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The Islamic Republic of Iran's Relations

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The Islamic Republic of Iran's Relations The Islamic Republic of Iran’s Relations with the Republic of Tajikistan in the Post-Soviet Period Brenton Clark A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Australian National University Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies (The Middle East and Central Asia) Research School of Social Sciences College of Arts and Social Sciences The Australian National University September 2015 Authorship Declaration I hereby declare and confirm that this thesis is entirely the result of my own work except where otherwise indicated, and has not been submitted, either in whole or part, for a higher degree or qualification at this or any other university or institute. Brenton Clark ii Acknowledgements I feel very fortunate to have been given the opportunity to conduct my PhD studies at the Australian National University. There are a number of people to whom I am indebted for helping me complete this academic work. In particular, I must thank my supervisor, Dr. Kirill Nourzhanov. Dr. Nourzhanov’s guidance, knowledge, and good humour made my time at the Australian National University a most rewarding one, and I will always feel deep gratitude for the support he has shown me over these recent years. I also wish to thank Dr. Surin Maisrikrod who, since my time as an undergraduate student at James Cook University, has consistently shown faith in my abilities and confidence that I could achieve my goals. My most sincere gratitude also goes to the head of the Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies (CAIS) at the Australian National University, Professor Amin Saikal, for his sound advice that made my PhD research academically fulfilling. I also thank Dr. Christian Bleuer, Dr. Helen Boon, Dr. Mahmoud Fotoohi Rudmanjani, Associate Professor Matthew Gray, Associate Professor S. Hayden Lesbirel, and Dr. Grigol Ubiria for their crucial guidance during my studies. I was provided with extensive support from many people during and after my time conducting fieldwork in Iran and Tajikistan. In particular, I wish to thank Shuhrat Baratov, Neda Ghoroghi, Hamaseh Golestaneh, Dr. Umedjon Majidi, Beatrice Maneshi, and Marko Rankovic for the considerable assistance they provided to me in language interpretation, interview transcription, and research support. I also wish to thank Hossein Maneshi, who allowed me into his home and made me feel welcome during my time in Iran. My special thanks also must go to Lissette Geronimo, Leila Kouatly, Carol Laslett, Pamela Lourandos, Dr. Anita Mack, and Kerry Pert whose administrative assistance has often been crucial during my time studying at CAIS and the Australian National University. I also must thank my colleagues from my time at CAIS, Dr. Adel Abdel Ghafar, Zaid Alsalami, Dr. Nematullah Bizhan, Aminat Chokobaeva, Yahya Haidar, Dr. Raihan Ismail, Jessie Moritz, Dr. Lee Schrader, Heather Yeates, and Aly Zaman. Your collegiality and iii friendship, made my experience at the Australian National University not only academically rewarding, but also enjoyable. Thank you to my family, Tayler Knott, Gregory Dunne, Megan, Matthew, and Mackenzie Nothdurft, Seang Lay and Ranine Siv, and Rita and Rudolph Salib. Your support has helped me achieve this goal. I especially wish to thank my mother, Patricia. My mother’s work ethic and drive is an inspiration. I am truly thankful to have been raised by such a generous, determined, and loving woman. Lastly, I would like to thank my wonderful wife, Nearida, for her patience and understanding over the last three years. Nearida has been a constant source of stability in what has been a challenging time. I know I could not have completed this work without her. iv Abstract This thesis seeks to uncover the motivations, objectives, and outcomes of Iran’s foreign relations with Tajikistan between 1991 and 2013. In doing so, the thesis maps out the course of relations between Iran and Tajikistan throughout the post-Soviet period, and in the process seeks to better understand the domestic, regional, and international obstacles that have faced Iran in its efforts to build ties with its so-called “close cultural cousin”, Tajikistan. Furthermore, this dissertation seeks to better understand how the presence of strong ethno-linguistic bonds and a set of shared mutual threats and strategic interests have acted as key drivers in building ties between these two countries. In attempting to outline the basis of Iranian-Tajik ties, this thesis argues that relations between these two states have been consistently hampered by not only mutual mistrust and misunderstanding, but also significant regional and international instability, which has often cruelled the ability for Iranian and Tajik elites to sustain close bilateral political, economic, cultural, and strategic relations over the past two decades. v Table of Contents Note on Transliteration .................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2 Chapter One: The Islamic Republic of Iran: The Domestic Context ...................... 21 1.1 Geographical Situation and Resource Base .......................................................... 21 1.2 National Identity.................................................................................................... 26 1.3 The Islamic Republic Political System ................................................................. 33 1.4 Key Institutions and Figures in Foreign Policy Decision Making ........................ 42 1.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 59 Chapter Two: The Islamic Republic of Iran: The Regional and International Context ........................................................................................................................... 61 2.1 1991-2001: Iran, Central Asia, and the United States’ Unipolar Moment............ 62 2.2 The ‘Sidelining’ of Iran and Regional Rivalry in Central Asia ............................ 70 2.3 The Impact of a Weakened Russia ........................................................................ 72 2.4 The Russian-Iranian-American Triangle............................................................... 74 2.5 9/11 and the Rise of an Activist United States Foreign Policy ............................. 80 2.6 Iran in Post-9/11 Central Asia ............................................................................... 87 2.7 Iran ‘Looks East’ to Russia and China .................................................................. 89 2.8 Obama and Iran ..................................................................................................... 95 2.9 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 101 Chapter Three: The Historical Context of Iranian-Tajik Relations ...................... 102 3.1 Iran’s Medieval Links to Tajikistan and Central Asia ........................................ 103 3.2 The Rule of the Turks ......................................................................................... 106 3.3 Tsarist Russian Control of Central Asia ............................................................. 114 3.4 Pan-Turkism ........................................................................................................ 116 3.5 The Beginnings of Soviet Rule ........................................................................... 118 3.6 The Creation of Tajikistan .................................................................................. 120 3.7 Tajikistan – A Model ‘Soviet Iranian’ State ....................................................... 124 3.8 Pahlavi Iran and Soviet Tajikistan ...................................................................... 125 3.9 The Islamic Republic and Soviet Tajikistan ....................................................... 132 3.10 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 137 vi Chapter Four: Iran and Tajikistan 1991-1997 – Independence and War ............. 139 4.1 Background to Conflict in Tajikistan .................................................................. 140 4.2 Iran and the Election of Nabiev .......................................................................... 145 4.3 Iran’s Role in the Violent Events of 1992 ........................................................... 164 4.4 Iran, the ‘Defeat’ of the Opposition, and Rahmon .............................................. 173 4.5 Brokering a Peace in Tajikistan .......................................................................... 178 4.6 The Beginning of Peace Negotiations ................................................................. 184 4.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 191 Chapter Five: Iran and Tajikistan 1997-2005 – Regional Competition and Instability ..................................................................................................................... 193 5.1 Post-Civil War Tajikistan and Iran – New Hopes and Expectations .................. 194 5.2 The Taliban Crisis ............................................................................................... 201 5.3 Muddling Through; Iran and Tajikistan in the Lead-up to 9/11 ......................... 208 5.4 9/11 and the Impact
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