L'epopea Di Gilgamesh

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L'epopea Di Gilgamesh L’EPOPEA DI GILGAMESH Il testo dell'epopea che qui trovate è, in parte, basato su La saga di Gilgamesh , Giovanni Pettinato, Rusconi Libri 1992, con integrazioni e correzioni da Il Ghilgames , Claudio Saporetti, Simonelli Editore 2001 e The Epic of Gilgamesh - a new translation , Andrew George, Penguin Press 1999. Del lavoro di Pettinato ho conservato la struttura interna alle tavole in episodi. Tuttavia, seguendo l'approccio di George, ho rivisto totalmente la suddivisione in stanze (solitamente quartine) e la numerazione dei versi. Per agevolare la lettura comparata dell'epopea ho inoltre ripulito il testo da tecnicismi ed eseguito leggere correzioni sintattiche. Ho cercato di eliminare i "lavori di fantasia", in cui peccano tutti gli autori (in particolare George e Pettinato), perché impediscono il confronto con altre traduzioni. INTRODUZIONE Che cos'è l' epopea di Gilgamesh? E' uno dei più antichi poemi conosciuti e narra le gesta di un antichissimo e leggendario re sumerico, Gilgamesh, alle prese con il problema che da sempre ha assillato l'umanità: la morte e il suo impossibile superamento. L'epopea (o più semplicemente "il Gilgamesh") è anteriore ai poemi omerici (VIII sec. a.C.) e ai Veda indiani (1500 a.C.). Le prime redazioni sumeriche del poema sono fatte risalire ad oltre il 2000 a.C. Documenti su Gilgamesh sono stati rinvenuti più o meno ovunque in Mesopotamia, ma anche al di fuori, come in Anatolia (Hattusa, capitale dell'impero ittita) o in Palestina (Megiddo). La terra tra i fiumi Per orientarvi meglio è bene osservare questa mappa dell'antica Mesopotamia. La terra che dai libri di storia conosciamo sotto il nome di Mesopotamia si chiama oggi Iraq e confina a nord con la Turchia, a ovest con la Siria e la Giordania, a sud con l’Arabia Saudita e a est con la Persia, l’odierno Iran. I due fiumi che fecero di questa terra la culla di una civiltà, così come il Nilo per l’Egitto, nascono in Turchia. Essi sono l’ Eufrate e il Tigri , scorrono da nord-ovest a sud-est e sfociano nel Golfo Persico. Secondo il mito babilonese della creazione, fu il dio Marduk a creare i due fiumi dagli occhi della dea madre Tiamat . L’ Assiria si estendeva a nord lungo il rapido corso del Tigri. La bassa Mesopotamia era occupata dalla Babilonia , ma prima ancora era suddivisa in due regioni. La più meridionale, delimitata a sud dal Golfo Persico era chiamata « paese di Sumer ». L'altra era chiamata « paese di Akkad » da cui derivò il nome delle prime genti semitiche stanziatesi nel paese. Il fatto che testi del Gilgamesh siano stati trovati non solo in Mesopotamia testimonia che fin dall'antichità fu avvertito l'enorme valore artistico di quest'opera: il Gilgamesh fu subito sentita come un'opera dalla portata universale. La dimostrazione di questo successo in antichità è data dall'elevato numero di documenti su Gilgamesh attualmente in nostro possesso, circa novanta dispersi fra i musei di tutto il mondo. Considerando che settant'anni fa il numero di testi disponibili era meno della metà, è probabile che nuovi documenti emergeranno dalle sabbie dell'Iraq. NASCITA DEL POEMA Quanto abbiamo visto insieme finora è solo l' ultima , cronologicamente parlando, di una serie di redazioni che si sono succedute con aggiustamenti e continui perfezionamenti nel corso dei secoli. Essa corrisponde alla cosiddetta Epopea Classica o ninivita . Il nome ha origine dal luogo del ritrovamento: Ninive , capitale dell'impero assiro, dove si trovava una delle maggiori biblioteche dell'antichità: la biblioteca di Assurbanipal. Questa redazione è la più lunga, la più complessa e la meglio conservata giunta ai giorni nostri. Infatti il Gilgamesh non è un'opera completa. I documenti a nostra disposizione sono spesso frammentari, scritti in lingue diverse, appartenenti a epoche diverse, e dal contenuto non sempre omogeneo. I testi furono scritti in cuneiforme, scrittura più adatta al tipo di supporto finale, argilla modellata in forma di tavoletta. Nonostante le lacune, il quadro d'insieme dell'opera è ormai chiarito e costanti scoperte archeologiche consentono di aggiungere nuovi tasselli sia all'epopea Ninivita sia alle versioni più antiche, comprese quelle di epoca sumerica. L'epopea classica risale a circa il 1200 a.C. ma ci è giunta nella posteriore redazione neoassira (ca. 700 a.C.). Essa è composta di dodici capitoli scritti in accadico (non sumerico, anche se luoghi e personaggi sono spiccatamente di Sumer) su altrettante tavolette. L'epopea classica è frutto di un'elaborazione letteraria risalente addirittura agli albori della scrittura e che, per semplicità, ho suddiviso in quattro fasi. Fase 1: i poemetti sumerici Questi poemi scritti in sumerico risalgono al terzo millennio a.C. e presentano, indipendentemente uno dall'altro, temi o vicende che confluiranno nell'epopea classica. Non costituivano un corpus epico unitario. Infatti Gilgamesh, se vi compare, ha ruoli molto eterogenei (avventuriero, sovrano di Uruk, giudice dell'oltretomba, fratello di Ishtar dea dell'amore, ecc.). Fase 2: il poema paleo-babilonese Il primo vero tentativo di composizione epica unitaria sulle gesta del re di Uruk avvenne verso il 1800-1600 a.C., ovvero al periodo della prima dinastia di Babilonia con il suo re prestigioso Hammurabi noto per il "primo" codice delle leggi (i primi codici sono in realtà di epoca sumerica). Questa saga è detta poema paleobabilonese di Gilgamesh. Dal poema di Gilgamesh sono tratti questi splendidi versi che ammoniscono il protagonista ossessionato dalla ricerca dell'immortalità: "Gilgamesh, dove vai? La vita che cerchi, non la troverai. Quando gli dei crearono l'umanità le assegnarono la morte, e tennero per sé la vita! Riempi il tuo stomaco, Gilgamesh. Fai festa giorno e notte, i tuoi vestiti siano puliti! Lava il tuo capo, lavati con acqua! Gioisci del bambino che ti tiene per mano, possa tua moglie godere di te. Questo è il destino degli uomini!" (riportati in Sap 2001, pp. 161-162) Questi sono praticamente gli ultimi versi di quanto ci è rimasto del poema di Gilgamesh. Il protagonista, vagando alla ricerca del segreto per sfuggire alla morte, viene ammonito da Siduri, la taverniera di Shamash (dio della giustizia) per aver trascurato l'esercizio del potere cercando una chimera. Non sappiamo se il poema contenesse la narrazione del diluvio ma è certo che conteneva almeno l'incontro di Gilgamesh col lontano antenato che sopravvisse al Diluvio. Fase 3: le saghe medio-babilonesi e il mito di Atramkhasis Al poema di Gilgamesh si ispireranno le posteriori saghe redatte in lingue extra-babilonese (ittita, elamico, khurrico) e trovate in Anatolia, Siria, Israele a testimonianza dell'enorme fortuna del poema in antichità. Queste risalgono al periodo mediobabilonese (XIV-XII sec. a.C.) e contengono un "dettaglio" in più rispetto al poema: l'intera narrazione del Diluvio universale. Questa versione è incredibilmente simile a quella che troviamo nella Genesi. Le saghe mediobabilonesi più o meno si equivalgono nel contenuto ma sono assai diverse nella forma. Abbiamo per esempio, saghe in lingua diversa, saghe in prosa, altre in versi, oppure con estensione variabile da una all'altra. Più o meno nello stesso periodo circolava un'edizione autonoma del diluvio, l' Atramkhasis (il Grande Saggio). Anche questa sarà utilizzata a modello dagli scribi assiri. Fase 4: il canone Riepilogando, le fasi letterarie che porteranno all'epopea di Gilgamesh sono le seguenti: poemetti sumerici (2500 a.C.) poema paleobabilonese di Gilgamesh (1700 a.C.) saghe mediobabilonesi di Gilgamesh e poema del Grande Saggio (1200 a.C.) Intorno al XII secolo a.C. il materiale letterario (epico e mitologico) è pronto per una nuova risistemazione. Forse proprio in quest'epoca, al più tardi un secolo dopo, avvenne la compilazione in versi delle avventure di Gilgamesh secondo una struttura unitaria, giunta a noi nella tarda redazione assira (VIII sec. a.C.). Se i testi delle origini erano caratterizzati da un forte contenuto mitico, il canone assiro è invece di contenuto mitico più rarefatto. Il canone è un opera arricchita nei contenuti, di imponente bellezza lirica e riflessione filosofica. La qualità letteraria dell'opera fu tale che venne ricopiata, studiata a scuola, commentata e tradotta incessantemente fino al VII secolo. Qualcosa di molto simile avvenne anche per i poemi omerici, base culturale degli antichi greci. Proprio le copie più tarde dell'epopea, redatte nella capitale dell'impero assiro, grazie al loro migliore stato di conservazione consentirono agli studiosi una lettura completa della storia di Gilgamesh. AUTORE DEL POEMA Gli scribi assiri nel loro lavoro di ricopiatura furono molto zelanti. Infatti ogni biblioteca aveva i suoi cataloghi dove erano elencate tutte le opere presenti negli scaffali e il rispettivo numero di copie. Bisogna precisare che all'epoca non c'era il costume di dare un titolo alle opere. Ciò che veniva riportato nei cataloghi, ad indicazione di un'opera presente, era semplicemente la prima riga della composizione. Ipotizziamo per un momento di poter consultare una biblioteca del primo millennio a.C. e di saper leggere l'accadico. Se questa biblioteca conserva qualche copia del Gilgamesh non dobbiamo cercarla sul catalogo come "Epopea di Gilgamesh" bensì come "Di colui che vide ogni cosa " che è appunto il primo verso della versione canonica. Supponiamo ora di entrare in una biblioteca del secondo millennio a.C. Il Gilgamesh andrà stavolta cercato sotto la voce "Egli è superiore agli altri re " che è il primo verso del poema paleobabilonese. La cosa strabiliante è che, a differenza di molte opere dell'antichità, grazie ai cataloghi ritrovati nella biblioteca di Assurbanipal possiamo conoscere anche il nome dell'autore dell'epopea classica. "Di colui che vide ogni cosa" è da attribuirsi a Sin-leqi-unnini, il prete esorcista Il nome gotico di questo fantomatico autore significa "O Sin (=dio luna) accogli la mia supplica".
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