning the retained “mantra” of Case studies include a range of economic growth within the Bruntland development initiatives and projects. One Report, a paradigm seen by many as of the more relevant community economic fundamentally incompatible with development projects occurred in Newton, environmental and social concerns (Daly Iowa, a town of 15,500, located on Interstate &Townsend, 1993; Daly & Cobb, 1994; 80 east of Des Moines. Newton lost 3,900 Campbell 1996). jobs from 2001-2006. An ad hoc council was Starting in the 1990s, businesses created by local citizens, which held an began adopting sustainability through the open community forum attended by 300. “triple bottom line,” an idea that economic, They developed a shared vision and linked environmental, and social values accrue with seven counties in a regional beyond a purely financial bottom line development plan (Hammer et al., 2018). 22
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Newton today has 1,100 new jobs, a about its plan, which allowed co-opting by 39% increase in hotel revenue and $80 an opposition group. More recent planning million dollars in new property assessed documents there no longer contain terms value. Mixing economic, environmental, related to sustainability. Foss (2018) and social values, the community suggests future efforts might try to diversified its economic base by recruiting legitimize some conservative concerns and companies to fit its renewable energy focus tie the plan to quality of life, a term (wind and biodiesel) and by converting a included in that city’s economic warehouse into a community college development efforts. training center. Local livability assets like Whittemore (2013) observed “Tea preserved historic buildings, parks, and Party” meetings in the Dallas-Fort Worth hike/bike trails helped recruit firms area, reviewed their out-of-state websites (Hammer et al., 2018). and literature, and interviewed local Despite inclusion of business and officials who interacted with them. Some economic development concerns, actions planners can take to address sustainability can still be a contentious conservative ideology include: 1) enhancing word in regions dominated by conservative property rights (through flexible measures politics. Some sustainability projects have such as “up-zoning”); 2) emphasizing fiscal been deemed by citizens to be attacks on restraint as counter to subsidized sprawl freedom, as part of a United Nations (publicly funded utilities, roads, etc.); 3) conspiracy to control local communities critiquing “crony capitalism” when through government planning (Harman, subsidies link with select developers; 4) 2015; Trapenberg Frick 2013; Trapenberg including single-family homes when Frick et al. 2015). discussing increased housing choice; 5) downplaying non-local best practices and Municipal sustainability issues in Texas jargon; and 6) highlighting local business in A “Tea Party” uprising in the Dallas- redevelopment scenarios, perhaps through Fort Worth area derailed a city’s business improvement districts. Energy sustainability plan after major citizen conservation and mobility choice were participation had already occurred in many other areas of possible overlap. meetings. Foss (2018) compared the failed Grodach (2011) studied fifteen cities sustainability effort with a more successful in the Dallas-Fort Worth area to determine effort in a smaller Dallas-Fort Worth area barriers to sustainability among economic city. The smaller city (similar to Cedar Hill, development practitioners. The literature Texas) used ad hoc committee meetings review stated, in general nationwide, that with selected members. This combined with “while many cities pursue actions related to regular, open neighborhood outreach sustainability, these practices are often events not specifically focused on the plan. piecemeal, are not pervasive throughout The larger city (similar to McKinney, city operations, and are subject to Texas) had more open public meetings controversy and opposition.” Methods 23
Sustainable Communities Review included review of economic development STAR Community ratings nationwide. documents and interviews with Holman (2014) reviewed practitioners. sustainability in the context of planning in Conclusions highlighted six local two larger East Texas cities, Tyler (~ 105,000 barriers: 1) a conventional economic population) and Longview (~ 82,000 development mindset, which emphasizes population), both located on Interstate 20 economic growth over social and approximately 100 and 130 miles east of environmental concerns; 2) incentive-based Dallas, respectively. Holman’s objective practice, which uses the 4A/B economic was to analyze sustainability in the context development sales tax to drive industry of “hard-to-reach” places, not only away toward lower density, peripheral areas; from the cutting edge of progressive high energy-use industries can also get planning but where citizens traditionally reduced utility contracts as incentives; 3) harbor deep suspicion of government lack of resources and staff, leading to a regulation. She reviewed planning focus on marketing and information rather documents and meeting minutes and also than innovative initiatives; 4) economic conducted twenty-five interviews with development pursued in isolation from planners, other municipal staff, active other associated topics such as workforce citizens, and long-term residents. development; 5) inter-regional competition East Texas is a conservative region, for jobs and investment, which reduces illustrated by its Tyler-based congressional focus on regional environmental and social representative Louie Gohmert, who has issues; and 6) a lack of coordinated regional won numerous terms in office. He is planning to address such sustainability characterized as considerably farther to the issues (Grodach, 2011). right than typical conservatives (see Even in a more progressive Texas GovTrack, 2018). While both Longview and city like Austin, which implemented Tyler have a historically oil-based economy, sustainability plans with economic and Longview to the east is more blue-collar, environmental benefits, results can be while Tyler is more white-collar. Thus, critiqued. Long (2016) notes that, after Longview tends to be more skeptical of 1990s conflicts, the city’s culture and regulation, while Tyler is more receptive to leadership has rallied around principles of planning that can address its recent sprawl Smart Growth and won awards for and related traffic issues (Holman, 2014). environmental initiatives that help promote Holman found that, even in more the city’s image. However, citing critical resistant Longview, elements of geographer David Harvey (1996), both sustainability were initiated through a Long (2016) and Tretter (2013) note a lack of simple 2002 comprehensive plan that gave social equity in Austin resulting from few specifics. Under that context, a historic sustainability initiatives, including “green” preservation ordinance and tree ordinance gentrification. Social equity and justice is were adopted without use of the term often the lowest scoring component in sustainability. The plan showed local 24
Sustainable Communities Review concern about recent piecemeal annexation transportation, which could all fall under and sprawl and initiated some receptivity the social category in sustainability. Their to regulation (Holman, 2014). definition of livability follows (AARP, Tyler has a long-range plan based on 2015): smart growth principles, Tyler 21, with a For some, a livable community related Unitary Development Code that makes it convenient to travel by foot, helped with more specific guidance. bike, or transit to access nearby Planners and active citizens thought Tyler stores, parks, and other amenities. is a progressive city where residents For others, affordable housing or understood the value of planning. open space is more important. Sustainability as a term was not used in Because people look for different Tyler 21, but related elements were adopted things when searching for a more than in Longview, including adaptive satisfying place to call home, re-use, detailed landscape ordinances, and measuring the livability of cities and more historic preservation. A key reference towns across the United States can for Holman was Tregoning et al. (2002), be challenging. This Index gives which cites the ability of smart growth higher scores to communities with concepts to appeal to “self-interest” rather diverse features that help people of than “self-sacrifice,” thus making it more all ages, incomes, and abilities—not palatable to conservatives. Smart growth is just older Americans. Livability is still a target for many, due to issues such as about realizing values that are increased housing costs. “Quality of life” central to healthy communities: enhancement was another less controversial independence, choice, and security. term used in both cities (Holman, 2014). Livable communities help residents thrive, and when residents thrive, Municipal livability issues in Texas communities prosper. The term livability has been connected with sustainability. A literature Livability tends to be a lesser known, review suggests that livability is less less threatening term; less tied to top-down, focused on environment and has a government-led, “green” planning. Yet the narrower strategic mission than 2012 literature review indicates the two sustainability (National Association of terms were used interchangeably by many Regional Councils, 2012). As an example, researchers: “even though livability and the AARP Livability Index, developed by a sustainability may operate on different team of academics, consultants, policy scales, both can achieve similar outcomes.” analysts, and practitioners, has A common overlap area incorporates environment as only one of seven livability as support for sustainability categories; other categories include programs. A notable case is the multi- engagement, health, housing, agency (US) Partnership for Sustainable neighborhood, opportunity, and Communities, formed in 2009, which 25
Sustainable Communities Review incorporates principles of livability within within its city limits (Chambers, 1933; Clark its framework. The National Association of & Halbouty, 1972; Eason, 1979). Today Regional Councils (2012) states: “The replica oil derricks dominate the downtown incorporation of the triple bottom line as a landscape. The oil and gas service industry goal of the Partnership’s livability still dominates the local economy, with efforts…directly ties the two concepts.” Kilgore Junior College (over 5,000 students, Texas examples include the North home to the “Rangerettes”), satellite Central Texas Council of Governments communications, some unique retail (such (NCTCOG), which cited the Partnership for as high-end furniture), and varied Sustainable Communities and its livability manufacturing adding to its diversity principles in its 2011 transportation plan. (KEDC 2016). The Houston-Galveston Area Council (H- Kilgore was chosen for the pilot GAC) used language similar to the project due to its success attracting small Partnership in its 2011 Livable Centers industry through its Kilgore Economic program, designed to “facilitate walkable, Development Corporation (KEDC), in part mixed-use places with multimodal due to its location on Interstate 20. It also transportation options, improve had a pro-active city manager at the time, environmental quality and promote along with a Kilgore 20/20 Vision economic development.” Committee citizen planning effort, made up The Center for a Livable World used of local leaders. the term sustainability in its publications, Issues highlighted before the study including three anthologies on the human included a desire to attract more residents, dimensions of sustainability (Forbes and to help the city become more “livable” and Trusty 2019, Boring and Forbes 2014, diversify its tax base. Numerous former Williams and Forbes 2012). More local well sites limited housing development, research, working directly with city and many workers lived in larger nearby governments in East Texas, has used the cities such as Longview. Thus, an term livability. Livability studies were externally-financed livability study was of conducted with two small East Texas cities: interest. a pilot project in Kilgore in 2012 and a more Nacogdoches is a city of expansive project in Nacogdoches in 2014- approximately 33,000, located on highways 17. 59 and 259 about 60 miles south of Kilgore Kilgore is a city of approximately and 140 miles north of Houston. 13,000, located on Interstate 20 in between Nacogdoches also has a unique historical Tyler and Longview. It lies about 120 miles identity, located on Highway 21, the former east of Dallas and 75 miles west of El Camino Real connecting Spanish San Shreveport, Louisiana. As the central, oil- Antonio to French Louisiana. It bills itself as based “boomtown” in 1930s Texas, the oil the “Oldest Town in Texas,” based on an industry is very important to its identity. At early Spanish mission and (later) trading one time there were 1,100 oil derricks post at the site of a Caddo Native American 26
Sustainable Communities Review settlement (McReynolds 1978). Sustainability initiatives can be unique to Nacogdoches is likely more each community (Wheeler, 2015). Kilgore diverse/resilient than Kilgore, with animal and Nacogdoches are different and local feed, chicken farming/processing, a staff wanted issues addressed that are university (Stephen F. Austin State, with unique to their communities. over 12,000 students), two medical Thus, a flexible approach was complexes, heritage tourism, and other applied to the “triple bottom line,” manufacturing and services playing major addressing the three categories of roles (Burayidi, 2013; NEDCO, 2016). economic, environmental, and social issues, Nacogdoches was chosen for the first yet adapting the study to each site in “full-scale” livability study as it was easily collaboration with local officials. Some accessible for university researchers and methodology is described in the results local issues were familiar to them. Issues section under each city. Due to the many highlighted before the study included a surveys, each individual survey’s high poverty rate, a historic downtown methodology is not described, but can be slow to redevelop with attractive supplied upon request, and the most businesses, and a lack of economic comprehensive survey is cited (Szafran et development funds. al., 2017). Some approaches to the triple Research Question bottom line address environmental, The main research question is: how economic, and equity concerns under the can a research center best apply “Three E’s” framework (Long, 2016; Tretter, interdisciplinary expertise to small, 2013; Campbell, 1996). This framework was politically conservative cities to help them not chosen, partly due to the political enhance mutually-reinforcing economic, connotations of equity, but also because environmental, and social amenities, researchers were not as familiar with this through livability/sustainability’s triple format. However, equity concerns were bottom line? addressed under the general social category, especially with respect to Methods Nacogdoches and its poverty issues. The National Association of Regional Another alternative term for the triple Councils (2012, p. 21) states: “livability bottom line, 3Ps (people, planet, profit), is programs appear highly tailored to the closer to the format used here (Hammer & local communities that are responsible for Pivo, 2017). implementing them.” The World Several key livability/sustainability Commission on Environment and indices have emerged both during and after Development (1987, p. 39, item 51) states: the two livability studies, such as the AARP “no single blueprint of sustainability will be (2015) Livability Index, the Triple Bottom found, as economic and social systems and Line (TBL) Tool (Hammer et al., 2015), and ecological conditions differ widely…” the Sustainability Tools for Assessing and 27
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Rating (STAR) system (STAR Communities The other six study areas were chosen 2016). Although the AARP index is through various academic disciplines. All partially age-related, the TBL Tool is on nine study areas fit within categories of the hiatus, and the STAR system is time- AARP Livability Index, Triple Bottom Line consuming, the frameworks still provide (TBL) Tool, or STAR Community Rating guidance on the three topics. Efforts are System. Results one year after the project made to address how the (December 2013) are summarized for each methodology/results of this study fit within study area: those three sets of standards. 1) Economics - a revolving loan study. Housing is an important component of both Results the livability, TBL, and sustainability Kilgore Livability Study indices. Housing affordability would The Center for a Livable World theoretically increase with increased conducted its first (pilot) livability study in housing supply, dropping prices. The city Kilgore, Texas, from January to December manager had interest in a revolving loan 2012. The Center drew from expertise in fund to support housing developers, diverse academic programs such as thereby attracting more residents. economics, health sciences, geography, Revolving loan funds create investment government, history, and social work. capital that renews by placing returned Financial support (~$10,000) for this pilot principal, interest, and fees back into the project was provided by IHS, Inc. and The fund. Such funds are often created by a Cynthia and George Mitchell Foundation. combination of federal/state grants and The pilot project coincided with a private institution or nonprofit funds, for citizen planning effort, termed the Kilgore specific public purposes (e.g. housing, 20/20 Vision Committee, which sought to environmental cleanup, energy efficiency, enhance diverse aspects of the City of small business). This study suggested the Kilgore over the next 5-10 years, including City establish a revolving loan fund annexation to include the I-20 area, retail following basic steps in the report. attraction, residential livability, and other One-year follow-up results - the amenities. revolving loan fund was then created as a Nine study areas follow, with three in resource for home developers. Two large each of the “triple bottom line” categories. projects, a 30-unit and 64-unit Several of the study areas were selected to development, utilized the fund to pay respond to specific interests of the city infrastructure costs. The City of Kilgore did manager, including (under economics) the infrastructure work and the developer revolving loans, realtor survey, and (under paid the City back pro rata as homes were society) a citizen survey about city services. sold. After the first year, the $1.5 million The city manager and staff actively fund was largely tapped out, with about participated in these parts of the livability $150,000 paid back. study. 28
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2) Economics - a survey of realtors on to access a customer base, can also pull in perceptions of Kilgore livability. The city money from outside. manager had an interest in surveying One-year follow-up results - This realtors about Kilgore livability, since many assessment was not really used to attract reportedly send prospective residents to underrepresented sectors. The Kilgore nearby cities instead. Forty-nine Economic Development Corporation tends respondents indicated: a) the biggest to work on recruiting/supporting secondary deterrents to locating in Kilgore are lack of sector industries. The City’s simultaneous available homes (47%) and properties contracted study by the Buxton (47%), poor schools (37%); and lack of Corporation, a specialist in retail location shopping (30%), healthcare services (28%), analysis, also included location quotients. job opportunities (26%), and dining options That study attracted site visits by a national (26%). store and major restaurant chain, yet trends One-year follow-up results - the City towards online sales are making retail a less started a GIS inventory of potential housing attractive development tool. developer properties and constraints to 4) Environment - a walkability assist builders. The survey was shared with assessment. Walkability is a common goal developers and the school district, which for livable communities. It can increase stimulated respective responses. health, reduce polluting vehicles, and 3) Economics - a location quotient enhance downtown business. Walkability is assessment to analyze local economic diversity. in three of seven livability index categories Economic diversity plays an important role and is also in the sustainability index. The in resilience of local economies. It receives web-based Walk Score, sometimes used in some emphasis in the TBL and the TBL index, indicated Kilgore scored sustainability index, but far less in the higher overall than cities such as Austin. A livability index. Location quotient was field study, using a survey (PBIC 2018) analyzed to identify what sectors provided applied in several parts of the city, found a higher or lower proportion of county generally lower scores in neighborhoods. employment than the national average. Kilgore is a “somewhat walkable” Unsurprisingly, oil and gas support firms community with a clustered downtown, and (to a lesser degree) manufacturing and stores/amenities, and a nice park system. construction created the largest sectors. Walkability could improve through safety, Adverse shocks to these economic bases aesthetics, and connectivity. Funding that pull in money from outside the region sources were given for trails, sidewalks, etc. can have a disproportionate impact. One-year follow-up results - A year Underrepresented sectors included later a sidewalk and bike lane plan was information technology, being developed for City streets. Two large management/finance, insurance, and large projects were underway that incorporate retail. These service economy sectors, if able sidewalks/bike lanes: a) adding/rehabilitating sidewalks in a 29
Sustainable Communities Review residential area close to downtown; b) addressed in the TBL and sustainability $600,000 in three new road projects with indices, but not in the livability Index. The associated sidewalks/bike lanes. highest ecosystem service values are 5) Environment - an assessment of trail typically in urban flood storage capacity. opportunities. Access to parks and recreation Bottomland habitats slow storm water is covered under two of seven livability runoff that would otherwise necessitate index categories. Short trails within expensive flood control structures. Based individual Kilgore parks are popular. on assessments in other Texas cities, Nearby Longview purchased floodplains Kilgore’s bottomlands could save nearly $3 decades ago, allowing longer, linear trails million per year in flood control structure with greater health benefits. Easements costs (American Forests, 2000, 2006). A may be acquired, but grant programs may habitat map was provided. not fund facilities on easements, requiring One-year follow-up results - Efforts to City bond measures. A large loop trail was create trail opportunities coincide with proposed from Meadowbrook Park north to floodplain/greenway protection, such as the annexed area on I-20, back downtown purchase of the 75-acre property and the and east back to the Park. A leg was also mountain bike trail, both of which will proposed south to the new school complex engage citizens with bottomland forests. along with an extension from I-20 to the 7) Society - A report on Kilgore school Sabine River. district programs. Good schools not only One-year follow-up results - A city- prepare the local workforce but attract wide proposed trail map was presented to business. It is covered in the sustainability the City Council. A grant application was index but received low emphasis in both submitted to the Texas Parks and Wildlife the livability and TBL indices. Kilgore ISD Department for $195,000. $350,000 was also staff were interviewed and the district’s requested from the Economic Development webpage, TEA reports, and board minutes Corporation to partner with $100,000 of were reviewed. Among the findings: 100% City funds to acquire a key 75-acre of teachers were highly qualified; the bottomland property north of decreasing dropout rate was below the state Meadowbrook Park. These efforts would average; the district won a Readiness facilitate a two-mile section of 10-foot wide Award in 2011; a home liaison was concrete, multiple-use trail running north- established to help with parent south through the heart of town. A two- involvement; attendance exceeded the state mile section of mountain bike trails was average; and most scores on standardized also mapped out on the north end of town. tests were either at or slightly above the 6) Environment - Ecosystem services and state average. Several staff suggested habitat corridor (greenway) opportunities Kilgore ISD is the “best kept secret in Gregg The dollar value that nature’s services County.” provide is an obvious area of overlap One-year follow-up results - A new between economy and environment. It is superintendent came with aggressive new 30
Sustainable Communities Review district goals. A follow-up was planned to response, an $8 million water project was to see how valuable the project report was. be completed. 8) Society - A citizen survey on livability 9) Society - Reports from focus groups and city services. Governance is a key aspect held with diverse local citizens. While all three of the TBL and sustainability indices. indices address social services, only the Various city services align with key sustainability index specifically covered amenities in the livability index. The city minority groups. Focus groups were held manager wanted to get feedback on city with a) local social service providers; b) services. A survey was sent in June water employees at a small local business; c) a bills. The 346 responses did not provide a church of mostly white members; d) a rigorous, representative sample of the church of mostly black members; and e) population but still provided valuable Hispanics, the latter through informal feedback. Findings include: general surveys. satisfaction, with 91% satisfied with living a) Local service providers brought up in Kilgore, 90% consider the city safe, 74% limited financial resources for local non- satisfied with responsiveness of City profits; lack of reliable transportation for government, 79% satisfied with traffic certain groups, which endangered health control, 76% satisfied with local sense of needs; limited access to mental health community, and 62% satisfied with services; lack of engaging opportunities for recreational opportunities. Highest ages 15-18; absence of skilled volunteers; a spending priorities were streets (94%), weak networking system among local water and sewer (87%), healthcare facilities agencies; a limited pool of available (87%), and attracting large retailers (70%); housing and home repair resources, and high satisfaction existed with the Main lack of a homeless shelter. They considered Street Program, Kilgore Economic community support for non-profit Development Corporation, curbside organizations adequate; low crime rates recycling, park appearance, and natural could be attributed to an active police areas; more shopping and dining are department and a neighborhood watch needed (50% of discretionary funds were program. spent in Kilgore, 30% in Longview). b) Employees at a small local business One-year follow-up results - The noted activities are offered that promote mayor used this survey in election efforts, involvement, including Main Street as it indicates 91% of citizens are satisfied concerts, a Shakespeare Festival, Pump with City services. It was also used to set Jacks, and Downtown Days. Community priorities on projects, as citizens indicated familiarity promotes a sense of safety and their highest priority was street improved services. Lack of housing causes improvement, which the City was working some workers to live elsewhere, losing on. Another high priority for citizens was business from income earned locally. water and sewer improvements – in Kilgore benefits from proximity to larger cities, allowing residents a “small town” 31
Sustainable Communities Review atmosphere, while enjoying big city offer services more sensitive to needs of the amenities; goods and services are less African American culture A study on expensive, lessening financial strain; a African American males could help revived spiritual/emotional well-being understand their needs. Schools/churches improves quality of life; a commitment to could teach youth farming. buy locally increases sense of reciprocity. e) Hispanic community members were c) Predominantly white church members surveyed. Four recent migrants (day- expressed high overall satisfaction, with laborers) indicate Kilgore is a decent place services, jobs, and housing in close range, to live but without work they will move to which positively affects quality of life. bigger cities. Many lack transportation and Members feel safe because of familiarity, private quarters, lack food when there is no but a “transient” population brought some work, and lack electricity and insecurity. Volunteer options are many, entertainment when no one works. Two creating outlets for individuals and long-established immigrants (15 years) like reciprocity among members. Many options the tranquility but lack fresh foods. They exist for children to succeed, adding to miss Mexico but not the danger. There is parents’ sense of satisfaction. A large wage generally little work for females, yet most discrepancy exists for men and women locals are friendly. with a high school education or lower – an One-year follow-up results - The City example is oil field work available for men has not done much with various focus but not for women. Members were group input as it is up to social service concerned about future housing and agencies to take the lead on such workforce for the oil industry. recommendations. The City is continuing d) African-American church members Neighborhood Watch and other suggested spirituality has been the community policing not related to the community’s anchor, especially for rural study. Community activities mentioned as elderly; this was the key to enhancing positive aspects are also continuing. quality of life. Members believed social A recent, supplementary result came injustice and discrimination remain from use of the web-based AARP (2015) sensitive areas for African Americans, Livability Index, which rates communities which negatively affects their quality of life. instantly based on algorithms tied to Resentment and lack of forgiveness may publicly available data sources. Kilgore create division among races and are scored 49, based on a national average of certainly impacting equal access to services; 50. Of eight categories, higher scores were yet social capital and cultural diversity are in opportunity (inclusion, possibilities) at major assets. More interactions could foster 61, housing (affordability, access) at 56, solidarity among groups. More cooperation environment (clean air, water) at 55, and among churches could help the elderly with transportation (safe, convenient options) at depression/isolation. More 54. The high housing score was surprising – school/organization social workers could the index may include housing in nearby 32
Sustainable Communities Review cities such as Longview. Lower scores were the economic, social, and environmental in health (prevention, access, quality) at 22 “triple bottom line” framework. However, and neighborhood (access to work, life, and more expansive survey techniques were play) at 42. used here to determine issues and related In summary, study recommendations projects. each reinforce more than one of the three “triple bottom line” categories. An example Phase One is walkability/trails, which supports The study was divided into two greenways (environment), attracts residents phases. The first phase included review of (economics), and fosters social interaction previously commissioned studies; existing and health (society). Publicizing ISD data; and academic literature. Three programs fosters community pride opinion surveys and eighteen focus groups (society), leads to more qualified workers were also conducted. Faculty then (economics), and attracts residents constructed a related “menu” of initiatives (economics). and project options for City leadership to The Kilgore city manager believed the prioritize. Center for a Livable World’s livability Previously commissioned studies study provided strong justification to get included a 2003 comprehensive plan, main things done that citizens could not get done street plan, two retail reports, and four beforehand. Out of a long list of possible tourism studies. These studies, while project areas, the study, along with efforts valuable in recommending action such as of the Kilgore 20/20 Vision citizen planning downtown revitalization, business group, helped identify what is most attraction, and tourism direction, did not important. It helped greatly that the Center fully clarify implementation methods report was shaped around identified needs (Phase Two was to address this). of the City. The study helped provide buy- The Center also gathered local in for important, large projects. Many demography from the census, business positives also came about through initiative activity from the Nacogdoches Economic of City of Kilgore staff and citizens. Development Corporation, real estate Although the city manager is not sure he market analytics from Charles Pool Real would have funded such a study, the pilot Estate, and school performance from the project was viewed as a success. Texas Education Agency. Data show areas of stress (poverty, racial segregation, weak Nacogdoches Livability Study retail market) and accomplishment (wide The Center for a Livable World was medical access, low unemployment rate, awarded a $35,500 contract by the City of broad education options). Nacogdoches in fall 2014. The objective was Academic literature on community to enhance the community’s ongoing efforts development revealed a movement away to improve quality of life. As in the Kilgore from big box stores to downtown “place- pilot project, issues were addressed under making” and local entrepreneurship (Artz 33
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& Stone, 2011; Lambe, 2008; Markuson, American community; Hispanic 2006; McMahon, 2011, 2014; Murray, 2011). community; recently hired faculty Three audiences were surveyed: the members; long-term faculty members; community at-large, university students, public school teachers; public school and faculty. Each survey instrument was parents; artistic community; religious different in terms of format and questions leaders; heritage tourism operators; because the audiences were sufficiently heritage tourism public at-large; health care unique and only marginally overlapped. practitioners; bike-pedestrian enthusiasts; Extraordinary effort was devoted to natural heritage experts; parks, trails, soliciting participation of minority garden enthusiasts; and community segments of the population to achieve a resilience activists. representative sampling of community- A list of initiatives, based on wide interests (see Szafran et al., 2017). literature, focus groups, and surveys, was Survey results provided two sets of provided under the three categories: information about community attitudes: (1) economic, environmental, and social, in existing strengths and weaknesses of the summer 2015. Initiatives, each with a list of City - higher ranking strengths included (in short-term/long-term project options (total descending order) religious life, downtown, 101), included: (low) crime, recreation, appearance of city, Economic - Initiative #1: Ensure the and health care; lower ranking weaknesses local climate supports business included (in ascending order) shopping, development. Initiative #2: Develop policies entertainment, new businesses, job that attract/retain types of businesses that opportunities, public transit, and public are drive economic development. Initiative schools; and (2) aspects of community life #3: Identify and leverage local comparative that matter most to residents – top ranking advantage. aspects included crime, job opportunities, Environmental - Initiative #1: Beautify health care, traffic flow, restaurants, and entry corridors into the City; Initiative #2: city appearance. Expand sidewalk network and create a bike In contrast, focus groups delve lane network; Initiative #3: Promote natural deeper into the beliefs and attitudes of history and eco-tourism (see Forbes et al. individuals than an opinion survey (Green 2007); Initiative #4: Grow and improve trail 2015, Vincent 2015). The focus groups system; Initiative #5: Encourage energy included discussion by a small set of efficiency and reduce waste and sprawl. individuals (6-12), guided through pre- Social/Cultural - Initiative #1: determined questions by a moderator – Revitalize downtown by making it a what are community assets and issues, and destination for arts and arts-related what projects might best address the business; #2: Connect to the El Camino Real issues? Eighteen gatherings were National Trail; #3: Create linkages between assembled: retail business operators; service university arts and local cultural offerings; sector employers; retirees; African- #4: Cross promote, bundle events and 34
Sustainable Communities Review tourism services; #5: Develop/market recommended to look at three school financial incentives for cultural and districts isolated by the Texas Education heritage development; #6: Encourage Agency that mirror NISD in rural context, development in minority neighborhoods. poverty rate, minority student body—yet Three over-arching issues perform well on standardized exams. Three over-arching areas emerged Another, more recent supplementary outside of the triple bottom line categories: result came from use of the web-based Workforce: Surveys, focus groups, AARP (2015) Livability Index, which rates and economic data highlight the need to communities instantly based on algorithms address the high poverty rate and low-skill tied to publicly available data sources. workforce. It is a community-wide problem Nacogdoches scored 46, based on a national requiring sustained, inclusive (rather than average of 50. Of the eight categories, piecemeal) efforts, involving key actors. higher scores were in housing (affordability “Town-Gown” relations: the local and access) at 63 and environment (clean university is a leading employer; faculty air and water) at 56. Lower scores were in and students are a large part of the health (prevention, access, and quality) at population; and spending by the university 32 and opportunity (inclusion and and its personnel are a major economic possibilities) at 37. engine. Fostering “town-and-gown” interaction can include: service learning, Phase Two service provision, faculty involvement, Phase Two of the livability study student volunteerism; and applied research was to focus on how to implement to address local problems (Martin, Smith, & prioritized options, including funding Philips, 2005; Curwood, Farrar, & sources. Yet response to Phase One was not Mackeigan, 2011; University of Minnesota, immediate in summer 2015, with concern 2018). over negative survey results and the K-12 K-12 Education: Surveys and focus education issue. City staff surveyed citizens groups noted discipline is undermining again, electronically, to help prioritize the education, a national issue (Maryland State 101 project options. Over one year later Board of Education, 2012). Frequent (autumn 2016), a list of priority projects rotation of leadership (superintendents, emerged, with new project categories and principals, etc.) is also preventing options, several tied to existing City plans implementation of change. Performance on (such as a food truck ordinance and parks state-mandated tests is making the plan). Many of these overlap with community an undesirable relocation categories in the livability, TBL, and destination for families and businesses sustainability indices. However, the triple (Weiss 2004). Research indicates school bottom line format was removed with principals are key to performance, rather environment minimized. A related action than school systems (Perry and McDermott plan was developed in spring 2017: 2003; Miller 2015). A study was 35
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Economics – Formulate a plan to the livability index, but less so in the TBL target small business growth and fund it by tool. finding local investors; Build financial Several implementation meetings literacy services and alternate financing then occurred between City planning staff options to support business creation; and Center leadership. Much downtown Review City food truck ordinance to make redevelopment, once a priority, is severely operation easier. Small business challenged by historic structure renovation development and economic literacy receive costs. A South Street business/beautification strong emphasis in the TBL and initiative became a priority for remaining sustainability indices, but less in the study funds, as it could build on existing livability index. business initiatives (many Hispanic) and tie Arts and Culture – Formulate a plan that transportation artery to the historic to restore downtown along the lines that downtown, acting as an impetus for mirror the Nacogdoches brand and entrepreneurship and development. South accentuate small town charm. Designate Congress Street in Austin was suggested as downtown as an official Texas Cultural a model. Debate emerged over this shift in District and create a community music focus. series. Arts and culture get strong emphasis Center leaders have many other in the livability and sustainability indices, university duties and had a desire to and some in the TBL tool. efficiently complete the project. Many Tourism – Develop regional tourism prioritized options were already being where Nacogdoches is the “hub” for handled by City and CVB staff. With more smaller destinations; Develop tourism delays on the horizon, it was decided to itineraries, maps, and guides; Create eco- return remaining study funds (~$25,000) to tourism package deals combining outdoor the City so they could implement initiatives activities. Surprisingly little emphasis is more efficiently. given to tourism in the three indices, despite potential for ecotourism to overlap Discussion with business and environment. The research question was: how can Built Environment – Create a a research center best apply complete streets master plan for the City, interdisciplinary expertise to small, with priority sidewalk and bike lane routes; politically conservative cities to help them Create a parks/trails master plan; Pass a enhance mutually-reinforcing economic, flexible sidewalk ordinance that will environmental, and social amenities? encourage more sidewalks at new Feedback from city staff, though developments. The term “built somewhat limited, can help answer the environment” is one of eight categories in question. The Kilgore pilot project was the sustainability index, while parks, considered a success by their city manager. walkability, and access are highlighted in It supported several emerging city initiatives, occurring in all three areas of the 36
Sustainable Communities Review triple bottom line. However, it was One and beginning Phase Two. After externally financed. The city manager submitting a draft of Phase Two, another indicated that he would not likely use city delay was perceived, which made most (not funds to pay for such a study. Also, issues all) of them want to end the project. One with social services were outside the duties Center advisory group member suggested of the city government, so they were not the Phase One report itself could be worth addressed in implementation. up to $100,000 (about $10,000 had been City staff in Nacogdoches had spent). Center leadership felt under- several valuable critiques. A first project appreciated. “update” meeting was deemed unnecessary Two important lessons emerged by one staff person, which led to the next from the City-Center relationship. One was update being given when Phase One was about the presentation of community issues. complete. More regular “check-ins” were An asset-based community development later suggested by another staff member. approach may have reduced some of the Erring towards more updates is probably negative reactions. The approach advisable. emphasizes existing community assets City staff were also concerned with (strengths) first, creating a positive valid public representation in the focus “snowball” effect, with weaknesses not group format, with attendances ranging ignored but dealt with later (Kretzmann from six to twelve. A more open meeting and McKnight 1993; Haines 2015). format was suggested after the fact. This A second lesson was about could have resulted in project shut-down prioritization of community issues and by conservatives, as described in the potential projects. The city took a year to literature (Foss 2018). The citizen survey, prioritize proposed projects, partly to poll representative of different ages, incomes, citizens. Yet some prioritization was and ethnic groups, could be a replacement already done through focus groups and (Szafran et al. 2017). It allowed for surveys, and the city council represents comments but not open discussion. Results locals. The triple bottom line prioritizes contained lower ratings from minorities. economics, environment, and society The K-12 school issue was not equally. Yet the city poll results did away something city staff were charged with with this foundation of the study. fixing; a more private discussion could Minorities (by definition) are less likely to have lessened controversy. Another critique dominate surveys that prioritize projects. was a lack of funding sources provided to The Sustainability Tracking and Ratings the resolve some issues. As an example, System (STAR Communities 2016) has a linking SFA alumni with investment to comprehensive framework of 7 goals, 45 revitalize downtown did not materialize, objectives and 500+ outcome and action disappointing some city staff. measures. Social equity and justice are often Center leaders were dismayed by the the lowest scoring STAR components. one-year delay between submitting Phase Future studies might prioritize a project for 37
Sustainable Communities Review each group and ensure each is The format was eventually undone by the implemented. city for Phase Two, although some Environment/nature can also often suggested projects still overlapped with be left without a voice. The main impetus two or three categories. behind sustainable development was a Conservative politics did not seem to need to put environment on more equal play a major factor in the implementation of status with economy. As Leopold (1949) either the Kilgore or Nacogdoches study. stated… This could have been due to less open The first ethics dealt with the public input formats, or the less relation between individuals…Later controversial term livability in place of accretions dealt with the relation sustainability (Foss 2018). Holman (2014) between the individual and notes progress in some measures of society…There is as yet no ethic sustainable development in two dealing with man’s relation to land conservative East Texas cities without use and to the animals and plants that of the sustainability triple bottom line, grow upon it…The extension of simply due to some acceptance of planning. ethics to this third element is…an Nacogdoches may eventually have to evolutionary possibility and an follow the example of Tyler, if a new ecological necessity. Interstate 69 brings significantly more growth as expected. Community development can be a Holman (2014) and Whittemore complex field, fraught with issues such as (2013) both cite energy conservation as a social capital, power relations, integration possible area of overlap between of disparate concerns, and personal one-on- conservatives and sustainability planning. one relations (Hustedde, 2015, Alternative energy development was also LaChappelle, 2015). Habermas’ (1987) cited as a key strategy in the example of communicative action theory offers a Newton’s revitalization under the triple bridge between “rational” technological bottom line in Iowa, a conservative state expertise and the everyday lifeworld of (Hammer et al., 2018). The topic did not community members, through continuous gain much traction in discussion with the dialogue. Extending discussions beyond oil-based city of Kilgore, but wind and solar project timelines may yield more prices were higher in 2012. understanding and shared vision. Future such triple bottom line Comprehensive, holistic planning is livability studies might expect: a call to typically preferable to piecemeal efforts include existing City initiatives in (Grodach, 2011; Holman, 2014). This may recommendations; skepticism among suggest continuing such efforts to help minorities that City initiatives will benefit cities under the triple bottom line planning them; and defensive reactions to negative format, but the immense effort put into survey results. Phase One may have been unwarranted. 38
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Based on mixed results in both such projects would fit under existing Kilgore and Nacogdoches, the Center for a comprehensive (or other) plans, then more Livable World will consider a change in efficiently assist in directly implementing focus (and name) to address how specific such energy initiatives. This would sustainability initiatives can be combine with new service-learning study implemented in small cities. Center abroad courses, working on ecotourism leadership is assisting two local non-profits initiatives in villages bordering nature in applying for grants to offset energy bills reserves, to foster high-impact learning with solar panels. experiences and outcomes for both students A Center for Sustainable Community and community members. Development or Center for Community Sustainability Initiatives would see how
References Chambers, W. T. 1933. Kilgore, Texas: An American Association of Retired Persons Oil Boom Town. Economic Geography, 9 (AARP). 2015. Livability Index. (1): 7284. https://livabilityindex.aarp.org/ (access Clark, J. A., M. T. Halbouty. 1972. The Last March 2018) Boom: The Exciting Saga of the Discovery of American Forests. 2000. Local Ecosystem the Greatest Oil Field in America. New Analysis: Garland, Texas. Calculating the York: Random House. Value of Nature. Washington, D.C.: Curwood, S., A. Farrar, M. Mackeigan. 2011. American Forests. Building effective community-university American Forests. 2006. Urban Ecosystem partnerships: Are universities truly Analysis: Town of Flower Mound, Texas. ready? Michigan Journal of Community Washington, D.C.: American Forests. Service Learning. Spring: 15-26 Artz, G.M., and Stone, K.E. 2012. Revisiting Daly, H. E., J. B. Cobb, Jr. 1994. For the Wal-Mart’s impact on Iowa small-town Common Good: Redirecting the Economy retail: 25 years later. Economic toward Community, the Environment, and a Development Quarterly, 26 (4): 298-310. Sustainable Future, p. 75-76. Boston: Burayidi, M. A. 2013. Resilient Downtowns: A Beacon Press. New Approach to Revitalizing Small- and Daly, H. E., K. N. Townsend. 1993. Valuing Medium-City Downtowns. New York: the Earth: Economics, Ecology, Ethics, p. Routledge. 267. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Eason, A. 1979. Boomtown: Kilgore, Texas. Campbell, S. 1996. Green Cities, Growing Kilgore, TX: Chamber of Commerce. Cities, Just Cities? Urban Planning and Elkington, J. 1998. Accounting for the the Contradictions of Sustainable Triple Bottom Line. Measuring Business Development. Journal of the American Excellence, 2 (3): 18-22. Planning Association, 62 (3): 296-312. 39
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Forbes, W., J. Lowry, C. Runnels, M. Legg, Hammer, J. G. Pivo, I. Goldstein, M. T. Coble, K. Seal, T. Kerr, S. Lin, A. McCullough. 2015. The Triple Bottom Lambert, S. Price, Z. Farrar. 2007. Line for Economic Development: A Ecotourism Promotion in East Texas: Practitioner’s Guide. Triple Bottom Line Changing Perceptions of the Piney Tool.http://www.tbltool.org/files/tbl_fra Woods. Sustainable Communities Review, mework_practitioners_guide.pdf Vol. 9: 42-50. (access 3/18) Hammer, J., J. Babcock, K. Moosbrugger. Forbes, W., T. Trusty, eds. 2019 (in press). 2018. Casebook - Putting Concepts into Rethinking Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic: Practice: Triple Bottom Line Economic Emerging Cultures of Sustainability. Development. Triple Bottom Line Tool. Nacogdoches, TX: Stephen F. Austin http://www.tbltool.org/files/CUPA_Caseb State University Press. ook.pdf (access March 2018) Foss, A. 2018. Divergent responses to Habermas, J. 1987. The Theory of sustainability and climate change Communicative Action, Vol. 2. Lifeworld planning: The role of politics, cultural and System: A Critique of Functionalist frames and public participation. Urban Reason. Boston, MA: New Beacon Press. Studies, Vol. 55 (2) 332–348. Harman, G. 2015. Agenda 21: a conspiracy GovTrack. 2018. Louie Gohmert profile. theory puts sustainability in the https://www.govtrack.us/congress/membe crosshairs. The Guardian, June 24th. rs/louie_gohmert/400651 (access Feb. https://www.theguardian.com/sustaina 2018) ble-business/2015/jun/24/agenda-21- Green, G. P. 2015. Community Asset conspiracy-theory-sustainability (access Mapping and Surveys. In, Introduction March 2018) to Community Development, 2nd ed.; R. Harvey, D. 1996. Justice, Nature and the Phillips, R. H. Pittman, eds. NY: Geography of Difference. Oxford: Routledge. Blackwell. Grodach, C. 2011. Barriers to sustainable Holman, N. 2014. Like Mixing Oil and economic development: the Dallas-Fort Water? The Take-Up of Sustainability in Worth experience. Cities, 28 (4): 300-309. Hard-to-Reach Places - an East Texas Haines, A. 2015. Asset-Based Community Case Study. Journal of Planning Development. In, Introduction to Education and Research, Vol. 34 (4): 420– Community Development, 2nd ed.; R. 432. Phillips, R. H. Pittman, eds. NY: Humes, E. 2011. Force of Nature: The Routledge. Unlikely Story of Wal-Mart’s Green Hammer, J., G. Pivo. 2017. The Triple Revolution. New York: Harper Business. Bottom Line and Sustainable Hustedde, R. J. 2015. Seven Theories for Development Theory and Practice. Community Developers. In, Introduction Economic Development Quarterly, 31 (1): to Community Development, 2nd ed.; R. 25-36. 40
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Phillips, R. H. Pittman, eds. NY: Board.http://www.marylandpublicschool Routledge. s.org/stateboard/Documents/StudentDisci Kilgore Economic Development pline/SchoolDisciplineandAcademicSucce Corporation (KEDC). 2016. Key ssReport0712.pdf (access February 2018) Industries. http://www.kilgore- McMahon, E.T. 2014. The Secrets of edc.com/key-industries (access March Successful Communities. Planning 2018). Commissioners Journal, January. Kretzmann, J.P., J. McKnight. 1993. Building McMahon, E.T. 2011. The End of the Strip? Communities from the Inside Out: A Path Planning Commissioners Journal. No. 82. Toward Finding and Mobilizing a McReynolds, J. M. 1978. Family Life in a Community's Assets. Chicago: ACTA Borderland Community: Nacogdoches, Texas, Publications. 1779-1861. History Dissertation. Lubbock, LaChappelle, P. R. 2015. Perspectives on TX: Texas Tech University. Current Issues. In, Introduction to Murray, D. J. 2011. How the arts and culture Community Development, 2nd ed.; R. sector catalyzes economic vitality. Phillips, R. H. Pittman, eds. NY: American Planning Association. Briefing Routledge. Paper. Lambe, W. 2008. Small towns, big ideas: Case https://www.planning.org/research/arts/b studies in small town community economic riefingpapers/vitality.htm (access Feb. development. Chapel Hill, NC: Rural 2018) Economic Development Center. Miller, W. 2015. What reform? Principals Long, J. 2016. Constructing the narrative of matter, too. New York Times, April 17th the sustainability fix: Sustainability, social http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/17/op justice and representation in Austin, TX. inion/want-reform-principals-matter- Urban Studies, Vol. 53 (1): 149–172. too.html Markuson, A. 2006. An arts-based rural National Association of Regional Councils. development policy. Journal of Regional 2012. Livability Literature Review: A Analysis and Policy 36(2): 47-49. Synthesis of Current Practice. Washington, Martin, L., Smith, H. & Phillips, W. 2005. DC: National Association of Regional Bridging ‘town and gown’ through Councils. http://narc.org/wp- innovative university-community content/uploads/Livability-Report- partnerships. The Innovation Journal, 10(2): FINAL.pdf article 20 Nacogdoches Economic Development http://www.innovation.cc/volumes- Corporation (NEDCO). 2016. Community issues/martin-u-partner4final.pdf (access Profile. Feb. 2018). http://www.nedco.org/community- Maryland State Board of Education. 2012. profile/community-profile (access March School discipline and academic success: 2018). Related parts of Maryland’s education reform. Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center Report of the Maryland State (PDIC). 2018. Walkability Checklist. 41
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http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/cms/downlo Sustainability. Local Environment, 7 (4): ads/walkability_checklist.pdf (access 341–47. 3/18) Tretter, E. 2013. Contesting sustainability: Perry, G.S. and McDermott, J. 2003. ‘SMART Growth’ and the Learning and leading: Rethinking redevelopment of Austin’s eastside. district-school relationships. New International Journal of Urban and Horizons for Learning Online Journal, Vol. Regional Research, 37 (1): 297–331. IX, No. 4. University of Minnesota. 2018. BCED's Petersen Boring, W., W. Forbes. 2014. Role in Community Impact and Teaching Sustainability: Perspectives from Economic Development. Office of the Humanities and Social Sciences. Business and Community Economic Nacogdoches, TX: Stephen F. Austin State Development website. Univ. Press. https://diversity.umn.edu/bced/node/15 Savitz, A. W. 2006. The Triple Bottom Line. (Accessed January 2018). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Vincent II, J. W. 2015. Community STAR Communities. 2016. Our Framework. Development Assessments. STAR Community Rating System 2.0. In, Introduction to Community http://www.starcommunities.org/about/fr Development, 2nd ed.; R. Phillips, R. H. amework/ (access March 2018) Pittman, eds. NY: Routledge. Szafran, R., W. Forbes, W. Cordova, J. Weiss, J. 2004. Public schools and economic Montoya. 2017. Restoring Order: When development: What the research shows. Efforts to Obtain Minority Respondents Cincinnati: Knowledge Works Yield Greater Than Expected Returns. Foundation. Journal of Applied Social Science, Vol. 11(1): http://ourusaschools.com/weiss_book.pdf 60-69. Wheeler, S. M. 2015. Sustainability in Trapenberg Frick, K. 2013. The actions of Community Development. discontent: Tea Party and property In, Introduction to Community rights activists pushing back against Development, 2nd ed.; R. Phillips, R. H. regional planning. Journal of the Pittman, eds. NY: Routledge. American Planning Association, 79 (3): Whittemore, A. 2013. Finding 190–200. sustainability in conservative contexts: Trapenberg Frick, K., D. Weinzimmer, P. Topics for conversation between Waddell. 2015. The politics of American conservative elites, planners, sustainable development opposition: and the conservative base. Urban State legislative efforts to stop the Studies, 50 (12): 2460–2477 United Nation’s Agenda 21 in the Williams, J., W. Forbes. 2012. Toward a United States. Urban Studies, 52(2): 209– More Livable World: Social Dimensions of 232 Sustainability. Nacogdoches, TX: Tregoning, H., J. Agyeman, C. Shenot. Stephen F. Austin State University 2002. Sprawl, Smart Growth and Press. 42
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World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987. Our Common Future. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. G. H. Brundtland, (Ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
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ARTICLE Application of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment: A short review
Sujata Mandal, Doctoral student Sheldon Q. Shi, Professor
Mechanical & Energy Engineering Department University of North Texas Correspondence to: Sujata Mandal, [email protected]
The world is facing formidable challenges in meeting rising demands of clean water. Providing clean and affordable drinking water is one of the modern-times challenges. The article briefly reviews the recent advances and application of nanotechnology for wastewater treatment. Nanomaterials have high reactivity, large specific surface area, and size-dependent properties which makes them acceptable for applications in wastewater treatment and for water purification.
Introduction variety of users (U.S. Bureau report 2003; EPA, 1998; WHO, 1996). According to World Health Most manufacturing processes Organization, 884 million people lack generate large volumes of polluted access to adequate potable water and 1.8 wastewater. The specific pollutants present million children die every year from in industrial wastewater depend on the diarrhea mainly due to water manufacturing process and can include contamination. The world is facing specific organic constituents, high salinity, formidable challenges in meeting rising heavy metals, extreme pH, and high demands of clean water as the available turbidity from inorganic particles. The supplies of freshwater are depleting due to occurrence of new/emerging extended droughts, population microcontaminants (e.g., endocrine growth, more stringent health-based disrupting compounds (EDCs)) in polluted regulations and competing demands from a water/wastewater has rendered existing
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Sustainable Communities Review conventional water/wastewater treatment lifetime. Some advanced treatments like plants ineffective to meet the ultraviolet (UV) photolysis and ion environmental standards. These chemicals exchange are not viable alternatives for can create problems with development, micro pollutants. behavior and reproduction in a variety of Twenty-first century has brought to species. Biological treatment systems such the water sector exciting new opportunities as activated sludge and biological trickling associated with nanotechnology. ‘Nano’ is filters are unable to remove a wide range of derived from the Greek word for emerging contaminants and most of these ‘dwarf’. The high surface area to mass compounds remain soluble in the effluent. ratios of nanoparticles can enhance the Physicochemical treatments such as adsorption capacities of sorbent materials. coagulation, flocculation, proved ineffective Nanotechnology is a deliberate for removing different EDCs and manipulation of matter at size scales of less pharmaceutical compounds. Chlorination than 100 nm (Fig.1) in at least one only provide residual protection against dimension meaning at the level of atoms regrowth of bacteria and pathogens. and molecules as compared with other Ozonation has been a less attractive disciplines such as chemistry, engineering, alternative due to expensive costs and short and materials science.
Figure 1: A size comparison of nanoparticle with other larger-sized materials Through control over material size, the disinfection of water. In recent years, morphology and chemical structure, AgNPs have been reported to be able to nanotechnology offers novel materials that adhere to the bacterial cell wall and could endow some water treatment systems subsequently penetrate it, resulting in that enhance treatment cost-efficiency. structural changes of the cell membrane and thus increasing its permeability. Even Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles: the incorporation of nAg into polymer As a good antimicrobial agent, silver materials have also shown microbial nanoparticles have been widely used for
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Sustainable Communities Review properties against E. coli and Salmonella Iron Oxides Nanoparticles entrica. Magnetism is a unique physical In recent years Fe, Zn, Al, and Ni are property that independently helps in water some zero-valent metal nanoparticles, purification by influencing the physical which are used in water pollution properties of contaminants in water. Iron treatment. oxides nanoparticles, in recent years iron oxides nano particles is used for the Metal Oxides Nanoparticles removal of heavy metal due to their simplicity and availability. Magnetic Titanium oxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles magnetite (Fe3O4) and magnetic maghemite Among the existing adsorbents (훾Fe2O4) and nonmagnetic hematite (훼- nanosized metal oxides, TiO2 is classified as Fe2O3) are often used as nano-adsorbents one of the promising oxides for pollutant’s due to their simplicity and availability. removal the most exceptional photocatalyst Laboratory investigation indicated that iron due to its high photocatalytic activity oxide NMs could effectively remove a reasonable price, chemical and biological range of heavy metals, including stability. Besides, TiO2 NPs show little Pb2+, Hg2+, Cd2+, and Cu2+ and organic selectivity and thus are suitable for the contaminants. degradation of all kinds of contaminants, such as chlorinated organic compounds, Carbon nanotubes phenols, pesticides, arsenic, cyanide, and Carbon nanotubes are one of the heavy metals. The photocatalytic properties allotropes of carbon and has diverse of TiO2 NPs can kill a wide array of application in wastewater treatment due to microorganisms, such bacteria, fungi, algae, their exclusive properties like large specific protozoa, and viruses. area, fast kinetics and selective towards aromatic compounds. Carbon nanotubes Zinc oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are graphene sheets rolled up in cylinders In the field of photocatalyst with diameter as small as 1nm. CNTs can candidate in water and wastewater be classified into two types (Fig. 2) treatment because of their unique Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) characteristics, such as direct and wide Is comprised of multiple layers of band gap in the near-UV spectral region, concentric cylinders with a spacing of about strong oxidation ability, and good photo 0.34 nm between the adjacent layers, and catalytic property. ZnO NPs are not single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), only environment-friendly they are which consist of single layers of graphene compatible with organisms which makes sheets seamlessly rolled into cylindrical them suitable for the treatment of water tubes. The use of CNTs as a catalyst is also and wastewater. reported for wastewater treatment due to their mechanical strength, mesoporous nature, and large surface area. 46
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Figure 2: Classification of carbon nanotubes [A] Single walled carbon nanotubes [B] Multi-walled carbon nanotubes. treatment as the surface water keeps Extensive studies have reported both changing according to seasons. Removal of MWCNTs and SWCNTs have been applied pollutants from a water of pH 7-9 was for the removal of contaminants in water achieved implying that the pH adjustment like organic, inorganic, and biological of water prior to treatment is not required contaminants including heavy metals, as well as bacteria Bacillus subillus was radionuclide and organic dye. removed from surface water. In the last two decades, the Membranes and membrane processes development of polymeric and ceramic membranes has positively impacted on the Nano Filtration (NF) Membranes use of membranes. Porous carbons have a NF membrane is a type of pressure great potential in adsorption and in driven membrane with properties between membrane synthesis for water filtration as reverse osmosis and ultra-filtration they are considered as “molecular sieve membranes and can be utilized ground materials”. Those filters were re-usable, surface and waste water treatment. Nano sustainable and showed effective removal filtration has been used to treat ground of bacterial pathogens (Escherichia coli and water having relatively low TDS (total Staphylococcus aureus) and Poliovirus dissolved solids) and high total hardness Sabin 1 from contaminated water. and color. Studies were conducted to remove pesticides, micro pollutants, arsenic Conclusion and multivalent anions from ground water Nanotechnology is a very promising area successfully. NF is a reliable surface water that can show the wastewater treatment a
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Sustainable Communities Review new dimension. The use of nanotechnology technology emerge as tool mitigating risk to in wastewater treatment holds the promise environmental and public health and of transforming many of these processes by enable sustainable water management. lowering the treatment cost and offer great potential for ‘point of use’ systems.The challenge of the growing nanomaterials industry is to ensure that this novel
References
Amin, M. T., Alazba, A. A., & Manzoor, U. Debnath, B., Biswas, N. T., Baidya, R., & (2014). A review of removal of pollutants Ghosh, S. K. (2014). Nanotechnology in from water/wastewater using different wastewater treatment: a types of nanomaterials. Advances in review. ECOLOGY OF URBAN AREAS Materials Science and Engineering, 2014. 2014, 563. Alvarez, P. J., Chan, C. K., Elimelech, M., Gehrke, I., Geiser, A., & Somborn-Schulz, Halas, N. J., & Villagrán, D. (2018). A. (2015). Innovations in nanotechnology Emerging opportunities for for water treatment. Nanotechnology, nanotechnology to enhance water science and applications, 8, 1. security. Nature nanotechnology, 13(8), Hyung, H., & Kim, J. H. (2008). Natural 634 organic matter (NOM) adsorption to Bhattacharya, S., Saha, I., Mukhopadhyay, multi-walled carbon nanotubes: effect of A., Chattopadhyay, D., & Chand, U. NOM characteristics and water quality (2013). Role of nanotechnology in water parameters. Environmental science & treatment and purification: potential technology, 42(12), 4416-4421. applications and Jassby, D., Cath, T. Y., & Buisson, H. (2018). implications. Int J Chem Sci Technol, 3(3), The role of nanotechnology in industrial 59-64. water treatment. Nature Bottero, J. Y., Rose, J., & Wiesner, M. R. nanotechnology, 13(8), 670. (2006). Nanotechnologies: tools for Kyzas, G. Z., & Matis, K. A. sustainability in a new wave of water (2015). Nanoadsorbents for pollutants treatment processes. Integrated removal: a review. Journal of Molecular Environmental Assessment and Liquids, 203, 159-168. Management, 2(4), 391-395. Lens, P., Virkutyte, J., Jegatheesan, V., & Al- Crane, R. A., & Scott, T. B. (2012). Abed, S. (Eds.). (2013). Nanotechnology for Nanoscale zero-valent iron: future water and wastewater prospects for an emerging water treatment. Iwa Publishing.] treatment technology. Journal of hazardous Lu, H., Wang, J., Stoller, M., Wang, T., Bao, materials, 211, 112-125.] Y., & Hao, H. (2016). An overview of nanomaterials for water and wastewater 48
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treatment. Advances in Materials Science Tang, S. C., & Lo, I. M. (2013). Magnetic and Engineering, 2016. nanoparticles: essential factors for Nanofiltration of natural organic matter sustainable environmental applications. with H2O2/UV pretreatment: fouling Water research, 47(8), 2613-2632. mitigation and membrane surface Wang, Z., Wu, A., Colombi Ciacchi, L., & characterization. Wonho Songa, Varadar Wei, G. (2018). Recent advances ajan Ravindrana, Bruce in nanoporous membranes for water E. Koelb, Massoud Pirbazaric purification. Nanomaterials, 8(2), 65. Prachi, P. G., Madathil, D., & Nair, A. Zhang, Y., Wu, B., Xu, H., Liu, H., Wang, B. (2013). Nanotechnology in wastewater M., He, Y., & Pan, B. (2016). treatment: a review. International Journal Nanomaterials-enabled water and of Chem Tech Research, 5(5), 2303-2308. wastewater treatment. NanoImpact, 3, 22- Qu, X., Alvarez, P. J., & Li, Q. (2013). 39. Applications of nanotechnology in water Zhang, Y., Wei, S., Hu, Y., & Sun, S. (2018). and wastewater treatment. Water Membrane technology in wastewater research, 47(12), 3931-3946. treatment enhanced by functional Sarkar, B., Mandal, S., Tsang, Y. F., Kumar, nanomaterials. Journal of Cleaner P., Kim, K. H., & Ok, Y. S. (2018). Production. Designer carbon nanotubes for contaminant removal in water and wastewater: A critical review. Science of the Total Environment, 612, 561-581. Savage, N., & Diallo, M. S. (2005). Nanomaterials and water purification: opportunities and challenges. Journal of Nanoparticle research, 7(4-5), 331-342.
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ARTICLE Postmodern Prometheus A Discourse Analysis of Energy Dominance
Adam Briggle Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy and Religion, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas Callie Sherrod Philosophy major, University of North Texas
Correspondence to [email protected]
The administration of President Donald Trump is pursuing a policy agenda of “American energy dominance,” which entails the promotion of fossil fuel extraction, use, and export. Administration officials and supporters often defend energy dominance on the grounds of national security and economic prosperity, but they also justify their energy policies in environmental terms. In this paper, we use discourse analysis to examine the ways in which the administration frames energy dominance from an environmental perspective. They appear to use what John Dryzek calls the Promethean discourse, but this is complicated by the administration’s climate change denial, which calls into question the very notion of a discourse. We use two case studies to illustrate how energy dominance is described and justified. We conclude with a discussion of wider implications about climate, science, media, and democracy.
1. Introduction being that between public (governments) and private (markets). On the private side, any number of further divisions Life in the United States, like any could be made, say, between different industrialized nation, depends on high- kinds of companies or between energy inputs. Developing, processing, individual consumers. On the public side, and transporting energy in turn relies on the main actors are local (municipal), complex social and technological state, and federal governments. networks. Managing those networks The federal government, then, is could broadly be construed as the not all-powerful when it comes to energy province of US energy policy, which policy. This is especially so in the largely covers an enormous and diverse terrain. market-driven US compared with We can carve that territory in a variety of countries that have nationalized mineral ways, with perhaps the crudest division 50
Sustainable Communities Review resources and state-owned energy potential impacts (political, economic, companies. Non-national US actors can and practical) of seeking energy self- have big impacts. For example, in the face sufficiency, and have proposed of the Trump administration’s planned alternative goals such as “energy withdrawal from the Paris Agreement on resilience” (see Damgaard, 2018). climate change, multiple non-federal In May 2016, presidential actors (cities, states, and businesses) candidate Donald Trump promised to reaffirmed their commitments to helping make “American energy dominance” a the US achieve its Paris climate goals. If strategic policy goal. Though the exact these non-federal entities were a country, meaning of energy dominance is debated their economy would be the third largest (see Raimi, 2017), the basic idea is to in the world (America’s Pledge Initiative increase the extraction and exportation of on Climate, 2018). fossil fuels. Energy dominance pushes the Nonetheless, the federal goal beyond self-sufficiency to becoming government does exercise a great deal of a net-exporter of energy (i.e., fossil fuels) influence over the direction of US energy in order to influence global markets and policy. It does so in a variety of ways, exercise geopolitical power. Once elected, including research and development, President Trump began implementing his environmental regulations, federal land plan primarily through a raft of and water leasing, subsidies and other deregulatory activity. budgetary decisions, general foreign and There are many ways to read economic policymaking, and more. Thus, energy dominance as a strategic goal. In federal energy policies are important political terms, the emphasis on coal fits topics for critical examination. Trump’s need for electoral votes and Within the federal government, the grassroots support in swing states and executive branch does much to set the rural areas, not to mention the agenda for energy policy. In the wake of importance of appeasing a wealthy and the oil embargoes of the early 1970s, for influential donor class with strong ties to example, the Nixon administration fossil fuel industries. In cultural terms, embraced “energy independence” (the fossil fuels have come to stand in as ability to rely solely on energy produced bedrock ‘conservative’ symbols and as domestically) as a strategic goal. Several icons of an age before the disorienting administrations have since more or less forces of globalization, multiculturalism, adopted the goal of energy and automation (see Schneider & Peeples, independence, including the Obama 2018). In geopolitical terms, fossil fuel administration, which often referenced exports can provide leverage to aid allies the need to free the country from foreign and undercut enemies. In economic oil. However, energy independence has terms, an emphasis on fossil fuel also long been controversial and many extraction promises jobs and growth. have questioned the wisdom and 51
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All of these dimensions of energy and attack on institutions deemed to have dominance have been contentious. But a liberal bias. the most controversial and consequential This situation poses a challenge: aspects of energy dominance pertain to can we find ways to bridge deep divides the environment. Energy dominance is in order to understand other views and predicated on the denial of climate engage in productive dialogue? This change, which President Trump strikes us as an important prerequisite for considers a “hoax.” This is in stark a robust democracy. In what follows, we contrast to nearly every other nation and attempt to understand how the Trump the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate administration and their supporters Change (IPCC), the world’s foremost justify the energy dominance agenda in scientific authority on the climate. These environmental terms. In so doing, we will different views on climate and the do our best to practice what philosophers impacts of fossil fuel use point to a deep call a “hermeneutic of faith,” which division in US politics. means we will assume sincerity or good- One way to frame this problem is faith on the part of the administration. in terms of “tribal epistemologies” or After all, there are good arguments to be incommensurable worldviews. It seems made against environmental regulations as though the participants in US political and the precautionary discourses that discussions lack a common or shared often lie behind those regulations (cf. reality. This stems at least in part from Sunstein, 2003). increasingly polarized partisanship along The danger of assuming sincerity with a media landscape that filters people is that it may be naive. Thus, in our into like-minded echo chambers. It also discussion we offer a “hermeneutic of stems from the erosion of trust in suspicion” that looks for ulterior motives traditional gatekeepers of truth: science, -- in this case, that any environmental the academy, the judiciary, and the media justification of energy dominance is (see Roberts, 2017). This erosion has merely a way to greenwash powerful and happened across the political spectrum self-centered interest groups. Energy but is especially pronounced on the right dominance may be nothing more than wing, which has developed over the past plunder by oligarchs. To presume good- few decades a strong alternative media- faith arguments or logical consistency scape in talk radio, Fox news, Breitbart, may be to presume too much. the Daily Caller, Infowars, and other To put it more broadly, the new outlets. With his repeated accusations of Trump-wing of American conservatism “fake news” and his demonization of may not be about an epistemology (or mainstream media and institutions what we will call a discourse) at all. An (including the IPCC), President Trump is epistemology or a discourse implies a pushing to new levels the long-standing rationally defensible understanding of US conservative movement’s distrust of reality and a sincere quest for truth that 52
Sustainable Communities Review abides by some standards of coherence The Promethean discourse is the and consistency. By contrast, Eric Levitz closest candidate for the Trump (2018) may be right that there simply is administration’s point of view – with its no rational policy agenda behind much of emphasis on free markets, human what the Trump Administration does. ingenuity, and infinite progress. There is no good-faith, evidence-based Prometheus stole fire from the gods, argument that President Trump actually giving humanity god-like technological won the popular vote in 2016, but nearly powers. Though he is a figure from half of Republicans believe that. ancient Greek mythology, Prometheus is Similarly, there is no rational way to a fitting icon for the modern age with its defend the notion that climate change is a quest to control nature for human hoax perpetuated by the Chinese. Yet material prosperity. Yet as we take a such talk from the highest levels of closer look at two case studies about government combined with a more energy dominance, it begins to look less general attack on science and the removal like an expression of modernity and more of climate change information on federal like a form of what Dryzek calls “extreme websites has real impacts on public postmodernism.” Energy dominance may opinion. In 2017, 53% of Republicans represent a postmodern Prometheus thought that most scientists believe where truth itself is just another resource climate change is occurring. In 2018, that to manipulate in the service of power. number declined to 42% (Berke, 2018). In seeking to understand the 2. Energy Dominance environmental justifications for energy dominance, we will use the political To understand the policy of energy scientist John Dryzek’s book The Politics of dominance, it is important to first look at the Earth (2013). Dryzek takes a discourse its origins in previous US energy policy approach to environmental issues, where goals. By 1970 the United States had “discourse” means roughly the become a net oil importer, so when the worldviews that people use to make US faced an oil embargo in 1973, prices sense of environmental problems. A shot up dramatically (Homans, 2012). discourse, he argues, is a plausible This led to the idea of an energy shortage, perspective that is difficult to prove and President Nixon turned the nation’s wrong in a simple or straightforward eyes towards the policy of “Energy way. In using his framework, we will at Independence,” the goal of relying solely first assume a hermeneutic of on energy produced in the US. This beneficence, that is, to assume that energy marked the beginning of the focus on dominance is justified by a rationally energy independence, an initiative seen defensible, sincere, and intelligible in all subsequent administrations. discourse. Another important development to note as a precursor to the energy 53
Sustainable Communities Review dominance agenda is the revolution in issued Executive Order 13783, requiring domestic oil and gas production that all executive agencies to review any occurred under the Obama existing regulations “that potentially administration. Beginning around 2010, burden the development or use” of and thanks in large part to successful domestic sources of energy. The private-public R&D partnerships, the US Environmental and Energy Law Program began to reverse a decades-long dip in at Harvard University has since tracked domestic oil and gas production. The key the regulatory rollback efforts following technologies enabling this fossil fuel from this order. By October 2018, the renaissance were hydraulic fracturing, 3- rollback tracker had 47 entries on its list, D seismic imaging, and horizontal which includes both finalized rule- drilling (see Briggle, 2015). Indeed, even making as well as policy proposals under though the Obama administration is review (Harvard Environmental Law criticized by the Trump administration, 2018). there can be no denying that the former The deregulatory actions are broad put in place the fossil fuel infrastructure in scope, including: opening more land that made the latter’s campaign promises and coastal waters to fossil fuel of energy dominance a practical production, repealing the Stream possibility. Protection Rule (which had protected Energy dominance entails a water resources from coal mining complete self-sufficiency in energy impacts), expediting pipeline production (where ‘energy’ is understood construction, relaxing standards under almost exclusively as fossil fuels), as well the Clean Air Act for toxic emissions, and as a focus on coal, oil, and natural gas eliminating and curbing rules on exports. The stated aims of this policy are greenhouse gas emissions. When it comes to create American jobs and wealth, to greenhouse gas emissions, the most prevent hostile nations from using energy important deregulations are efforts to as a means of leverage against the US and repeal the Clean Power Plan created by its allies, and meet US demand via the Obama administration, weakening domestically attained energy. rules that govern methane leaks by Deregulation has been a defining natural gas producers, and lowering fuel task of the Trump administration from its efficiency standards for cars and trucks. first days when the new President signed Another key tool for implementing Executive Order 13771 (January 30, 2017) the energy dominance agenda is the directing agencies to repeal two existing federal budget. The Trump regulations for each new regulation. Not administration’s fiscal 2019 budget surprisingly, then, energy dominance has proposal included: increases for oil been pursued primarily through production on the outer continental shelf, deregulation. Indeed, just two months a 24% increase for fossil fuel research and into his administration, President Trump development (including clean coal 54
Sustainable Communities Review technologies), a 34% overall cut to the of energy policy cannot be disentangled EPA and an 18% cut specifically to the from the economic and foreign policy EPA’s enforcement division, the dimensions. Despite this complexity, elimination of the Global Climate Change people manage to make sense of even the Initiative, elimination of five programs at most difficult social and political issues. NASA that monitor climate change They do so by filtering what would impacts, and elimination of the Advanced otherwise be a cacophony of information Research Projects Agency -- Energy through a set of assumptions, judgments, (ARPA-E) Initiative, which funds high- and premises that enable them to piece risk research programs including grid- together a coherent story. This filter is a scale battery storage technologies to aid worldview, or what John Dryzek, in the the transition to renewables. Politics of the Earth (2013), calls a discourse, “a shared way of Of course Presidential budget proposals apprehending the world.” In this section, rarely survive intact through the we draw heavily from Dryzek’s analysis, Congressional process, but they though we modify it in some ways. nonetheless stand as statements of values According to Dryzek, our and priorities. In order to sketch a more environmental discourse tells us what detailed and comprehensive picture of kinds of things exist and how they are those values, we turn now from an related. It also fills out our narrative with empirical overview of energy dominance key actors (and whether they are good or to our theoretical lens. We will use an bad) and provides metaphors and other environmental discourse framework in an rhetorical devices for making sense of attempt to understand the worldview things (e.g., spaceship earth or nature as behind energy dominance. In the next machine). One’s discourse conditions section, we introduce this framework, how one defines and interprets and in the section after that we apply the environmental problems. A ‘problem,’ in framework to two cases where the other words, does not exist objectively or administration or its supporters discuss independent of human agency and and justify the energy dominance agenda. conceptualization. This does not mean that there is only discourse or social constructions. As 3. Environmental Discourses Dryzek notes, “just because something is socially interpreted does not mean it is Environmental issues are complex. unreal” (p. 12). Pollution actually exists, They involve multiple interconnections species do go extinct, and habitat does in across human and non-human systems fact disappear or reappear. Yet people that are studied by a variety of can understand such phenomena in disciplines. As we have seen, for different ways (often picking out example, the environmental dimensions different sets of data), depending on their 55
Sustainable Communities Review conception of the natural world and the In 1972, the Club of Rome human place in it, how they prioritize published The Limits to Growth, which different values, their attitude toward captured the essence of newly emerging risk – in short, depending on their discourses (Meadows et al., 1972). As the discourse. ecologist Garrett Hardin (1986) wrote: Dryzek argues that complexity “Thou shalt not transgress the carrying breeds a proliferation of discourses: “The capacity.” Dryzek classifies such views more complex a situation, the larger is the into two kinds of ‘radical’ environmental number of plausible perspectives upon discourses, Green Radicalism and it—because the harder it is to prove any Survivalism. Both call for the wholesale one of them wrong in any simple terms” rejection of industrial society, primarily (p. 9). Disagreement between discourses from the belief that its imperative of fuels debates about environmental economic growth will run headlong into problems – how to define them and what ecological limits. to do about them. One important Though culturally influential, question this raises is the extent to which these discourses remained on the margins we can become aware of our own of policymaking precisely because of discourses and whether they are their radical implications. No politician susceptible to rational comparison and would be elected on a platform of, say, criticism. returning to small-scale agricultural For at least the past two-hundred communities or drastically curtailing years, industrialism has been the consumption or reproductive rights. By dominant discourse. It is defined by its far the most politically powerful form of “overarching commitment to growth in environmental discourse became what the quantity of goods and services Dryzek calls Problem Solving or, at times, produced and to the material wellbeing Administrative Rationality. This that growth brings” (p. 14). Modern discourse takes the basic social patterns ideologies as diverse as liberalism and and expectations of industrialism as Marxism share the industrial given and seeks to make adjustments in commitments to growth and material ways that can account for environmental affluence. Though there were earlier factors that had previously been treated critics of industrialism such as John Muir, as externalities or unintended Henry David Thoreau, and Aldo consequences. The establishment of the Leopold, it was not until the 1960s that Environmental Protection Agency, other this discourse came under sustained forms of institutionalized environmental criticism. Rachel Carson, Paul Ehrlich, expertise, and the signing of major and others began to problematize legislation such as the Clean Air and industrialism, opening the possibility for Clean Water Acts exemplify this alternative discourses. discourse. Though not nearly as radical as the other discourses, Problem Solving 56
Sustainable Communities Review shares with them a focus on limits, point of “peak impact,” pollution and usually framing those limits in terms of other harms start to decrease even as government regulations (often paired in a growth continues. This is often known as various ways with market mechanisms). a process of “decoupling” environmental This explains the other crucial harm from economic growth. development across the 1960s and 1970s: The Promethean discourse is the articulation of what Dryzek calls the centered on the boundless potential of Promethean discourse. When human intelligence harnessed by the free industrialism reigned relatively market. When prices increase, unchallenged, there was little need to entrepreneurs in a free market are explicitly defend it. As it came under incentivized to develop new technologies attack, this changed, and a group of to find more of the resource or invent an economists based initially at the alternative. This phenomenon can be seen independent research organization in the correlation between higher gas Resources for the Future began to prices and more fuel-efficient technology articulate the Promethean (or in automobiles (Crabb & Johnson, 2010). Cornucopian) discourse. The objective For Prometheans, nature is effectively was to counter the emphasis on limits that unlimited, because humans are clever was central to the radical discourses in enough to solve any problems that result popular culture and the political from industrial production and discourse of administration and consumption. Michael Shellenberger and regulation. The economists Harold Ted Nordhaus (2011) capture the essence Barnett and Chandler Morse argued that of this discourse when they write that, scarcity is just another name for increase “The solution to the unintended in price. Since real prices had dropped consequences of modernity is, and has across the 20th century, natural resources always been, more modernity.” The goal were actually becoming more abundant. is to decouple economic growth from Another important early environmental harm largely through contributor to the Promethean discourse innovation, so that growth can continue was the economist Simon Kuznets. His in environmentally benign ways (see research showed an inverted U shape McDonough & Braungart, 2013). relationship between income inequality Departing now slightly from and economic growth – income Dryzek’s taxonomy, we think there are inequality first increased with growth but two main camps within the Promethean then decreased after a certain threshold. discourse. They are distinguished This Kuznets Curve was soon modified to primarily by their attitudes toward show a similar relationship between government regulations. The first camp is negative environmental impact and Ecological Modernization or economic growth. At first, a rising GDP ecomodernism. The Breakthrough brings environmental harms, but after the Institute, an independent research 57
Sustainable Communities Review organization (and home to Shellenberger In contrast, the second Promethean and Nordhaus), offers the best camp is skeptical and often openly hostile formulation of ecomodernism. to government regulations. We might call Ecomoderns argue that green capitalism it the neoliberal Promethean camp insofar will not arise automatically through the as it promotes a kind of free market “invisible hand.” Environmental criteria fundamentalism where markets are seen must be built into a redesigned system as the only legitimate social organizing through conscious and coordinated principle compatible with human intervention. Ideally, businesses will freedom. The founder of this camp is the cooperate with this restructuring, because economist Julian Simon, who argued that they see money in it for them. They the human mind is the “ultimate might, for example, see savings from the resource,” that technology makes natural prevention of pollution or recognize that resources more (not less) abundant, and solving a problem now will be less that trends in the growth of human expensive than handling it in the future. material affluence can continue as long as However, this requires that businesses free markets reign (see Simon, 1981). first pay for pollution (rather than Simon’s brand of thinking had a treating water or air as a free dump), that profound impact on the administration of they acknowledge problems exist, and Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. The that they are far-sighted enough to see neoliberal Promethean discourse was past quarterly profits. used to justify broad swaths of This is obviously not always the environmental deregulation. Reagan case, however, which is why ecomoderns appointed James Watt as his Secretary of often turn to regulations, subsidies, taxes, the Interior and Anne Gorsuch (later and other government interventions as Burford) as his EPA Administrator. important levers for moving society Dryzek notes that both “were essentially toward sustainability or decoupling. The hostile to most of the legislation they Breakthrough Institute’s “Ecomodernist were supposed to be administering” (pp. Manifesto” (2015), for example, argues 64-65). Watt pushed for opening up that adequately responding to climate federal lands for resource extraction. change will require rapid energy Gorsuch Burford “turned policy making transitions, which in turn requires over to the polluters the EPA was “sustained public support for the supposed to regulate” (p. 65). The Reagan development and deployment of clean administration withdrew the US from a energy technologies” (p. 24). great deal of international environmental Decarbonizing the human economy, governance. ecomodernists argue, must and can be The similarities to the Trump done through a mix of government and administration with Ryan Zinke as market mechanisms. Secretary of the Interior, Scott Pruitt as head of the EPA (until he resigned in the 58
Sustainable Communities Review midst of growing scandals), and Rick members of Congress, as well as policy Perry as Head of the Department of entrepreneurs and thought leaders. Next, Energy (DOE) are readily apparent. Zinke we analyze the keynote address on the has overseen the largest reduction in “New Energy Realism” delivered by federal lands protection in the nation’s Department of Energy Secretary Rick history, Pruitt sued the EPA 14 times Perry at the Cambridge Energy Research (often working closely with the oil and Associates Week (CERAWeek) forum on gas industry) when he was Attorney March 7, 2018.2 CERAWeek is the world’s General of Oklahoma, and in his own bid premier forum on energy policy and for President, Perry vowed to abolish the politics, attracting representatives from DOE. Andrew Wheeler, who took over leading energy corporations as well as the EPA after Pruitt’s resignation, was a energy ministers from dozens of nations. lobbyist for the coal producer Murray Energy. Once again the highest level 4.1 The Heartland Institute’s America government officials are openly hostile to First Energy Conference government, especially when it comes to In this section, we draw from environmental regulations. And, we now several of the speakers at the conference show, a very similar Promethean to indicate the ways in which a discourse is at work. Promethean discourse was mobilized to
describe and justify energy dominance. 4. Energy Dominance and Perhaps the most straightforward Environmental Discourse: Two articulation of the Promethean discourse Case Studies came from Todd Myers, Director of the We now offer two case studies to Center for the Environment at the illustrate how the neoliberal Promethean Washington Policy Center. He used the discourse is used by the Trump Kuznet’s Curve to frame his talk. Modern administration to frame the energy technology, he argued, causes dominance policy agenda. First, we environmental problems but also solves analyze discourse from the Heartland them as long as the free market is allowed Institute’s “America First Energy to operate. Myron Ebell, who headed the Conference” held in November 2017 in Trump Administration’s EPA transition Houston, Texas.1 The Heartland Institute team, repeated the same basic story. He is one of the most influential right-wing noted the horrible air quality in think tanks on energy and the Pittsburgh in 1960 and the burning environment, and their energy Cuyahoga River in Cleveland around the conferences feature Trump administration officials, Republican 2 The transcript and video of his speech are available 1 One of us (Briggle) attended the conference. Videos here: https://www.energy.gov/articles/new-energy- of all the presentations from the conference are realism-secretary-perry-remarks-cera-week-prepared- available here: http://americafirstenergy.org/videos/. delivery. 59
Sustainable Communities Review same time. He then noted that This was one of two views on environmental conditions have vastly climate change at the conference, namely, improved as the economies of those areas that increased carbon is a net positive. (and the nation) continued to grow. It The other view, as articulated by two was time now, he said, to “right size” climate scientists on a morning panel, is (drastically cut) the EPA and that there are too many uncertainties environmental regulations. To continue around the climate to draw any on the trajectory of regulations under the conclusions, especially to warrant any Obama and other previous regulations that could hinder economic administrations would be like an anorexic growth. At the conference, the Heartland person intensifying their caloric Institute handed out free copies of their restriction. report Why Scientists Disagree about Global Jay Lehr, Science Director for Warming by the Non-governmental Heartland with a Hydrology Ph.D. from International Panel on Climate Change Princeton, described climate change as (NIPCC 2017). The report casts doubt on simply “insane” and promulgated by climate science, seeks to discredit the “hysterical” people on the left. In his IPCC and other climate science speech, he advised the audience members organizations, and argues that the climate to carry CO2 monitors in their pockets to change agenda is an attempt by big show people that elevated carbon levels government to gain greater control over indoors are common and no cause for the lives of Americans. alarm. “We are so fortunate that we have The most popular panel was about driven up atmospheric levels of CO2,” he overturning the endangerment finding said, “and I pray that you all will live to made on December 7, 2009. This, one see the day when it stands at 600 ppm.” panelist said, was “a day that shall live in Increased carbon is greening the Sahara infamy,” because that was the day the desert and generally making the planet Obama administration succeeded in more hospitable for humans, he argued. getting CO2 listed as a threat to the Similarly, Fred Palmer, Senior VP at the “public health and welfare of current and major coal company Peabody Energy, future generations.” The panelists said that, “Coal is electricity. Electricity is described the endangerment finding as life. Life is green…Coal is green.” And “monument to regulatory onanism.” Joseph Bast, President and CEO of the After all, carbon is either not a problem or Heartland Institute, asked the audience in a net benefit…why list it as a public his concluding remarks: “Can you believe health threat? Panelists proposed a “red- what they have done to language…carbon team, blue-team” exercise to “get honest pollution?!” He couldn’t comprehend a science in there.” There was a sense of worldview (or discourse) that would urgency in the room that the “California picture carbon as a problem. model” of draconian regulations (such as the Clean Power Plan and the 60
Sustainable Communities Review endangerment finding) was threatening fossil fuels have shielded people from the livelihoods of Americans, even natural disasters. As a result, deaths portending “Third World conditions.” caused by floods, droughts, hurricanes, In one of the last panels, Heath and other natural disasters have Lovell, Vice President of Public Affairs at precipitously dropped over the last Alliance Coal, expressed optimism that several decades. coal had a bright future. He said that In short, the America First Energy reductions in the coal fleet were due less Conference was steeped in the optimistic to automation and market forces than to rhetoric of the Promethean discourse. unfair regulations promulgated by the Human ingenuity has unlocked massive Obama administration. Coal is now set stores of energy, which have made for a resurgence and its primary market is possible tremendous gains in the not at home, but abroad. “We have a standard of living. Regulations threaten moral obligation,” Mr. Lovell said, “to to strangle the creative engine of the free help the rest of the world live like we market that works to incentivize do.” Over one billion people don’t have entrepreneurs and combine their ideas electricity. Through coal exports, we into innovations that bring further gains won’t just keep our mines open, more in human welfare. As prosperity importantly we will fulfill our ethical increases, so does concern for the duty toward the world’s poor to increase environment, and that concern is their material well-being. Not just translated into reduced impacts thanks to Americans, but “all the people of the technological advances. world deserve the lowest cost energy.” However, the conference also Mr. Lovell cited The Moral Case for indicated why it is not accurate to call Fossil Fuels by Alex Epstein (2014), a book this a neoliberal or free market version of that was frequently touted at the Promethean discourse. A truly neoliberal conference and serves as a key Promethean discourse would be agnostic intellectual touchstone for the policy about types of energy. It would advocate entrepreneurs behind the energy for whichever energy source is the dominance agenda. Epstein borrows cheapest under fair market conditions – heavily from Julian Simon’s basic the winner in a competition on a level discourse to argue that fossil fuels have playing field. It is increasingly obvious dramatically increased human material that solar and wind power often simply welfare and that continuing advances in outcompete coal under existing market technology have successfully mitigated conditions. Yet, no one at the conference the environmental costs of this growing ever had a positive word to say about affluence. Epstein further argues that renewable energy. Indeed, the conference fossil fuels have actually made the was soaked in disdain and mockery when climate less dangerous. By enabling the it came to solar and wind power. construction of resilient infrastructures, 61
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A good example is the opening dismissed rather than embraced. And speech by Joe Leimkuhler, Vice President efforts are taken to “correct” the market of drilling for LLOG Exploration and to favor fossil fuels. For example, the former head of Shell’s Gulf of Mexico Trump Administration proposed a grid operations. He analyzed all major energy resilience subsidy for coal (an idea that sources to ask the question: “Can we be had first been floated at the conference), energy dominant in these fields?’ For oil, which obviously runs counter to a coal, and natural gas, he argued that the neoliberal agenda where subsidies answer is “yes” by looking at data on constitute market distortions. reserves, production, and technological In short, the energy dominance trends. For “renewables” (his quotes) or agenda is not really a neoliberal form of what he called subsidy energy, the Promethean discourse, because free answer was “no.” Indeed, it was for him markets are favored only when fossil and the audience literally laughable. fuels come out on top. Further, the many When he talked about renewables, the existing subsidies for fossil fuels are logic of the analysis changed. For coal, treated as purely neutral market oil, and gas, he never mentioned a single conditions. This is what happens when negative or downside. But for energy is conflated with fossil fuels. One renewables, the downsides were his industry has been given privileged status entire focus. His first slide on renewables as standing in for an entire sector of the left the engineering realm of charts (used economy. This is a far cry from the to discuss fossil fuels) to show a picture principles of free markets and fair of a wind turbine menacing a bird. The competition, which raises questions about hypoxic dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico what’s really driving the energy from agricultural runoff was, he argued, dominance agenda. We return to these in the fault of ethanol (a renewable energy). the discussion. He even told a personal story about his disappointing experience with solar 4.2 Rick Perry and the New Energy panels on his roof…a story that drew Realism howls of laughter from the audience. It was a stunningly biased presentation by Mr. Perry began his address to someone who purported to supply facts CERA by touting the new liquefied from a position of engineering expertise. natural gas (LNG) export facilities that Another way to put the point is had just become operational. This, he that the “moral case” Epstein is making is said, was part of an optimistic age in not for fossil fuels but for any energy that energy where new innovations are is abundant, cheap, and reliable (a point harnessing new resources. The “new he acknowledges: Epstein 2014, p. 34). Yet energy realism” signifies this age of when renewable forms of energy surpass abundance. It is in contrast to the old fossil fuels by those measures, they are energy realism of the 1970s when 62
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President Jimmy Carter and others And THAT is the heart of our New claimed that “the days of energy Energy Realism. abundance were over.” The old realism postulated fundamental limits to He then put this picture in the resources and assumed that new moral framework of sharing. President technologies would bring greater Trump, “would like to share our energy environmental harms. The solution they bounty with the world and let the spirit offered, Perry said, was “draconian of competition benefit consumers by regulation of energy.” But, providing more choices in the marketplace…Already we are sharing These so-called realists could not our natural gas…” LNG and coal and have been more mistaken. Truth technology exports will “help developing be told, we had no shortage of countries…create their own energy energy. What we had was a renaissance and harness more energy to shortage of imagination and a loss improve the lives of their citizens.” of confidence in our ability to innovate. Unlike the group at the America First Energy Conference, Perry praised How did we move from renewables. But he qualified that praise “perceived energy scarcity” to by arguing that renewables will remain unprecedented abundance? “…taxes marginal until at least 2040, and were cut and regulations kept simple and transparent, giving people both the What are we supposed to do in the freedom and the incentive to innovate.” mean time? What are the people Supplies rose, costs fell, and “Our without electricity supposed to environment did not become worse. By do? Remember what we have done nearly any measure, it became better, through technology…..we have even as our economy expanded and not only produced more fossil energy development reached new energy with it; we’ve made that heights.” energy cleaner. Since we’re making coal cleaner and since our Perry summarized things in a technology can affordably extract perfect expression of the Promethean massive amounts of lower- discourse: emissions natural gas, we’re likely to continue to reduce the overall We don’t have to choose between emissions of our fossil fuels. growing our economy and caring for our environment. By “Thanks to the amazing power of embracing innovation over human ingenuity and innovation,” Perry regulation, we can benefit both. said, “we don’t have to accept hideous
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Sustainable Communities Review sacrifices that harm the poorest among energy dominance is not the product of a us.” Noticeably absent from his speech neoliberal Promethean discourse and was any mention of climate change, perhaps not best understood in terms of a which is an enormous omission given his discourse at all. role in promulgating policies that As our case studies showed, increase fossil fuel use. He simply ignores energy dominance is about fossil fuels the elephant in the room. Whereas the more than free markets. Recall the claim ecomodern Prometheans accept climate by Mr. Palmer that “coal is electricity.” In change as a problem to be tackled fact, coal is not electricity. It is one through innovation, the Trump primary fuel from which the secondary administration does not. It is worth fuel of electricity can be derived. Solar wondering if this is best understood as a panels and wind turbines are alternative different interpretation of the same reality ways to generate electricity. And recall or as two different realities altogether. Mr. Perry’s embrace of innovation and technology. So too, fossil fuels are not modern technology. It is true that fossil fuels drive our economy. But unlike, say, 5. Discussion and Assessment the iPhone, nobody actually wants coal, oil, or natural gas. A lump of coal in your Above, we discussed two camps of Christmas stocking is not the ideal gift. Prometheans: the ecomoderns and the People want the commodities that neoliberals. Both argue that the path to fossil fuels provide, the power, heat, sustainability is innovation, not light, and cool air. Those commodities limitation. And both argue that although can, however, be provided in other ways. modernization or industrialism has been That’s the thing about modern environmentally destructive, it is also the technology in a capitalist society. The key to protecting the environment. We ends (commodities) will be provided suggested that the difference between the through whatever means are cheapest two camps was in their attitude toward and most efficient. Thus, because they are regulations or government more peddling mere means, the fossil fuel generally. Ecomoderns often embrace a industries are remarkably vulnerable carbon tax, for example, as a legitimate despite all their power. And what they climate change policy lever. The other are vulnerable to is the very thing they so camp recoils at the thought of a carbon often praise: the free market. The kind of tax, preferring purely market-based capitalism they claim to support is as solutions. blind as justice – it has no favored sons, But what about a camp that not even fossil fuels. If energy dominance doesn’t see a problem to begin with and, was about free markets, then why would thus, no need for a solution? In this the administration fight market forces in section, we consider the possibility that various attempts to prop up the coal 64
Sustainable Communities Review industry? And why would they remain 2018). In his speech, he said that under silent on the enormous implicit subsidy the old energy realism, “the government provided to oil by the US military (see used one thumb to promote a favorite SAFE 2018), not to mention the even technology and the other hand to regulate larger subsidy of treating the atmosphere those they didn’t like.” The same thing is as a free dump for greenhouse gasses? happening under energy dominance or This introduces a darker reading of the new energy realism, it’s just that the situation, that is, a hermeneutics of technologies for fossil fuel exploitation suspicion. Maybe the Trump are now the favorites. It is not that the Administration policies are not motivated market is somehow operating freely of by an underlying, consistent ideal of free any government influence. The market is markets, ingenuity, and human freedom. inevitably structured by government It could be far simpler than that: this is policies – that is, decisions about which about money and power. It is about the values will be reflected in market prices entrenched power of the wealthiest and to what extent. There is no neutrality industry the world has ever seen, a to be had. Choices must be made, so as political system wide open to corporate Perry noted the task is to “pick good.” influence, and a political party that has “Picking good” ideally means repackaged “conservatism” as an all-out choosing energy pathways that serve resource grab. public values. In the face of climate According to this reading, the change, it is increasingly difficult to argue Promethean discourse from the Trump that fossil fuels are the right choice for Administration, with its overtones of governments to pick (see Roberts 2018). neoliberalism, is just a smoke screen. Renewable energy sources reduce carbon Administration officials might say they emissions and air pollution – common are not picking winners and losers but, of goods that are not captured well by the course, they are. It’s just that they are not market and thus provide good reasons making their picks on the basis of a for government support. In this reading, coherent discourse with some defensible then the Promethean discourse provides notion of the common good. Rather, the a plausible story about public values for administration is making its picks on the what is in reality an agenda driven by basis of political expedience – to favor the private interests. By selectively focusing fossil fuel companies that funded their on just the positive impacts of fossil fuels campaign and the industries that gave and dismissing climate change altogether, them a ticket to Electoral College success. the Trump administration is able to Indeed, a strong case can be made provide a legitimizing patina to a reckless that the notion of an unbiased, free environmental agenda. market in energy is nonsensical. As even Dryzek calls this “greenwashing” Perry noted, “Government’s picking and notes how public relations winners and losers everyday” (Roberts departments at corporations often spin 65
Sustainable Communities Review their destructive activities in ways that of contortions. And eventually what has look environmentally benign (see p. 13). happened is that the Prometheans, those But we think there is something much ultimate defenders of modernity, have larger and systemic going on here than twisted themselves into a peculiar and the behavior of PR firms. The rise of dangerous anti-modern position. climate denial is tangled with changes in We are referring to climate change media and the erosion of democratic denial, which has become the bad faith norms. How can we think through this Promethean strategy. Across the past two tangle? decades, right-wing American think We could recast the distinction tanks such as the Heritage Foundation between camps of Prometheans. We and the Heartland Institute partnered could call ecomodernism a “good faith” with Koch Industries, Exxon Mobile, and Promethean discourse, that is, one other fossil fuel corporations to launch a intentionally and consistently pursuing a campaign of doubt (see Oreskes and path to sustainability through innovation. Conway 2010). They have successfully The same could be said of a truly captured the Republican Party and neoliberal Promethean discourse that was polarized the issue of climate on partisan agnostic about types of energy and only lines. Whereas good faith Prometheans sought those that won the competition on acknowledge the reality of climate change a level playing field (however that might but optimistically proffer solutions, the be defined). One can, of course, argue bad faith Prometheans simply deny the with the wisdom or soundness of these problem. If climate change is granted discourses, but the point here is that they reality, then it spells ultimate doom for are sincere in their efforts to decouple the fossil fuel industry. “Thus,” Dryzek environmental harm from economic notes, “climate change cannot be allowed growth. By contrast, we could call the to exist” (p. 68). Trump administration’s brand a “bad A good illustration of the bad faith faith” Promethean discourse. It takes, arguments behind the energy dominance what are in reality, baldly political agenda can be found in the Draft preferences for one industry and, in order Environmental Impact Statement for the to offer a public justification of the proposed cuts to fuel efficiency standards resulting policies, it cloaks them in a (NHTSA 2018). Remarkably, this Trump language of tech-fix modernization and administration document predicts that human wellbeing. global temperatures will be four degrees The Promethean discourse, as one higher by 2100 on current development that pictures the compatibility of trajectories. The IPCC notes that at those economic growth and environmentalism, temperatures, major coastal cities will be is easily abused. It offers the rhetorical underwater, freshwater resources will be tools to greenwash just about any pro- severely stressed, and extreme weather business agenda. This entails a great deal events will increase in frequency. Yet the 66
Sustainable Communities Review report concludes that rather than cut scarcity) can increase costs in ways that emissions in an effort to reduce future spur innovation and improvements. warming, we should loosen restrictions Dryzek called the climate-denial on fuel efficiency, even though that will wing of the Prometheans “an extreme result in an additional 8 billion tons of postmodernism” where truth and reason carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by become just other names for power. This 2100. postmodernism is not best understood as The report justifies this conclusion itself another kind of discourse. Rather, it by arguing that fuel efficiency standards represents the abdication of the core, alone would not be enough to meet unifying values enabling dialogue carbon budget goals. That would require between discourses: civility, rationality, “substantial increases in technology good-faith, and evidenced-based innovation and adoption compared to arguments. In other words, energy today’s levels and would require the dominance may best be understood not economy and the vehicle fleet to as the articulation of a coherent substantially move away from the use of worldview or one among several fossil fuels, which is not currently rationally defensible environmental technologically feasible or economically discourses. Rather, it may be another case practicable” (NHTSA 2018, p. 5-30). In study in the power of the corporate elite other words, since one rule to improve and the right-wing media universe to fuel efficiency won’t solve the entire generate public opinions among loyal climate problem, it is not worth doing. followers, opinions with little basis in This is not a good-faith argument. And it reality (see Levitz, 2018). is not true to the Promethean spirit – that The Promethean discourse may defining optimism of modernity – with its give a plausible patina to a program of defeatist view about currently feasible smash-and-grab exploitation. But if technology. Indeed, key to Julian Simon’s significant parts of society drift further original Promethean view is a faith that from the core values and institutions of future technologies (not currently feasible democracy, not even the patina will be or even yet known) will come to the necessary. All that will be needed is a rescue. Indeed, regulations can play a strong leader, a clear and comforting central role even in Simon’s view of the message, and an echo chamber. Promethean discourse, because they (like https://www.americaspledgeonclim Bibliography ate.com/. Accessed October 2018. Berke, Jeremy. 2018. “Republican America’s Pledge Initiative on Denial of the Climate Crisis Climate. 2018. “America’s Pledge,” Appears to be Spreading – Despite Available at: Recent Onslaught of Natural Disasters,” Business Insider, March 67
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28. Available at: at:http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/01/ https://www.businessinsider.com/g 03/energy-independence-a-short- allup-poll-republicans-climate- history/. Accessed Februrary 2018. change-problem-2018-3. Accessed Levitz, Eric. 2018. “The Media Can be October 2018. have Ideological Diversity without Breakthrough Institute. 2015. “An Conservatives,” New York Magazine, Ecomodernist Manifesto,” Available at: May 6. Available at: http://www.ecomodernism.org/. https://www.vox.com/policy-and- Accessed October 2018. politics/2017/3/22/14762030/donald- Briggle, Adam. 2015. A Field Philosopher’s trump-tribal-epistemology. Guide to Fracking. New York: Liveright. Accessed October 2018. Crabb, Joseph M., and Daniel K.N. McDonough, William, and Michael Johnson. 2010. “Fueling Innovation: Braungart. 2013. The Upcycle: The Impact of Oil Prices and CAFE Beyond Sustainability – Designing for Standards on Energy-Efficient Abundance. New York: Farrar, Automotive Technology.” The Energy Straus, and Giroux. Journal, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 199–216. Meadows, Donella, Dennis Meadows, Jorgen Randers, and William Damgaard, Caroline. “Negotiating Behrens III. 1972. Limits to Growth: stability and transformation A Report for the Club of Rome’s through discourses of energy Project on the Predicaments of resilience.” Resilience, vol., 1, no. 20. Mankind. New York: Universe Dryzek, John. 2013. The Politics of the Books. Earth. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford National Highway Traffic Safety University Press. Administration. 2018. Draft Environmental Law at Harvard. 2018. Environmental Impact Statement: The “Regulatory Rollback Tracker.” Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) Available at: Vehicles Rule for Model Year 2021– http://environment.law.harvard.edu/p 2026 Passenger Cars and Light olicy-initiative/regulatory-rollback- Trucks. Available at: tracker/. Accessed October 2018. https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa. Epstein, Alex. 2014. The Moral Case for dot.gov/files/documents/ld_cafe_m Fossil Fuels. New York: y2021-26_deis_0.pdf. Accessed Portfolio/Penguin. October 2018. Hardin, Garrett. (1968). “The Tragedy Non-governmental International of the Commons,” Science, vol. 162, Panel on Climate Change. 2017. pp. 1243-1248. Why Scientists Disagree about Global Homans, Charles. 2012. “Energy Warming. Independence: A short History.” Oreskes, Naomi, and Erik Conway. Foreign Policy, January 3. Available 2010. Merchants of Doubt: How a 68
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Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Roberts, David. 2017. “Donald Trump and the Rise of Tribal Epistemology,” Vox, May 19. Available at: https://www.vox.com/policy-and- politics/2017/3/22/14762030/donald- trump-tribal-epistemology. Accessed March 2018. Roberts, David. 2018. “Rick Perry Tells the Truth about Energy Subsidies, Contradicting his Boss,” Vox, April 15. Available at: Shellenberger, Michael, and Ted https://www.vox.com/energy-and- Nordhaus. 2011. “Evolve,” Orion environment/2018/8/15/17691822/tr Magazine, Available at: ump-administration-hypocrisy- https://orionmagazine.org/article/e energy-subsidies-rick-perry. volve/. Accessed October 2018. Accessed October 2018. Simon, Julian. 1981. The Ultimate Schneider J, and Peeples J. 2018. “The Resource. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Energy Covenant: Energy University Press. Dominance and the Rhetoric of the Sunstein, Cass. 2003. “Beyond the Aggrieved,” Frontiers in Precautionary Principle,” The Communication, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 1- Chicago Working Paper Series, 12. January, Available at: Securing America’s Future (SAFE). http://www.law.uchicago.edu/Law 2018. “The Military Cost of econ/index.html. Accessed October Securing Global Oil Supplies,” 2018. Available at: http://secureenergy.org/report/milit ary-cost-defending-global-oil- supplies/. Accessed October 2018.
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Youth Corner Energy Efficient Aquaponics
Team Members: Sheldon Aminzadeh, Emilio Roman, Jesse Castro, & Hanyue Jiang Internal Sponsors/Mentors: Dr. Weihuan Zhao & Dr. Mark Wasikowski
Department of Mechanicl and Energy Engineering, College of Engineering University of North Texas
This project is centered around the fundamental concept of aquaponics which is a sustainable symbiotic system that consists of raising both fish and vegetables. Conventional aquaponics system energy usage in the range from 70% to 92% less than a conventional farm which typically use fuel or petrochemical-intensive fertilizers; therefore, it is our objective to decrease this energy usage even more in our aquaponics system.
To achieve this objective, we will be integrating energy efficient applications such as a micro Kaplan turbine, overflow weir system, LED lighting, automatic bell siphon, and energy efficient materials to increase the overall system energy efficiency. This aquaponics system will be for indoor applications which permits control over various pests, harsh weather conditions, and food to be grown year- round in areas which otherwise might not be able to produce any food crops.
We came together as a team with a desire to design an energy efficient system that integrates both the understanding of mechanical and energy engineering with that of nature and its biological processes. Our inspiration was derived from assisting families
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Sustainable Communities Review with the ability to produce fish and vegetable during anytime of the year. There are many motivations to improve energy efficiency within our aquaponics system. Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers.
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Youth Corner Ethiopia Brook Lakew Tilahun
Ethiopia with its geographical sapiens were discovered in the Awash River location in the horn of Africa with valley. Homer refers to the Ethiopians as an neighboring countries in the east Djibouti innocent race, and Herodotus claims that and Somaliland, with the republic of Somalia they were known in his time as the most just in the south east, republic of Kenya in the men to the Greeks. However Ethiopia was a south and the republic of the Sudan and mix of somehow clear/unclear historical south Sudan in the west, with Eritrea in the background that did not exactly correspond north. The country has an area of 420,000sq to the modem country. Ethiopia first mi. Ethiopia with its capital Addis Ababa is appeared in written history as the Aksumite a country with tri-color flag of green, yellow Empire, which was probably established and red horizontal stripes with a total around the beginning of the Christian era. population of 105,534,882million. Although national tradition attributes to the Ethiopia is a land of geographical foundation of the empire to Menelik I the contrasts varying from as much as 380ft son of King Solomon and the Queen of below sea level in the Danakil depression to Sheba with Christianity introduced in the more than 15,000ft above sea in the 4th century. mountainous region. Ras Dashen with an Coming to farm lands, over grazing, altitude of some 15,180ft is the fourth highest deforestation and poor agricultural practices pick in Africa. The most distinctive feature is have contributed to soil erosion, particularly the northern part of the Great Rift Valley, to the Tigray and Eritrean regions that which runs thru the entire length of the sizable areas of farmland have been lost to country in a northeast-southwest direction. cultivation. As of 1994 about 600,000 acres of Ethiopia's largest lake Tana is the source of arable land washed away each year. The the famous Blue Nile River which winds combined effects of severe drought and around in a great arc before merging with 17yrs civil war has also added to Ethiopia’s the White Nile in the Sudan in the east and environmental problems. Due to its travels thru the great canyons reaching geographical location the central plateau, the depths of more than 4000ft. west and south west of the country is Human like fossils have been found in enjoying a unique climatic conditions the Danakil depression dating back suitable for its habitats and the famous 3.5million years in1981. The 4million year coffee plant from which its very name has old fossil bones of a direct ancestor of Homo derived from the province of Kaffa in the 72
Sustainable Communities Review south west fertile region. Generally the Semetic, Cushitic and Omotic divisions of climate of Ethiopia varies according to the the Afro-Asiatic linguistic family. Amharic topographical regions. The minimum during being the official language is a Se metic the coldest season is about 40F while the tongue. English is the principal second mean max rarely exceed 76F. The red sea language taught in schools Orthodox coastal areas is extreme going as high as Christian is the official religion of the 140F. Heavy rainfall takes place between country up to 1994 until the emperor was June and September while light rains known deposed by the military junta. Islam is as Belg occurs between Dec and Feb. practiced by about 45% of the population The transport sector has been most of whom inhabit the Somali and estimated that more than half of Ethiopia's Oromia region of the country. About 10% of produce is transported by pack animals the population is evangelical or Pentecostal reflecting the shortage of the country's road Protestants a fast growing religion. The network and the rugged terrain. The number country is a mix of more than 77 ethnic of passenger cars in use in 2003 was about groups and languages of which the Oromo 65,000 and the number of commercial constitute 40% followed by 32% of the vehicles was around 50,000. Bus services link Amhara and Tigreans. The rest are mainly provincial centers with the capital. A narrow of the southern regions of Sidamo, Wolita. rail gauge line from Djibouti to Addis the The Falasha known as Bete Israel a.k.a black capital is 547miles long of which 423 miles is Jews live in northern Ethiopia were victims in Ethiopia and is owned by Ethiopia and of economic discrimination before the 1974 Djibouti. Up until 2005 there were about 83 revolution. Some 14,000 were secretly flown airports of which only 14 are paved runways. to Israel under the operation code "Moses" However as of end of 2018, the airline has organized by the Israelites emerged to become a leader of African The foregoing is an abridge aviation and still with expanding routes to description of Ethiopia which has more than Asia, the Far East, south and North America, 3000yrs history which would take a lot more Europe and throughout the continent of than what I have written. I hope it will serve Africa. as a starter to encourage historians to make As Ethiopia has several ethnic research and visit the place whenever groups, at least 77 different languages are convenient to do so. spoken of which mostly belong to the
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Youth Corner Majete More than Family
Brucktawit Endashaw Majete High school
Majete “Mother’s home” is a place and most businesses are closed, which means where you can feel home. Everything is a day off for most people. Furthermore, shared and people live supporting one people in Majete are welcoming in a way that another. “Mother’s home” is defined as a makes people feel they are home and never welcoming and safe home for any resident want to leave. They are also known for their and guest. In the town of Majete, Christians, hard work and for being an expert on Muslims, young, old, small, and big people investing. Most Majete people focus on live in peace and harmony. Majete is found Agriculture. Majete has strong and wise 310km from the capital of the East African entrepreneurs, that started from a capital of country Ethiopia and is located in Semien fourteen birr (Ethiopian currency) being two (northern) Shewa. There are small villages quarters which is equal to 0.50 cents. Now, surrounding Majete, six of which are these hard-working investors have moved to Abelanba, Deranba, Agela, Ankar, kubkub, the capital city, Addis Ababa, but still, are and Wolabuye. Moreover, there are different helping and supporting young entrepreneurs churches and mosques where people thank and are trying to make Majete a tourist their Lord and pray. attraction town as it must be. In addition, People in Majete gather to celebrate outstanding investors in Majete are Yirga holidays. The extensive and fascinating Tefera, Shewaye weldemaryam, Mungste holiday celebrated on January is Epiphany Belete, Meketa Kebede, and so many other baptism of Jesus. During this time of day, successful business owners. tabot is carried by priests, and people gather The school and the environment of with respect and generosity. Epiphany is one Majete is sustainable and viewed as a school of the biggest holiday celebrated but; that supports and help students, but with nonetheless, there are more holidays four of more aid. The elementary school in Majete is which are, New year, Christmas, Easter, and for kids that are three years or older. The Meskel. Eid al-adha is a holiday celebrated school educates kids and helps them step or by Muslims, and during this time schools 74
Sustainable Communities Review pass to upper- level classes. The school In conclusion, Majete is a town with strives to help educate a student in a very strong entrepreneurs that still benefit and mannered way. Nevertheless, in the learning invest in their town that led them to be the and teaching environment, there is a problem wise and sophisticated business owners they with English compared to the Urban area. are today. Majete is a town that welcomes Majority of people in the urban speak fluent tourists and makes them feel home. Majete is English but in the rural area, it’s not that a town where all live as a big happy family satisfactory. Even though English is taught, and one supports another. students are not as fluent and find the language to be difficult. It would be best if people evaluate this problem for students in Acknowledge: this essay is translated and Majete. Furthermore, teachers are best known edited by Melat Yirga Tefera. And, the writer for their encouraging words, “you are the of this essay was a former student at Majete future, you are the next generation” and High school Brucktawit Endashaw. sayings to inspire and motivate students. In Moreover, I would like to thank Mr. Stan Majete High School, there are different Ingman. organizations, most of which are there to better our environment. Students form different groups and plant trees, flower for the environment, and add beauty to the school. Also, the organizations help students fulfill school needs, by giving books, pencils, pens, and other school expenses for students who seek help.
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Youth Corner
The Effect of Three Different Plants: Scindapsus Aureus, Chlorophytum Comosum, and Philodendron Indoor Air Quality
Samara Amin Plano East Senior High School, Plano, TX
Prior research has shown that air Scindapsus aureus (money plant), and quality indoors can be worse than air Chlorophytum comosum (spider plant). quality outdoors. House plants have It was hypothesized that if the been found to reduce toxic chemicals Philodendron is used as a houseplant, such as Benzene, Acetone, and then the indoor air quality will be Formaldehyde. The objective of this better. The three different species of experiment was to examine which plants tested were Philodendron, houseplants improve the quality of Scindapsus aureus (money plant), and indoor air. The three different species of Chlorophytum comosum (spider plant). plants tested were Philodendron,
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It was hypothesized that if the was used the average of both PM10 and Philodendron is used as a houseplant, PM2.5 was 30.05 μg/m3, when then the indoor air quality will be better. Philodendron was used the PM10 and Then, the device measured air quality PM2.5 averaged at 31.4 μg/m3. Therefore, with each type of plants for three days. the hypothesis was not supported. This The results indicate that plants decrease study shows that plants are natural the indoor PM10 and PM2.5 and carbon purifiers within indoor environments, monoxide levels. specifically Chlorophytum comosum. People who stay indoors can benefit When there were plants in the having houseplants if they are concerned room, these levels were lower compared about respiratory health. Further research to having no plants. However, among the can focus on the impact of plant size on three species, Chlorophytum comosum air quality and the dimensions of the (spider plant) was the most effective room. purifier. When Chlorophytum comosum
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