Cra n e s : Their Biology, Husband ry, and Conservati on

E d i to r s David H. Ell i s George F. Gee Cl a i r e M. Mir a n d e

Technical Edito r Catherine H. Ell i s

Copy Edito r Lorie A. Sha u l l i v

IS B N 0- 8 8 8 3 9 - 3 8 7 - 3 National Biological Se rv i c e / International Foundation Limited Edi t i o n

Catal oging in Publication Data

Ellis, David, H., 1945- Cra n e s

Includes bibliographical ref e r ences and index. ISBN 0-88839-385-3

1. Cranes (Bir ds) I. Tit l e . QL696.G84E44 199 6 59 8 . 3 ’1 C9 5 9 1 1 0 4 0 - 2

Printed in the United States of America, 199 6

Published by the Dep a r tment of the Int e r i o r , National Biological Se rv i c e , Washington, DC, and the International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, WI . Printed in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Se rv i c e . Table of Contents

Authors and Ad d re s s e s ...... vi i

Fo rewo rd...... ix

Pre fac e ...... xi

1 . Crane Bi o lo g y......  George W. Archibald, James C. Lewi s

2 . General Hu s b a n d ry ......  Scott R. Swengel, James W. Carpenter

3 . and Semen Pro d u c t i o n ......  Cl a i r e M. Mirande, George F. Gee, Ann Bur ke, Peter Wh i t l o c k

4 . In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g......  Rob e r t R. Gabel, Thomas A. Mah a n

5 . Chick Re a r i n g ......  Marianne Wellington, Ann Bur ke, Jane M. Nicolich, Kathleen O’Mal l e y

A . Ve t e r i n a ry Te c h n i ques for Rearing Crane Chicks ......  Glenn H. Olsen, Julia A. Langenberg

6 . Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t ......   Scott R. Swengel, George W. Archibald, David H. Ellis, Dwight G. Smi t h

A . Imprinting, Attac h m e n t, and Be h avioral Deve lopment in Cr a n e s ......   Rob e r t H. Ho rw i c h

7 . Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y ......   George F. Gee, Shirley E. Rus s m a n

8 Medicine and Su rg e ry ......   Glenn H. Olsen, Julia A. Langenberg, James W. Carpenter

9 . Genetic Ma n ag e m e n t......   Cl a i r e M. Mirande, George F. Gee, Scott R. Swengel, Christine She p p a r d

10 . Re co rd s ......   David H. Ellis, Joanna A. Tay l o r , Claire M. Mirande, Julia A. Langenberg, Marianne Wellington, B. H. Powell, Janet L. McMi l l e n v i Table of Contents

 . Special Te c h n i qu e s

A . A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n ......   George F. Gee, Claire M. Mir a n d e

B . Cryo p re s e rvat i o n ......   Timothy L. Har g r ove, George F. Gee

C . Sex De t e r m i n at i o n ......   Scott R. Swen g e l

D . Re i n t roduction Te c h n i qu e s ......   Meenakshi Nagendran, Richard P. Urbanek, David H. Ell i s

E . Flight Re s t r a i n t ......   David H. Ellis, F. Joshua Dei n

F. Pre d ator and Pest Ma n ag e m e n t ......   Thomas E. Lewi s

 . Fac i l i t i e s ......   Scott R. Swengel, Richard W. Bes s e r

 . Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n ......   Cur t Meine, George W. Arch i b a l d

Ap pendix. Equipment and Su p p l i e r s ......  

In d e x ......   Authors and Add r es s e s

George W. Archibald, Ann B ur ke, Julia A. David H. Ellis, George F. Gee, Jane M. N ic o l i c h , Langenberg, Cur t Meine, Claire M. Mirande, Scott Glenn H. Olsen, Kathleen O’M al l e y , B. H. Powel l , R. Swengel, Mar ianne Wellington, Peter Wh i t l o c k Joanna A. Tay l o r International Crane Foundation, E-    Sha d y Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center, Nat i o n a l Lane Road, Baraboo, WI     -   , Biological Ser vice, Laurel, MD     -   , Phone: (  )   -   Phone: (  )   -  

Authors at Other Ins t i t u t i o n s

Ri c h a r d W. Bes s e r ,    Marble Avenue NE, Janet L. McMil l e n , Science Dep a r tment, Pri n c e Al b u q u e r que, NM     Geo r g e ’s College, Largo, MD    

James W. Car p e n t e r , Dep a r tment of Sur g e r y and Meenakshi Nag e n d r a n ,    Oleander Aven u e , Medicine, College of Vet e r i n a r y Medicine, Kansas Mer ced, CA     State Uni ve r s i t y , Manhattan, KS     Shirley E. Rus s m a n , ZCA Vet e r i n a r y Care Center, F. Joshua Dei n , National Wildlife Health Res e a rc h    Mon t g o m e r y Boulevar d NE, Albuquerqu e , Ce n t e r ,   Sc h r oeder Road, Madison, NM     WI     -     Ch r istine She p p a r d, Curator of Orn i t h o l o g y , Wil d l i f e Rob e r t R. Gab e l , U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv i c e , Co n s e r vation Soc i e t y ,   th Str eet and Sou t h e r n Offi ce of Scientific Aut h o r i t y ,    Nor th Fa i rf a x Bo u l e va r d, Bronx, NY     Dri v e, Room   , Arlington, VA     Dwight G. Smi t h , Biology Dep a r tment, Sou t h e r n Timothy L. Har g r ove,    Groveland Farms Roa d , Connecticut State Uni ve r s i t y ,   Crescent Stre e t , Groveland, FL     New Hav en, CT    

Rob e r t H. Horw i c h , RD  Bo x  , Gays Mil l s , Ri c h a r d P. Urb a n e k , Seney National Wildlife Ref u g e , WI     Sen e y , MI    

James C. Lewis , U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv i c e , P.O . Bo x    , Albuquerque, NM    

Thomas E. Lewis , St. Vincent National Wil d l i f e Refuge, P.O. Box   , Apalachacola, FL    

Thomas A. Mah a n ,  Mui r field Place, Arde n , NC    

For ew o r d Cap t i v e Management and Conservat i o n

orldwide, extinction of our flora and Edi t o r ’s Not e : fauna is proceeding at catastrop h i c The natural world lost a premier advocate when rates. We humans are fouling our Sir Peter Scott died on  April    at age  . His pl a n e t a r y nest and making it uninhab- thoughts on endangered , conservation in Witable both for many thousands of wild species and general, and crane propagation in parti c u l a r , continue ultimately for ourselves. For utilitarian, aesthetic, and to ring true . ethical reasons, we must do all that we can to preve n t The first published ref e r ence to crane husbandry is extinction. The most important conservation strategy pr obably Mar co Pol o ’s account of several species of for most species is habitat pres e r vation. This almost cranes (some of which wer e more likely phasianids) in always means trying to prev ent or to rev erse the gardens of Kublai Khan in the late  th Century. man-caused changes in the environ m e n t . With more than two decades of propagation res e a rc h While habitat conservation is the key, captive behind us at the International Crane Fou n d a t i o n br eeding sometimes plays a crucial role. It may then (ICF) and nearly three at the Pat u x ent Wil d l i f e be possible to release captive- b r ed once their Res e a r ch Center (Pat u x ent), crane husbandry for habitat has been rescued, as has so successfully been most species is now operational. It is finally time to ac h i e v ed with the Arabian Oryx in Oman and Jord a n , collect the best of crane avicultural science and and with the Hawaiian Geese bred at the Wil d f ow l hu s b a n d r y between two cover s . Trust. Even if no immediate prospect of release can be Experimentation with crane rei n t ro d u c t i o n fo r eseen, endangered species must be maintained in techniques over the last two decades allows us to captivity to prev ent extinction and in hopes that also include a section on this culminating aspect habitat will one day be avai l a b l e . of crane conservat i o n . Ca p t i v e management is not only a vital conserva- David H. Ell i s tion tool in helping to prev ent extinction, but there ar e also many spin-off benefits. The worldwide effort to propagate and conserve cranes is a shining example. Not only have there been many successes in rea r i n g en d a n g e r ed cranes, but there has also developed an international spirit of cooperation between individuals and institutions in a dozen nations around the world. In addition to fostering international good-will in this wa y , the captive cranes provide many opportu n i t i e s for res e a r ch, answering questions that would be impossible to res o l v e in the fiel d .

Sir Peter Scott, CH CBE DSC FRS Sli m b r i d g e October  ,   

Pref a c e

nbridled, mankind is unique in having the the creation of ICF in    . Without the efforts of ability to erase the cranes, one or all, from these two and of Dr. George W. Archibald, much our world. Iron i c a l l y , it is also within the of the information encompassed in this book would po wer of man to rec o g n i z e the beauty and be as yet unassembled. We also wish to acknowledge Uwo r th of something not our kin (or stated more cor- Dr. H. Randolph Per r y, Jr. and Mr. James Harris rec t l y , to rec o g n i z e our kinship to a dissimilar species), who have shouldered much of the administrative to rec o g n i z e and reve r e. This book is dedicated to load through the years and thereb y provided the these lovely crea t u r es, and to those persons living, op p o r tunity for us to create this vol u m e . rem e m b e r ed, and yet unborn who will continue the As editors, we appreciate the work of the authors of st r uggle to ensure a world rich with cranes. each chapter. Their patience was often exem p l a r y as In the paragraphs that follow, we will cite some of they worked with us in shaping and honing the text. those whose contributions wer e greatest in completing Sev eral gave selflessly in preparing tables, graphics, or this volume and in supporting our husbandry efforts . ev en writing text for chapters not their own. Doze n s Others will be mentioned in photo captions and text. pa r ticipated in rev i e w of the book and preparation of Howeve r , this act (i.e., citing our fellow worke r s ) the materials, and all have been thanked personally. should not, in any way, diminish our awareness of, Her e we wish to acknowledge those whose contribu- and appreciation for, the true inspiration for this tions wer e extensive. Marie Childress, Cathy Ell i s , volume, namely, the  species of cranes that grace our Jennifer Gieg, Kathleen O’Mal l e y , and Lorie Sha u l l planet. This book is a celebration of the magnifi- spent many hours rev i e wing chapters and proo fin g cence of these crea t u r es and of man’s efforts to tables, always in quest of the erroneous minutia that en s u r e survi v al of each species and each race of ar e so difficult to eradicate. Our appreciation for the this resplendent grou p . two who led this effort, Cathy Ellis and Lorie Sha u l l , As we, the editors, complete the eight yea r pr ompted us to cite their sterling work by including or deal that culminates in publication of this them on the title page. Rob e r t R. Gabel, San d y volume, it is our pleasure to look back and Houdak, and Linda J. Mil l e r thank those who gave of ably assisted in the their time in rev i ew i n g early rev i e ws. the chapters, those We thank the who devot e d Crane Taxo n months (often Adv i s o r y wi t h o u t Group of the sa l a r y) to Am e r i c a n rearing chicks and or caring for Aquarium Association for adults, and most of all we thank rev i e wing the manual towa r d those who created and maintained endorsing it as the offici a l our programs at ICF and Pat u x ent. In hu s b a n d r y guidelines for cranes. pa rt i c u l a r , Dr. Ray C. Erickson and Dr. Our librarians, Lynda Gar r ett Ronald T. Sauey deserve our deep apprec i a - and Wanda Manning at Pat u x ent and Annie tion. Ray’s foresight led to the creation of Rei n h a r dt at ICF, assisted us greatly in han- Pat u xe n t ’s endangered species program in the dling the literature. All unpublished rep o rt s late    ’s. Ron ’s dedication was essential in cited herein (except Ph.D. disserta t i o n s x i i Pre fac e pr oduced in the U.S. which are available throu g h Uni v ersity Mic ro fi lms, Box    , Ann Arbor, MI     ) are on file at the Ron Sauey Mem o r i a l Li b r a r y at ICF. Al t h o u g h we wi l l no t ci t e he r e al l wh o co n t r i b u t e d to ea c h ch a p t e r , we wi s h to ma k e sp e c i a l me n t i o n of Mil f o r d Muskett for preparing the maps gratis, Ki n n a r d Bo o n e fo r hi s co m p u t e r gr a p h i c s as s i s t a n c e in se ve r a l ch a p t e r s , Lyen a Rom a n o va fo r he r co m p u t e r pro g r a m m i n g ef f o rt s tow a rd s au t o m a t i n g th e Pat u xe n t rec o rd s sy s t e m , Dr. Dav i d H .T h o m p s o n fo r he l p wi t h th e ph o t o g r a p h s , an d Ka t h l e e n O’ Ma l l e y fo r co m p o s - in g fo r m s an d en t e r i n g da t a fo r th e re c o rd sc h a p t e r. Oth e r si g n i fic a n t co n t r i b u t i o n s wer e ma d e by th o s e wh o pr ovi d e d th e ph o t o g r a p h s an d il l u s t r a t i o n s fo r th e te x t . Mos t ga v e wi t h o u t rei m b u r s e m e n t . In pa rt i c - ul a r we th a n k Dav i d Ra n k i n (w h o su p p l i e d th e en d sh e e t / d u s t ja c k e t pa i n t i n g at cost), Billi Wag n e r (w h o pr ovi d e d the crane li n e drawings with black zon e s ) an d Pau l Tri a t a k (w h o pr ovi d e d the crane li n e dr a w i n g s without black zon e s , gr a t i s ) . Inasmuch as crane conservation has become a banner cause in conservation around the globe, it is a fitting, if somewhat belated, act to produce this “how to ” volume on raising cranes, something that has been done haphazardly for some species for centuries and has become operational for most species during the last two decades. The Edi t o r s CHAPTER 1 Crane Bio l o g y

Ge o rge W. Archibald and James C. Lew i s

ranes, an ancient of , have The Ron Sauey Memorial Library for Bir d graced our planet’s skies and stalked the Co n s e r vation at the International Crane Fou n d a t i o n grasslands and for at least  (ICF) is a rep o s i t o r y for the world’s literature on million years. The fossil rec o r d includes at cranes and their habitats. Ron Sauey was a co-founder Cleast  extinct species, many of which wer e closely of the International Crane Foundation. In    , at the related to African Crowned Cranes (Brodkorb    ). age of  , he tragically passed away as a consequence No crane species has become extinct within rec o rd e d of a cerebral hemorrhage. The construction of the hi s t o r y. Fifteen species (Figs. .–. ) and  rec o g - li b r a r y was supported by the Sauey family in memory ni z ed survi v e (Table .). of Ronald. The library contains English translations of Th e r e have been four compreh e n s i v e vol u m e s the most important non-English publications. Th e written about the biology of the world’s  species of li b r a r y is connected by modem to the library system cranes (Blaauw    ; Makatsch    ; Wal k i n s h a w of the Uni v ersity of Wisconsin and can be accessed at    ; Joh n s g a r d    ). In addition, there have been the following telephone number: -  -  -   . co m p re h e n s i v e single species accounts on San d h i l l Cranes (Walkinshaw    ), Whooping Cranes (Allen    ; McN ulty    ; Doughty    ), Red - c r own e d Cranes (Masatomi    –   ), and Siberian Cra n e s Natural His t o r y (S auey    ). Major contributions on Bla c k - n e c k e d Cranes (Bishop    ), Grey Crowned Cra n e s T a x o n o m y (G ichuki    ), and Blue Cranes (Allan    ) will soon be avai l a b l e . Cranes are found on five continents. Th e r e is no Special centers for crane res e a r ch provide an evidence that cranes ever inhabited South America. abundance of published and unpublished information The current concentration of crane species in Asia about the husbandry of cranes. These include the and suggests an Old World origin of Grui n a e , Dep a r tment of the Int e r i o r ’s Pat u x ent Wil d l i f e with a more recent colonization of Australia and Res e a r ch Center (    American Holly Dri v e, Laurel , Nor th America (Archibald    a). Most fossil species, MD     -   ), International Crane Fou n d a t i o n ho weve r , have been found in Nor th America (E -     Shady Lane Road, Baraboo, WI     -   ), (B rodkorb    ), refl ecting both the prop o rt i o n a t e l y Oka State Nat u r e Res e r ve (     Lakash, Spa s s k o g o gr eater amount of paleornithological work in Nort h Raiona, Ryazanskoi Oblasti, Okskii Zap o ved n i k , America (Archibald    a) and the possible origins ), Vog e l p a r k Wal s r ode (D-   , Wal s r ode, of cranes in the West. Krajewski (   ), howeve r , AM Rieselbach, Germany), Kus h i r o Crane Par k be l i e v es that cranes originated in Eur ope near the (c /o Kus h i r o Zoo,  Ninishibetu Akan Cho, Akan end of the Paleocene Epo c h . Gun, Hokkaido, Japan), Ser endip Res e a r ch Center All cranes are in one of two subfamilies, (P .O. Box , Lara, Victoria,    , Australia), Bei j i n g Balearicinae or Gruinae, in the family Gruidae. Zoo (  Xi Zhi Men Wai St., Beijing,      ), The two species of African Crowned Cranes are Shenyang Center for the Stu d y , Pres e r vation, and placed in the subfamily Bal e a r i c i n a e (P eters    ). Breeding of Cranes (No. , Wanquan St., Dad o n g They are distinguished from other species by their District, Shenyang, China      ), and the ability to roost in trees, and their loose , Co n s e r vation and Res e a r ch Center of the straight trachea, elaborate crests, and colorful facial Smithsonian Institution (The Wildlife Surv i va l ma r kings. The inability to tolerate extended periods Ce n t e r , Front Royal, VA     ). of free zing temperatures perhaps led to the extinction 2 Chapter 1

TABLE 1.1 World species and subspecies of cranes and their geographic distribution (Walkinshaw 1 9 7 3) . Common Na m e Scientific Na m e Di s t r i bu t i o n Family Grui d a e Subfamily Bal e a r i c i n a e Black Crowned Cra n e pavon i n a West African Crowned Cra n e B. p. pa vo n i n a West Africa Sudan Crowned Cra n e B. p. ce c i l i a e Central Africa Gray Crowned Cra n e Bal e a r i c a reg u l o ru m East African Crowned Cra n e B. r. gi b b e r i c e p s East Africa S. African Crowned Cra n e B. r. reg u l o ru m Southern Africa Subfamily Grui n a e Wattled Cra n e Bu g e ra n u sc a ru n c u l a t u s Af r i c a Blue Cra n e Ant h ro p o i d e s pa ra d i s e a Southern Africa Ant h ro p o i d e s vi r g o Asia, Africa Siberian Cra n e le u c o g e ra n u s As i a Sandhill Cra n e Grus ca n a d e n s i s Lesser Sandhill Cra n e G. c .c a n a d e n s i s East Sib e r i a Ar ctic N. America Canadian Sandhill Cra n e G. c. rowa n i Bo r eal Canada Greater Sandhill Cra n e G. c. ta b i d a Nor thern USA Florida Sandhill Cra n e G. c .p ra t e n s i s Southeast USA Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e G. c .p u l l a Mis s i s s i p p i Cuban Sandhill Cra n e G. c .n e s i o t e s Cub a White-naped Crane Grus vi p i o East Asia Sar us Cra n e Grus an t i g o n e Indian Sar us Cra n e G. a. an t i g o n e Ind i a Eastern Sar us Cra n e G. a .s h a r p i i Southeast Asia Australian Sar us Cra n e G. a. gilli Aus t r a l i a Brol g a Grus rub i c u n d a Aus t r a l i a Eurasian Cra n e Grus gru s Eur opean Cra n e G .g . gru s Eur ope, west Asia Li l f o r d’s Cra n e G. g. li l f o rd i East Asia Grus mo n a c h a East Asia Black-necked Cra n e Gru sn i g r i c o l l i s Tibetan Pla t e a u Red - c r owned Crane Grus ja p o n e n s i s East Asia Whooping Cra n e Grus am e r i c a n a Nor th America Crane Bi o lo g y 3 of Crowned Cranes on the northern continents dur- fr om the soil surface or vegetation. Young chicks ing the Pliocene Epoch. Tod a y , the two survi v i n g ar e fed by their parents and gradually become more species inhabit the wetlands and savannas of Africa. independent in their feeding until they separate from Paleontological, anatomical, behavioral, and DNA the parents prior to the next breeding season. Dur i n g studies all indicate that Crowned Cranes are closest to these first  months of development, captive cranes the ancestral stock that gave rise to the more rec e n t ar e extremely inquisitive. Perhaps this drive to subfamily Grui n a e (A r chibald    a; Wood    ; in v estigate novel objects helps them discover food Kr a j e wski    ) which includes the other  sp e c i e s . items in the wild. Th e  sp e c i e s of Grui n a e wer e tr a d i t i o n a l l y Sandhill Cranes feed primarily on small grains di v i d e d i n t ot h re e ge n e r a : Bug e ra n u s , Ant h ro p o i d e s , (corn, wheat, barley, and sorghum) in fall, winter, an d Grus .Re c e n tD N A h y b r i d i z a t i o ns t u d i e s ,h ow- an d spring, but during the nesting season (when they eve r , su g g e s t th a t Ant h ro p o i d e s an d Bug e ra n u s sh o u l d associate more with wetlands), the greater part of the be me r g e d wi t h Grus (In g o l d    ; Kr a j ew s k i    ). diet consists of crayfish, plant tubers, chufa, rod e n t s , Grus i n c l u d e sf o u rd i s t i n c t g ro u p so f cl o s e l y rel a t e d fr ogs, berries, ’s , and nestlings (Wal k i n s h a w sp e c i e s : th e Saru s Spe c i e s Grou p (Wh i t e - n a p e d ,    ; Lewis    ; Bennett    ; Mullins and Bize a u Saru s , Bro l g a ) ,t h eW h o o p i n g Cra n e Spe c i e s Grou p    ; Iverson et al.    ; Her ter    ). Summer foods (Eu r a s i a n , Hoo d e d , Bla c k - n e c k e d , Red - c r own e d , of the include frogs, minnows , Wh o o p i n g Cr a n e ) ,a n dt h e San d h i l l Cr a n ea n dt h e berries, and large nymphal and larval forms of Sib e r i a n Cra n e wh i c h e a c hs t a n d a l o n e .T h e San d h i l l (Allen    ; Novak o wski    ). Principal winter Cr a n ei s pro b a b l y m o s tc l o s e l y al l i e d t ot h e Sa ru s fo o d s of Whooping Cranes include blue crabs, Gro u p( A rc h i b a l d    a) . Eth o l o g y a n da n a t o m y cl a m s , marine worms, , crayfish, fish , we a k l yl i n k th e Sib e r i a n Cra n e t ot h e Wat t l e d Cra n e snails, insects, and sedge tubers found in coastal (A rc h i b a l d    b; Woo d    ) ,b u t D N Aa n d rec e n t marshes and estuaries, but these cranes also feed be h a v i o r wo r k su g g e s t t h a tt h e Wat t l e d Cra n e an d in.uplands on berries, acorns, insects, and small Ant h ro p o i d e s ( De m o i s e l l ea n d Bl u e )a re cl o s e l y ver tebrates (Allen    ; Uhler and Locke    ; re l a t e d( K r a j ew s k i    ;El l i se t al. in pre p ) ,a n d th a t Hun t and Slack    ). th e Sib e r i a n Cra n e i sd i s t i n c t f ro ma n yo f th e ot h e r The  crane species can be divided into sever a l Gru i n a es p e c i e sg ro u p sa n d sh o u l d p e r h a p sb e pl a c e d gr oups based on the habitats in which they feed in a se p a r a t e ge n u s (K r a j ew s k i    ). during the breeding and nonbreeding season (Tab l e .). The less common species worldwide, like the Whooping Crane, , Wattled Cra n e , Food Habits Red - c r owned Crane, Black-necked Crane, and Cranes are omnivor ous and some species rely heavily Wh i t e -naped Crane, are more dependent on aquatic on aquatic foods (Walkinshaw    ). Most cranes habitats throughout the year and not just during the pr obe the subsurface with their bills and take foods br eeding season.

TABLE 1.2 Breeding and nonbreeding season food habits of cranes. Ha b i tat Breeding Se a s o n No n b reeding Se a s o n Primarily feeding in uplands Demoiselle, Blue Cra n e s Crowned, Demoiselle, Blue, Sandhill, Eurasian Cra n e s Feeding in both uplands and wet l a n d s Crowned, Sandhill, Sar us, Sar us, White-naped, Red - c r owned, Eurasian, White-naped, Black-necked, Hooded Cranes, Brol g a Black-necked Cranes, Brol g a Primarily feeding in wet l a n d s Wattled, Siberian, Hooded, Wattled, Siberian, Whooping Cra n e s Red - c r owned, Whooping Cra n e s 4 Chapter 1

A Color Sig n a t u r e of Cranes Around the Wor l d

Fig u r e . . Fig u r e . Sar us Cranes Unison-call at Ph oto by Damian De b s k i Bha ra t p u r , . Ph oto by M. Phillip Kahl

Fig u r e . Gray Crowned Crane, . Ph oto by L. H. Wa l k i n s h aw Fig u r e  . , Queensland, Aus t r alia. Ph oto by Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d

Fig u r e . Wattled Cranes, Wak k e r s t r oom, . Fig u r e  . Eur asian Cranes at Zao Hai, China. Ph oto by Wa rwick Ta r b oto n Ph oto by Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d

Fig u r e . Blue Cranes, Wak k e r s t r oom, Fig u r e  . Hooded Cranes at Izumi, Japan. South Africa. Ph oto by St u re Karlsson Ph oto by Wa rwick Ta r b oto n

Fig u r e  . Black-necked Cranes at Cao (or Zao) Fig u r e . Demoiselle Cranes. Hai, China. Ph oto by J. H. Di c k Ph oto by Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d

Fig u r e . Siberian Crane at Keoladeo Fig u r e  . Red - c r owned Cranes. National Par k, India. Ph oto by Te r ao Sato Ph oto by ICF

Fig u r e  . Whooping Cranes at Aransas Fig u r e . , Wisconsin. National Wildlife Refuge, Texas. Ph oto by Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d Ph oto by Ma ry Bi s h o p

Fig u r e . White-naped Crane at Zhalong, China. Fig u r e  . Demoiselle Cranes captured on Ph oto by St u re Karlsson mi g r ation in Pakistan are eaten or ren d e r ed flightless and tamed. Ph oto by St even E. Landfried Crane Bi o lo g y 5

Fig. 1.1. Black Crowned Crane (Balearica pavon i n a ). Ph oto Damian De b s k i 6 Chapter 1

Fig. 1.2. Gray Crowned Crane (Balearica reg u l o ru m ), Zambia. Ph oto L. H. Wa l k i n s h aw Crane Bi o lo g y 7 8 Chapter 1 Crane Bi o lo g y 9 1 0 Chapter 1

Fig. 1.6. Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) at Keoladeo National Par k, India,    . Ph oto ICF Crane Bi o lo g y 1 1

Fig. 1.7. Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis), Wisconsin. Ph oto Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d 1 2 Chapter 1 Crane Bi o lo g y 1 3 1 4 Chapter 1 Crane Bi o lo g y 1 5 1 6 Chapter 1 Crane Bi o lo g y 1 7 1 8 Chapter 1 Crane Bi o lo g y 1 9 2 0 Chapter 1

Fig. 1.16. This Demoiselle crane, captured on migration in Pakistan, became a pet. Ph oto St even E. Landfried Crane Bi o lo g y 2 1

Plumage Coloration Sandhill and Eurasian Cranes also perform painting that may provide further prot e c t i v e color- Crane chicks (Fig. . ) are first cover ed with natal ation especially for incubating adults. In early spring, do wn which is largely concealed or replaced by they paint their with mud, the iron oxides ju v enal plumage by fledging time (Stephenson    ). of which penetrate and permanently stain the feathers During the first few weeks, the legs and neck of a a rust color (Tav erner    ). crane chick grow prop o r tionately faster than the wings. Juv enile cranes are either pred o m i n a n t l y reddish brown (Crowned, Siberian, Wh i t e - n a p e d , Sandhill, Red - c r owned, and Whooping Cranes) or Social Behavior gray (Demoiselle, Blue, Wattled, Sar us, Eur a s i a n , Hooded, and Black-necked Cranes, and Brolgas). Cranes have a wide variety of vocal and visual displays The juvenile colors probably provide anti-pred a t o r (E llis et al. In prep .). The African Crowned Cra n e s ca m o u fla g e . ha v e rather simple loud “honking” calls. The Sib e r i a n Adult cranes are either white, gray, black, or Crane has a high-pitched, flute-like call, wherea s combinations thereo f . White cranes inhabit vast open calls are high-pitched but raspy. wetlands where excellent visibility makes white birds Demoiselle, Blue, and Sandhill Cranes have low, ex t r emely apparent. Being white may help territorial br oken calls, and the remaining species have shriller pairs become more obvious to potential intruders and calls. The trachea of Gruinae cranes coils within, and thus minimize the amount of time and energy spent fuses with, the sternum to var ying degrees in each in aggres s i v e encounters. The gray cranes occupy species (Blaauw    ). Tracheal development is grea t - smaller wetlands that are often partially or completely est in the Whooping Crane Species Grou p , and the co ver ed by trees. Ter r estrial predators are undoubtedly pitch of the calls in these species is higher than in mo r e of a threat in forested wetlands than on open most other cranes. The trachea and sternum amplify wetlands. The gray color helps the crane conceal itself the calls produced in the larynx (Prange et al.    ). in the marsh and on the nest. Crane calls include low, purr-like Contact Calls, slightly louder Pre- fl ight Calls, purr-like or shrill Pre- c o p u l a t o r y Calls, groan-like or screa m - l i k e Dis t r ess Calls, scream-like plaintive Location Calls, ab r upt Alarm Calls, and loud Flight Calls and Gua r d Calls. Crane calls also include loud, complex duets called Unison Calls (Allen    ; Masatomi and Kitagawa    ; Archibald    a,    b; Voss    ) which have both sexual and threat functions (A r chibald    a) . Plumage-wise, cranes are sexually monomorphic, but the vocal and visual components of the Uni s o n Call (an antiphonal duet) are sexually distinct (Fig .  C. ), the exceptions being the Black Crowned, Gray Crowned, and Siberian Cranes. Wattled Cra n e s seldom Unison Call, but when they do the male slightly elevates his wings above his back for a second at the end of the duet. In other cranes, the male typi- cally emits a long series of low calls, and the female accompanies him with two or three high-pitched calls for each low call of the male. In Blue Cranes and the Sar us Species Grou p , the males invariably elevate their wings and droop their primaries during the Uni s o n Call, while the females keep their wings closed. Demoiselle Cranes call with wings closed, but the Fig. 1.17. An  -day-old Sandhill Cran e . Ph oto Glen Sm a rt female usually holds her neck back, slightly beyon d 2 2 Chapter 1 the ver tical. Sandhill Cranes also call with closed wings, but in contrast to Demoiselle Cranes, the male holds his head close to the ver tical position Breeding Bio l o g y while the female calls with her horizontal. In Siberian Cranes and the Whooping Crane Spe c i e s Annual Cycle Grou p , the wings may be elevated in either sex depending on the intensity of the situation, with The annual cycle of cranes can be divided into a wing elevation being prop o r tional to the level of – month nesting period and a longer non-bree d i n g th r eat or intensity of display. period. Many species (Demoiselle, Siberian, Other social displays include rigid threat postur- White-naped, Eurasian, Hooded, Black-necked, ing, rigid Str utting, Ritualized Preening of the back Red - c r owned, Whooping, and three migratory or thigh, feather ruf fl ing, Stamping, Flapping, tail subspecies of Sandhill Cranes) migrate hundreds, fluttering, Crouching, Growling, and Hissing. Cra n e s or even thousands, of kilometers between bree d i n g also perform an elaborate dance involving Bowi n g , and wintering grounds. Except for Wattled Cra n e s , Leaping, Running and Flapping, tossing an object which sometimes remain on nesting territories (often a feather) into the air, and more (see th r oughout the year (Tarboton    ), all cranes Ch a p t e r ). become more gregarious during the non-bree d i n g The form of the complex visual and vocal displays period and move to regions where food is abundant. of cranes is apparently independent of learning or Eurasian Cranes, and possibly Red - c r owned Cra n e s , the species of the foster parent; these displays appear do not breed consistently ever y yea r , an aspect of to be genetically determined. Even blind cranes in crane biology that req u i r es further re s e a rc h . captivity are able to perform a full complement of crane behavior. The object at which the display is Pair Formation and Duration oriented, howeve r , is learned. If a crane chick is rea re d by people, it will prefer to associate with people and Successful breeding depends on securing a compatible not cranes. Learned species recognition is importa n t mate and a breeding territory. In the Sandhill Cra n e , in maintaining rep ro d u c t i v e barriers betwee n un p a i r ed males sometimes establish a bree d i n g sympatric species. For example, White-naped Cra n e s te r r i t o r y and wait for the arrival of a female. Unm a t e d and Red - c r owned Cranes are sympatric on many of females, by contrast, search for a male that has an their nesting and wintering areas, but hybrids have established territory (Nesbitt    ). not been rep o r ted in the wild. In most cranes, breeding usually begins betwee n ages  and . Whooping Cranes sometimes breed as early as age  (K uyt and Goossen    ), but most pro d u c e fe rt i l e eg g s at ag e  or . Bree d i n g , on ave r a g e , occurs later in Whooping Cranes in captivity (Ell i s et al.    ). Sandhill Cranes begin breeding at ages  to  depending on subspecies and location (Radke and Radke    ; Nesbitt and Wenner    ; Tac h a    ; Nesbitt    ). A young crane is perhaps more likely to breed when paired with an experienced br eeder that has lost its mate. In Sandhill Cranes, sub-adult pairings are usually ephemeral (Nesbitt    ). Nesbitt and Wenner (   ) found that the average, sub-adult Sandhill Cra n e pa i r ed five times before successfully breeding, with pair bond duration related to the production of young. Pairing can be rapid, or it may req u i r e many months of interaction (Nesbitt and Wenner    ). Unison Calling and dancing are particularly impor- tant in the development of pair bonds. Crane Bi o lo g y 2 3

Although young pairs often sever ties at the end of a breeding season (Drewien    ; Nesbitt and Wen n e r    ), established pairs return to the same bree d i n g te r r i t o r y each year and defend it vigorou s l y . Uni s o n Calls and chases are particularly frequent during the se v eral weeks before eggs are laid. Ter r i t o r y size is ex t r emely variable, ranging from a few to several hun- dr ed hectares, with territory size roughly prop o rt i o n a l to the openness of the landscape (Joh n s g a r d    ).

Breeding Season Fig. 1.18 Sandhill Crane nest in Flo r i d a . Ph oto Gene Knoder The crane breeding season is either associated with distinct seasonality in the higher latitudes or with the wet/rainy season in lower latitudes. For species that nesting, but if a small area of open water is crea t e d , br eed in arctic to north temperate regions (Sib e r i a n , they sometimes nest immediately (Johnson and Lesser Sandhill, Hooded, and Whooping Cra n e s ) , Bar n e s    ). spring is so short that renesting is seldom possible. Crane clutch size varies from two to three eggs for Mid-latitude breeders, howeve r , frequently renest if Crowned Cranes, two eggs for most other species, and the first attempt fails. Cranes breeding in tropical and usually one egg for Wattled Cranes. Eggs of Crown e d su b t r opical regions (Crowned, Blue, and Sa ru s Cranes are a light bluish white. Sar us, Brolgas, and Cranes, and Brolgas) usually breed on seasonal wet - some Red - c r owned Cranes have plain white eggs with lands created during the rainy season (Archibald and a few speckles of green or gray. Eggs for other cranes Swengel    ; Konrad    ). Crowned Cranes can ar e heavily spotted with a light to dark brown back- nest in any month depending on the rains gr ound. Although there is rem a r kable var i a t i o n (Walkinshaw    ; Brown and Britton    ; Pom e r oy be t w een species, crane eggs from hot climates usually    ), Blue Cranes usually nest at the beginning of ha v e less pigmentation than those in cold climates. South Africa’s rainy season in November or Dec e m b e r , Both sexes assist in incubation, and the female and Sar us Cranes nest during southern Asia’s July to usually incubates at night (Walkinshaw    ). October monsoons. Brolgas in northern Aus t r a l i a Incubation exchanges take place several times during br eed during the Jan u a r y to Mar ch rainy season, while the day and are sometimes accompanied by Uni s o n those in the south begin nesting in spring (Sep t e m b e r Calling (Voss    ). These vocalizations can facilitate to October) (Walkinshaw    ). Most of the Wat t l e d humans finding birds or nests. The incubation period Cranes in southern Africa breed during winter, from varies from  days in Demoiselle and Siberian Cra n e s May to October (Konrad    ; Joh n s g a r d    ; to as many as  days in Wattled Cranes (see Tab l e Tarboton    ) and at the end of the dry season, .). Except for Wattled Cranes, which abandon the although they may breed at any time of year in Nat a l second egg (rarely laid) after the first chick has (Cy r us and Robson    ; Tarboton    ). hatched, most cranes incubate until all live eggs have hatched. If the eggs are infertile or addled, cranes will sometimes incubate  – days beyond proj e c t e d Nests, Eggs, and Chicks hatch dates (Walkinshaw    ). Grassland nesters (D emoiselle and Blue Cranes, and Som e Crown e d Cr a n ec l u t c h e s h a t c hs y n c h ro n o u s l y sometimes Brolgas) usually lay their eggs on the bare (Wal k i n s h a w    ) ,b u tt h e re is a o n e - t ot w o - d a yi n t e r- gr ound with a nest composed of only a few twigs or va lb e t we e nt h eh a t c h i n go fc h i c k si nm o s to t h e r pebbles (Van Ee    ; Winter    ); most other cranes sp e c i e s . Si b l i n gr i va l ry i si m p o rt a n ti nd e t e r m i n i n g build a lo w platform nest (F ig. . ) in shallow water. ch i c k su rv i va l . On ec h i c ki s u s u a l l yd o m i n a n t ove ri t s Water depth and the nest size are closely related: the s i b l i n g ,a n dt h ed o m i n a n t c h i c kg e t sm o s to ft h ef o o d deeper the water, the larger the nest. During floo d i n g , f ro mt h ep a re n t s . Fi g h t i n gb e t we e nc h i c k si ss o m e h ow cranes rapidly add material to the nest to keep the eggs l i n k e dt o hu n g e r . If f o o di ss c a rc e , t h es u b o rd i n a t e ab o ve water. Wattled Crane pairs will not breed if c h i c ku s u a l l yp e r i s h e s . Si b l i n ga g g re s s i o nh a sb e e n their territory lacks a small shallow pond for s e r ve di n Grea t e r San d h i l l Cr a n e s( L i t t l e fie l da n d 2 4 Chapter 1

Ryde r    ; Drewi e n    ) ,b u ti sl e s sp ro n o u n c e di n Companions.” Thousands of Demoiselle and Eur a s i a n Bl a c k - n e c k e d( L ie ta l .    ), Flo r i d a Sa n d h i l l( L a y n e Cranes are trapped during migration through the    ) ,a n d Dem o i s e l l e Cr a n e s ,a l t h o u g hc h i c k so ft h e passes of the Hindu Kush mountains of Pak i s t a n ; l a t t e rs p e c i e sf re q u e n t l yc o m p e t ef o rp a re n t a lf e e d i n g s many are eaten, others are sold as pets (Fig. . ). (Win t e r    ). Si b l i n ga g g re s s i o ni ss os e ve re in Cranes have always been popular in in Euro p e Sib e r i a n Cr a n e st h a tt h e re ar e fe w re p o rt so f a pa i r and in the Orient (Joh n s g a r d    : ). rea r i n g t w oc h i c k s . Be c a u s eo fa g g re s s i o ne ve nw h e n Jap a n ’s “M r .Zoo , ” Dr. Tad a m i c h i Kog a , w a st h e f o o di sa va i l a b l e ad li b i t u m , i ti s ver y d i f fic u l tt o fir s tt o t re a tt h e ca p t i v e ma n a g e m e n t o fc r a n e s in a c a p t i ve - re a rW h o o p i n g Cr a n ec h i c k si ng ro u p s .Two sc i e n t i fi c ma n n e r .Pri o r t ot h e Sec o n d Wor l d War , w i l dc h i c k sa re so m e t i m e s re a re dw i t he a c ha d u l t Jap a n e s e zoo s im p o rt e d w i l dc r a n e s fro m t h em a i n- le a d i n g a c h i c ko ns e p a r a t e ,b u tn e a r by, pa t h s . la n d . Du r i n gt h e w a rm o s t of th e zo oa n i m a l sp e r i s h e d , Species nesting in ephemeral wetlands (Crown e d a n da f t e r t h ew a r i m p o rt a t i o n w a sn o l o n g e rp o s s i b l e . and Demoiselle Cranes) or in the Arctic where the Unl e s s cr a n e s c o u l db e in d u c e d t ob re e d in ca p t i v i t y , nesting season is brief (Siberian, Lesser San d h i l l th e r e w o u l ds o o n b en oc r a n e s fo r Jap a n e s e zoo s . Cranes) have shorter pre- fl edging periods than species Dr. Kog a no t i c e d t h a ti f c r a n e sl o s e th e i r eg g s , th e y that inhabit permanent wetlands (Wattled Cranes) or ra p i d l y ren e s t , an d by co l l e c t i n g a n dt h e na rt i fic i a l l y regions with longer growing seasons. Imm a t u r e cranes i n c u b a t i n gt h e e g g s ,s e ve r a l c l u t c h e sc o u l d b ep ro- remain with their parents for – months until the d u c e df ro m a s i n g l ep a i r (Ko g a    ,    ). Res u l t i n g onset of the next breeding season (Alonso et al.    ). ch i c k s wer e ha n d - r a i s e d an d th e n d i s t r i b u t e dt o zoo s An abrupt change in the chick’s voice from high th ro u g h o u t Jap a n . fr equency “pe e p - l i k e ” calls to the loud deeper voice About the same time, Dayton Hyde (   ) noted of the adult coincides with the period during which that cranes usually lay two eggs but rarely raise two the chick either leaves its parents of its own volition young. He suggested that a captive Whooping C ra n e or is driven off (Nesbitt    ; Nesbitt and Arch i b a l d flock could be established without detriment to the    ; Alonso et al.    ). wild population by rem o ving one egg fr om each After leaving their parents, young cranes gather clutch. Using this reasoning, about   Wh o o p i n g in flocks with other non-breeders and move to Crane eggs have been rem o ved from the Woo d foraging and roosting sites where they remain while Buffalo population in Canada from    to the the adults breed elsewh e r e (Kuyt    ). Later they are pr esent. Productivity data, before and during this joined by unsuccessful mated pairs and eventually era, suggest that this egg harvest may have actually by family groups. At approximately  months of age, in c r eased the number of chicks fledged each fall in a young crane exhibits adult-like social behavior Canada (Kuyt    ; F. G. Cooch, Mig r a t o r y Bird s including wel l - d e v eloped epigamic sign stimuli (e.g., Branch, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, personal red crown or fully grown wattles), threat displays, co m m u n i c a t i o n ) . Gua r d and Unison Calls, and dancing (Bishop    ; Fol l o wing Dr. Kog a ’s example, several cr a n e Nesbitt and Wenner    ). Pairing can occur from pr opagation centers ha v e been established in rec e n t this time onward. decades. In    , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Se rv i c e , in cooperation with the Canadian Wildlife Se rv i c e , established a captive breeding center for Wh o o p i n g Cranes at Pat u x ent in Mar yland. Pat u x ent subse- Cranes in Cap t i v i t y qu e n t l y , and most effectivel y , applied captive pr opagation to the conservation of the endangered Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by Mississippi Sandhill Crane. Fol l o wing the example cranes and have kept them in captivity (Der r i c k s o n of Pat u x ent, a private organization, the Int e r n a t i o n a l and Carpenter    ). Cranes are depicted on the Crane Foundation, was established in Bar a b o o , temple walls of the Egyptians (Whymper    ), and Wisconsin in    with the intention of helping all cranes wer e raised by Chinese royalty more than ,   species of cranes. In    , the Soviets established a years ago (Cheng    ). Continuing in the tradition of br eeding center for Siberian Cranes near Mos c o w at their ancestors, Africans today take wild chicks, raise the Oka State Nat u r e Res e r ve, and in    , the Roya l them, and keep them as pets. In Australia, hand-raised For est Dep a r tment of Thailand set up a center near Brolgas, popular pets, are sometimes called “Nat i v e Bangphra for the captive management of Eastern Crane Bi o lo g y 2 5

Sar us Cranes. Other centers, notably the Bal t i m o r e Zoo, Beijing Zoo, Kus h i r o Crane Par k in Japan, the London Zoological Soc i e t y , the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., the in New Yor k City, Tama Zoo in Japan, and Vog e l p a r k Wal s r ode in Ger m a n y , have all made significant contributions to the captive management of cranes. The addresses of many other institutions with crane colonies can be obtained through ISIS (International Spe c i e s Information System; see Chapter  ). Some lo n g e v i t y rec o r ds of captive cranes are rem a r kable. A male Siberian Crane (Fig. . ) that Fig. 1.19 , a  + year old Siberian Crane at ICF. died from an injury in    was captured, pres u m a b l y Ph oto Lynn M. Sto n e as an adult, early in the  th century. He had survi ve d the two World Wars by residing at a zoo in Swi t z erland, and fina l l y , in his late  ’s, he fathered The Whooping Crane has staged a rem a rk a b l e chicks at ICF through arti fi cial insemination. In the (although incomplete) rec o ver y. Bir ds in the migra- studbook of the White-naped Crane (She p p a r d    ), to r y population have come back from a low point of ref e r ence is made to longevity rec o r ds of more than  about  or  bi r ds in    to   cranes during the years and more than  years with breeding of birds winter of    – . These cranes breed in the vicinity over  . Other rem a r kable rec o r ds include a wild of Great Sla v e Lake in north w estern Canada, and trapped female Siberian Crane which survi v ed  yea r s winter ,  miles away on the coast of Texas. Th e r e and  months at the Philadelphia Zoo (Davis    ), ar e also a few wild Whooping Cranes in an experi- a Wattled Crane at the New Yor k Zoological Soc i e t y mental flock (Fig. . ) in the western United Sta t e s . that produced eggs over a  -y ear period (Conway and These are all that remain from   eggs cros s - f o s t e re d Hamer    ), and a Eurasian Crane which lived in a to Sandhill Cranes beginning in    . High chick zoo for almost  years (Mitchell    ). mo rt a l i t y , disease, collisions with powerlines, and Longevity rec o r ds for wild cranes are unknown sexual imprinting on Sandhill Cranes have led to the because marking individual cranes for identifica t i o n discontinuation of the effort. Eggs for this floc k , purposes did not begin until rec e n t l y . Because life in which peaked at about  bi r ds in    , wer e prod u c e d the wild is more hazardous, it is unlikely that wild in captivity at Pat u x ent ( eggs) and collected from cranes survi v e as long as their captive counterparts . the wild cranes in Canada (  eggs from    –   ; Ellis et al.    ). Since    , one viable ferti l i z ed egg has been moved from nests where two viable eggs wer e pr esent. These “second eggs” wer e placed in nests Status and Con s e r vat i o n wh e r e all eggs failed to show signs of life (Lewis    ). Eggs rem o ved from the latter category wer e then Because most cranes are highly visible at great dis- collected. Some of these, howeve r , proved to be ferti l e tances and vulnerable to the loss and degradation of and wer e hatched at the captive breeding centers. their wetland and grassland habitats, populations of In addition to the wild birds, there are now over   most species have been reduced to a small fraction of Whooping Cranes in captivity. Nearly all of these their former numbers (Table .) (Archibald and bi r ds are at Pat u x ent or ICF, with a third captive Meine    ; Meine and Archibald In prep .). Sev en of br eeding center recently established at the Calgary the fifteen species are considered threatened at the Zoo in Canada. Th e r e are also about  wild birds in species level, while several additional subspecies are a second experimental population in the Kissimmee also at risk of extinction. It is no surprise that the four Prairie in Florida where since    ca p t i ve - re a re d white species (Siberian, Red - c r owned, Bla c k - n e c k e d , cranes have been released into a non-migratory and Whooping Cranes) are the most endangered . se t t i n g . These species are not only the most easily seen, and Th e r e are two geographically isolated populations thus shot, but they are also the most dependent upon of Red - c r owned Cranes: a group of   -  cranes in aquatic habitats. southeastern Hokkaido, Japan, with several more on 2 6 Chapter 1

TABLE 1.3 Approximate size of crane populations.1 Species or Su b s pe c i e s Wi l d C a p t i v i ty Stat u s2 Black Crowned Cra n e  ,    Th re a t e n e d Gray Crowned Cra n e  ,  ,  Non - e n d a n g e re d Wattled Cra n e  ,    Th re a t e n e d Blue Cra n e  ,  ,  Th re a t e n e d Demoiselle Cra n e   ,  ,  Non - e n d a n g e re d Siberian Cra n e ,    End a n g e re d Sandhill Crane (all races)   ,    Non - e n d a n g e re d Cuban Sandhill Cra n e   ? End a n g e re d Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e    End a n g e re d White-naped Cra n e ,    End a n g e re d Sar us Crane (all races)  ,    Non - e n d a n g e re d Eastern Sar us Cra n e ,   End a n g e re d Brol g a  ,   Non - e n d a n g e re d Eurasian Crane (all races)   ,    Non - e n d a n g e re d Hooded Cra n e  ,    End a n g e re d Black-necked Cra n e ,   End a n g e re d Red - c r owned Cra n e ,    End a n g e re d Whooping Cra n e     End a n g e re d

1 App r oximate size of world populations,    . 2 Status: End a n g e r ed, likely to become extirpated in the wild during the next century if present population trends continue; Th re a t e n e d , th r eatened with eventual extirpation in the wild; Non - e n d a n g e r ed, populations generally stable or declining only in a portion of their range.

the neighboring Kurile Islands, now part of Rus s i a , and a population of perhaps ,  bi r ds on mainland Asia (Feng and Li    ; Masatomi et al.    ; Anonymous    ). The island population migrates locally from the marshes to several arti fi cial feeding stations near the city of Kus h i r o. Aided by feeding pr ograms initiated by the local people and now sup- po r ted by the government, this population has grown to its present size from about  bi r ds in    . Th e mainland flock migrates to the Kor ean peninsula and to coastal wetlands of China just north of the mouth of the Yan g t z e River . The wetlands where these cranes br eed in northern China, southeastern , and Japan are valuable for agricultural devel o p m e n t (A r chibald    ). Wetland loss is the major limiting factor for the species. Jap a n ’s first wetland national pa r k, Kus h i r o Marsh National Par k, and one of Fig 1.20 Gray ’s Lake, Ida h o , where Whooping Crane eggs wer e Ch i n a ’s first protected areas, Zhalong Nat u r e Res e r ve, cro s s - f o s t e r ed to Sandhill Cranes. ha v e been established to protect major nesting areas of Ph oto Scott R. De r r i c k s o n Crane Bi o lo g y 2 7 these cranes. Red - c r owned Cranes are popular exhibit bi r ds in zoos, and they breed readily in captivity. Sib e r i a n Cra n e s bre e d in th e Arc t i c of bo t h ea s t e r n an d wes t e r n Rus s i a (Fi g . . ) an d wi n t e r in Ira n (c a  bi rd s ) , Ind i a (- bi rd s ) , an d Ch i n a (c a    bi rd s : K. Oza k i , Yam a s h i n a Ins t i t u t e fo r Orn i t h o l o g y ,Abi k o Ci t y ,Jap a n , pe r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) .T h e y ar e exc l u s i ve l y de p e n d e n t on wet l a n d s fo r th e i r bre e d i n g an d th e i r wi n t e r i n g gro u n d s . Hun t i n g co n t i n u e s to th re a t e n th e su rv i va l of th e rem n a n t floc k th a t mi g r a t e s th ro u g h he a v i l y hu n t e d reg i o n s of Af g h a n i s t a n an d Pak i s t a n . Lo s s of wet l a n d s on th e wi n t e r i n g gro u n d s an d mi g r a t i o n st a g i n g are a s ha s un d o u b t e d l y co n t r i b u t e d to th e de c l i n e of th i s sp e c i e s . A pro p o s e d da m ac ro s s th e Yan g t z e Ri ve r po s e s a th re a t to th e wi n t e r i n g gro u n d s of th e ma j o r i t y of Fig 1.21 Siberian Crane marshes in wes t e r n Siberia. Sib e r i a n Cra n e s . Wit h di f fic u l t y ,Sib e r i a n Cra n e s ha v e Ph oto David H. El l i s be e n in d u c e d to rep ro d u c e in ca p t i v i t y at IC F in th e Uni t e d Sta t e s , a tt h e Oka Sta t e Nat u r e Res e r ve in Rus s i a , at Bei j i n g Zoo in Ch i n a , an d at Vog e l p a r k Wal s ro d e in Ger m a n y . Black-necked Cranes, believed to number about Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d ,  , breed in freshwater wetlands scattered acros s Allan, D. G.    . [ biology]. In R. D. Bielfuss, editor. the Tibetan Plateau. In winter they migrate to slightly Proceedings of the African Crane and Wetland Tra i n i n g Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . lo wer elevations in southern Tibet, Yunnan and In pre s s . Guizhou Provinces of China, and several valleys in Allen, R. P.    . The Whooping Crane. Res e a r ch Rep o r t Bhutan. This species has declined due to hunting on No. , National Audubon Soc i e t y , New Yor k.   pp . the breeding and wintering areas in China in rec e n t Allen, R. P.    . A rep o r t on the Whooping Cra n e ’s north e r n decades and the loss of barley fields and wetlands in br eeding grounds. National Audubon Soc i e t y , New York . which the cranes forage in winter. Sev eral pairs of  pp . Alonso, J. A., J. P. Veiga, and J. C. Alonso.    . ca p t i v e Black-necked Cranes breed at Beijing and Fam i l i e n a u flu r ung und Abzug aus dem Wi n t e rq u a rt i e r Xining zoos in China, and single pairs breed at beim Kranich Grus grus . Journal fur Ornithologie Vog e l p a r k Wal s r ode in Germany and at ICF in   : - . [In German with English summary. Eng l i s h the United Sta t e s . translation available from ICF.] The continuing increase in human numbers, Anonymous.    . Winter counts of endangered cranes. IC F Bugle  (): . pa r ticularly in southern Asia and throughout most Ar chibald, G. W.    a. The unison call of cranes as a useful of Africa, increasingly threatens the wetlands and ta x onomic tool. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Uni ve r s i t y , grasslands needed by cranes (Archibald and Mir a n d e Ithaca, New Yor k.   pp .    ). But humans can also improve the chances for Ar chibald, G. W.    b. Crane as rev ealed by the the survi v al of cranes through habitat prot e c t i o n , unison call. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s education, and rei n t r oduction. Hus b a n d r y will play International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . a central role in this broad conservation agenda. If Ar chibald, G. W., and C. Meine.    . Family Gruidae. In pr oper husbandry and genetic management practices J. del Hoyo and A. Elliot, editors. Handbook of the birds ar e followed, captive breeding can perhaps indefini t e l y of the world. Vol. . Lynx Edicions, Barc e l o n a . maintain viable populations of each crane species and Ar chibald, G. W., and C. M. Mirande.    . Population status pr ovide birds for rei n t r oduction efforts. During the and management efforts for endangered cranes. Pages   -   in Proceedings  th Nor th American Wildlife Nat u r a l past two decades, Pat u x ent, ICF, Oka State Nat u r e Res o u r ces Conferen c e . Res e r ve, Beijing Zoo, Bronx Zoo, and other zoos have Ar chibald, G. W., and S. R. Swengel.    . Comparative ecol- de v eloped techniques for the successful management ogy and behavior of Eastern Sar us Cranes and Brolgas in of cranes in captivity. Much of that valuable infor- Australia. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s mation is presented in this vol u m e .    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Whooping Cra n e 2 8 Chapter 1

Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Wil d l i f e Hert e r , D. R.    . Staging of Sandhill Cranes on the eastern Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Copper River Delta, Alaska. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewi s , Ar chibald, K.    . The of the bree d i n g ed i t o r . Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . gr ound of the Red - c r owned Crane in Hokkaido, Jap a n . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Flo r i d a . Pages  - in G. W. Archibald and R. R. Pas q u i e r , editors. Hunt, H., and R. Slack.    . Winter foods of the Wh o o p i n g Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . Crane based on stomach content analyses. Pages   -  in International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Bennett, A. J.    . Ecology and status of Greater San d h i l l Platte River Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trus t , Cranes in southeastern Wisconsin. M.S. thesis, Uni ve r s i t y Grand Island, Neb r . of Wisconsin, Ste v ens Point.   pp . Hyde, D. O.    . Crane notes. Blue Jay  : - . Bis h o p , M. A.    . The dynamics of subadult flocks of Ingold, J. L.    . Systematics and of the cranes Whooping Cranes wintering in Texas,    - th ro u g h (A ves: Gruidae). Ph.D. dissertation, Miami Uni ve r s i t y ,    - . M.S. thesis, Texas A&M Uni ve r s i t y , College Ox f o r d, Ohi o .  pp . Station.   pp . Iverson, G. C., T. C. Tacha, and P. A. Vohs.    . Foo d Bis h o p , M. A.    . [Black-necked Crane biology]. contents of Sandhill Cranes during winter and spring. Unpublished rep o r ts at International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Baraboo, Wis . International Crane Work s h o p . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Bla a u w , F. E.    . A monograph of the cranes. E. J. Bri l l , Tave r n i e r , Fla . London, England and Leiden, Netherlands.  pp . Joh n s g a r d, P. A.    . Cranes of the world. Indiana Un i ve r s i t y Brod k o r b , P.    . Catalogue of fossil birds. Bulletin of the Press, Bloomington.   pp . Florida State Museum  :  -  . Johnson, D. N., and P. R. Barnes.    . The breeding biology Brown, L. H., and P. L. Britton.    . The breeding seasons of of Wattled Cranes in Natal. Pages   -  in J. T. Har r i s , East African birds. East Africa Natural His t o r y Soc i e t y , ed i t o r . Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . Nai r obi, Ken y a . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Cheng, Tso-hsin.    . Cranes of China. Pages  - in J. C. Koga, T.    . Studies on the rep r oduction of cranes, especially Le wis and H. Masatomi, editors. Crane res e a r ch arou n d on their arti fi cial incubation and breeding. Journal of the the world. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Japanese Association of Zoological Gar dens and Aqu a r i u m s Co n w a y , W., and A. Ham e r .    . A  -y ear laying rec o r d ():  - . [In Japanese with English summary.] of a Wattled Crane at New Yor k Zoological Par k. Auk Koga, T.    . Inc r easing captive production of Japanese and  :  -  . White-naped Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Cyr us, D., and N. Robson.    . Bir d atlas of Natal. Nat a l Proceedings International Crane Work s h o p . Okl a h o m a Uni v ersity Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.   pp . State Uni v ersity Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . Davis, M.    . Siberian Crane longevity. Auk  :  . Konrad, P. M.    . Status and ecology of Wattled Crane in Derrickson, S. R., and J. W. Carpenter.    . Beh a v i o r a l Africa. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis and H. Mas a t o m i , management of captive cranes—factors influe n c i n g editors. Crane res e a r ch around the world. Int e r n a t i o n a l pr opagation and rei n t r oduction. Pages   -  in G. W. Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Ar chibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the Konrad, P. M.    . Rainy season ecology of South African    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Grey Crowned Cranes in the Luangwa Val l e y , Zam b i a . Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. R. Pas q u i e r , Dou g h t y , R. W.    . The return of the Whooping Cra n e . editors. Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . Uni v ersity of Texas Press, Austin.   pp . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Drewien, R. C.    . Ecology of Rocky Mountain Grea t e r Kr a j e wski, C.    . Phylogenetic relationships among cranes Sandhill Cranes. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni v ersity of Ida h o , (A ves: Gruidae) based on DNA hybridization. Ph. D . Mos c o w.  pp . di s s e r tation, Uni v ersity of Wisconsin, Madison.   pp . Ellis, D. H., J. C. Lewis, G. F. Gee, and D. G. Smith.    . Kuyt, E.    . Banding of juvenile Whooping Cranes and Population rec o ver y of the Whooping Crane with emphasis di s c o ver y of the summer habitat used by nonbree d e r s . on rei n t r oduction efforts: past and future. Proc e e d i n g s Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Nor th American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Crane Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Pri n t i n g Ellis, D. H., S. R. Swengel, G. W. Archibald, and C. B. Kep l e r . Ser vice, For t Collins. In prep . A sociogram for the cranes of the world. Kuyt, E.    . Management and res e a r ch of Wh o o p i n g Feng Ke-min and Li Jin-lu.    . Aerial surveys on the Cranes,    -   . Pages   -   in G. W. Archibald and Red - c r owned Cranes (Grus japonensis) and other rare water R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l bi r ds. Pages  - in H. Masatomi, editor. Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , spring censuses on Grus japonensis (Re d - c r owned Crane) in Baraboo, Wis .    . Wild Bir d Society of Japan, Tok y o. Kuyt, E., and J. P. Goossen.    . Su rv i val, age composition, Gichuki, N.    . [ biology]. In R. D. sex ratio, and age at first breeding of Whooping Cranes in Bielfuss, editor. Proceedings of the African Crane and Wood Buffalo National Par k, Canada. Pages   -  in Wetland Training Work s h o p . International Cra n e J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Foundation, Baraboo, Wis. In pres s . Platte River Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trus t and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Crane Bi o lo g y 2 9

Layne, J. N.    . Status of sibling aggression in Flo r i d a Novak o wski, N. W.    . Whooping Crane population Sandhill Cranes. Journal of Field  :  -  . dynamics on the nesting grounds, Wood Buffalo Nat i o n a l Le wis, J. C.    . Ecology of the Sandhill Crane in the south- Par k, No rt h western Territories, Canada. Canadian Wil d l i f e eastern Central Fly w a y . Ph.D. dissertation, Oklahoma Sta t e Ser vice, Res e a r ch Rep o r t Series .  pp . Uni ve r s i t y , Sti l l w a t e r .   pp . Peters, J. C.    . Check-list of the birds of the world. Vol. II. Le wis, J. C.    . The Whooping Crane. Pages   -  in Har var d Uni v ersity Press, Cambridge, Mass.   pp . R. C. DiSi l ve s t r o, editor. Audubon Wildlife Rep o r t    . Pom e r oy, B. S.    . Aspects of the ecology of Crown e d National Audubon Soc i e t y , New York . Cranes Bal e a r i c a reg u l o ru m in Uganda. Scopus : - . Li Dehao, Zhou Zhijun, We Zhikang, Li Zhumei, and Wan g Prange, H. D, J. S. Was s e r , A. S. Gaunt, and S. L. L. Gau n t . Youhui.    . On the struc t u r e and behavior of the bree d -    . Res p i r a t o r y responses to acute heat stress in cranes: ing population of Black-necked Cranes in Son g p a n the effects of tracheal coiling. Res p i r a t o r y Physiology Mea d o w of Sichuan Province. Pages  - in J. Har r i s ,  : -  . ed i t o r . Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . Radke, M. F., and W. R. Radke.    . Breeding by a two-yea r International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . old Sandhill Crane. Western Bir ds  :  -  . Li t t l e fi eld, C. D. and R. A. Ryde r .    . Breeding biology of Sau e y , R. T.    . The range, status, and winter ecology of the the Greater Sandhill Crane on Malheur National Wil d l i f e Siberian Crane Grus leucogeran u s . Ph.D. disserta t i o n , Refuge, Oregon. Transactions of the Nor th American Cornell Uni ve r s i t y , Ithaca, New Yor k.   pp . Wildlife and Natural Res o u r ces Conference  :  -  . She p p a r d, C.    . International Studbook of the Wh i t e - Makatsch, W.    . Der Kranich. Die Nev e Brehn Bu c h e re i naped Crane, Gru sv i p i o, as of December    . New Yor k   : - . Wittenberg, Ger m a n y . Zoological Soc i e t y , New York . Masatomi, H.    -   . Ecological studies on the Jap a n e s e Stephenson, J. D.    . Plumage development and growth of Crane, Grus japonensis. Journal of Bibai Agricultural young Whooping Cranes. M.S. thesis, Oregon Sta t e Engineering College Par t I (   ) : - ; Par t II (   ) Uni ve r s i t y , Corvallis.  pp . : -  ; Par t III (   a) :  -  ; Par t IV (   b) :  -  ; Tacha, T. C.    . Social organization of Sandhill Cranes from Par t V (   ) :- . mid-continental Nor th America. Wildlife Monograph Masatomi, H., and T. Kitagawa.    . Bionomics and sociol-  :- . ogy of Tancho or the Japanese Crane, Grus japonensis. Tarboton, W. R.    . The status and conservation of the II Ethogram. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hok k a i d o Wattled Crane in the Tra n s v aal. Pages   -  in J .L e d g e r, Uni ve r s i t y , Series VI, Zoology  :  -  . ed i t o r . Proceedings of the Fifth Pan African Orn i t h o l o g i c a l Masatomi, H., K. Momose, and M. Takeshita.    . Co n g r ess. South African Ornithological Soc i e t y , Wintering population of the tancho Grus japonensis in Joh a n n e s b u r g . Hokkaido,    -‘  . Journal of Env i r onmental Science Tave r n e r , P. A.    . The red plumage coloration of the La b o r a t o r y, Senshu Uni ve r s i t y - H okkaido l: - . Little Brown and San d - H ill Cranes, Grus ca n a d e n s i s an d McNu l t y , F.    . The Whooping Crane. E. P. Dutton and me x i c a n u s . Auk  :  -  . Co ., New Yor k.   pp . Uh l e r , F. M., and L. N. Locke.    . A note on the stomach Meine, C., and G. W. Archibald. In prep . Action plan for the contents of two Whooping Cranes. Condor  :  . co n s e r vation of cranes. IUCN, Gland, Swi t ze r l a n d . Van Ee, C. A.    . Notes on the breeding behaviour of the Mitchell, P. C.    . On longevity and rel a t i v e viability in Blue Crane, Te t ra p t e ry xp a ra d i s e a.  : - . mammals and birds, with a note on the theory of longevity. Voss, K.    . Behavior of the Greater Sandhill Crane. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, pages M.S. thesis, Uni v ersity of Wisconsin, Madison.   pp .   -  . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . The Sandhill Cranes. Cra n b ro o k Mullins, W. H., and E. G. Biz eau.    . Summer foods of Institute Science Bulletin  , Blo o m fi eld Hills, Mic h . Sandhill Cranes in Ida h o . Auk  :  -  .   pp . Nesbitt, S. A.    . Voice maturity in Sandhill Cranes. Flo r i d a Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . The African Crowned Cra n e s . Field Naturalist : . Wilson Bulletin  :  -  . Nesbitt, S. A.    . The significance of mate loss in Flo r i d a Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . One hundred thirty - t h r ee San d h i l l Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin   :  -  . Crane nests. Jac k - P ine Warbler  :  -  . Nesbitt, S. A.    . First rep ro d u c t i v e success and individual Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r pr oductivity in Sandhill Cranes. Journal of Wil d l i f e Press, New Yor k.   pp . Management  :  -  . Wh y m p e r , C.    . Egyptian birds for the most part seen in Nesbitt, S. A., and G. W. Archibald.    . The agonistic rep e r - the Nile Val l e y . A. and C. Black, London.   pp . to i r e of Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin  : -  . Win t e r , S. W.    . The Demoiselle Crane in the agricultural Nesbitt, S. A., and A. S. Wen n e r .    . Pair formation and landscape of the Ukrainian steppe zone. Pages   -  in mate fidelity in Sandhill Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. J. Harris, editor. Proceedings    International Cra n e Le wis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and Wood, D. S.    . Phenetic relationships within the family U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Gruidae. Wilson Bulletin  :  -  . 3 0 Chapter 1 CHAPTER 2 Gen e r al Hus b a n d r y

S cott R. Swengel and James W. Carpe n t e r

ap t i v e cranes need a clean, safe, low stres s An important req u i r ement is that each institution en v i r onment to remain healthy and to cr eate an Car e and Use Committee (AC U C ) . br eed. Because disturbances are stressful to Included are a veterinarian and a person who is not cranes (Mirande et al.    unpubl.), sched- em p l o yed by the organization doing the res e a r ch. Th e Cule and perform husbandry practices to minimize ACUC rev i e ws proposed res e a r ch projects and eval u - disturbance (see Chapter  for details). Freq u e n t ates facilities. The Jan u a r y    issue of La b o r a t o r y ob s e r vation (Fig. .) of confined cranes enables quick Animal Science is devoted to the effective use of an detection of changes in a bird’s behavior (see Chapter ACUC and provides more details on how these com- ). By understanding the behavior of cranes, managers mittees can operate. Other animal wel f a r e guidelines can choose appropriate husbandry practices. ar e provided by the Canadian Council on Animal Ca r e (   ) and the American Orn i t h o l o g i s t s ’ Uni o n (   ). Animal Wel f a r e Humane treatment of captive animals is an importa n t The Physical Env i ro n m e n t pa r t of the conservation ethic. The Animal Wel f a r e Act (and USDA regulations  CFR Par ts -, as Crane Pens amended in Federal Register    ) was enacted by the U.S. Congress to govern the use of animals in Crane pens should be large enough to preve n t go vernment-funded res e a r ch projects. The USDA mi c r oorganisms and parasites from building up in regulations currently exclude birds, but have been the soil or in shelters. Nor m a l l y , cranes are moved adapted for birds by some agencies. We rec o m m e n d to a fallow pen each year (see below). Minimum pen vol u n t a r y compliance with these guidelines. si z es are presented in Chapter  and in Carpenter and Derrickson (   ). The pen walls should be designed to minimize injuries. Use fencing that is smooth and lacks proj e c - tions. Visual barriers serve the dual purpose of making the fence smoother and reducing stress on the cranes. Cranes are more likely to breed when they have visual barriers isolating them from their neighbors (see Chapter ). Soft outdoor and indoor pen substrates help keep crane feet healthy. Grass, or other natural outdoor surfaces, and wood shavings inside shelters ar e good choices. Cranes that are locked indoors req u i r e light and ven t i l a t i o n .

Cleaning, Sanitation, and Pen Rotation Fig. 2.1. Ear ly each day a caret a k e r , here Jane Nic o l i c h , Outdoor Pens. Clean pens are important to the Pat u xe n t ’s flock manager, walks through the colony to assess the continued health of cranes. Pen rotation is one of the health of each bird. Ph oto David H. El l i s best ways to keep large outdoor pens clean. Rot a t i o n 3 2 Chapter 2 al l o ws many of the soil pathogens to die by rem ov i n g Wet bedding, especially wood shavings, prom o t e s the crane host that is a critical link in the life cycle of fungal and bacterial growth particularly during warm, the pathogen. If cranes are rotated to alternate pens wet wea t h e r . Chicks are more susceptible to Asp e r g i l l u s annually and the pen has  m2 of space per crane, the and other pathogens than adult cranes. See Chapter  outdoor pens do not normally need to be cleaned. If, for details of cleaning chick pens. ho weve r , the soil has a high pathogen load or is known At least annually, or more frequently depending to harbor one ver y dangerous pathogen, it is advisable on usage, indoor pens should be thoroughly cleaned. to disinfect the outdoor pen before rei n t ro d u c i n g Rem o ve the bedding and disinfect the floor and cranes. This can be accomplished by tilling the topsoil walls by spraying or wiping them with bleach or a and applying lime, formalin, or a commercial disinfec- co m m e r cial disinfectant diluted with water. Bec a u s e tant that is effective against the disease agent(s) in disinfectants are potentially toxic to animals, they question. Cranes are moved to the fallow pen in mid- should be used judiciously; follow the directions on su m m e r , in fall, or just prior to the onset of egg laying the label and never use a higher concentration than is (so the chicks have a clean pen). All pairs in a row or recommended. Allow pens, especially the soil, to lie colony should be moved on the same day so all pairs idle long enough for the chemical to be ren d e re d ar e separated by an empty pen. harmless to the cranes (usually - days longer than Cross contamination of pens can be minimized the half life listed on the label). ICF has used Env i ro n by using an antibiotic (antibacterial and antiviral) or Nol v asan mixed :  with water and sprayed on fo o t b a t h . A footbath is a shallow pan at least  cm soiled pen walls. These chemicals (see Appendix) wer e in diameter containing - cm of fluid and located at chosen because they have short half lives . the doorway to each pen complex. Caretakers dip the Change the bedding more often if the cranes soles of their shoes each time they enter and leave the ar e locked inside a shelter for extended periods. Put pen complex. The bath is changed wee k l y , or more ne w bedding into the shelter after the building is often if the bath is diluted by rain. The bath solution th o r oughly dry. can contain any of several agents including Broa d Spec, Env i r on, or Nol va s a n . Wading Pools Indoor Pens. If the cranes have four-sided shelters with bedding, such as sand or wood shavings, Sha l l o w pools in which the cranes can wade and bathe clean the bedding at one or two day intervals. In pens can make the pen environment more natural and with shavings on the floo r , pick up the fecal material may promote breeding (see Chapter ). Pools should with a scoop or rubber glove. Sand floors can be either have a slow, continuous flow of water throu g h cleaned by sifting the droppings through a -m m them or be cleaned ever y - days (or more often if mesh screen. Sand, howeve r , will occasionally get into th e r e is a chick in the pen). If the pool stagnates, ch i c k s ’ eyes and cause conjunctivitis or other ocular deadly bacteria, such as Cl o s t r i d i u m bo t u l i n u m , may lesions. Rem o ve wet bedding during daily cleaning. flourish. Other potential health hazards associated with wading pools are bacterial or parasitic infections th r ough contamination by feces from the cranes, rodents, and wild birds. See Chapter  for details of pool construction and maintenance.

Annual Cycle of Management Act i v i t i e s

Most activities related to crane management are seasonal in nature or should otherwise be done on a regular schedule planned to minimize disturbance. Fig u r e . is an example of a schedule for such activities. Gene ral Hu s b a n d ry 3 3

FIG. 2.2. Time line for maintenance activities. Ja n Fe b Ma r Ap r May Ju n Ju l Au g Se p Oc t Nov De c Min i m i z e Dis t u r b a n c e Pen Rot a t i o n Co m m u n i t i e s Bree d e r Feed Breeder Ration Whooping Cra n e G. Sandhill Cra n e Provide Straw and Oystershell Whooping Cra n e G. Sandhill Cra n e Photoperiod Lights Whooping Cra n e G. Sandhill Cra n e Art i fi cal Ins e m i n a t i o n Whooping Cra n e G. Sandhill Cra n e Operate incubators Egg Moves Sno w Pol e s Chick Han d - re a r i n g Chick Pare n t - re a r i n g Mow Crane Area s Brail Chicks EEE Vac c i n a t i o n Sex Chicks Health Checks

Non-breeding Season shelter and food. All of these species req u i r e only a th r ee-sided shelter (wind break). Sub t r opical cranes Most activities that are not directly related to bree d i n g need supplemental heat or should be locked indoors ar e best conducted in the non-breeding season when when the temperature is below ° C ( ° F) (see Tab l e cranes are less susceptible to disturbance. Furt h e r , the .). African Crowned Cranes should be kept inside no n - b r eeding season is usually less busy for caret a k e r s . during brief winter warm spells if the ground is still This is, in some ways, the best time to move cranes fro z en. Other cranes may be allowed outside any time be t w een pens because cranes are less aggres s i v e during the temperature is higher than that listed in Table .. this period and the move will not disrupt rep ro d u c - On windy days these temperatures should be adjusted tion. Fall moves allow cranes two or more months to slightly upwa r d to account for wind chill, but cranes adjust before the next breeding season. Annual health usually seek shelter from the wind without assistance. ch e c k s (or physical examinations) should also be con- Unf o r tunately when cranes are locked inside, some ducted on the cranes in the fall, generally in may become stressed from the close contact with conjunction with wing clipping. humans. All but the African Crowned Cranes may be let outside during brief cleaning periods unless they ar e overly stressed when herded into their house. W i n t e r Sliding doors that operate from outside the pen can Temperate and subarctic cranes can tolerate tempera- make this operation easy, since most subtrop i c a l tu r es of – ° C (– ° F) or colder as long as they have cranes will go back inside on their own within a few 3 4 Chapter 2

TABLE 2.1. Some cranes may not lay eggs if caretakers reg u l a r l y Ambient temperatures at which warm-climate enter their pens to search for eggs. cranes should be moved indoors and supplied Cranes that breed at high latitudes often bree d with supplemental heat. better when they experience arti fi cially lengthened days (see Chapter  for details). Begin to extend the Locked He at photoperiod a month or so before the intended start Spe c i e s In s i d e Ne e d e d of egg laying to ensure maximum physiological Black Crown e d ° C ( ° F) ° C ( ° F) response. This helps to stimulate an early bree d i n g Gray Crown e d ° C ( ° F) ° C ( ° F) season prior to the onset of hot weather which causes most cranes to stop laying. Eastern Saru s –° C ( ° F) – ° C (° F) Brol g a – ° C ( ° F) – ° C (–° F) Indian Sa ru s – ° C (–° F) – ° C (– ° F) Chick Rearing Season Blu e – ° C (–° F) – ° C (– ° F) Sev eral activities are tied to the development of chicks. Wat t l e d – ° C (–° F) – ° C (– ° F) The chick-rearing house and its exer cise pens should be rep a i r ed, cleaned, and disinfected before the expected hatch date of the first egg. Other major minutes after their shelter is cleaned. If a crane attacks seasonal activities timed with chick development are the keeper, either let the crane outside during pen sexing (Chapter  C), flight restraint (Chapter  E) , se r vicing or wear prot e c t i v e gear when it is too cold to and formation of release cohorts (Chapter  D) . let the cranes out. Alternativel y , one person can fend off the crane while another services the pen. When wary cranes must be kept inside during pen se r vicing, stay low, approach indirec t l y , and avoi d Food and Drinking Wat e r di r ect eye contact with the birds while inside the pen. It can help to provide a window in one side of the Crane Food building to allow viewing of the crane without enter- ing the pen. Additional translucent windows or Di e t s. Crane diets wer e adapted from poultry skylights are useful for lighting the pens and provi d i n g diets (Ser a fi n    ). Cranes consume about % of solar heat during winter. Cranes stay healthier when their body weight per day (Halibey    un p u b l . ) . their quarters are well-lit. See Chapter  for details of Co m m e r cial diets have made it more convenient and insulated buildings and heating systems. less expensive to feed a controlled diet to cranes (s e e App e n d i x ) . Th e r e ar e u s u a l l yt h re et y p e so ff o r m u l a t e d cr a n e Egg Laying Season di e t s (Tab l e s . an d .). Ad u l tc r a n e s rec e i v e Mai n t e - One to two months before cranes are expected to lay n a n c eo r Bree d e r Di e t sd e p e n d i n go nt h es e a s o n . eggs, change to Breeder Diet (Table .) and supply C h i c k sa re pr ovi d e d a St a rt e r Die t . Mo s tf o r m u l a t e d cr ushed oyster shell (mixed with pelleted food or in a c r a n ed i e t sa re c o m p o s e dl a r g e l yo f ve g e t a b l em a t t e r separate container) as a calcium supplement. Vis u a l a n dl e s st h a n  % a n i m a lm a t t e r.Th e Pa t u xe n td i e ti s barriers must also be in place prior to the bree d i n g  .% pro t e i n (Ma i n t e n a n c e Di e t )o r  .% pro t e i n season. Place nesting material in the pen before the (B ree d e r Di e t ) .T h eI C Fd i e ti s  .% an d  .% pr o- cranes lay eggs to stimulate nest building. It is also t e i nf o r Ma i n t e n a n c ea n d Bree d e r Die t s . Pa t u xe n ta n d im p o r tant to condition the males to arti fi cial insemi- IC F Bree d e r Di e t sa l s oh a ve a h i g h e rc a l c i u ml e ve l nation (AI) before the females are expected to lay eggs (. % )t h a nt h e Mai n t e n a n c e Die t s (.%) . Sta rt e r so the males will produce semen at the approp r i a t e Di e t sf o rc h i c k s ha v e i n c re a s e dp ro t e i n ,c a l c i u m ,a n d time to ferti l i z e the eggs. vi t a m i n B le ve l s (Tab l e s . an d .) .C h i c k sa l s on e e d a Initiate egg searches (see Chapter ) when the h i g h e rc a l c i u m / p h o s p h o ru sr a t i o i nt h e i rf o o d th a n cranes are expected to lay eggs. Do this in a way that n o n - b re e d i n ga d u l tc r a n e s ,b e c a u s eo fm i n e r a l balances the disturbance incurred by the searches with d e m a n d sf o rb o n ea n df e a t h e r gr owt h . Be g i nf e e d i n g the importance of finding eggs immediately. Egg Bree d e r Di e tt w om o n t h sb e f o re t h ea n t i c i p a t e de g g se a r ches can generally be done from outside the pen. l a y i n gs e a s o n( Ru s s m a na n d Put n a m    ). General Hu s b a n d ry 3 5

TABLE 2.2. Feed formulas for chicks, non-breeding adults, and breeding adults. Sta rt e r Ma i n t e n a n c e Bre e d e r Ground yel l o w corn  .%  .%  .% Soybean meal ( % prot e i n ) —  .%  .% Soybean meal ( % prot e i n )  .% — — Wheat middlings  .%  .%  .% Fish meal ( % prot e i n ) — .% .% Ground oats  .%  .% .% Meat and bone meal — .% .% Alfalfa meal ( % prot e i n ) .% .% .% Corn distillers solubles .% — .% Brewers dried yea s t .% — .% Corn oil .% — — Dried whey .% .% .% Li m e s t o n e .% .% .% Dicalcium phosphate .% .% .% Iod i z ed salt . % .% .% Vitamin/mineral prem i x .% .% .% Composition of Fo r m u lated Di e ts Per cent prot e i n  .%  .%  .% Metabolizable energy, kcal/kg          Per cent calcium .% .% . % Per cent phosphorus . % . % . % Per cent methionine and cystine .% — — Per cent Lys i n e .% — —

Th e ty p e of pro t e i n in a ch i c k di e t is ver y im p o r - Food Stor a ge. Feed should be stored at ta n t . To mi n i m i z e su l p h u r am i n o ac i d s (c y s t i n e an d .-.° C ( - ° F) with low humidity. It is ver y me t h i o n i n e ) , Sta rt e r Die t s (Tab l e .) sh o u l d us e veg - im p o r tant that crane food be kept dry to eliminate et a b l e pro t e i n on l y . Ch i c k s th a t ar e pr ovi d e d Sta rt e r mold and reduce bacterial growth. Storage area s Di e t sc o n t a i n i n g hi g h pro p o rt i o n s of su l p h u r am i n o should be clean and free of rodents and insects. ac i d s de ve l o p mo r e le g an d wi n g ab n o r m a l i t i e s th a n Some ingredients in synthetic diets, especially vita- ch i c k s th a t co n s u m e di e t s lo w in su l p h u r am i n o ac i d s mins, have a limited storage life (Carpenter    ). If (Se r a fi n    ). Avoi d fe e d i n g an i m a l pro d u c t s , es p e - a refrigerator is not available, store no more than a ci a l l y fish , on a da i l y ba s i s be c a u s e th e y co n t a i n mo r e one-month supply at ambient temperature; ref r i g e r - su l p h u r am i n o ac i d s th a n mo s t veg e t a b l e pro t e i n s . ated food can be held up to three months. Feed can P e l l e tS i ze . We re c o m m e n dt h a tc r a n ef e e d , be froz en for up to one yea r , but it will loose some of e xc e p tf o r yo u n gc h i c k s ,s h o u l db ep e l l e t st h a ta re its nutritional value, may become easier to pulver i ze ,  m mi nd i a m e t e ra n d - m ml o n g .C h i c k sl e s st h a n and may acquire odors or tastes that make it less - we e k so l ds h o u l db ef e dc ru m b l e s (- m md i a m e t e r palatable. Water condenses on feed bags rem o ved n u g g e t s )a n dt h e ng r a d u a l l yi n t ro d u c e dt ot h el a r g e r fr om a free zer during warm, humid wea t h e r , so allow p e l l e t sa c c o rd i n gt ot h es c h e d u l eg i ve ni nC h a p t e r . the bags to stand separately and dry. 3 6 Chapter 2

TABLE 2.3. le v el is reduced. Be aware, howeve r , of spillage and Vitamin/mineral premix for feed formulas.1 consumption by wild birds . Dis c a r d wet or pulver i z ed feed before it loses its Breeder and nutritional value or becomes moldy. Completely Sta rt e r Ma i n t e n a n c e change the feed monthly and disinfect the feeder or Choline chloride  %  %  % bucket if it becomes wet . DL - Me t h i o n i n e  %  % Vitamin E   % Drinking Water Niacin  .% % % Cr a n e sn e e df re s hd r i n k i n gw a t e ra ta l lt i m e s . Calcium pantothenate   .% .% Co n s t a n t l y flow i n g ,e l e va t e d ,w a t e r i n gc u p s( Fi g . Vitamin B   .% .%  . ) ar e p re f e r re db e c a u s et h e ya re t h em o s ts a n i t a ry Ri b o fla v en   .% .% w a t e r i n gs y s t e ma va i l a b l ea n d req u i r e a mi n i m u m o fm a i n t e n a n c e . Fl o a t - o p e r a t e dw a t e r t ro u g h st h a t Vitamin A   . % . % au t o m a t i c a l l y fil lp rov i d ef re s hw a t e rf o re x t e n d e d Vitamin D   .% .% p e r i o d sa n dh a ve a l s ob e e nu s e ds u c c e s s f u l l y. If cr a n e s Selenium .%  %  % ar e h o u s e di ne n c l o s u re sw i t hf re s h , ru n n i n gw a t e r, an Zinc oxide  % .% % a rt i fic i a ls u p p l yi sn o tn e e d e d . Wa t e rs h o u l dn o t flow Manganese oxide  .% .% f ro mo n ec r a n ep e nt oa n o t h e r. C l e a nt h ec u p so ra u t o- ma t i c t ro u g hw a t e re r s a tl e a s to n c e a we e ku s i n g a st i f f E.D.D.I.  .% .  % .  % b ru s h .C h e c kt h ew a t e rd e l i ve ry sy s t e m d a i l yt om a k e Biotin % .%  su r e i ti sf u n c t i o n i n gp ro p e r l y.Nin e - l i t e r , he a v y - d u t y , Folic acid  % .%  ru b b e rb u c k e t sp l a c e di n a se c u r e s p o tc a nb ea na l t e r- n a t ew a t e rs o u rc e . Howeve r , t h e s eb u c k e t s req u i r e 1 ICF custom premix. Commercial pre- m i x es for turkeys or chickens mo r e ef f o r t t ok e e pc l e a na n dt h e ya re a g re a t e rh e a l t h ar e also used with manufacturer ’s inclusion rates followed . ha z a rd . If u s e d ,c l e a nd a i l ya n dd i s i n f e c to n c eo rt w i c e e a c hm o n t h . If a ni n d i v i d u a l c r a n es t a n d so rd e f e c a t e s i ni t sw a t e rc o n t a i n e r, el e va t e t h ec o n t a i n e r s ot h ec r a n e Crane Feeding c a nn ol o n g e rd os o.Buc k e t s s h o u l da l w a y sb ek e p to n h a n df o ru s e w h e nt h ea u t o m a t i c w a t e re r sf a i lo rf re eze. Place the food in a hopper feeder or an elevat e d In cold climates, drinking water may req u i r e bucket to reduce its accessibility to vermin and to heating to prev ent free zing. Some automatic watering facilitate rem o val of spilled food. Place the feeder in systems have built-in heaters. Flo wing water may not a shelter to shield it from rain, snow, and sunlight. req u i r e heating, but for buckets, a pole-type water To further limit water contact, keep the feeder at least heater (see Appendix) works wel l .  m from the water supply. Freq uency of Feeding. In warm, humid climates, it is necessary to change the food daily. In temperate climates, check the food daily or at least Handling and th r ee times a week, depending on the weather (more often when wet or snowy), and note the amount of Tra n s p o r ting Cra n e s feed consumed. Low use may indicate illness or a ta s t e ave r s i o n . Howeve r , during warm winter days or the Handling and Physical Restraint of Cranes first days of spring, some cranes stop eating for a day or more and rely on stored fat. An easy test of food Saf e t y Prec a utions. The capturing and res t r a i n - use is to mound the food into a cone in the feeder ing of cranes sometimes causes injuries to long legs, and look for depressions in the cone that day or the necks, and wings. Fledged colts seem parti c u l a r l y next. Placing a favorite food, such as smelt or corn, vulnerable to wing injuries. Fleeing cranes also hurt on top of the food also confirms whether a crane is th e m s e l v es by crashing into fences or flight netting. eating. Another method is to mark the food level To minimize injury, we recommend slowly herdi n g and determine quantitatively how much the food cranes into ca p t u r e corne r s (padded corners lined Ge ne ral Hu s b a n d ry 3 7 with tennis netting or another soft material). Onc e the capture, although some hand-rea r ed cranes are the cranes are cornered, the caretakers rush in the last ag g re s s i v e and dangerous enough that two people fe w meters to grab the birds . ar e req u i r ed; one diver ts the crane while the other Capturing and restraining cranes can also be risky quickly grabs the crane by the wing and the base of to handlers because of potential injury from the bill the neck. Most cranes that are captured regularly or feet. When in full attack, a crane stabs with the bill, (as for AI) can be trained to go to the same part rakes with the talons, and strikes with the wings. A of the pen each time the AI crew herds them in a single stab can blind a person. Anecdotes are avai l a b l e ce r tain manner. of one human mortality and other near death injuries Restraining Adult Cranes. Restrain wings and fr om crane bills (e.g., Bent    :  ). Most experi- legs as soon as possible after catching the crane (Fig . enced handlers have many minor scars. Som e .). The handler immediately pulls the crane’s body ca r etakers have sustained blows to their prot e c t i v e against his/her own and turns away from the bird’s goggles. Always wear ey e prot e c t i o n when capturing large cranes or dangerous individuals, and when pe r forming AI, use leather leg coverings (chaps) to pr otect legs against claw and bill injuries. Aggres s i v e cranes can be fended off by one person holding a bro o m (F ig. .) or T-s t i c k (a lightweight, -m long handle with a sturdy wooden crossbar at one end) against the crane’s chest to keep it at bay. Cranes that thrash around or peck at the handler while being restrained can usually be calmed down by covering the crane’s head and eyes with a ho o d . A hood is a tube-shaped piece of fabric that can slip over the head, bill first, and then be fastened around the back of the head to keep it in place. At Pat u xe n t , hoods are seldom used except with chicks during veterinarian exams. When using a hood, keep the na r es uncover ed. It is advisable to place a rigid paper Fig. 2.3. Brooms are used to defend against aggres s i v e cran e s ; or plastic disk over the crown to lift the fabric away Linda Miller ret r i e v es the chick while Jane Nicolich defends and fr om the eyes and thereb y eliminate corneal abrasion. Scott Here f o r d exchanges the chick’s food and water. Cap t u r ing Adult Cranes. Two to four people Ph oto David H. El l i s should herd the crane into a capture corner. App ro a c h the crane slowly with arms outstretched to herd the crane into the desired location. When the crane is about to escape past the caretakers, rush in and grab the bustle (the rea rw a r d, prot r uding, elongate ter- tiaries), both wings, or one wing (humerus) and the neck. If the crane goes into a shelter, catch it as quickly as possible so that it does not jump into a wall and injure itself. For cranes that tend to jump, angle your arms upwa r d as well as outward when cornering the crane, and be prep a r ed to grab a wing as the crane tries to jump over or past you . Pare n t - re a r ed and wild-caught cranes are usually mo r e difficult to capture. For such birds, a special ca p t u r e corner is important and more people may be req u i r ed. The wildest cranes may req u i r e a temporary Fig. 2.4. A portable capture lane is constructed of rigid, self- ca p t u r e lane constructed of wire panels (Fig. .). standing panels; Car lyn Williamson (left) and Jane Nicolich herd Hand-raised cranes are usually easier to capture. cr anes. Also note tennis netting, capture corne r . Often a single person can approach close enough for Ph oto David H. El l i s 3 8 Chapter 2

bill to avoid facial injury. A second person should hold the head of cranes that peck people. Restrain the head by encircling the bird’s upper neck with one hand without restricting the airway; do not cover the na r es. Hood if necessary. Another method is to hold the wings and body of the crane with one arm and the legs with the other (Fig. .). Allow the lower legs to flail if they do not need to be folded for the pro c e d u r e. Grasp the legs just above the hocks, but always place one finger between the hocks (Fig. . ) to prev ent the legs from abrading one another. Mak e su r e the tarsi cannot contact the crane’s neck or the person holding the crane. If the crane’s legs must be folded, gently force the tarsi around, but if the crane locks its hocks rigidly, do not force the legs to fold . Instead, maintain steady pre s s u r e on the tarsi until the crane allows you to fold the legs. When holding a crane with folded legs, sup- po r t the crane’s weight with the arm holding its body. Do not support the crane’s weight on its folded legs . Do not keep a crane’s legs folded for more than  minutes. These precautions will help prev ent slipped tendons, capture myopathy (Carpenter et al.    ), and in some cases (usually in chicks), leg fractures . The leg-folded carry is the primary method used at Fig. 2.5. Res t r ain wings and legs after capturing an adult ICF for all but Whooping Cranes and individuals cr ane. For ver y dangerous birds, the head can be res t r ained by a with a history of leg problems. It is the most conve- second person. Scott Here f o r d (left) and Thom Lewis with a nient carry and helps avoid injury to cranes and Whooping Crane. Ph oto David H. El l i s humans caused by flailing legs, but has been impli- cated in some crane injuries. At ICF, cranes whose legs are folded are sometimes placed in a sitting position on the ground for exami- nations or treatments (Fig. .). Kneel with your legs su r r ounding the crane’s wings but without placing weight on the crane. Use your hands to hold the crane do wn if it struggles to rise. This position is useful for examining the head and dorsum or force feeding. For brief periods of restraint, it is often helpful to hold and stroke the crane as for AI while a second person quickly examines the crane or administers medical treatments. AI stroking is also effective in neutralizing an aggres s i v e crane. Releasing Cranes After Restraint. Wh e n releasing a crane, allow its legs to touch the grou n d be f o r e letting go of the body or wings. We hold the bustle or one wing briefly while releasing the legs to in s u r e that the crane is stable on its feet. As the crane gains stability, move forwa r d a step or two with the Fig. 2.6. Hold the adult cran e ’s wings and body with one arm bi r d. These precautions help prev ent leg injuries to and its legs with the other; Sandy L. Meye r hoff. cranes that are unable to stand on their own without a Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n fe w seconds of support. This practice is not advisable General Hu s b a n d ry 3 9

Fig. 2.7. Scott R. Swengel res t r ains a by sitting across it. Fig. 2.8. Yuri Mar kin weighing a Siberian Crane chick in cloth Only the hands actually press down on the bird. sack; Mini Nag e n d r an looks on. Nort h w est Siberia. Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n Ph oto David H. El l i s for cranes that thrash violently on release because they crane in a cloth sack tail first, with the neck and head ar e more likely to become injured by thrashing about pr ojecting from the bag (Fig. .). Gather the slack than from release while temporarily unstable. material into a roll over the crane’s back, and pierce Handling Chicks. Chicks are more fragile than the hook of the spring scale through the bag just adult cranes. Growing legs, wings, and flight feathers under the roll. Suspend the crane and bag from the ar e especially vulnerable to injuries. Use less force scale, while holding one hand just under the bag to when capturing and restraining chicks. It is also co n t r ol the crane’s movements while in the bag. im p o r tant to minimize the length of time that chicks Weighing cranes in this way req u i r es that the crane’s ar e restrained because chicks seem to become severe l y legs be folded. Occasional injuries have resulted from st r essed after only a few minutes of handling. Chapter this method. An alternative method employs a wei g h -  describes the proper methods of handling you n g ing sling (that allows for the legs to be left unfolded). crane chicks. Chicks that are close to adult size should Perhaps the simplest sling is a meter square net that is be captured and held like adults except with extra wrapped around the crane’s body, then hooked in four ca u t i o n . or more places onto the scale. Pat u x ent has devel o p e d an innovat i v e cloth sling with Vel c r o straps in the fr ont and rear to restrain the bird’s wings (Fig. .). Weighing Cranes Young chicks can be placed in a cardb o a r d box that is Transporting Cranes then placed on a scale (see Chapter ). The box should be tall enough to prev ent the chick from climbing out, To minimize stress, move birds as little as possible and a carpet or mat should be placed in the box for (M irande et al.    unpubl.). In some facilities, pen good footing. The caretaker should keep one hand rotation can be accomplished by merely herding the close to the top of the box to make sure the chick does bi r d into the adjacent pen. For moves of less than   not climb out or tip the box. m, carry the crane while walking to the new location. Larger cranes (> kg) can be weighed on a platform For longer moves, hand carry the crane into a veh i c l e scale. Some cranes are calm enough to stand on the and hold it during transport. Use a hood for nervou s scale on their own. ICF currently weighs cranes while or aggres s i v e birds. For long-distance moves, crate the being held by a person standing on a scale. crane. If the crate is transported in an open truc k A  - kg capacity suspension spring scale with mo ving at highway speeds, tie the crate down, other- . kg accuracy can be used to more accurately wei g h wise wind drag may blow it over or even out of the cranes in their pens or in the field. The method used tr uck. When driving, avoid abrupt turns, sudden for many years with minimal injury is to place the changes in speed, and bumps. 4 0 Chapter 2

Most airlines will not accept crates taller than   cm. Construct crates to minimize the outside dimensions while maintaining adequate inside size and overall strength. If crates are taller than  cm , check with airlines before booking a shipment to make sure the oxygenated cargo hold of the plane has a large enough door. Label the crate with appro- priate instructions, and instruct the airline personnel to keep the crate upright while moving it into the cargo hold. To prev ent feather injuries when transporting a chick, adjust the crate size to prev ent the chick from turning around. For example, most adult Flo r i d a Sandhill Cranes can only with difficulty turn arou n d in a  cm wide crate. For a -month-old Flo r i d a Sandhill chick,  cm would be a better width. In general, the crate should be  . cm wider than the bi r d with folded wings. Length and height should be pro p o r tionately adjusted. Tem pe r at u r e. Dif f e r ent species of cranes tolerate heat and cold differen t l y . Sub t r opical cranes can with- stand heat better than temperate ones. Red - c r own e d and Siberian Cranes are the least heat tolerant and the most cold tolerant of all cranes. Use the conditions in the natural environment of the species to judge its Fig. 2.9. Dan Spr ague weighs a Sandhill Crane using a sling likely tolerance to heat and cold. During a long roa d with Vel c r o fasteners. Ph oto David H. El l i s trip in hot wea t h e r , check on the crane hourly or more often if stress is likely. At some of these checks, place a -cm deep water dish just inside the door of the crate If the crane must wait for more than a few min- for a few minutes. Avoid airline shipments when the utes after capture, place it in a crate (Fig. . ) until te m p e r a t u r e is above  ° C ( ° F) and below –° C it will be examined. Nev er leave a crane crated for ( ° F). The airlines themselves may also have res t r i c - mo r e than  minutes when the temperature is tions. Normally these rules allow shipment only ab o ve  o C ( o F) to avoid heat stress. Wh e n shipping cranes by air, crate design and shipping arrangements should comply with Int e r n a t i o n a l Animal Transfer Association (IATA) guidelines av ailable from the airlines or ICF. Cr a tes. Crates for adult cranes should be large enough for the crane to stand comfortably with its neck rec u r ved, but small enough to prev ent the crane fr om opening its wings or jumping enough to hurt it s e l f . A good generalized crane crate has in s i d e dimensions of  cm high ´  cm wide ´  cm long. We sometimes use double crates with a solid divider for carrying two cranes. The tallest cranes, Wattled and Sar us, need only a   cm tall crate, and sh o r ter cranes, Demoiselle, Hooded, and African Fig. 2.10. Cranes are routinely tran s p o r ted in special crat e s . Crowned Cranes, should have crates prop o rt i o n a l l y Bryant Tarr and Julie Langenberg pose next to a double crate and sm a l l e r . For Demoiselle Cranes, crates should be a juvenile Siberian Crane on its way to India, Jan u a r y    .  cm high ´  cm wide ´  cm long. Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n Ge ne ral Hu s b a n d ry 4 1 be t w een ° C ( ° F) and  ° C ( ° F), but a vet e r i - ha v e a fastening system that permits the door to be na r i a n ’s letter of recommendation can sometimes locked. Attach handles made of  ´  cm strips of persuade the airline staff to waive the rule. If the flig h t wood running the length of the sides near the top. is nonstop and the crate will not sit outside before or Pr eventing Injuries. Toenail and wing trauma after transport, it may still be possible to transport ar e the most common injuries observed when trans- bi r ds outside this temperature range. Allow for po r ting cranes. Min i m i z e these injuries by brailing the un f o r eseen events that may change the flight schedule wings (see Chapter  E), taping pads on the carpus of and jeopardi z e the bird. pinioned wings, eliminating rough edges inside the Food and Wate r . Adult cranes do not need food co m p a r tment, fastening grippable floor material during trips of less than two days. The higher the ver y securely along its perimeter, and choosing an te m p e r a t u r e, the more often cranes need to drink ap p r opriate crate size. The groo ve for the sliding during transport. At cold to moderate temperatures , door should be as narrow as possible so that cranes cranes need to drink after one day of travel. Placing a cannot get their toenails hooked in the groo ve familiar water dish just inside the door for / ho u r during transport. will give the crane adequate time to drink. Neve r Labeling. Label the crate “ ” on at least install a dish as a permanent part of the crate, because two sides and “  ” on all four sides. bi r ds can injure their feet or legs, break blood feathers, “   ” and “      or hurt their heads and necks on such struc t u re s .    ” are also useful labels. Write the names, Sp ecial Needs of Chicks. Young cranes, ad d r esses, and phone numbers of the sending and especially those less than  months old, req u i r e special receiving parties on the crate so that the airline may ca r e. Because they are less tolerant of environ m e n t a l contact the parties if there are any difficulties during ex t r emes than adults, young cranes should not be the shipment. IATA req u i r es that feeding and water- tr a n s p o r ted except for special purposes, and even then ing instructions be attached to the crate. they should be accompanied by a caret a k e r . You n g Car e of Recent Arriv als. Bef o r e a crane is cranes need water ever y few hours instead of once a shipped to you, learn about the crane’s behavior, food da y , and at least one good feeding per day. In req u i r ements, and habits to provide better care when addition, young cranes are prone to leg and wing it arrives. Try to use feeders and waterers similar to the injuries during transport; provide extra floo r ones to which the crane was accustomed, then change pa d d i n g in the crate. over gradually to your system. If the crane does not eat Mat e r ials and Construction of Crate s . im m e d i a t e l y , sprinkle its previous foods on top of the The sides of the crate, including the door, can be ne w diet to encourage use of the new food. made with . -in (.-cm) plywood and rei n f o rc e d along all edges with  ´  cm strips of wood. Th e flo o rs h o u l db e .- to . -i n (.- to - c m )p l y w o o d . The top can be of plywood or some other stron g Mar king Cra n e s material. Mesh hardw a r e cloth ( cm) sandwiched be t w een two layers of tennis wind-netting will serve to protect the crane’s head and allow ven t i l a t i o n B a n d s while restricting view and thereb y reducing distur- bance. For greater ventilation during warm wea t h e r Metal bands en g r a v ed with an identification (ID) shipments, provide a similarly constructed window number and placed above one hock make good over one-third to one-half of the back of the crate. It permanent ID markers (see Appendix). If the sex of is also advisable to provide rows of - cm diameter the crane is known before permanent banding of the ventilation holes near the top of the crate. Howeve r , bi r d, males can be banded on one leg and females unless the holes are cover ed with mesh, they increa s e on the other. This makes paired cranes individually the chance of injury if the crane prot r udes its bill recognizable at a distance. th r ough a hole. Co l o r ed leg bands al l o w more recognizable mark- Place a  cm layer of wood shavings on the carpet ing combinations than aluminum bands and are to absorb the crane’s feces. The door of the crate especially useful in making behavioral observations of should be along the shortest side and slide up and cranes in groups. Dif f e r ent colors and positions of one do wn in a narrow track. The top of the door should t ot h re el e g b a n d sa l l ow fo r t h o u s a n d so fc o m b i n a t i o n s . 4 2 Chapter 2

that are -. times as long as the band’s inside di a m e t e r . For bands that will be wrapped arou n d . times, cut strips that are -. times the length of the band’s inside diameter. The width of the plastic strip is usually  - mm . Attaching Color Bands. Color bands req u i r e softening in  ° C (  ° F) water to make them pliable enough to put on. The band will harden back to its old shape ver y quickly as it cools. If the band is wrapped around . and . times for  and  mm tall bands, res p e c t i ve l y , the crane will be unable to rem o ve the band with its bill. If you wish to glue (or weld) the band closed, place a few drops of acetone be t w een the overlapping ends and hold the band closed for  - se c o n d s . Band Size. The best band diameter is  mm Fig. 2.11. Crane band showing coded information for captive in s i d e diameter for small cranes (Black Crown e d , cr anes: color (taxon),  (hatch year),   (specimen number), and Gray Crowned, Demoiselle, and Hooded),  - mm incised white ring (sex). Numbers on bands for release birds should inside diameter for large cranes (Sar us and Red - be taller (at least  cm) and fewer to allow reading at   m with a cr owned), and  - mm inside diameter for the telescope. (Note fingers between cran e ’s legs prev enting abrasion.) remaining cranes. Aluminum bands are usually  - Ph oto David H. El l i s mm high, while color bands are taller ( - mm) to make them easy to see. Large (> mm high) color bands allow more room to engrave numbers and let- Color bands and aluminum bands can be combined ters. Small ( - mm tall) color bands are pref e r a b l e to generate additional marking combinations. if cranes will have two or more color bands. Bands made of laminated plastic (e.g., Gra vo p l y , see Bands that are stacked one on top of the other Appendix) with two layers of contrasting colors can be should be the same diameter and have plenty of over - en g r a v ed with unique combinations of letters and lap to prev ent the upper band from sliding over or numbers. At Pat u x ent, we engrave a narrow ring high under the lower . An interlocking aluminum band on the band for males (Fig. . ) and low for females. placed between two color bands also prev ents one To make color bands, cut strips of plastic of the color band from slipping down over the other (S. A. ap p r opriate size from a sheet of -mm thick plastic. Nesbitt, Florida Game and Fish, Gainesville, Flo r i d a , Next, engrave the alpha-numeric code on the plastic. personal communication). Heat the plastic strips in a teflon-coated and lubri- cated (use non-stick cooking spray or mold rel e a s e ) Other Marking Methods electric frying pan set at   ° C (  ° F). Using a higher temperature will distort characters that are Tattoos on the underside of the patagium are useful en g r a v ed in the plastic. Some plastics become pliable for permanent marking of birds but, like aluminum enough to form into bands after submersion in boil- bands, are not good for long-range identifica t i o n . ing water. When the strips become pliable, quickly Wing tags ar e poor markers because cranes often form them into the right shape around the proper size de s t r oy them after a few months or yea r s . do wels (wear gloves during this step of the proc e d u re ) . Neck collars can be dangerous to cranes. The The bands will cool and become rigid in a few bi r ds can get the tips of their long bills caught in the seconds, so roll them quickly. upper end of the collar and die from starvation or Wrap the plastic . -. times around the neck injuries. Unless further experimentation reve a l s do wel, depending on the height of the band. Tal l that some collars are safe, we recommend against bands req u i r e less overlap than short bands. Th e using them. mo r e a band overlaps, the more difficult it is to Transponders (coded electronic microc h i p attach and rem o ve. When making plastic bands implants) are the newest identification method to that wrap around . times, choose plastic strips be used for cranes. The small ( ´  mm), sterile, General Hu s b a n d ry 4 3 uniquely coded microchips are injected by syringe under the skin, where they can be detected and the code number read by a hand-held electronic scanner Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d up to . m. Transponders are becoming the standard American Orn i t h o l o g i s t s ’ Union.    . Rep o r t of committee method for permanent identification of zoo animals. on use of wild birds in res e a r ch. Auk   Howeve r , they are not useful for long-range identi- (,Sup p l e m e n t ) : A-  A. fication, and the systems are expensive (ca US$- / Bent, A. C.    . Life histories of Nor th American marsh mi c r ochip and US$  -   for the reader). Th e bi r ds. Smithsonian Institution, U.S. National Mus e u m Bulletin   . World Conservation Union (IUCN) has rec o m - Canadian Council on Animal Care.    . Guide to the care mended the Trovan/A.E.G. system (see Appendix) and use of experimental animals, Vol. . Public Hea l t h as the global standard, and the dorsal base of the neck Ser vice, Canadian Council on Animal Care, Ott a w a . as the pref e r r ed implantation site for cranes. Zoo s Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . An outline of the treatment and control routinely using transponders in cranes have re p o rt e d of crane parasites. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Colorado Sta t e no health problems associated with the microc h i p s . Uni v ersity Printing, For t Collins. Transponders may also be useful for released cranes, Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., and S. R. Derrickson.    . Infectious and wh e r e long-term permanent identification of even a parasitic diseases of cranes: principles of treatment and pa r tially consumed carcass is importa n t . pre v ention. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Baraboo, Wis . Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., N. Thomas, and S. Ree v es.    . Capture my opathy in an endangered Sandhill Crane. Pages   -  in J. H. Olsen and M. Eis e n a c h e r , editors. Proceedings    Annual Meeting American Association of Zoo Vet e r i n a r i a n s . Hal i b e y , T.    unpubl. Food and feeding habits of captive cranes. International Crane Foundation rep o rt . Mirande, C. M., J. W. Carpenter, and A. Bur ke.    un p u b l . The effect of disturbance on the rep r oduction and manage- ment of captive cranes. Paper presented at    Nort h American Crane Work s h o p .  pp . Russman, S. E., and M. S. Putnam.    . Nutrition and suc- cessful propagation of cranes. Pages   -  in E. R. Maschgan, M. E. Allen, and L. E. Fis h e r , editors. Proceedings of the First Annual Dr. Scholl Nut r i t i o n C o n f e re n c e . Ser a fi n, J. A.    . The influence of diet composition upon gr owth and development of Sandhill Cranes. Condor  :  -  . United States Dep a r tment of Agriculture.    . Par t IV, Dep a r tment of Agriculture Animal and Plant Hea l t h Inspection Ser vice:  CFR Par ts ,, and , Animal Wel f a re ; final rules. Federal Register  (  ):     -    . 4 4 Chapter 2 CHAPTER 3 Egg and Semen Prod u c t i o n

C la i re M. Mirande, Ge o rge F. Gee, Ann Bu rke, and Peter W h i t lo c k

his chapter rev i e ws ways to induce egg and managed with visual barriers, buffer zones, or pen semen production in captive cranes and switches. Bir ds should be carefully monitored for pr ovides managers with guidelines for estab- behavioral si g n s of st re s s associated with disturbances, lishing and evaluating their prog r a m s . such as frequent pacing of pen boundaries, exce s s i v e T pr eening, decreased or increased calling, egg brea k i n g , etc. If you observe such behavior and cannot correc t the problem, consider moving the birds (Der r i c k s o n Behavioral Fac t o r s and Carpenter    ).

Egg and Chick Adoptions Pair Bond Some pairs that have not laid eggs can be induced to Ca p t i v e cranes need a st ro n g pa i r bo n d to breed. In incubate eggs and adopt chicks (see Chapter  fo r the wild, cranes freely choose mates, but in captivity, details of chick adoptions). The behavior associated we choose mates based on availability and genetic with incubation and chick rearing strengthens the pair concerns. During courts h i p , there are strong feedback bond, may stimulate the pair to breed earlier, and may mechanisms between be h a v i o r an d ho rm o n a l st a t u s induce non-breeders to rep r oduce in subsequent yea r s . (Mu r ton and Westwood    ; see Chapter  fo r We speculate that successful adoptions elevate the gr eater detail). Courtship synchron i z es mates and pr olactin level in the pair. pr omotes development of the rep ro d u c t i v e system. Pat u x ent has introduced dummy eggs to eight This synchrony is critical because crane pairs must pairs of Whooping Cranes that have never before cooperate closely to copulate, incubate, and success- laid eggs: two pairs accepted and incubated eggs. fully raise chicks. Behavioral management is a critical One of these pairs hatched a chick and the other component of successful captive propagation, and adopted a chick. Both pairs laid eggs for the firs t readers are encouraged to study Chapter . time in the following yea r . ICF has attempted three egg adoptions with non-laying Whooping Cra n e s : none wer e successful. D i s t u r b a n c e To adopt an egg, watch pairs for signs of laying , In general, transferring pairs to different pens or such as increased Bil l - d o wn posturing (Fig. .), nest br eeding facilities disrupts rep ro d u c t i v e activity building or attraction to one area of the pen, broo d i - (M irande et al.    unpubl.). Howeve r , cranes may ness, aggres s i v eness, increased calling, or Copulation. be n e fi t from tr a n s f e r s , such as rem o val from display Par ents should be chosen based on their prev i o u s or return to a pen where the pair previously bred . experience with chicks and eggs (see Chapter  se c t i o n Annual rotation of pairs between adjacent pens (for on Choosing Par ents). To avoid disrupting natural disease management) does not seem to have an rep r oduction, egg adoptions should not be attempted ad v erse affect. If moves are needed, they should be if a pair seems likely to lay. Howeve r , if the laying scheduled after the breeding season. Valuable bree d i n g season is ending and the pair either shows no clear pairs should be kept “of f - e x h i b i t ” because cranes signs of laying or a decrease in nest attendance, it may maintained on pu b l i c di s p l a y pr oduce significa n t l y wo r k to give the pair a dummy egg to try to induce fe wer eggs (Mirande et al.    un p u b l . ) . them to adopt. See Chapter , Choosing Pare n t s Persistent ag g re s s i v e in t e r a c t i o n s with cranes in section, for parameters to use in evaluating surrog a t e neighboring pens can inhibit breeding and should be pa re n t ’s adoption potential. Unrated or first time pairs 4 6 Chapter 3

Env i r onmentdal Infl uences on Rep ro d u c t i o n Env i r onmental factors, together with physiological conditions and endogenous rhythms, ensure prop e r rep ro d u c t i v e timing (Marshall    ; Sadlier    ; Immelmann    ,    ; Welty    :  -  ; Murt o n and Westwood    ; Win g field    ; Wada    ; Farner    ). Physiologists define these environ m e n t a l in fl uences as either ul t i m a t e or pr oxi m a t e factors (see Chapter  for greater detail). By understanding ho w these factors affect rep r oduction, we can increa s e pr oduction by providing stimulatory cues and avoi d - ing inhibitory factors.

Daylength (Photoperiod) Farner (   ) says for birds “…in mid-to-high lati- tudes, the primary proximate factor is the annual cycl e in daylength.” Inc r easing the photoperiod stimulates Fig. 3.1. Nest searching or Bil l - d o wn posturing of a female br eeding in many species of birds (Welty    :  -  ; Siberian Crane. Ph oto Patty Mc C o u rt Mur ton and Westwood    ; Farner    ). Cra n e s that breed at hi g h la t i t u d e s (S iberian, Lesser San d h i l l , Hooded, and Whooping) often experience  or more should only be given non-endangered or non-val u a b l e hours of light each day. Although some individuals of eggs for the first few yea r s . these species have bred without an extended photo- Quickly create a nest in an area of the pen where period, it is believed that extending the photoperiod the pair seems most likely to lay. Then, without allow- art i fi cially induced the first captive breeding of ing the pair to see the egg in hand, place a dummy Hooded and Siberian Cranes. Most Hoo d e d , eg g in the nest. If the pair initially ignores or attempts Whooping, and all Siberian Cranes that have bred in to break the egg, continue the adoption. It may take captivity wer e provided with floodlights on automatic  to  days for the pair to accept the egg and begin timers to arti fi cially lengthen the photoperiod to incubating. After incubating for at least  - days  - hours. Table . lists three ph o t o p e ri o d co n t ro l ( - is pref e r r ed by Pat u x ent), exchange the dummy op t i o n s for breeding these species. egg for a pipped egg. If ever ything goes well, allow Mid - l a t i t u d e c r a n e sc a na l s o re s p o n dt oa ne x t e n d e d the pair to hatch or adopt and rear the chick. p h o t o p e r i o d .W h e na rt i fic i a l l y ph o t o s t i m u l a t e d , To stimulate parental behavior in non-rep ro d u c t i v e Grea t e r San d h i l l Cr a n e sl a ye g g se a r l i e rt h a nc o n t ro l s pairs, ICF also places -w eek- to -month-old chicks ( Ge ea n d Pen d l e t o n    ). Fo rt ro p i c a ls p e c i e s ,c a p t i ve in the pen adjacent to pairs. Responses var y, but some e g gp ro d u c t i o ni s : () p o s i t i ve l yc o r re l a t e dw i t h da y adults stand in close proximity to the chicks and l e n g t hi n t h o s es p e c i e sw h i c h ,i nt h ew i l d ,b re e dw h e n defend them. ICF was successful in adopting three da y s ar e l o n g e s t( e . g . , Saru s Cr a n e s ) ,a n d () ne g a t i ve l y -month-old Sandhill chicks to a lone female c o r re l a t e dw i t h d a yl e n g t hi ns p e c i e s wh i c h b re e di n th e White-naped Crane and a -w eek-old Sandhill to w i n t e r( e . g . , Wat t l e d Cra n e s , p= . ) wh e n d a y sa re each of two inexperienced pairs of Hooded Cra n e s . s h o rt e s t( Ba l z a n o    un p u b l . ) . The high latitude species lay eggs in the cool and moist days of late May and June. Because these species br eed in more southerly latitudes in captivity, it is im p o r tant to stimulate breeding earlier in the season than would occur in the wild. Warm temperatures at Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 4 7

TABLE 3.1. Three artificially lengthened photoperiod schedules used for breeding high latitude cranes in northern temperate zones. A. General B. Natural Siberian C. Whooping Crane S c h e d u l e — I C F Crane Schedule — I C F S c h e d u l e — Pat u xe n t Dat e Daylength (h) Dat e Daylength (h) Dat e Daylength (h)  - Feb  :  Feb -  Mar  :  - Feb  : - Mar  : - Mar  :  Feb -  Mar  : - Mar  :  - Mar  : - Mar  :  - Mar  :  Mar -  Apr  : - Mar  :  - Mar  : - Apr  :  - Mar  :  Mar -  Apr  :  Apr -  Jul  : 1  - Mar  : - Apr  :  Mar -  Apr  :  - Apr  : - Apr  :  - Apr  :  - Apr  :  Apr -  May  :  - Apr  :  May -  Jul  : 1  Apr -  May  : - May  :  - May  :  - May  :  - May  :  Jun -  : 2

1 To avoid possible harmful effects associated with a sudden decrease in daylength, ICF decreases photoperiod by one hour each week after prod u c - tion has ended (approximately  July). Arti fi cial lighting is discontinued when natural daylength is reached. Pat u x ent completely discontinues the use of lights when the last egg hatches. 2 ICF uses the same schedule for Whooping Cranes, but starts one week later.

Pat u x ent in early May and at ICF in late May seem Li g h t in t e n s i t y , and to a lesser extent sp e c t r a l ch a r - to inhibit rep r oduction. Extending photoperiod early acteristics, are important when choosing an arti fic i a l in the spring stimulates these species to breed when light source. From the literature for other bird grou p s te m p e r a t u r e an d hu m i d i t y at the captive site res e m b l e (M orris    ), we recommend  or more foot-candles the native habitat. (ca   lux) throughout the pen and shelter. To meet Cra n e s wi l l ad j u s t t h e i rb re e d i n g sc h e d u l e ba s e d on this goal, check the most dimly lit corners in the pen l a t i t u d ea n d cl i m a t e (p r i m a r i l y ph o t o p e r i o d a n dt e m- with a standard photographic light meter (incident pe r a t u re ) . For ex a m p l e , Grea t e r San d h i l l Cra n e s no t light measurement) after dark and adjust the light ex p o s e d to a na l t e re d ph o t o p e r i o d st a r t n e s t i n gt w o so u r ce to supply this minimum. Normal incandescent wee k s la t e r at I C Ft h a n at Pat u xe n t . To l e n g t h e nt h e bulbs provide a good color spectrum, but burn out la y i n g se a s o n , si t e - by - s i t e ph o t o p e r i o d ad j u s t m e n t s ar e quickly and are energy inefficient. Some quartz or be n e fic i a l . For ex a m p l e , IC F ad va n c e s t h ec yc l e by - metal halide lamps provide a good light spectrum, are we e k sf o r Sib e r i a n Cra n e s to in c re a s e t h ep h o t o p e r i o d long lasting and efficient, and req u i r e fewer lamps to to  . h o u r si n ea r l y Apr i l w h e nt e m p e r a t u re sa re pr ovide proper intensity throughout the pen. Lamps si m i l a r t ot h o s e i nt h e na t i v e ha b i t a t in May . Al s o , af t e r can be mounted on poles along pen perimeters or IC F re c e i ve dW h o o p i n g Cra n e s fro m Pat u xe n t , th e suspended overhead. If birds are rotated to fallow pens p h o t o p e r i o ds c h e d u l e us e d at Pat u xe n t wa s st a rt e d on e in alternate years, lamps on poles can be swiveled to we e kl a t e r to co m p e n s a t e fo r th e la t e r s p r i n ga t IC F . accommodate the rotation (Fig. .). 4 8 Chapter 3

two of three captive centers (p<. ) and in the wild (p<.  , Balzano    unpubl.). Wild Wat t l e d Cranes usually nest at the end of the rainy season. Egg la y i n g in Wat t l e d Cra n e s wa s ne g a t i ve l y co r re l a t e d with rainfall in the wild population (p<. ) and in one of three captive centers studied (p<. , Bal z a n o    un p u b l . ) . Although tropical cranes have bred without art i fi - cial rain, sprinklers at ICF simulating the rainy season (F ig. .) are believed to have stimulated the first cap- ti v e breeding of Brolga Cranes. Other zoos have also used sprinklers to increase laying in Crowned Cra n e s . We recommend that a sp ri n k l e r sy s t e m pr ovide a fine mist covering the entire pen. The system should operate two to five times each day, and the length of each shower should be adjusted to prev ent the de v elopment of puddles of stagnant water in the pens. Shield nests to prev ent nesting materials from becoming moldy.

L a t i t u d e Fig. 3.2. Photoperiod lights, if mounted on swivel heads, can be The onset of egg laying varies with latitude. For tu r ned to illuminate the adjacent pen in alternate years. Th o m no r th temperate zone breeding birds (disreg a r ding Lewis adjusts the position of a light. Ph oto David H. El l i s the effects of altitude), the laying season begins an av erage of three to four days later for each degree of Most facilities control photoperiod lights by a in c r easing latitude (Welty    :  ). Data on wild ti m e r cl o c k mounted near the pens. Timers should be Sandhill Cranes clearly demonstrate later initiation adjusted weekly and checked reg u l a r l y . Although a dates and peak production periods as latitude single night with altered photoperiod is normally in c r eases (Walkinshaw    ); the Mississippi San d h i l l in s u f fi cient to disrupt breeding, great care should Crane is an exception (see Fig. .). A similar pattern be taken to prev ent interruptions or other unpro- is observed in captive Greater Sandhill Cranes when grammed changes in the photoperiod reg i m e . laying dates for different breeding centers are exam- Twilight is a time of great activity for cranes, and ined (Table .). Because of these temporal trends, its simulation may increase the rates of courts h i p , we recommend that boreal and temperate species be copulation, etc. Twilight is much longer at high lati- maintained at higher latitudes. Tropical species do tudes (sometimes exceeding three hours) and is likely best in areas with less climatic var i a t i o n . to be most important for boreal and austral cranes. Fut u r e res e a rc h on the importance of twilight and the effects of an arti fi cial photoperiod on rep r oduction in cranes is needed, although controlled experimentation with adequate sample sizes is difficu l t .

R a i n f a l l Trop i c a l sp e c i e s , including the Sar us, Brolga, and Crowned Cranes, breed during the rainy season (A r chibald and Swengel    ; Konrad    ). Rainfall may be the proximate or ultimate factor stimulating br eeding in these species. The laying season of captive Fig. 3.3. Sprinklers can be used to simulate rainfall to prom o t e Sar us Cranes was positively correlated with rainfall in br eeding in tropical cranes, here Brol g a s . Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 4 9

of Wattled Cranes in which some pens Sandhill Crane Laying Se a s o n wer e arti fi cially flooded (half of each pen) and controls wer e not, higher pr oductivity was observed in the flooded pens (C. She p p a r d, Wil d l i f e Co n s e r vation Soc i e t y , Bronx, New Yor k, personal communication). Unless the flooded area is large or th e r e is good water flow, di s e a s e ris k s heighten. Factors such as surface area , flow rate, temperature, water depth, soil type, and amount of crane use need to be considered. Access to open water also increases the danger of fro z en feet in cold climates. Arti fic i a l pools are expensive, labor intensive, Fig. 3.4. Laying season for two nonmigrat o r y, warm-climate rac e s and costly to maintain. of the Sandhill Crane. The Pat u x ent colonies are ca - ° furth e r Pat u x ent formerly provided flowing water in co n - no r th than the wild populations. cre t e po o l s (about four feet in diameter sloping to one foot in depth). The cranes spent much time standing, bathing, and drinking in the pools. Howeve r , prel i m i - na r y data indicated that pairs with flowing water T e m p e r a t u r e (p r ovided in elevated cups, Fig.  . ) produced more Tem p e r a t u r e affects both the onset and termination eggs than pairs in pens with pools and did so without of the breeding season. Balzano (   unpubl.) found the maintenance and disease problems associated with that temperature and egg laying rates wer e positivel y pools. Neve r theless, the pairs with pools may have co r r elated in Sar us Cranes (p<. in  of  ca p t i v e ultimately done better with improved husbandry. populations), negatively correlated in Wattled Cra n e s ICF is currently examining the effects of se a s o n a l (p = .  in the wild population; p<.  in  of  pe n floo d i n g (F ig. .) to stimulate breeding in ca p t i v e populations), and uncorrelated in Wh i t e - no n p ro d u c t i v e, but sexually mature, Siberian and naped Cranes. Male Sandhill Cranes have prod u c e d Whooping Cranes. Prel i m i n a r y observations show semen in winter when kept indoors at moderate an increase in foraging and pair interactions and a te m p e r a t u r es ( ° C;  ° F) and on a lengthened de c r ease in territorial defense. Rate of flow is adjusted photoperiod (ca  hours) (Gee and Pendleton    ). so water continually drains into the soil red u c i n g The onset of hot weather seems to terminate semen disease risks. Seasonal flooding reduces disease risks pr oduction. For Siberian Cranes, semen prod u c t i o n by allowing soil to dry for - months each yea r . ceases above  ° C ( ° F) daytime peak (Ein s we i l e r Sandy soils at ICF also insure good drainage.    unpubl.). This can result in insufficient semen to Because many cranes breed without open water, fe rt i l i z e late eggs. For other species, the males may we do not recommend pools for most bree d i n g stop producing based on female behavior, not centers. Howeve r , when open water can be managed te m p e r a t u re . ef fic i e n t l y , it should promote breeding. One compro- mise is to provide open water to the most genetically valuable or most difficult to breed pairs, especially if Open Water AI is not feasible. Opinions differ on the importance of standing water to promote breeding in cranes. Water conditions Nest Sites ar ound nest sites variously stimulate or inhibit egg laying in birds (Lack    ; Welty    :  ). At the Cranes need undisturbed nesting sites. Wild cranes Wildlife Su rv i val Center in Georgia operated by the generally nest in isolated places where the risk of Wildlife Conservation Soc i e t y , cranes wer e success- pr edation is minimal. Some captive cranes (especially fully bred in large marshy enclosures. During a study wild caught or nervous birds) also seek seclusion for 5 0 Chapter 3

TABLE 3.2. Monthly distribution of eggs (%) laid by captive and wild cranes. Pe rcent of Eggs Laid by Mo n t h Ja n Fe b Ma r Ap r May Ju n Ju l Au g Se p Oc t Nov De c Int e r national Crane Foundation (Latitude  °  )—Cap t i v e Nor thern cranes Florida San d h i l l ––       –––– Greater San d h i l l –––    –––––– Red - c r own e d ––     –––––– Dem o i s e l l e –––   ––––––– Co m m o n –––    –––––– Wh i t e - n a p e d –––     ––––– Hoo d e d 1 ––––   ––––––– Sib e r i a n 1 ––     –––––– Wh o o p i n g 1 –––   ––––––– Tropical and southern cranes Eastern Sa ru s ––––     –––– Indian Sa ru s ––––     –––– Blu e ––––    ––––– Wat t l e d      –––––   Brol g a ––––     –––– Pat u x ent Wildlife R es e a r ch Center (Latitude  °  )—Cap t i v e Wh o o p i n g 1 ––    ––––––– Florida San d h i l l –      –––––– Greater San d h i l l 1 ––     –––––– Mississippi San d h i l l ––     –––––– Audubon Par k and Zoological Gar dens (New Orleans, Louisiana) and San Antonio (Texas) Zoo (Latitudes  °  and  °  )—Cap t i v e Wh o o p i n g –      –––––– Wild Cra n e s 2 Nor thern cranes Florida San d h i l l       –––––  Greater San d h i l l 3 –––     ––––– Red - c r own e d ––    ––––––– Dem o i s e l l e –––     ––––– Co m m o n –––    –––––– Tropical and southern cranes Blu e    ––––––    Wat t l e d             Brol g a      ––     – 1 Cap t i v e birds managed under photoperiod lights. 2 From Walkinshaw (   ). 3 Cranes breeding in Mic h i g a n . Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 5 1

F o o d During egg laying, birds draw on fat and calcium res e r ves and increase food consumption to provi d e essential energy, protein, and other nutrients for egg formation (Mur ton and Westwood    :  -  ). Cranes may breed in response to factors associated with future food supply (e.g., rainfall, amount of open wa t e r , etc.) as well as the direct availability of food. Whooping Cranes feed more heavily on aquatic life during the breeding season, thereb y increasing the amount of animal matter in the diet (Ser a fi n and Ar chibald    unpubl.). In captive females, Hal i b e y (   unpubl.) documented increased consumption of Fig. 3.5. A small pool in a Whooping Crane pen. feed and oyster shell (a calcium supplement) during Ph oto Ann Bu rk e egg prod u c t i o n . In a management regime, provide a co n s t a n t su p p l y of fre s h , nu t ri t i o n a l l y ba l a n c e d food to cue nesting. Other cranes sometimes build their nests in t h ec r a n e s t h a tc o n d i t i o n sa re o p t i m a lf o r rep ro d u c t i o n the most disturbed area of their pen or inside shelters. (see Chapter  for diets). Pat u x ent provides a bree d e r The rate of egg breakage at ICF is higher when eggs diet with  .% (by weight) protein, .% calcium, ar e laid indoors than when laid in the open pens. To and .% phosphorus. Similar values for ICF are mi n i m i z e disturbance, place food and water near the  .%, . %, and . % res p e c t i ve l y . Oyster shell pen entrance. At Pat u x ent and ICF, we enter food is provided ad libitum one to two months prior to sheds from a separate outside door to minimize distur- egg laying to all species and both sexes. Add i t i o n a l bance. For birds on display, caretaker activity and res e a r ch is needed on the nutritional req u i r ements public viewing should leave sections of the pen undis- for rep r oduction in cranes. turbed. Rep r oduction in ICF’s crane exhibit building gr eatly increased when caretakers changed to provi d - ing food and water from the exterior, public-viewi n g ar ea. The pairs selected nest sites in the undisturbed Sexual Maturity and ar eas of the pens (Mirande et al.    un p u b l . ) . Nes t si z e varies greatly by species. The largest nests Rep ro d u c t i v e Lif e s p a n may be  m in diameter and  m tall in wet areas, or a me r e scrape or a few arranged twigs in dry enclosures . The age of se x u a l ma t u ri t y and the initial appearance Even within a single species, great variation occurs. of rep ro d u c t i v e behavior varies between species and Greater Sandhill Crane nests at Gra y ’s Lake, Ida h o individuals, and is strongly influenced by rea r i n g var y from thick (. m) mats - m wide on water to hi s t o r y and management within species. In general, scrapes on the dry hillside. Some Demoiselle Cra n e s cranes form mating pairs when two to three years lay on the open steppe without any evidence of a nest. old and begin to rep r oduce when three to five yea r s For all species, provide a suitable supply of twigs and old. With rare exceptions, females lay eggs only coarse grasses to stimulate nesting behavior. Avoi d when paired. Pair bonds persist and egg prod u c t i o n materials that readily mold to reduce the risk of fungal continues (although sometimes at a lesser rate) even infection. Pat u x ent primarily provides wheat straw when members of a pair are separated into adjacent (Triticum aestivum). In an experiment, ICF provi d e d pens (Gee and Sexton    ). Egg pro d u c t i o n us u a l l y Siberian Cranes with four species of prairie grass begins one to two years after formation of a pair bond. including big bluestem (And r opogon gerar i d i ), little Laying as early as two years of age has been occasion- bluestem (A. sc o p a r i u s ), Indian grass (S o r g a s t ru m ally rep o r ted in captive Wattled, Red - c r own e d , nu t a n s ), and Canada wild rye (Ely m u s ca n a d e n s i s ). Eastern Sar us, and Sandhill Cranes, and is common All except little bluestem, the finest grass, wer e used in Mississippi Sandhill Cranes ( % of two-yea r - o l d with stems . m and shorter pref e r re d . females; Nicolich    ). 5 2 Chapter 3

For most species, captive cranes achieve rep ro d u c - ti v e success earlier than wild cranes. For some species, ho weve r , captivity appears to de l a y egg prod u c t i o n . Management of Ca p t i v e Whooping Cranes generally start laying at - years of age, even though wild birds lay as early as Egg Prod u c t i o n th r ee years of age (Kuyt and Gossen    ). The mean Characteristics of Egg Production age of first breeding is decreasing as management im p r oves (Mirande    unpubl.). Until a few yea r s In all species, egg production is strongly se a s o n a l ago, most captive Siberian Cranes bred at seven yea r s (Table .). External stimuli such as increa s i n g of age or older. Howeve r , with improved rearing and daylength awakens the rep ro d u c t i v e endocrine pairing techniques, Siberian Cranes are now bree d i n g system. These hormones stimulate the development as early as four to six years of age (Panchenko    of the gonadal and accessory rep ro d u c t i v e tissues. un p u b l . ) . Even t u a l l y , ovulation occurs and an egg is laid about Spe r m pro d u c t i o n generally begins at - years two days thereafter (see Chapter ). of age with regular production of quality semen Tim i n g an d le n g t h of breeding season var y by usually occurring the following yea r . Unlike females species. Table . sh o ws the egg production season that lay eggs only when mated, even unmated males for both captive and wild cranes. Initiation of laying pr oduce sperm. dates for individual females is predictable, and females Ca p t i v e cranes can live long and have an extended within a given species generally start laying in the rep ro d u c t i v e li f e s p a n . A male Siberian crane at ICF same each yea r . Howeve r , unusual events like li v ed to be at least  years of age and produced sperm sickness, pen moves, or other disturbance can alter until at least age  . A pair of White-naped Cra n e s the breeding schedule. and a pair of Demoiselle Cranes produced you n g Cranes are indeterminate egg layers capable of when both adults in each pair wer e at least  years of renesting and multiple clutching. Ren e s t i n g oc c u r s age. Great longevity has important management after eggs are rem o ved, destroyed, or abandoned. In implications (see Chapter ). the wild, renesting usually invol v es starting a new Ag e an d ex p e ri e n c e in c r ease rep ro d u c t i v e success nest at a new location. In captivity, where sites are in cranes (Kuyt    ; Nesbitt and Wenner    ) and limited, pairs frequently reuse the same nest. some other families of birds, especially those with The cl u t c h si z e for most species is two eggs. de l a y ed sexual maturity (Richdale    ; Minton    ; Wattled Cranes often lay a single egg, while Crown e d Gauthier    ). At ICF, several trends are evident Cranes may lay up to five eggs in a clutch. which appear to apply to all cranes. During the firs t The time period between successive eggs (whether th r ee years of egg laying, () the first egg of the season fr om the same clutch or a new clutch) is known as the appears prog re s s i v ely earlier (independent t-test, eg g la y i n g in t e r val . If successive eggs are laid within p= .  ), () the number of eggs produced increa s e s - days of the previous egg, we consider them part of (p < .  ), and () breeding season lengthens the same clutch. (p < .  ). The same trends wer e noted at Pat u xe n t , From long-term data kept for each female (see but statistical tests wer e not applied because of Table .), laying patterns begin to emerge. Th e s e confounding variables. First time breeders at both patterns allow managers to better predict when a ICF and Pat u x ent are also more likely to break their female will lay her first egg of the season, the timing eggs than experienced bree d e r s . of successive eggs, and the AI schedule. Two general patterns have emerged: some females maintain a clutching pattern (i.e., alternating long and short in t e r vals) while other females exhibit gradually in c r easing intervals between eggs.

Multiple Clutching Inducing captive cranes to lay higher numbers of eggs in one season by rem o ving eggs from the nest is kn o wn as mu l t i p l e cl u t c h i n g . Eggs can be rem o ved Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 5 3

TABLE 3.3. Sample egg laying interval record for one Florida Sandhill Crane at the International Crane Foundation.

Total 1 Number Season First Last Egg Nu m b e r Ye a r of Eg g s L e n g t h Dat e Dat e               Apr  Apr        Apr  Jun          Apr  Jun            Apr  May            Mar  May            Mar  Apr            Mar  Jun               May  Jun              May  Jun            Apr  Apr 

1 Number of days between successive eggs (i.e., in    , the second egg came three days after the first, the third followed the second by  days, and the fourth was laid two days after the third

(F ig. .) as laid or by clutch. Determine eg g rem o val Co m p l e t e - C lu t ch Removal. For first time pro c e d u re s be f o r e each laying season based on differ- la y ers and to correct problems with egg breakage (see ences in behavior, incubation skills, laying patterns, Egg Breakage section), ICF and Pat u x ent leave eggs genetic objectives (see Chapter ), and space avai l a b l e until the bird completes the clutch. Dis a d v antages of for raising chicks and housing new adults. rem o ving complete clutches include extended inter- Single-Egg Removal. When eggs wer e rem o ved vals between clutches, reduced egg production, and as laid, one captive Florida Sandhill Crane at ICF laid a shorter rep ro d u c t i v e season. Dis a d v antages to  eggs and one Greater Sandhill Crane at Pat u xe n t rem o ving eggs as laid include over production by laid  eggs in one season. Eggs wer e rem o ved as laid highly fecund females and reduced completion of fr om nine pairs of Greater Sandhill Cranes at Pat u xe n t first clutch by first time layers. Choose the method in a th re e - ye a r st u d y of cl u t c h si z e an d la y i n g in t e r val s . that fits your situation, bird by bird. The study birds averaged . +. days between eggs ( eggs) in the same clutch and  . +. da y s be t w een clutches ( clutches) (Gee    ). The num- ber of eggs laid varied from one to four eggs per clutch with  % being -egg clutches,  % -egg clutches,  % -egg clutches, and % -egg clutches. The study cranes showed neither a decline in egg production nor an increase in health problems that could be attributed to maximizing egg production during the three year study. Kepler (   ) found that single-egg rem o val resulted in greater egg production in Sandhill Cra n e s than complete-clutch rem o val (. eggs per bird ver s e s .). ICF uses single-egg rem o val to maximize the egg pr oduction of experienced breeders or with females Fig. 3.6. Rem o ving eggs can stimulate cranes to lay additional designated to be surrogate incubators. Pat u xe n t eggs. Her e Jane Nicolich defends as Yula Kapetanakos rem o ves eggs seldom uses single-egg rem o val . fr om Sandhill Cranes. Ph oto David H. El l i s 5 4 Chapter 3

Possible Consequences of Multi p l e Egg Breakage Clu t ching. Multiple clutching may effect rep r o- du c t i v e parameters. In a prel i m i n a r y study, Put n a m Egg breaking behavior is common in many species and Russman (   unpubl.) rep o r ted a seasonal of captive birds. It has been documented in both decline in weight from first egg to last egg in  of  experienced and inexperienced crane pairs. Brea k i n g cranes. Pat u x ent and ICF have used multiple clutch- generally occurs shortly after laying but has been ing with some pairs for decades with no apparen t ob s e r ved any time during incubation. Fac t o r s wh i c h ne g a t i v e effects. From our rec o r ds, we believe that may predispose cranes to break eggs include distur- a minor decline in egg weight over the season is bance around the nest site, nutritional defici e n c i e s , common, but does not limit prod u c t i v i t y . laying of abnormal eggs (soft shelled or undersized ) , Hunt (   ) noted a slight negative effect of inability to incubate prop e r l y , and incompatibility multiple clutching in that the last eggs of the season with mate. wer e slightly less likely to produce fledged chicks Limit human activity around pairs with a history of than earlier eggs. Stated more prec i s e l y , as egg orde r egg breaking. Beh a v i o r a l mo n i t o ri n g helps if facilities (number of egg in laying sequence) increased, the al l o w unobtrus i v e observation: video cameras can fledging rate decreased (P=.  ). This minor he l p . Obs e r vations may rev eal sources of disturbance reduction in fledging rate, howeve r , is more than and help guide management decisions. If the male is ou t w eighed by the added productivity coming from responsible, move him to an adjacent pen - da y s the additional eggs. Number in laying sequence be f o r e the female lays. Other responses may include had no effect on hatching rate. reducing human activity, adding visual scree n i n g , Other effects of “extended prod u c t i o n ” in cranes mo ving the pair to a different pen, or rem o ving an may include calcium depletion, post-laying “co l l a p s e , ” adjacent pair. laying of uncalcified eggs, decreased growth rate and Continuous monitoring often makes it possible s u rv i vability for chicks, and reduced probability of to collect eggs before they are broken and to rep l a c e fe r tility or hatchability (Koga    ; Putnam and them with either unbreakable (i.e., wooden or Russman    un p u b l . ) . pl a s t e r - fi lled; Fig. .) dummy eggs or blown crane In cranes, little is known about the complex rel a - eggs filled with a fo u l -ta s t i n g liquid (i.e., mustard, hot tionships between multiple clutching and stress, age, [tabasco or jalapiño] sauce, or methyl anthranilate). experience (several differences often occur between Foul-tasting dummies have been used with only a dam’s first and her subsequent seasons), rea r i n g limited success in an attempt to create an aversion to hi s t o r y, and physical and behavioral abnormalities egg breaking/eating. Fur ther experimentation with (St u r kie and Mueller    ; Putnam and Russman    distasteful but non-toxic substances may prove useful. unpubl.; Mirande and Archibald    ). Early studies Replacement with wooden or un b re a k a b l e du m m i e s with other species (e.g., Koga    ,    ,    ) con- has proven successful in several cases where pairs have cluded that multiple clutching increased ferti l i t y . accepted and incubated these “eggs.” Four pairs of When multiple clutching, mo n i t o r dams and their eggs for abnormalities; watch for changes in behavior. Rec o r d laying date for each egg, interval length, ferti l - it y , hatchability, and measurements (fresh wei g h t , length, and width). Minimizing disturbance is especially important around these females. St opping Egg Production. To stop prod u c t i o n , me r ely allow pairs to incubate the last clutch (eggs or dummy eggs) for a week or more. We do not recommended this method during extremely hot or cold weather when incubation may be more stres s f u l than egg production. During extreme environ m e n t a l conditions, birds stop laying naturally although incubation behavior may persist. Fig. 3.7. Unb r eakable dummy eggs are used to replace real eggs for pairs that break eggs. Ph oto Patty Mc C o u rt Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 5 5

TABLE 3.4. Timing and length of breeding season in male cranes at ICF from 1978-1990.1 Sample Earliest L at e s t Mean Season Peak Mean Semen Spe c i e s Si ze Se m e n Se m e n Length (day s ) Pro d u c t i o n Vo lume (cc ) Blu e   Apr  Jul   May -  Jun . Sib e r i a n   Mar  May   Apr -  Apr . Florida San d h i l l   Mar  May   Apr -  May . Greater San d h i l l   Mar  May   Apr -  May . Eastern Sa ru s   May  Jul   Jun -  Jul . Indian Sa ru s   May  Jul   May -  Jul . Brol g a   Apr  Jul   Jun -  Jul . Wh i t e - n a p e d   Mar  Jun    Apr -  May . Co m m o n   Mar  May   Mar -  May . Hoo d e d   Mar  Mar   Mar -  Mar . Red - c r own e d   Mar  May   Mar -  May . Wh o o p i n g 2   Mar  May   Mar -  Apr . Dem o i s e l l e   Apr  May   Apr -  May — Wat t l e d   Mar  May   Mar -  May —

1 Crowned Cranes are not included because they lay throughout the yea r . 2 Data from Pat u xe n t .

Whooping Cranes at Pat u x ent broke ever y egg which was not immediately rem o ved from their pens. All wer e subsequently given wooden dummy eggs. Characteristics of All pairs initially pecked, then ignored the eggs, and ev entually adopted and incubated the wooden eggs. Sem e n Prod u c t i o n Th r ee of the four pairs thereafter laid their own eggs Table . su m m a r i z es crane semen production. and incubated without further breakage. ICF has had These data provide guidelines for collecting semen. similar success with Wattled and Whooping Cra n e s . Crane semen samples are ver y small; the average is Incubation and parenting behavior is rei n f o r ced by . to . cc for different species. Semen volume al l o wing these pairs to incubate full term, and then in one ejaculate can var y dramatically between males hatch and rear a chick. of the same species, from a smear to . cc . Although no res e a r ch has been conducted on the Mea s u r ements of semen quality and quantity are relationship of diet to egg breaking, this behavior may described in Chapter  A. also be linked to nu t ri t i o n a l de fic i e n c i e s . At ICF, we pr ovide high protein treats (newborn mice or smelt) in food bowls or we toss them to the birds. Treats also help calm or tame the birds. Tame birds, we believe, ar e less prone to break eggs. 5 6 Chapter 3

Koga, T.    . On the arti fi cial incubation of cranes (Grus vi p i o and Gru sj a p o n e n s i s). Journal of the Ueno Zoo :- . Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Koga, T.    . Studies on the rep r oduction of cranes, especially on their arti fi cial incubation and breeding. Journal of Ar chibald, G., and S. Swengel.    . Comparative ecology and Japanese Association of Zoological Gar dens and Aqu a r i u m s behavior of Eastern Sar us Cranes and Brolgas in Aus t r a l i a . : - . Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Cra n e Koga, T.    . Inc r easing captive production of Japanese and Work s h o p . Platte River Whooping Crane Habitat and White-naped Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Se rv i c e , Proceedings of the International Crane Wor kshop    . Grand Island, Neb r . Oklahoma State Uni v ersity Publishing and Pri n t i n g . Balzano, S. A.    unpubl. Climatic influences on crane Konrad, P. M.    . Rainy season ecology of South African pr oduction. Paper presented at the    Nor th American Grey Crowned Cranes in the Luangwa Val l e y , Zam b i a . Crane Work s h o p . Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q i e r , editors. Derrickson, S. R., and J. W. Carpenter.    . Behavioral man- Proceedings of the    International Crane Work s h o p . agement of captive cranes—factors influencing prop a g a t i o n International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . and rei n t r oduction. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and Kuyt, E.    . Population status, nest site fide l i t y , and bree d i n g R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l habits of Whooping Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewi s Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , and H. Masatomi, editors. Crane res e a r ch around the Baraboo, Wis . world. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Ein s we i l e r , S.    unpubl. Factors affecting rep r oduction of Kuyt, E., and J. P. Gossen.    . Surv i v al, age composition, the Siberian Crane at the International Crane Fou n d a t i o n . sex ratio, and age of first breeding of Whooping Cranes in International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis.  pp . Wood Buffalo National Par k, Canada. Pages   -  in J. Far n e r , D. S.    . Generation and regulation of annual cycl e C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e in migratory passerine birds. American Zoo l o g i s t Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat and Maintenance Trus t  :  -  . and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Gau t h i e r , G.    . The effect of experience and timing on Lack, D.    . Nesting conditions as a factor control l i n g re p ro d u c t i ve performance in Buf fl eheads. Auk   :  - . br eeding time in birds. Pages   -  in Proceedings of the Gee, G. F.    . Crane re p ro d u c t i ve physiology and conserva- Zoological Society of London. tion. Zoo Biology :  -  . Marshall, A. J.    . Breeding seasons and migration. Pag e s Gee, G. F., and G. W. Pendleton.    . Effects of extended   -  in A. J. Marshall, editor. Biology and comparative photoperiod on Sandhill Crane rep r oduction. Pages   -  physiology of birds. Vol. II. Academic Press, New York . in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Nor th American Minton, C. D. T.    . Pairing and breeding in swans. Crane Work s h o p . Florida Nongame Wildlife Prog r a m Wil d f o wl  : - . Technical Rep o r t # . Mirande, C.    unpubl. Genealogy of the Whooping Cra n e . Gee, G. F., and T. Sexton.    . Arti fi cial insemination of International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis.  pp . cranes with froz en semen. Pages  - in J. C. Lewi s , Mirande, C. M., and G. W. Archibald.    . Sexual maturity ed i t o r . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Nat i o n a l and pair formation in captive cranes at ICF. Pages   -  Audubon Society and Colorado State Uni v ersity Pri n t i n g in American Association of Zoological Par ks and Ser vice, Ft. Collins, Colo. Aquariums    Annual Conference Proc e e d i n g s , Hal i b e y , T.    unpubl. Feed and feeding habits of captive Indianapolis, Ind . cranes. ICF rep o r t.  pp . Mirande, C. M., J. W. Carpenter, and A. Bur ke.    un p u b l . Hunt, M. C.    . Analysis of the relationship between egg The effect of disturbance on the rep r oduction and manage- or der (- ) and egg quality as determined by hatching and ment of captive cranes. Paper presented at the    Nort h fledging rates in Siberian, Florida Sandhill, Wh i t e - n a p e d American Crane Wo rk s h o p.  pp . and Red - c r owned Cranes. Avi c u l t u r e Mag a z i n e Morris, T. R.    . Light req u i r ements of the . Pages  -   ():  - ). in T. C. Carte r , editor. Env i r onmental control in poultry Immelmann, K.    . Ecological aspects of periodic rep ro d u c - pr oduction. Oli v er and Boyd, Edenburgh and London. tion. Pages   -  in D. S. Far n e r , J. R. King, and K. C. Mur ton, R. K., and N. J. Westwood.    . Avian bree d i n g Par k, editors. Avian biology. Academic Press, New York . cy cles. Oxford Uni v ersity Press, Oxford, England.   pp . Immelmann, K.    . Role of the environment in rep ro d u c - Nesbitt, S. A., and A. S. Wen n e r .    . Pair formation and tion as source of “pre d i c t i v e information.” Pages   -  in mate fidelity in Sandhill Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. D. S. Far n e r , editor. Breeding biology of birds. Nat i o n a l Le wis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and Kep l e r , C.B.    . Captive propagation of Whooping Cra n e s : U. S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . a behavioral approach. Pages   -  in S. A. Tem p l e , Nicolich, J.    . Appendix . Pat u x ent captive population ed i t o r . End a n g e r ed birds: management techniques for data. Page  in U. S. Seal, editor. Mississippi San d h i l l pre s e r ving threatened species. Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n Crane (Grus c a n a d e n s i sp u l l a) Population and Hab i t a t Press, Mad i s o n . Viability Assessment Work s h o p . Conducted by IUCN/SSC Ca p t i v e Breeding Specialist Grou p . Egg and Semen Pro d u c t i o n 5 7

Panchenko, V.    unpubl. International Siberian Cra n e studbook. Oka State Nat u r e Res e r ve, Ryazan, Russia.  pp . Putnam, M., and S. Russman.    unpubl. Changes in egg characteristics and laying intervals in captive cranes laying multiple clutches.  pp . Richdale, L. E.    . Sexual behavior in penguins. Uni v ersity of Kansas Press, Lawrence.   pp . Sad l i e r , R. M. F. S.    . The ecology of rep r oduction in wild and domestic mammals. Methuen and Ltd., London.   pp . Ser a fi n, J. A., and G. W. Archibald.    unpubl. Natural and synthetic diets for cranes and other .  pp . Stu r kie, P. D., and W. J. Mue l l e r .    . Rep r oduction in the female and egg production. Pages   -  in P. D. Stu r kie, editor. Avian physiology. rd ed. Spr i n g e r - Ve r l a g , New York . Wada, M.    . Photoperiodism in avian rep r oduction. Pag e s   -  in K. Ochiai, Y. Arai, T. Shioda, and M. Tak a h a s h i , editors. Endocrine correlates of rep r oduction. Jap a n Sc i e n t i fi c Society Press, Tok y o, Jap a n . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Mississippi and Florida San d h i l l Crane egg rec o r ds. The Cranes: a Journal Dealing with World Cranes :. Wel t y , J. C.    . The life of birds. nd ed. W. B. Sau n d e r s Co ., Philadelphia, Pa.   pp . Win g field, J. C.    . Env i r onmental and endocrine control of avian rep r oduction: an ecological approach. Pages   -  in S. Mikanu et al., editors. Avian endocrinology and eco- logical perspectives. Japan Scientific Society Press, Tok y o. 5 8 Chapter 3 CHAPTER 4 Incubation and Hat c h i n g

Ro b e rt R. Gabel and Thomas A. Ma h a n

hi s ch a p t e r c o m p a re sc r a n e eg g in c u b a t i o n Sev eral factors can decrease hatchability: disease, t e c h n i q u e sa n d pr ovi d e s tro u b l e s h o o t i n g behavioral anomalies, improper nutrition, inbree d i n g , gu i d e l i n e s . For an ex p a n d e d tre a t m e n t of th i s and other genetic defects (see Kuehler and Good    ; su b j e c t se e Stro m b e r g (   ), Brown (   ), Kuehler and Loomis    ). Consultation with vet e r i - Tan d Jord a n (   ) .T h e si m p l e s t ap p ro a c h to in c u b a - narians and professionals in other rel e v ant disciplines ti o n is to pe r m i t a pa i r of cr a n e s to in c u b a t e an d ha t c h can greatly enhance an incubation prog r a m . th e i r own e g g s( s e e Ch a p t e r ). Ci rc u m s t a n c e s ma y , ho weve r , req u i r e al t e r n a t i v e me t h o d s . Gen e t i c a l l y va l u a b l eb i rd sm a y be un re l i a b l e pa re n t s t h a tc a n n o t b et ru s t e d wi t h th e i r own eg g s . Eg g sm a y al s o be Natural Inc u b a t i o n rem o ved fro m val u a b l e bi rd s t oi n d u c e l a y i n go f mu l t i - pl e cl u t c h e s fo r ma x i m u m pro d u c t i o n . Inc l e m e n t The natural parents, foster parents of the same or wea t h e r , th e th re a t of pre d a t o r s , or th e un e x p e c t e d a related species, or even unrelated species (e.g., de a t h of a p a re n tm a y al l req u i r e th a t eg g s be rem o ved domestic chickens) may be used to incubate crane fro m th e i r or i g i n a l ne s t . In ea c h ca s e , de p e n d a b l e eggs. Choose birds that are reliable incubators and su b s t i t u t e s fo r pa re n t a l in c u b a t i o n ar e ne e d e d . whose rep ro d u c t i v e cycle can be synchron i z ed with In planning an incubation program, consider the that of the natural parents (see Chapter ). fo l l o wing: () size of the breeding flock, () rel i a b i l i t y Natural incubation has several ad va n t a g e s , and of electrical power , and () availability of space, hatchability for some cranes can be improved if at ma n p o wer , incubation equipment, and supplies. To least the first - days of incubation are natural ev aluate an incubation program, benchmarks must (B rown    ; Erickson and Derrickson    ; Hec k also be established. A reasonable hatch rate of ferti l e and Konkel    ; Mahan    ). First, variation in eggs is  - %, whether incubation is natural or nest temperature due to environmental temperature art i fi cial. Hatch rates below  % indicate a need changes, incubation exchanges by the parents, and a for improvem e n t . te m p e r a t u r e gradient from top to bottom of the egg Gen e r a l l y , the best hatching success has been ar e lacking in conventional arti fi cial incubation and ac h i e v ed for cranes using natural or a combination ar e believed to affect hatchability (Gee et al.    ). of natural and arti fi cial incubation (Sul l i v an    Second, separate facilities are not needed for incuba- unpubl.). Chickens have been successfully used as tion and rearing if eggs and chicks remain with the su r r ogate incubators, although hatching rates can be pa r ents or foster parents. Th i r d, naturally incubated lo wer (Mahan    ). Chicken incubation may be eggs are not threatened by an interruption in electrical the best method when crane parents and art i fic i a l se r vice or mechanical failure. Fin a l l y , natural incuba- incubators are not available or when power supplies tion, as well as subsequent chick rearing, may enhance ar e undependable. pair bonds between birds and promote higher A good hatchery manager is familiar with embryo rep ro d u c t i v e rates in the future (Derrickson and mo r tality patterns, weight-loss profi les, and other Carpenter    ). egg, embryo, and hatchling characteristics that are Natural incubation also has associated di f fic u l t i e s in d i c a t i v e of improper temperature or humidity, or and ris k s : () contamination of eggs by feces, soil, other incubation problems. This information is avai l - nesting material, or other debris; () disease trans- able in the avicultural and poultry science literature, mission from parent to egg or chick; () accidental or fr om which many of the ref e r ences for this chapter de l i b e r a t e b re a k a g eo fe g g s by p a re n t so rf o s t e r pa re n t s ; wer e taken. () predation; () nest abandonment (even if the 6 0 Chapter 4 pa r ents or foster parents have previously incubated good time to rem o ve the eggs if the parents are to successfully); and () reduced ability to monitor lay another clutch (see Chapter ). Weight loss of the em b r yo development and egg condition. Lower pro- egg should also be monitored throughout incubation. duction may also result if parents are used to incubate Ar ound the  th day of incubation, Pat u x ent uses rather than rec y cle and produce additional clutches of flot a t i o n to check the viability of eggs remaining with eggs in the same season (Derrickson and Carpenter the parents (technique described later). ICF candles    ). In addition, if foster parents are used, natural a second time and only uses flotation if candling is incubation invol v es higher costs for facilities and staff unsuccessful or embryo death is suspected. Once because several pairs of foster parents must be main- you are certain an embryo is not developing, rem o ve tained yea r - r ound to care for the eggs and young of in f e r tile or nonviable eggs and open them for bacterial each pair of birds whose eggs are fostered. Sim i l a r l y , cu l t u r e and examination of contents. The eggs may incubation under chickens req u i r es maintaining be replaced with arti fi cial eggs or other viable eggs to se v eral hens so that at least one will be broody when keep the pair incubating. each clutch of crane eggs is laid. Chickens also req u i r e One or two days before ha t c h i n g , the chick a facility where the photoperiod can be controlled becomes active, punctures the air cell, and becomes to stimulate egg laying and incubation to coincide vocal (Har tman et al.    ). The incubating paren t s with that of the cranes. A backup incubation system communicate with the hatching chick by purring is needed in any event to incubate thin-shelled or fre q u e n t l y , and they spend more time hock-sitting cracked eggs, eggs deserted by parents, or eggs rather than lying in the nest. Mor e frequent nest en d a n g e r ed by sever e wea t h e r . checks are advisable at this stage if the adult birds are not unduly agitated. Make at least one close inspec- tion as soon as possible after the chick pips (i.e., when Parental Incubation the first break in the eggshell occurs, usually indicated Each potential layer is observed two to four times each by noticeably louder cheeping from the nest) to see if da y . As the caretaker walks through the colony, he or the pip is in the correct position (at the large end of she rev i e ws a previously prep a r ed form (Fig.  .) the egg). Additional inspections can be made with sh o wing the presence and condition of eggs during binoculars from a distance of  - m. If an egg has the last visit and rec o r ds his or her own observat i o n s . been pipped for more than  h but has not yet In pens with unreliable parents, new eggs, especially opened, enter the pen to see if the inner eggshell eggs of endangered species, are immediately rem o ved membranes have dried and are adhering to the when found. Sometimes these are exchanged for chick, thereb y prev enting hatching prog r ess. Ch i c k dummy eggs to stimulate incubation (see Chapter ). de f o r mities can also prev ent hatching. Problem eggs When first handling eggs, mark each with an ar e best dealt with by moving them to the arti fic i a l id e n t i fi cation (ID) number, weigh, and measure incubation facility (see Har tman et al.    ; also (length and width). Pat u x ent di s i n f e c t s each egg by Assisted Hatches section in this chapter). dipping in a  % Betadine or similar povi d o n e - i o d i n e Check the chick as soon as possible after it hatches solution, or in quaternary ammonia or other non- to determine if the yolk sac has been completely to xic disinfectant at  ° C (  ° F), as soon as possible absorbed into the body cavity (see Chapter ). If after laying. ICF does not disinfect and has  - % the umbilicus is closed (with the yolk sac in the hatchability (Sul l i v an    unpubl.). Disinfection is abdomen), apply iodine solution to the site to preve n t pa r ticularly important when breeding birds are in infection. Weigh the chick to establish a ref e re n c e en c l o s u r es that have been used for several years and point for early growth eval u a t i o n s . th e re f o r e may have a burden of soil pathogens. During incubation, observe parents from a blind or at a distance to determine nest attendance. If the pa r ents are frequently off the nest, especially in cold wea t h e r , consider rem o ving or replacing the eggs and using another method of incubation until conditions im p r ove. Determine egg fertility by candling, if possible,  to  days after oviposition (see Fert i l i t y Determination section, this chapter). This is also a In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 6 1

Surrogate Incubation by Cranes Males are needed for breeding, but are not neces- sa r y for hens to incubate. Only a few males are needed The surrogate pair must have eggs of their own that because one male can easily inseminate - he n s . ar e at approximately the same stage of incubation Producing your own replacement chicks avoids the as the fostered eggs (usually within  days of risk of introducing disease and allows for selection sy n c h r ony). This is easiest to arrange if the foster of stock with good incubating qualities. Although species breeds near the same time as the donor. un r elated stock must be obtained periodically to mini- Oth e r wise, the breeding cycles of one or both mi z e inbreeding, such additions need not be freq u e n t species must be altered by manipulating the because healthy hens can be used for - years or photoperiod with arti fi cial light, rec y cling the foster lo n g e r . Indeed, experienced, older hens are the most pa r ents, or both. If surrogate parents are in short valuable birds in a surrogate incubation prog r a m . su p p l y , move eggs to arti fi cial incubators after Maintain chickens in a wel l - v entilated enclosure - days. This allows pairs to incubate up to three that provides about  m of floor space per adult bird sets of eggs in a single season (see Egg and Chick (enough space for the birds to move about freely and Adoptions in Chapter ). remain unsoiled). Use hardwood chips, shavings, or other dry, rel a t i v ely dust-free bedding. Preve n t bedding from becoming wet or damp; immediately Surrogate Incubation by Chickens rem o ve damp bedding to avoid growth of fungi and Incubation of rare or exotic species by chickens is bacteria. If possible, provide an outdoor yard for st a n d a r d practice in , especially for the exe r cise and a more interesting environment. Th i s pr oduction of game birds (pheasants, quail, etc.; practice is believed to provide the birds opportu n i t i e s Brown    ; Heck and Konkel    ). Chickens for normal behavior and prev ent feather plucking, receiving crane eggs for surrogate incubation must cannibalism, or other destruc t i v e activities. Kee p be in rep ro d u c t i v e synchrony with the crane pairs. exe r cise areas clean and tightly enclosed to prev ent the Unlike cranes, which have an incubation period of en t r y of predators, vermin, or wild birds that could about  days, the normal incubation period for in t r oduce disease. Test and treat for internal parasites chickens is  days. Although a chicken’s incubation be f o r e the chickens are put into an outdoor enclosure period may be extended to  days, the behavior so the ground does not become contaminated and and physical condition of the hen should be closely se r ve as a source of rei n f e c t i o n . mo n i t o r ed to prev ent nest abandonment and to avoi d Chickens are able to withstand fairly cool and impairing the health of the hen. warm temperatures, but should be protected from Use large or “st a n d a r d” chicken breeds rather than te m p e r a t u r e extremes. Provide shade and good bantams (which may be unable to cover the eggs ventilation during warm weather and enough heat co m p l e t e l y ) a ss u r ro g a t e i n c u b a t o r sf o rc r a n e s . Bec a u s e during extreme cold to prev ent frostbite and freez i n g crane eggs are much larger than chicken eggs, it is of drinking water (pref e r r ed minimum temperature unlikely that chickens can adequately turn crane eggs. ca  ° C [ ° F] ) . As a result, eggs under a chicken should be turned by Co n t r olled lighting can be used to bring hens into hand at least four times per day (see Turning under pr oduction and incubating condition to coincide with Mechanical Incubation). Suggested chicken breeds crane egg production. About  months before hens are for crane are Brahmas, Langshans, needed for incubation, adjust the ph o t o p e r iod to  h and especially Cochins. Other breeds of large-bodied li g h t :  h dark/day for  weeks. Th e re a f t e r , change the chickens may also be used, but commercial strains lighting regime to  h light: h dark/day to stimulate of these breeds are unlikely to be good incubators. egg production. Egg production should begin about Par ticularly good incubating strains are available from  weeks later, and some hens should become broo d y po u l t r y hobbyists. Day-old chicks of these exhibition- about - weeks after the onset of laying. Th e r e is type breeds (some of which are good incubators) are considerable variation among birds, howeve r , and av ailable from commercial hatcheries. Obtain chicks some may never become broo d y . Wh e n e v er the hatched in spring or summer for use as incubators natural day length (i.e., light period) exceeds  h/ d a y , (“ b ro o d i e s ”) the next yea r . All chickens should be eliminate access to any natural light or arti fi cial short- quarantined and health tested before introd u c i n g day photoperiods will be ineffective. If broody hens them into the collection. ar e needed over more than - months, it may be 6 2 Chapter 4 ne c e s s a r y to maintain two or more groups of chickens familiar with each bird’s idiosyncrasies to be certa i n on different lighting schedules in separate enclosures . that a hen is broo d y . When rem o ved from the nest for Prev ent light leakage between such enclosures . egg examinations, broody hens often sit where they To prev ent competition for nest sites, provide se v - ar e placed and refuse to walk about. They elevate their eral nests for each group of hens. Line nest bottoms hackles and squawk when approached by another bird with felt-type indoor-outdoor carpeting, and fill them or a caret a k e r , and emit an almost continual cluck with chopped straw or similar material (e.g., clean, when moving on their own or when disturbed. fine grass) to a depth of - cm. Hens arrange this If p o s s i b l e ,m ove i n c u b a t i n gh e n st o a se p a r a t e roo m into a cup shape for laying. Change nesting material o rb u i l d i n g . Ma i n t a i nt h i sa re aa tl i g h ta n dt e m p e r a t u re mo n t h l y , or immediately if it becomes damp or soiled c o n d i t i o n st ow h i c ht h eh e ni sa c c u s t o m e d ( o rs l i g h t l y with feces or broken eggs. wa r m e r , i. e . ,  ° C [ ° F] ) . Pl a c ee a c hb ro o d yh e ni n a Maintain the chicken flock on a high-quality di e t , lo c k - b o x ne s t (s e e Fig . .) wh e r e s h ew i l l rem a i n mo s t readily available from commercial livestock supply o ft h ed a y.Pl a c ea n i n d o o r - o u t d o o rc a r p e tl i n e ri nt h e st o r es. Fol l o w the manufacturer ’s instructions reg a r d- n e s ts i m i l a r t ot h el a y i n gn e s t s ,a n df o r m a cu p - s h a p e d ing the appropriate diet to feed at each age or stage of s t r a wo rg r a s sn e s t by h a n db e f o re t h eh e ni sp l a c e di n pr oduction (e.g., layer diet for hens in prod u c t i o n ) . t h en e s t .W h e n a h e ni s fir s tm oved t ot h eb ro o d yh o u s e Provide feed ad libitum along with clean, fresh water. or ro o m ,p u td u m m ye g g su n d e rh e rf o r - d a y st o Scratch (i.e., cracked corn, wheat, or other grain) may m a k es u re t h a ts h ec o n t i n u e si n c u b a t i n ga f t e rt h e be offered as a treat so that the birds become tame and mo ve .L e tt h eh e n s o u te ve ry m o r n i n gf o r  - m i nt o ar e easily approached. Howeve r , because commerci a l e a t ,d r i n k , d e f e c a t e ,a n de xe rc i s e . Obs e r ve t h eg ro u po f po u l t r y diets are designed to be nutritionally com- h e n sf o r ag g re s s i o n i ft h e yh a ve n o tb e e np re v i o u s l y plete, feeding more than small amounts of scratch h o u s e dt o g e t h e r, a n dd e a lw i t hs e r i o u se n c o u n t e r s by can lead to a dietary imbalance. Layer diets generally s e p a r a t i n gt h eb i rd s .A g g re s s i ve e n c o u n t e r sm a yb e contain elevated levels of calcium, but crushed oys t e r red u c e d by pr ov i d i n gt h eb i rd sw i t hm u l t i p l ef e e d e r s shell can be provided as a calcium supplement for a n dw a t e re r ss e p a r a t e d by  m o rm o re . eggshell production (Brown    ). Obs e r ve broody hens in the morning when they After laying begins, rem o ve eggs daily to preve n t ar e released into the exer cise yard and again in the br eakage. Broken eggs soil the nest and hen, and may afternoon. These observations are especially importa n t lead to habitual egg-eating. Place two or three du m m y for hens that have just started incubating or that have eggs in each nest before the onset of laying to encour- been sitting for more than - weeks. Hens that age hens to use the nests and to stimulate incubation. defecate in their nests, or that do not sit tightly and The combs of young and nonlaying hens are small appear eager to leave the nest, are no longer broo d y . and dull orange, whereas the comb of a laying hen If hens do not sit tightly after they are moved to the enlarges and becomes bright red. In addition, the br oody area, move them back to the laying house abdomen of the laying hen becomes enlarged, the ven t until they develop stronger incubation tendencies. becomes large and moist, and the spread between the pubic bones increases from about the width of one finger to two to three finger widths. Laying hens will also crouch in a sexually rec e p t i v e position when ap p ro a c h e d . Bir ds change in both appearance and behavior when they become broo d y . Their combs and other physical characteristics return to the condition of a nonlaying hen. They remain in the nest almost con- tinuously and only leave briefly to eat, drink, defecate, and exer cise, whereas laying hens are usually found in the nest only in the morning, when most laying occurs. Laying hens will generally leave the nest readily when disturbed, whereas broody hens leave the nest reluctantly and may become extremely defen- Fig 4.1. Lo c k - b o x nest for chickens used to incubate crane eggs. si v e. This behavior varies with each hen, so become Ph oto Pat u xe n t In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 6 3

Special care is necessary to prev ent egg brea k a g e te m p e r a t u r e i n c re a s e so fo n l ys e ve r a ld e g re e sc a nb e and to avoid injury when rem o ving the hen. Lift the a l m o s ti m m e d i a t e l yl e t h a l . A te m p e r a t u r e i n c re a s eo f br oody hen from her nest by gently sliding one hand on l y -.° C (-° F )m a y n o tb ei m m e d i a t e l yf a t a l , under her breast and placing your other hand on her b u te m b ryo sa re l i k e l yt od i ea f t e ro n l y - d a y s .L ow back. Slo wly lift the hen up and out of the nest and t e m p e r a t u re s( b u ts t i l lw i t h i nr a t h e rn a r row l i m i t s )s l ow set her on the floo r . Be careful to prev ent her from d e ve l o p m e n ta n dd e l a yh a t c h i n g ,b u td on o ti n c re a s e kicking eggs out of the nest. Close nest box doors m o rt a l i t ys u b s t a n t i a l l y( Brown    ). while the hens are out to prev ent them from flyi n g Minor temperature variations exist within an incu- into their own or another nest, thereb y accidentally ba t o r , especially among egg trays at different level s . damaging the eggs. When returning hens to the nests, Mea s u r e temperatures in different parts of the incuba- gently lift them to the edge of the nest and allow them tor annually with thermometers accurate to within to step in and settle onto the eggs. Hens often become .° C (.° F). By moving the thermometers to dif- so accustomed to this routine that they may approa c h fe r ent places in the incubator, you can actually map the caretaker to be returned to the nest. As you handle te m p e r a t u r e variation within the machine (Heck and each hen, evaluate her general body condition, and Konkel    ). The stability of temperature conditions return any hen that is becoming too thin to the laying inside the incubator depends on ambient conditions, house or, ideally, to a separate area where she can lose and theref o r e req u i r es a stable temperature inside the her broodiness and regain wei g h t . incubator room or building. Rem o ve or add eggs Although crane eggs may remain under hens for rel a t i v ely quickly, but caref u l l y , because prolonged or the entire incubation period, the benefits of hen repeated opening of the incubator door can cause the incubation are rea l i z ed by about the tenth day of te m p e r a t u r e to drop significantly (Burnham    ). incubation. Th e re a f t e r , the eggs may be incubated Hu m i d i t y. The humidity level inside the incuba- art i fic i a l l y . Some hens rec y cle and are available for tor controls egg weight loss. Incubator humidity is incubation a second time within the same season, co n t r olled by the addition of water through evap o r a - although others molt after the first incubation cycl e tion from a res e r voi r , by misting, and by regulating air and do not return to production. Factors control l i n g flow through the incubator or through the incubator these different cycles probably include ambient roo m fro m ou t s i d e . For i n c u b a t o r st h a t ar e hu m i d i fie d te m p e r a t u r e, other environmental conditions, and by evaporation of water from a res e r voir (tray), higher the genetic makeup of the hen. humidity is achieved by increasing the surface area of the water (i.e., by increasing the length and width of the tray, using rotating fins, or placing sponges in the water res e r voir). Placing the fan so air blows direc t l y Mechanical Inc u b a t i o n ac r oss the water surface also increases evaporation. Use distilled water to avoid mineral buildup, although Critical Components large incubators often have flow- t h r ough humidifying systems for which the use of distilled water would be Tem pe r at u r e con t r ol. Reliable and consistent co s t l y . incubator operation req u i r es a system with dual Vent openings control air flow into the incubator te m p e r a t u r e controls consisting of primary and and thereb y reduce (vents open) or increase (ven t s se c o n d a r y thermostats. The primary thermostat closed) rel a t i v e humidity. Except during fumigation, co n t r ols temperature during normal functioning of do not completely close the vents because devel o p i n g the incubator. The secondary thermostat assumes em b r yos need a constant influx of fresh air. Hum i d i t y co n t r ol if the primary thermostat fails. To monitor is also lost when the incubator door is opened, so te m p e r a t u r e, place calibrated thermometers inside open the machine only when necessary and for as the incubator. These thermometers must be rea d a b l e brief a time as possible. Humidity losses are even fr om outside the closed incubator. mo r e important than temperature decreases, because Sm a l lt e m p e r a t u re va r i a t i o n sa f f e c te m b ryo su rv i va l de s i r ed humidity levels are not res t o r ed as quickly as b e c a u s en o r m a ld e ve l o p m e n to c c u r sw i t h i n a ver y na r - te m p e r a t u r e. To minimize this problem and to rapidly row te m p e r a t u r e ra n g e . De t r i m e n t a le f f e c t so fi n c o r re c t res t o r e humidity in the incubator, especially large t e m p e r a t u re s ,h oweve r , d e p e n do nd u r a t i o n ,d i re c t i o n incubators, lightly spray the incubator floor with ( t o oh i g ho rt o ol ow ) ,a n ds t a g eo fd e ve l o p m e n t . Sha r p water before closing the door. 6 4 Chapter 4

Monitor humidity with a wet-bulb thermometer. incubators turn the eggs automatically ever y hour; A cotton wick extends from the bulb on the bottom ho weve r , when automatic turning is not possible, of the thermometer into a small res e r voir of distilled hand-turn eggs. Mar k an “X” on one side of the egg wa t e r . Evaporation of water from the wick cools the and an “O” on the opposite side so that, by observi n g thermometer bulb, resulting in a wet-bulb tempera- these marks, you can see at a glance if, and how far, tu r e lower than the dry-bulb temperature. The rate of an egg has been turned. ev aporation is inversely prop o r tional to the rel a t i v e Th e r e are two considerations in egg turning: humidity inside the incubator. Th e re f o r e, as rel a t i v e () the intervals between turns should be equal, and humidity approaches   %, evaporation is red u c e d , () if the eggs are incubated horizon t a l l y , consecutive and the wet-bulb temperature approaches the dry- turns should be turned in the opposite direction about bulb temperature (Fig. .). the longitudinal axis of the egg so that supercoiling of Air flow. Dev eloping embryos req u i r e a the chalazae (albuminous cords that attach the yolk to constant flow of oxygenated air for respiration the eggshell membrane) does not occur (Landauer and rem o val of carbon dioxide. Use egg trays of an    ; Brown    ). open-mesh, rigid construction so that air can flow Position. If eggs are to be turned automatically, ar ound the eggs. To avoid disrupting normal air flow position the eggs securely in the egg tray of the incu- th r ough the incubator, do not add obstructions, and bator so they cannot move freely and crack or brea k . keep all incubator trays in place. Poor air circu l a t i o n Crane eggs are generally set horizon t a l l y , so that the causes temperature variation within the incubator. large and small ends are at the same level. Som e If temperature variation is present and persists after pr oblems can arise from horizontal incubation, adjustments are made, place eggs only in the most ho weve r , as described later. stable temperature zon e s . Hy giene. Provide a clean, pathogen-free incuba- Tur ning. In early stages of development, the tion environment. A variety of fungi and bacteria em b r yo may adhere to the shell membrane if it lies br eed in the warm, humid environment inside the too long in the same position. Turn each egg at least in c u b a t o r . Because many of these organisms can eight times per day. Heck and Konkel (   ) rec o m - de s t r oy the developing embryo, regular cleaning mend turning falcon eggs at --h intervals. Man y and disinfection is essential.

FIG. 4.2. Relative humidity calculations. Dry - Bulb Te m pe r at u re °C              °C °F                                                                                                                                                        In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 6 5

Bef o r e eggs are set in an incubator, thorou g h l y e r sa f t e re a c hu s e ,e ve ni fo n l yu s e df o ro n ec h i c k , clean all inside surfaces of the incubator, including a c c o rd i n gt ot h es a m ep ro c e d u re d e s c r i b e da b ove. If egg trays, with a bactericidal and fungicidal disinfec- t w oo rm o re e g g sa re in a ha t c h e r , fu m i g a t e a f t e ra l l tant. The electronics and wiring are cleaned with e g g sa re h a t c h e da n da l lc h i c k s rem o ved . If fu m i g a t i o n co m p r essed air or a light spray with the disinfectant. i sn o tu s e d ,e m p l oy o t h e rd i s i n f e c t a n t s ,b u tb es u re to After cleaning, allow electrical components to dry, d e t e r m i n ee f fic a c ya n ds a f e t yf o ru s ew i t he g g s . then turn the incubator on to raise the inside tempera- The use of sterile surgical gloves or clean disposable tu r e to  - ° C ( -  ° F) and increase rel a t i v e (plastic, vinyl, or latex) gloves to handle eggs, dipping humidity to  - %. of eggs before they are placed in the incubator (see A f t e re s t a b l i s h i n g op e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s ,t h e Egg Handling section below), and regular cleaning in c u b a t o r m a yb ef u m i g a t e d w i t hf o r m a l d e h yd e by and disinfection of incubator water trays also helps to co m b i n i n g  m Lo f  % fo r m a l i n wi t h  . g o fp o t a s- en s u r e good sanitation. si u m p e r m a n g a n a t ep e r . m3 (  ft 3) o fi n c u b a t o r Re co r d keeping. Incubator conditions (tempera- vo l u m e .A l t h o u g h i ti s ver y ef f e c t i v e fo r di s i n f e c t i o n of tu r e, humidity, tray position, etc.) should be closely i n c u b a t o r s ,f u m i g a t i o n wi t h fo r m a l d e h yd e ga s req u i re s mo n i t o r ed and rec o r ded at least two or three times g re a tc a u t i o n a n dg o o d ve n t i l a t i o nb e c a u s e fo r m a l d e - da i l y . This will ensure that any trends, such as h yd ei s ca rc i n o g e n i c an d a s t ro n gi r r i t a n tt o hu m a n in c r eases or decreases in temperature or humidity, eye s an d res p i r a t o r y tr a c t s . For t h i sp ro c e d u re , we ar e detected early and corrected. It is important that rec o m m e n d t h eu s eo fg o g g l e s an d a m a s k( re s p i r a t o r ) . incubators with automatic turners be checked at Be su r e th a t t h ei n c u b a t i o n f a c i l i t yi s ven t e d t ot h e di f f e r ent times during the day to determine if they o u t s i d et ok e e p f u m e sf ro me s c a p i n g t oo t h e ri n d o o r ar e actually turning the egg. These rec o r ds serve as a are a s . If ap p ro p r i a t e h a n d l i n go ff o r m a l d e h yd ei sn o t basis for making adjustments in incubation conditions po s s i b l e , t h eu s e o fc o m m e rc i a l l y ava i l a b l e sp r a y if hatching problems arise. d i s i n f e c t a n t si s a d v i s a b l et oa vo i dh e a l t h ri s k s . Use only porcelain, earth e n w a r e, or heat-tempered Egg Handling glass with the fumigation reagents because these chemicals cause a violent exothermic reaction. Th e After an egg is collected, any dirt or fecal material reagents interact with some metals and melt or burn adhering to the shell is wiped off with a soft cloth. plastic and other flammable materials. Bef o r e fumi- Fine-grade sandpaper can be used to rem o ve stubborn gating, close the incubator door and vents. Place the materials, but be sure not to damage the shell. To potassium permanganate in the container first. Th e n pre v ent the introduction of pathogens into the place the container inside the incubator, add the in c u b a t o r , fumigate incubated eggs according to the formalin, and immediately close the incubator. After pro c e d u r es described prev i o u s l y . Do not fumigate  min, rem o ve the fumigant and leave the incubator eggs unless they are fresh or have been incubated open for a few minutes to air out. The machine is then for at least  days. As an alternative disinfection ready to rec e i v e eggs. For incubators with a rec e n t pro c e d u r e for incubated eggs or those whose stage hi s t o r y of poor hatches from disease or that have had of development is unknown, dip them in  % rotten eggs break or explode inside the machine, use a po vidone-iodine solution at  .° C (  ° F; Ern s t do u b l e - s t r ength mixture of the chemicals.    ) and then allow them to dry at room temperature Fu m i g a t ei n c u b a t o r sa tl e a s te ve ry  wee k s , eve n be f o r e setting them in the incubator. d u r i n gi n c u b a t i o n . If eg g s ar e a d d e dt ot h em a c h i n e f re q u e n t l y( e ve ry fe w d a y so rl e s s ) ,f u m i g a t e we e k l yt o Artificial Incubation Conditions e l i m i n a t ec o n t a m i n a t i o nf ro mn ew eg g s . On l ye g g s in ver y e a r l yi n c u b a t i o n ( d a y so rl e s s )o rw h o s es t a g eo f For all crane species, the proper dry-bulb temperature i n c u b a t i o ni su n k n ow ns h o u l d be rem o ve da n dp l a c e d is  .° C ( .- . ° F; Putnam    ). Prel i m i n a r y i na n o t h e rm a c h i n ed u r i n gf u m i g a t i o n . If an o t h e r res e a r ch on regular cooling of crane eggs during incu- i n c u b a t o ri sn o t ava i l a b l e , a n yh e a t e d c o n t a i n e rt h a t bation showed no significant effect on hatchability m a i n t a i n st h ee g g sa t  .- .° C ( - ° F )w i l ls u f fic e (P utnam    ; Russman    ). We rec o m m e n d fo r a sh o r t ti m e . Oth e rw i s e , f u m i g a t ef re s h( u n i n c u- leaving eggs in the incubator continuously except b a t e d )e g g sa n de g g si n c u b a t e dm o re th a n  d a y st ok i l l for candling, fumigation, etc., as discussed elsewh e r e an y p a t h o g e n so nt h es h e l l .C l e a na n d f u m i g a t eh a t c h- in this chapter. 6 6 Chapter 4

The wet-bulb temperature used for all but Artificial Hatching Conditions two species of cranes is  .° C ( - ° F). For White-naped Cranes, the wet-bulb temperature Crane chicks normally hatch after about  days of used is  .° C ( .° F; Putnam    ), and incubation (see Table .). After an egg pips, move it Wattled Crane eggs have been successfully incu- to a hatcher (Fig. .) maintained at  .° C ( .- bated at a wet-bulb temperature of  .° C ( - °  .° F; Putnam    ). A hatcher is a modified F; Carol Hesch, Memphis Zoological Gar den incubator maintained at a higher humidity to facili- and Aquarium, Memphis, Tennessee, personal tate hatching. Use a separate hatcher for each chick, communication). At higher altitudes with lower or if two or more chicks are hatching at the same time, air pres s u r e, wet-bulb temperatures should be they may occupy the same hatcher if the chicks can be adjusted slightly (° C, -° F) upwa r d or in area s separated inside the machine. Do not place additional with high rel a t i v e humidity, down w a r d to achieve pipped eggs in the used hatcher until it is cleaned and the desired rate of weight loss. disinfected. Debris from hatched chicks provides a During incubation (natural or arti fi cial), caref u l l y gr owth medium for bacteria and other pathogens monitor the prog r ess of the developing embryo that thrive in the heat and humidity of the hatcher. by candling and flotation (see Determination of Hatching eggs in a machine separate from the incuba- Fer tility). Weigh the most valuable eggs twice wee k l y tor prev ents contamination of eggs that are at earlier to determine weight loss during incubation. Rec o r d stages of incubation. egg weight, and track weight loss. Opt i m a l l y , eggs lose During hatching, eggshell membranes may  % (range,  - %) of their fresh weight over the become dry and adhere to the chick. Th e re f o re , incubation period (Rahn and Ar    ; Ar and Rahn maintain the hatcher at the highest humidity possi-    ), although eggs that lose considerably more or bl e . Gen e r a l l y , humidity inside the hatcher should less than this amount often hatch, either indepen- yield a wet-bulb temperature of  ° C ( ° F) or dently or with assistance (see Problems and higher (Putnam    ). Remedies). Conditions that can reduce egg wei g h t The chick may be heard scratching and cheeping loss include high humidity, low temperature, a inside the egg for up to  hours or more before pip- thicker-than-normal shell, or blocked pores in the ping. The vigor of these activities is a good indicator shell. Conditions that can increase weight loss are of the chick’s strength. Vocalization begins after the lo w humidity, high temperature, or an abnormally chick breaks through the inner membrane into the air thin or porous shell. cell and begins to breathe air. The egg may be moved Candle eggs one to three days before the scheduled to the hatcher at this time or after the chick has hatching date to determine viability and locate the air pipped. Move eggs with chicks in the air cell to the cell. Mar k the lowest point of the air cell (i.e., the hatcher if they will not be checked again for sever a l point that extends farthest towa r d the small end of hours (e.g., overnight). Oth e r wise, the chick may the egg). The egg is placed with the marked spot up hatch in the incubator and die from trauma if struc k (P utnam    ). If positioned correc t l y , the chick will pip near this point. Turning of the egg is no longer ne c e s s a r y during the last  days of incubation, so the egg may be placed in a depression on a styrofoam pad on the bottom of the incubator. Ala r ms. An important component of the arti fic i a l incubation system is an alarm that notifies personnel of temperature extremes and power outages. Set the alarm to sound at temperatures above  .° C (  ° F) or below  .° C ( ° F), and when the power fails. In addition to an audible alarm (bell or siren) in the vicinity of the incubation facility, install an alarm with a telephone autodialer that notifies personnel of pr oblems when they are off duty or away from the incubators. A flashing light can also be added to the system to serve as a visual alarm. Fig 4.3. Dan Spr ague demonstrates hatcher. Ph oto David H. El l i s In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 6 7

TABLE 4.1. Incubation Periods of Crane Eggs Number of Day s Spe c i e s (range; mean)1 Re f e re n c e s Black and Gray Crown e d  - ;  Ca rt h e w    ; Walkinshaw    ; Walkinshaw    ; Urban et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Wat t l e d  - ;  Conway and Hamer    ; Joh n s g a r d    ; Urban et al.    ; Brei b y    unpubl.; ICF rec o rd s Blue  - ;  Van Ee    ; Joh n s g a r d    ; Urban et al.    ; Har tman et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Dem o i s e l l e  - ;  Stehlik    ; Joh n s g a r d    ; Urban et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Sib e r i a n  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Har tman et al.    ; Brei b y    unpubl.; ICF rec o rd s San d h i l l  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Har tman et al.    ; ICF and Pat u x ent rec o rd s Wh i t e - n a p e d  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Har tman et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Saru s  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Archibald and Swengel    ; Har tman et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Brol g a  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Archibald and Swengel    ; ICF rec o rd s Eur a s i a n  - ;  Glutz von Blotzheim    ; Cramp and Simmons    ; Joh n s g a r d    ; ICF rec o rd s Hoo d e d  - ;  ICF rec o rd s Bla c k - n e c k e d  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Liao    ; Brei b y    unpubl.; ICF rec o rd s Red - c r own e d  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Har tman et al.    ; ICF rec o rd s Wh o o p i n g  - ;  Joh n s g a r d    ; Kuyt    ; Brei b y    unpubl.; ICF and Pat u x ent rec o rd s

1 Ext r emely long incubation periods (e.g.,  - days rep o r ted for Wattled Cranes) may rep r esent erroneous field observations or eggs exposed to ex t r eme environmental conditions or improper incubation conditions.

by moving parts. Place eggs in the hatcher with the Co m p a rt m e n t a l i z e the hatcher to prev ent mixing pip up. This position is believed to facilitate hatching of chicks. Vinyl-coated wire dividers are nonabrasive by the chick (Burnham    ). In addition, this posi- to chicks and allow air to circulate. Line the bottom of tion allows observation of hatching prog r ess throu g h each compartment with a rem o vable piece of indoor- the glass lid or door of the hatcher. outdoor carpeting. This provides a good substrate and If a chick’s cheeping becomes less audible or its pre v ents the chick from catching its toes in the wire mo vements less vigorous, the chick may be wea k e n i n g floo r . Be sure that the dividers are tall enough to and unable to hatch. Check the egg four times daily pre v ent injury or chicks mixing together. and rec o r d the chick’s prog r ess and condition. Th e chick can be stimulated by tape rec o r dings of crane br ooding calls. Also, human imitations of this purring or gargling sound may stimulate the chick to voc a l i z e Det e r mination of Fert i l i t y or move. Crane chicks usually hatch between  an d  h after they begin cheeping or scratching (Hart m a n It is important to determine whether eggs are ferti l e et al.    ). Consider helping the chick from the egg if or infertile for several reasons. First, consistent infer- it fails to hatch within  h or becomes noticeably tility may indicate improper management, disease, weak (see Problems and Rem e d i e s ) . in b r eeding depression or other genetic disorders, or 6 8 Chapter 4 ph y s i o l o g i c a l or behavioral problems in the bree d e r flock. Second, early embryo mortality attributable to pathogens, egg handling, or incubator management may be mistaken for infertility and remain uncor- rected. Th i r d, infertile eggs can be rem o ved from nests or incubators and replaced with fertile eggs so that incubator space or incubating birds are used to full advantage. When parents incubate their own eggs, early determination of infertility allows the eggs to be rem o ved so the birds can lay another, hopefully fertile, clutch of eggs (Brown    ; Erickson and Derrickson    ).

C a n d l i n g Candling is an established technique that is especially useful for determining fertility and monitoring the de v elopment of embryos in eggs with lightly pig- mented or unpigmented (white) shells. It req u i r es a lamp inside a box or tube, and a dark room. To use a ca n d l e r , hold the egg with the large end slightly above the horizontal and against a hole in the box or at the end of the tube so that light from the lamp passes th r ough the egg (Fig. .). For dark- c o l o r ed eggs in p a rt i c u l a r, the candler hole should fit tightly arou n d the egg to prev ent light leakage. Light that illuminates Fig 4.4. Candling to determine fertility and viability of an egg. the outer surface of the egg obscures egg contents. Ph oto Pat u xe n t Even with the proper equipment, some crane eggs are too heavily pigmented for candling. Candling is only useful for determining whether discernible as they devel o p . In heavily-pigmented or not an embryo is developing inside the egg. It is eggs, only light and dark areas within the egg may not useful for distinguishing between infertile eggs be distinguished, and increased opacity may be and fertile eggs that fail to devel o p , or for detecting attributable to a viable, growing embryo. em b r yos that die ver y early. Emb r yo development is Coloration of the egg contents during candling is detectable by candling as early as  days after the onset often diagnostic for fertility and viability. A nearly of incubation in lightly pigmented eggs, but may not clear egg with a large orange central area (the yolk) is be detectable until - days in some eggs. Deve l o p - either infertile or not incubated long enough to detect ment is first rec o g n i z ed as a faint, weblike network of de v elopment, or contains an embryo that died in the fine blood vessels radiating from a central focus, ver y early stages of development. An egg with an over - which is the embryo. The embryo will float to the all reddish or pinkish hue is fertile, and the embryo is uppermost position in the egg. At this stage, check to pr obably alive. Splotchy yel l o w and brown egg con- see if the embryo moves freely by ge n t l y rotating the tents indicate a dead embryo or infected egg. For eggs egg; if it does not move free l y , it has adhered to the in early incubation, a dark red ring indicates early shell membrane and may die. Ini t i a l l y , the blood em b r yo death or the imminent death of the embryo. vessels appear in a circular pattern about - cm in Candling can also be used to monitor the size and di a m e t e r . As the embryo grows, the blood ves s e l s position of the air cell. The air cell should enlarge become larger, extending around the yolk and during incubation as water is lost through evap o r a t i o n ev entually throughout the egg. As the embryo and respiration (Brown    ). If eggs cannot be enlarges, it blocks light passage through the egg. weighed, changes in the size of the air cell can be used In light-colored eggs, you may be able to detect to indicate weight loss indirec t l y . The rate of wei g h t mo vement, and the head, wings, and legs may be loss and size or shape of the air cell are not indicators In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 6 9 of ferti l i t y . Howeve r , an irregular or poorly defined air rev eal the germinal disk on the yolk. Do this caref u l l y cell often indicates an infertile egg or an early dead so that the yolk remains intact. In infertile eggs, the em b r yo. Malpositioning of the air cell or a floating air ge r minal disk appears as a small whitish spot on the cell (i.e., one that moves as the egg is turned) are often yolk, about  mm in diameter (Fig. .). In fres h caused by jarring of the egg and may cause difficu l t i e s fe r tile eggs (Fig. .), this spot is a -m m - d i a m e t e r in development or hatching (see Problems and ho l l o w ring (donut-shaped), darker in the center. Remedies). Late in incubation, the margin of the air The disk enlarges as the egg is incubated. By  days cell shifts. Near hatching, movement of the embryo in of incubation, the heart and blood vessels become the air cell is evident. evident, even though they may be indiscernible by candling (Fig. .). If non-viable eggs are to be examined more than a few hours after termination F l o t a t i o n of incubation, refrigerate at - ° C ( - ° F). Flotation (Fig. .) is an alternative to candling for For embryos determined to be dead by candling da rk - c o l o r ed eggs or where an adequate light source is or flotation, opening the egg can often rev eal the un a v ailable. This method can be used to determine pr obable cause of death or at least the stage of fe r tility and viability of eggs after about  days of de v elopment at which the chick died. Fig u r es . an d incubation, and may also be used to determine age of . ar e included for ref e r ence in evaluating embryo eggs (Fisher and Swengel    ). At this stage, eggs floa t de v elopmental stages. It is also useful, in eval u a t i n g nearly ve rt i c a l l y, with the large end up. From  - ne c r otic tissue, to know that feather follicles firs t days, only a slight rotational movement of the egg is appear around day  . Consistent mortality at a given noticeable. When they first appear, these movem e n t s stage of development can be diagnostic of improp e r can be obscured by movement of the flotation ves s e l incubator conditions. For further discussion of eg g or even a slight bree ze. Nea r er to hatching, stron g e r , ne c r opsy techniques, see Langenberg (   ) and twitching movements are apparen t . Joyner and Abbott (   ). Float eggs in a mild disinfectant solution ( % po vidone-iodine or equivalent) at  ° C (  ° F; Ern s t    ). Obs e r ve the egg for movement for  min or less. Floating the egg longer risks asphyxiation or over h e a t - ing of the embryo. Do not float eggs in cool water lest the egg contents contract and draw bacteria throu g h the shell. Avoid floating eggs frequently because of potential damage to the embryo or the prot e c t i v e cuticle on the eggshell. Fresh disinfectant solution should be used each time eggs are floated. An initial determination of fertility and viability can be attempted after about  - days of incubation. If no mo vement is detected, continue incubating the egg and float it again in - days. Emb r yos can become quiescent and fail to move when floated, so a lack of mo vement is not a definite indicator of embryo death. Float the egg again after a day or two if pipping does not occur when expected to determine if the chick is still alive. From about day  , purring to the egg while it is being floated or while on a flat, sterile surface may stimulate movem e n t .

Opening and Examining an Egg The only way to accurately determine the fertility of an unincubated egg or one that fails to develop is to open a hole in the shell or break the egg into a dish to Fig 4.5. Egg flotation to determine viability. Ph oto David H. El l i s 7 0 Chapter 4

Fig 4.6. An infertile chicken egg. Fig 4.9. A  -day-old crane embryo. Ph oto Cornell Un i ve r s i ty Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n

Fig 4.7. A fertile, unincubated chicken egg. Fig 4.10. A  -day-old crane embryo. Ph oto Cornell Un i ve r s i ty Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n

Problems and Rem e d i e s The response to incubation and hatching prob l e m s often req u i r es innovation, crea t i v i t y , and familiarity with the techniques used for other species. Th e fo l l o wing summarizes the most common incubation pr oblems and established rem e d i e s .

M a l p o s i t i o n s No r m a l l ya th a t c h i n g ,t h ec h i c kp o s i t i o n si t s e l fw i t hi t s b a c kp a r a l l e lt ot h el o n ga x i so ft h ee g g ,i t st a i li nt h e Fig 4.8. A -day-old chicken embryo. s m a l le n do ft h ee g g ,a n di t sh e a dt u r n e du n d e r n e a t ht h e Ph oto Cornell Un i ve r s i ty r i g h tw i n gs ot h eb e a kp o i n t si n t ot h ea i rc e l l( Fi g . . ). Fai l u r e o ft h ec h i c kt oo r i e n tp ro p e r l y i n t e rf e re sw i t h n o r m a lh a t c h i n ga n dc a nl e a dt od e a t ho ft h ec h i c k . In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 7 1

and small ends have higher hatchability and a lower incidence of malpositions than do eggs with indistin- guishable ends (Benoff and Renden    ). At Pat u x ent, eggs are positioned in incubator trays at a  - ° lateral angle when the trays lie flat. When the tray is tilted forwa r d, the large end of the egg is ele- vated  - °; when the tray tilts towa r d the back of the machine, the small end is elevated  - °. At ICF, eggs are incubated lying horizon t a l l y , so that the large and small ends of the egg are at the same level .

Shell Abnormalities and Weight Loss Fig 4.11. A crane chick in normal hatching position. A rt Kate Spe n c e r Eggs with abnormally thin shells normally lose water too rapidly during incubation, whereas th i c k - s h e l l e d In chickens, malpositions have been estimated to eggs retain too much water. Changes in egg wei g h t cause  - % of mortality in the last  days of incuba- can be regulated by increasing the humidity in the tion and  % of total embryo mortality (San c t u a r y incubator to lower weight loss or by decrea s i n g    ). Emb r yo malpositions and their effects on humidity to increase weight loss. Ext r emely thin- hatchability have been well characterized in the shelled eggs may also be dipped in sterile water at po u l t r y literature (see Landauer    ). Although in t e r vals of a few hours, or daily as needed, to main- some types of malpositions are attributable to other tain normal weight loss. The dip should be cooler causes, frequent occurrence of certain malpositions than the egg (ca  o C;  o F) so the egg contents may be related to egg position and tu rn i n g . contract and draw water into the egg. Putnam and In chickens, elevation of the large end of the egg Wen t w o r th (   ) used this technique on a during incubation has been associated with an Whooping Crane egg and wer e able to reduce the in c r eased incidence of certain types of malpositions: pr ojected weight loss by  %. Although they did not () failure of the chick to tuck its head, () tucking of begin until two-thirds of the way through the incuba- the head under the left wing, and () tucking of the tion period, they slowed and even rev ersed the wei g h t head with the beak over the wing. Ele v ation of the loss by dipping for  min/day in sterile water. For the small end of an egg or incubation in a horizon t a l first dip,  mg tylosin tartrate wer e added per liter of position can cause orientation of the chick away from dip solution to prev ent infection of the egg. For this the large end so it fails to pip into the air cell (Hut t pro c e d u r e, adjust the duration and frequency of and Pilkey    ; Talmadge    ). The incidence of dipping according to the degree of weight loss and malpositions can generally be decreased by increa s i n g stage of incubation. Duration should be  min or less the frequency of turning, especially during the last (s h o r ter is preferable) to avoid stressing the embryo. th i r d of incubation. Howeve r , if certain types of Continually monitor the weight loss of eggs treated in malpositions persist, consider changing the position this manner and make further adjustments in the of the eggs. tr eatment as needed. Not all malposition types are lethal (Hutt and Pilkey    ). Do not modify incubation methods if Cracked and Damaged Eggs chicks are only occasionally malpositioned (<%) . Howeve r , the occurrence of a consistent type of Eggs that have been cracked or damaged can often be malposition frequently calls for evaluation of the rep a i r ed. Although rep a i r ed eggs must be arti fic i a l l y incubation protocol and appropriate modifica t i o n s . incubated, they often develop normally and hatch. Rel a t i v ely few malpositions of crane chicks have Repair eggs with fine hairline cracks simply by oc c u r r ed at Pat u x ent or ICF under the conditions applying surgical-grade cyanoacrylate (e.g., Nex a b a n d ; sp e c i fi ed earlier. Crane eggs may be less susceptible to see Appendix) or candle wax along the crack to seal malpositioning than other species due to their elon- and strengthen the shell. Other non-toxic adhesives gate shape. Res e a r ch on chicken eggs has shown that may also be suitable, but should be tested on expend- mo r e elongate eggs with easily distinguishable large able eggs, and should only be applied to the damaged 7 2 Chapter 4 pa r t of the shell. Ext e n s i v e sealing of the shell can and cannot emerge from the egg. The air cell serves as result in asphyxiation of the embryo. Apply wax by a breathing space until the chick hatches, and if the melting and dripping it from a burning candle. Also chick does not pip into it, the chick must brea k use candle wax to seal over larger cracks and shattered di r ectly out of the shell and may drown or suffocate. or crushed shells. If large areas of the shell have been Immediate assistance may help such chicks (Jord a n cr ushed, bone cement may be used for repairs by    ), but they are often lost. Incubating these eggs in applying a thin layer over the affected area . a ver tical position (large end up) and hand-turning To repair holes in the shell, a piece of sterilized may result in successful hatching (C. M. Kue h l e r , eggshell may be glued over the hole: otherwi s e , Per egrine Fund, Volcano, Hawaii, personal pa r a fi lm, tissue, or gauze may be layer ed over the hole co m m u n i c a t i o n ) . with glue (see Stoodley and Stoodley    ; Jord a n    ). Restrict repairs to the affected area so that large Contaminated Eggs ar eas of the shell do not become sealed and imperme- able to gas exchange. In addition to asphyxiation of Egg contamination by pathogens may occur in the the embryo, sealing the egg can lead to malpositions oviduct before laying, in the nest, or in the incubator. by causing embryos to orient away from the sealed Little can be done once pathogens enter an egg: the ar ea (Byerly and Olsen    ). Hatchability is grea t l y em b r yo dies or the egg begins to deteriorate. Howeve r , reduced in eggs with holes that penetrate the shell dipping the egg in a disinfectant solution or injecting membranes. These eggs are likely to have been conta- antibiotics directly into the egg is sometimes effective minated by pathogens introduced to the egg’s interior, in prev enting infection (Kuehler and Loomis    ). or may have rec e i v ed physical injury to the yol k , To avoid contamination of additional eggs, immedi- em b r yo, or blood ves s e l s . ately rem o ve eggs from the nest or incubator if they If a pipped egg has been damaged in some way but contain known dead embryos or show signs of infec- still contains a live chick, move it immediately from tion (odor or discoloration of egg contents). Due to the nest to a hatcher. If it is likely that such an egg has gases generated during decomposition, eggs can become contaminated by soil, feces, or other material, actually explode, contaminating the incubator and the egg may be fumigated (see earlier precautions) other eggs with debris. to kill pathogens that could enter the yolk sac or Attempt to culture pathogens from obvi o u s l y rup t u r ed blood vessels, or be aspirated by the chick. contaminated eggs and some or all eggs with dead Although the fumigant may irritate the chick, the em b r yos or eggs that are presumed infertile (i.e., show need to prev ent infection outweighs these considera- no development). If microbial infection is a prob l e m , tions. Studies with chickens have shown that chicks in v estigate the cause or origin of infection. Per s i s t e n t may be fumigated while still in the hatching stage egg contamination warrants obtaining cultures from (Taylor    ). This proc e d u r e has been used for cranes incubators, egg handling equipment, and birds at Pat u x ent. Alternativel y , the chick may be given (cloacal swabs). To minimize the incidence of infec- pr ophylactic antibiotic treatment while in the egg or tion, wear sterile surgical gloves to handle eggs and after hatching (see Calle et al.    ). sc r upulously disinfect all equipment and surfaces that eggs contact. If cultures of dead embryos are negative for bacteria and fungi, more sophisticated testing for Floating or Malpositioned Air Cell vi r uses, nutritional problems, and genetic prob l e m s Occ a s i o n a l l y , the air cell forms in locations other than may be needed. the large end of the egg. In other cases, a definite air cell does not form, but bubbles form in the albumen Assisted Hatches and float loosely in the egg. Eggs with a floating air cell or bubbles are unlikely to hatch and may have If an egg fails to pip when expected, or takes longer bacterial or fungal infections that wer e introd u c e d than  h to hatch after the initial pip, consider assist- th r ough holes. ing the chick in emerging from the egg. If an egg has Chicks hatching from eggs with stationary, but not pipped the inner membrane when expected and displaced, air cells can die at hatching because either th e r e are signs of weakening, a malposition should be the chick still orients to hatch from the large end or suspected. Malpositions can be diagnosed by three the chick orients to the air cell but is malpositioned methods: () candling may rev eal the bill tip near the In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 7 3

air cell, () radiographs may indicate the position of Exposed Yolk Sac the embryo (Ensley et al.    ), and () opening the shell and moisening the membrane with sterile saline An exposed yolk sac (i.e., one that has not been may rev eal the bill tip. retracted within the abdominal cavity) usually res u l t s If the chick’s head is pointing away from the air fr om early hatching (caused by high incubation cell, carefully peel away the shell without disturbing te m p e r a t u r e, exce s s i v e behavioral stimulation, or an the inner membrane. When the bill is located, select a assisted hatch). Handle such chicks carefully because small area free of active blood vessels, make a small rup t u r e of the yolk sac can increase susceptibility to incision, and pull the bill through far enough to infection and bleeding, and deprives the chick of a expose the nares and allow respiration. Fluids may nutrition source immediately posthatching. See need to be rem o ved from the airway of the chick. Chapter  for further discussion and information Once the chick is breathing, allow a day or two for the on the treatment of this condition. blood vessels to dry and the yolk sac to retract. Kee p humidity high, cover the missing shell loosely with plastic or tape, and moisten membranes to keep them fr om drying. The chick will likely need assistance to Tra n s p o r ting Egg s fr ee itself when ready to hatch. Base your decision to assist on the strength of the Fresh, unincubated eggs can be transported rel a t i ve l y ch i c k ’s vocalization and movements. A tape rec o rd i n g easily as long as they are protected from physical of an adult crane’s brooding call (purring), cheeping of damage (cracked shells, free zing, or overheating). other chicks, or an imitation of these sounds by the For incubated eggs, a rapid transfer (less than  mi n ) aviculturist usually elicits loud cheeps (if the air cell be t w een nests and/or incubators at the same site has been entered) and struggling from the chick. req u i r es no special equipment except that eggs should Although chicks enter a quiescent period prior to be cushioned to prev ent damage from sudden or hatching (Hamburger and Oppenheim    ), a chick rough movement. The amount of cooling that occurs that remains quiet and motionless may be too weak to in the egg in a few minutes has no appreciable effect finish hatching on its own . on the egg unless the weather is extremely cold or the Fai l u r e to hatch after pipping may result from egg is exposed to rain or chilling winds. malposition, dehydration of the shell membranes (so To transfer over substantial distances (e.g., from the chick adheres to the membranes), an abnormally a wild nest to a captive- r earing facility), a porta b l e thick shell, or weakness of the chick due to improp e r suitcase incubator (F ig. . ) was developed at incubation conditions. Assist the chick cautiously in Pat u x ent (Erickson    ). Hatchability of transporte d case the yolk sac is still exposed (see below) or the eggs is usually ver y high with these incubators, which external blood vessels are still functional. Rem o ve the ar e constructed by lining a rei n f o r ced cardb o a r d eggshell over the air cell to expose the chick without suitcase with polyurethane foam. Supply heat using disturbing the membranes around the chick. Moi s t e n hot-water bottles filled with water at  .° C (  ° F) the membrane with sterile water or saline to rel e a s e and placed in the bottom of the suitcase. Abo ve the the chick and rev eal blood vessels. If the blood ves s e l s hot-water bottles, place polyethylene foam inserts that appear empty (i.e., pale and small in diameter), gently will contain the eggs. Egg shaped cut-outs (pockets, and slowly peel the membrane away from the chick’s one half of which is in the lid and half in the base) are bill a little at a time. Do this gradually to allow the in t e r connected with air channels running between chick to emerge by itself, if possible. Membrane blood egg pockets and extending to the ends of the inserts vessels can also be tied off surgically. A chick that to allow convection and to equilibrate temperature continues to be weak, shows edema around the back th r oughout the incubator. When the incubator of the head and neck, and does not prog r ess on its suitcase is filled with eggs, close the cover and insert a own should be carefully pulled from the egg. Wea k thermometer through a hole in the side or cover so ch i c k s ca n be tre a t e d wi t h flui d s , gl u c o s e , an d st e ro i d s that it extends into the area near the eggs (i.e., into by in j e c t i n g ei t h e r wh i l e st i l l in th e e g go r im m e d i a t e l y one of the air channels between eggs). Monitor the after assisted hatching. Additional information on te m p e r a t u r e continuously, and regulate it within time intervals between hatching events and assistance  .- .° C ( - ° F) by keeping the incubator lid of chicks is provided by Har tman et al. (   ). closed to retain heat and by opening and fanning the 7 4 Chapter 4

Fig 4.12. Por table incubator suitcase: Left, hot water bottles now empty but in place; Right, polystyrene liner with cavities for eggs and channels for convection and thermo m e t e r . Ph oto Pat u xe n t lid to release heat if the temperature is too high. and general handling of eggs, and in dealing with Do not allow eggs to enter or remain in an incubator pr oblems with the incubators, whether they are hotter than  .° C ( ° F). Replenish the hot-water machines or birds. In the beginning, experiment with bottles at approximately -h intervals or when the less valuable eggs, and expect to lose a few of these, incubator temperature falls below  .° C ( ° F). but learn from your losses and avoid them. Th e Hold the incubator suitcase in your lap or lift it above information presented here and in the ref e r ences your lap to protect eggs, especially those in early stages cited provide a basis for conducting an incubation of incubation, from sudden movements or stops, pr ogram, but the novice should also seek the advice bumps, or vibrations, which would otherwise cause of experienced persons when problems arise. blood vessels or embryonic membranes to rup t u re . For in t e r national shipments lasting  h or more, ICF has developed a wooden box with separate egg and water bottle compartments so eggs are not Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d disturbed when changing water. Tem p e r a t u r es are kept between  . and  .° C ( and  ° F). Ar , A., and H. Rahn.    . Int e r dependence of gas conduc- tance, incubation length, and weight of the avian egg. Pag e s   -  in J. Pii p e r , editor. Res p i r a t o r y function in birds , adult and embryonic. Spr i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . Ar chibald, G. W., and S. R. Swengel.    . Comparative ecol- ogy and behavior of Eastern Sar us Cranes and Brolgas in Closing Sta t e m e n t Australia. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s Incubation is part art and part science. Und e r s t a n d i n g    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Whooping Cra n e Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Wil d l i f e the principles of incubation alone will not guarantee Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . success. The aviculturist must become experienced in recognizing subtleties rev ealed during candling In c u b ation and Hatc h i n g 7 5

Ben o f f , F. H., and J. A. Renden.    . Broiler breeder egg Ham b u r g e r , V., and R. Oppenheim.    . Prehatching motil- shape. . Hatchability of pole distinguishable and pole ity and hatching behavior in the chick. Journal of indistinguishable eggs. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Experimental Zoology   :  -  . Brei b y, T. E.    unpubl. Incubation and hatching intervals of Har tman, L., S. Duncan, and G. Archibald.    . The hatch- cranes with an analysis of the relationship of captive and ing process in cranes with recommendations for assisting wild laid Whooping Crane eggs. International Cra n e abnormal chicks. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Foundation rep o rt . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g Brown, A. F. A.    . The incubation book. The Wor l d Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Pheasant Association, Reading, U.K.   pp . Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Burnham, W.    . Arti fi cial incubation of falcon eggs. Jou r n a l Heck, W. R., and D. Konkel.    . Incubation and rea r i n g . of Wildlife Management  :  -  . Pages  - in J. D. Wea v er and T. J. Cade, editors. Fal c o n Byer l y , T. C., and M. W. Olsen.    . The influence of gravity pr opagation: a manual on captive breeding. The Pere g r i n e and air-hunger on hatchability. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . Fund, For t Collins, Colo. Calle, P. P., D. L. Janssen, C. M. Kue h l e r , and J. Oos t e r h u i s . Hutt, F. B., and A. M. Pil k e y .    . Studies in embryon i c    . Gentamicin injection of incubating avian eggs. Pag e s mo r tality in the fowl, V. Relationships between positions of  - in J. H. Olsen, editor. Proceedings of the American the egg and frequencies of malpositions. Pou l t r y Science Association of Zoo Vet e r i n a r i a n s .  :- . Ca rt h e w, W. R.    . Breeding of Grey-necked Crown e d Joh n s g a r d, P. A.    . Cranes of the world. Indiana Uni ve r s i t y Cranes (Bal e a r i c a reg u l o ru m ). Avicultural Magazine  :-. Press, Bloomington.   pp . Co n w a y , W., and A. Ham e r .    . A  -y ear laying rec o r d of a Jor dan, R.    . Par r ot incubation proc e d u r es. Sil v i o Wattled Crane at New Yor k Zoological Par k. Auk  :  - Mattachione, Pickering, Ont a r i o .   pp .   . Joyn e r , K. L., and U. Abbott.    . Egg necropsy techniques. Cra m p , S., and K. E. L. Simmons, editors.    . Handbook of Pages   -  in Proceedings of the Association of Avi a n the birds of Eur ope, the Middle East and Nor th Africa. Th e Veterinarians, Chicago, Ill . bi r ds of the western Pal e a r ctic. Vol. , Hawks to bustards . Kue h l e r , C., and J. Good.    . Arti fi cial incubation of bird Ox f o r d Uni v ersity Press, Oxford, U.K.   pp . eggs at the Zoological Society of San Die g o . Int e r n a t i o n a l Derrickson, S. R., and J. W. Carpenter.    . Whooping Cra n e Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . pr oduction at the Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center,    - Kue h l e r , C. M., and M. R. Loomis.    . Arti fi cial incubation    . Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings of the of non-domestic bird eggs. Pages    -   in R. W. Kirk,    Crane Work s h o p . National Audubon Soc i e t y , ed i t o r . Cur r ent vet e r i n a r y therapy XI: small animal prac- Tave r n i e r , Fla . tice. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. Derrickson, S. R., and J. W. Carpenter.    . Behavioral man- Kuyt, E.    . Management and res e a r ch of Whooping Cra n e s agement of captive cranes—factors influencing prop a g a t i o n    -   . Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. and rei n t r oduction. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Baraboo, Wis . Baraboo, Wis . La n d a u e r , W.    . The hatchability of chicken eggs as influ- Ens l e y , P. K., B. A. Rideout, and D. J. Ste r n e r .    . enced by environment and hered i t y . Monograph  Radiographic imaging to evaluate chick position in (R evised), Storrs Agricultural Experiment Sta t i o n , California Condor (Gym n o g yps californi a n u s ) eggs. Pag e s Uni v ersity of Connecticut-Sto r r s .   -  in R. E. Junge, editor. Proceedings of the American Langenberg, J.    . Pathological evaluation of the avian egg. Association of Zoo Vet e r i n a r i a n s . Pages  - in Proceedings of the American Association of Erickson, R. C.    . Tra n s p o r t case for incubated eggs. Avian Veterinarians, Gree n s b o r o, N.C. Wildlife Society Bulletin 9:57-60. Liao Yanfa.    . The Black-necked Cranes of Longbaotan. Erickson, R. C., and S. R. Derrickson.    . The Wh o o p i n g ICF Bugle  (): , -. Crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Crane res e a rc h Mahan, T. A.    . Incubation of crane eggs by Cochin hens. ar ound the world. International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Avicultural Magazine  ():   -  . Baraboo, Wis . Putnam, M. S.    . Refi ned techniques of crane prop a g a t i o n Ernst, R. A.    . Hat c h e r y and hatching-egg sanitation. at the International Crane Foundation. Pages   -  in J. Uni v ersity of California Division of Agricultural Sciences C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings of the    Crane Work s h o p . Le a fl et    . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . Fis h e r , I. J., and S. E. Swengel.    . A guide for aging San d h i l l Putnam, M. S., and B. C. Wen t w o r th.    . Reducing exce s - Crane eggs. Wildlife Society Bulletin  :  -  . si v e weight loss in a Whooping Crane egg by reh yd r a t i o n . Gee, G. F., J. S. Hat fi eld, and P. W. Howey .    . Rem o t e Avicultural Magazine  :  -  . monitoring of parental incubation conditions in the Rahn, H., and A. Ar.    . The avian egg: incubation time and Greater Sandhill Crane. Zoo Bio l o g y . In pres s . water loss. Condor  :  -  . Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., K. M. Bau e r , and E. Bezze l , Russman, S. R.    . The effects of arti fi cially cooling crane editors.    . Handbuch der Vögel Mit t e l e u r opas, Band . eggs at the International Crane Foundation. Pages   -  Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden, Ger m a n y . in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proc e e d i n g s 7 6 Chapter 4

of the    International Crane Work s h o p . Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . San c t u a r y, W. C.    . On the cause of dead chicks in the shell. Pou l t r y Science :  -  . Stehlik, J.    . Beitrage zur Biologie der Jun gf e r n k r a n i c h e (Ant h ro p o i d e s vi r g o ). Freunde des Kölner Zoo :  -  . Sto o d l e y , J., and P. Sto o d l e y .    . Par r ot production. Bezel s Publications, Por tsmouth, U.K.   pp . Str omberg, J.    . A guide to better hatching. Stro m b e r g Publishing, Pine River , Minn.   pp . Sul l i v an, K.    unpubl. Achieving the greatest hatching rates among populations of captive cranes: an analysis of incuba- tion techniques and their success. International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis.  pp . Talmadge, D. W.    . The effect of incubating eggs narrow end up on malposition II and hatchability. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Tay l o r , L. W.    . Fer tility and hatchability of chicken and tu r key eggs. John Wiley and Sons, New Yor k.   pp . Urban, E. K., D. H. Fry, and S. Keith.    . The birds of Africa. Vol. . Academic Press, Orlando, Fla.   pp . Van Ee, C. A.    . Notes on the breeding behaviour of the Blue Crane, Tet ra p t e r yx parad i s e a . Ostrich  : - . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . One hundred thirty - t h r ee San d h i l l Crane nests. Jac k - P ine Warbler  :  -  . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r Press, New Yor k.   pp . CHAPTER 5 Chick Rea r i n g

Marianne We l l i n g ton, Ann Bu rke, Jane M. Ni colich, and Kathleen O’Ma l l ey

earing method has a profound and lifelong just below ground level to a height of  cm ( in ) . effect on a crane’s behavior. Because cranes Install the “chick proo fin g ” on the inside surface of sometimes live longer than seventy years in the chain link to prev ent chicks from getting trapped ca p t i v i t y , it is imperative to rear accordi n g be t w een the two fencing materials. Rto need. Cranes rea r ed for display should be rea re d Opt i m a l l y , chicks should be rea r ed in flig h t - n e t t e d di f f e r ently than breeding stock or birds for release pens. If this is not possible, the flight capabilities of to the wild. chicks must be monitored closely around fled g i n g Th e r e are two primary crane chick rea r i n g ( -  days depending upon species) and approp r i - methods. The first, paren t - r earing, is when a chick is ate flight restraint measures must be taken before the rea r ed by one or both of its own parents, or surrog a t e s chicks escape (see Chapter  E) . of the same or another species. These chicks are Han d - re a r ing facilities should include broo d e r usually correctly imprinted and can be released into bo xes (Fig.  .) or commercial incubators and the wild or serve as natural breeders. The second, pr edator proof indoor/outdoor cover ed pens large ha n d - r earing, is when the crane chick is rea r ed by enough to provide chicks with adequate exer cise humans with or without the use of costumes and with (see Chapter  ). The indoor pen should provide a or without live conspecific crane imprinting models co n t r olled environment with food and water. Each (see Chapter  D for details on raising hand-rea re d should be equipped with at least one heat lamp of chicks for rei n t ro d u c t i o n ) . adjustable height. If outdoor runs are large enough The amount of preparation, time, labor, and (ca  ´  m) to allow growing chicks adequate space expense incurred rearing chicks will var y grea t l y for exer cise until they are fully grown, they are also depending on the method chosen, and must be large enough to house calm adult conspecifics in ca r efully considered to ensure success. Hus b a n d r y neighboring pens to serve as imprinting models. practices applicable to both rearing methods are If a paren t - re a r ed chick req u i r es intensive care, the discussed first, followed by the techniques specific to runs can also serve as adequate housing for a dam each method and vet e r i n a r y techniques for chicks. and her chick. Of course, use caution when bringing sick animals into the rearing facility. To promote strong imprinting on conspecifics , visual contact with an adult or subadult crane in a General Hus b a n d r y for neighboring pen is beneficial during the first days after hatch. Older chicks can be housed adjacent Ch i c k Rea r i n g to adults or subadult conspecifics, which we call socialization models, that are housed in large pens F a c i l i t i e s built adjacent to outside chick runs. These birds pr ovide an opportunity for chicks to observe social Pare n t - re a r ing facilities ar e modified breeding pens behavior within a grou p , something the imprinting (see Chapter  ). Facilities that allow caretakers to lock model does not provi d e . adult cranes in or out of a shelter while capturing the At Pat u x ent, chicks young enough or sick enough chick reduce the risk of injury to birds and keepers. to be kept in a brooder box are not usually exposed to Young crane chicks are surprisingly mobile, and can li v e conspecifics because of the added stress associated easily pass through typical chain link fence. To preve n t with trying to watch and follow the adult. Ins t e a d , th i s , a sm a l l e r (. cm or . in ) pl a s t i c co a t e d me s h , taxidermic heads are left in sight of the chick and or solid material, should be added to the fence from pelt fragments of gray or white feathers are left for 7 8 Chapter 5 the chick to cuddle. Because chicks readily respond to rem o ved and replaced. Another option in temperate the heads and pelts, when the chick is strong enough climates is to leave the pen fallow for - months and to be returned to a rearing pen, recognition of the live maintain imprinting models in the same pen ever y adult is usually immediate. yea r . Some institutions also treat the ground with If brooder boxes are used, they should have an One Str oke Env i r on (see Chapter  and App e n d i x ) . exe r cise area of at least one square meter, be easily Outdoor runs can also have concrete floors cleaned, and allow easy access to the chick. Because of co ver ed with a sand (. cm,  in) deep. Sand is easily ag g r ession, chicks must often be housed in individual rem o ved at the end of the season. The concrete slabs pens and brooder boxes. Ide a l l y , partitions betwee n can be scrubbed and disinfected. br ooder boxes, incubators, and indoor/outdoor pens A hand-rearing facility may also include an exerc i s e or runs should be made of a material (e.g., plexiglass) ya r d (where chicks can be walked or allowed to run which allows chicks visual contact with neighboring fr eely and are socialized under supervision) and a chicks and adult imprinting models while preve n t i n g swimming pool at least three feet deep for hydro t h e r - injuries. Wir e barriers or flexible, plastic mesh apy (see Exer cise, this chapter). Flight netting outside (. -. cm, .-. in) also provide for visual runs ensures that older chicks cannot fly out and contact with neighbors. Even with these barriers, pr otects them from avian and terrestrial pred a t o r s . th e r e remains some risk of eye or beak injuries if the chicks fight through the fences. Protocols and Record Keeping Adult cranes housed next to chicks as imprinting models may be curious or may perce i v e young chicks Cur r ent protocols for specific rearing methods as prey . Install an adequate barrier between chicks and should be available in chick rearing facilities. Det a i l e d adults to prev ent adults from jabbing through a wire rec o r ds should be kept on each bird (see Chapter  ). mesh barrier or digging under the plexiglass. Ple x i g l a s s Imp o r tant milestones in the chick’s life, such as when must be carefully secured and buried at least  in c h e s the chick begins eating and drinking on its own, in the ground. If adult cranes are not housed next to must be carefully noted. Physical problems, medical chicks, partitions made of flexible, plastic mesh tr eatments, weight gain, changes or supplements to (. -. cm, .-. in) can be used to separate the diet, amount and type of exer cise, socialization chicks. Howeve r , as chicks get older and fight more with other chicks, exposure to imprinting models, ag g re s s i ve l y , they may need plexiglass partitions to and behavioral changes should all be rec o rd e d . pre v ent permanent beak damage or eye injuries. Indoor pens are easier to clean and maintain if they D i e t ha v e concrete floors with substrate such as - cm ( in) of wood chips, shavings, or sand. Wood shav- Crane chicks must be provided with a nutritionally ings should be dust free, laboratory grade if possible balanced diet suitable to the needs of a rapidly (e.g., Beta-chips), to reduce res p i r a t o r y problems. gr owing animal with a high metabolism. Spe c i a l l y In addition, carpet pads or rubber matting may be formulated crane chick (starter) diet should be fed placed over the concrete and under the wood shavings fr om hatching (day ) through fledging (day  +) to help prev ent chicks from slipping on the smooth or until all primaries are completely grown (up to su r face. Using . cm ( in) deep sand bedding  or  mo n t h s ) . diminishes the chances of slipping and decrea s e s Ser a fi n (   ,    ) recommended a diet contain- pathogens which might grow in wet shavings, but ing no more than  % protein and . % sulfur sand can fill the air with dust when sifting out feces. amino acids for slowing growth of hand-rea r ed Sand and shavings can cause eye injuries or irritation cranes and thereb y reducing the risk of abnormal when trapped under the lid. Placing a carpet on top leg development. Higher protein levels, especially of the sand or shavings is highly recommended for animal protein, increase the incidence of leg and the first two wee k s . wing prob l e m s . Natural turf is the best substrate for outdoor Pelleted, commercially prep a r ed food is a runs and provides a stimulating environment for the co n v enient, reliable alternative to mixing special chicks, but is difficult to disinfect. To reduce parasite diets. Dif f e r ent feed formulas are needed for growi n g and pathogen loads, pens can be used on alternating chicks, non-breeding adults, and breeding adults years, lime can be tilled into the soil, or sod can be (see Table .). Local feed producers may be able to Chick Re a r i n g 7 9

TABLE 5.1 Vogelpark, Walsrode crane chick starter diet. In g re d i e n t % Composition “In s e k t - f u t t e r ” (-feed, red ) 1  Beef Hea r ts (finely grou n d )  Qua r k (yog u r t-like dairy prod u c t )  Mealworms (/ quick-boiled, / li ve )  Green feed (lettuce, other gree n s )  Yeast powder (forti fie d ) tr a c e “Os s p u l v i t - p u l ve r ” (calcium supplement) tr a c e Crickets (Family Gryllidae) (fres h - k i l l e d ) (- per bowl )

Mi xa l li n g re d i e n t st of o r m a m o i s t ,b u tn o ts a t u r a t e d ,m i x t u re . Wa t e rc a nb ea d d e di ft o od r y. App r oxi m a t e l y  -  g pe r bi r d ar e f e dt w i c ed a i l y. Cri c k e t sa re p l a c e do nt o po fe a c h f o o db ow l . Pe l l e t e df o o d i sa l s oa l w a y sp r ov i d e d .A st h ec h i c k s gr ow, l e s so ft h ef re s hm i x t u r e i sp rov i d e da n dt h e ye a tm o r e p e l l e t s .A f t e r - we e k s ,t h e yo u n gb i rd se a to n l yp e l l e t e df o o d . 1 Type I (rot) Troc k e n - W eichfutter (mixture for small birds and quail) from: Claus GmbH, Spe z i a l - Fu t t e r mitt Postfact   ,    Lim b u r g e r hof, Ge rm a n y. ma n u f a c t u r e feed when provided the formula, or Supplementary Feeding pre p a r ed crane feed may be purchased from Zei g l e r Feed Company (see App e n d i x ) . For ver y young chicks that are ill or otherwise Food must always be recently milled (within sl o w to learn to eat, supplementary feeding may be th r ee months), dry, intact, and free of contaminants ne c e s s a r y. Of the two methods available (i.e., force including mold and vermin. Crumbles are fed from feeding pellets and gavage [intubation or tube feeding hatching to - weeks of age. As the chick begins a liquid diet]), gavage is pref e r r ed. Ins t r uctions for eating on its own, pelleted starter ration (diameter supplemental feeding and tube feeding diets are found  mm or .   in,  % protein) is mixed into the under Vet e r i n a r y Techniques in this chapter. Tub e cr umbles. The percentage of pellets is slowly increa s e d feeding, unless done exce s s i ve l y , usually will not until the chick is eating only pellets by three to four discourage a chick from eating on its own. In fact, weeks. Pare n t - re a r ed chicks can be fed a mixture of for neonatal chicks, tube feeding small quantities cr umbles and pellets from day . - times a day may help stimulate their appetite Many zoos feed a poultry (usually turkey) starte r while it also staves off dehydr a t i o n . ration augmented with insects, fish, rodents, or other pr otein. At Vog e l p a r k Wal s r ode (Wal s r ode, Ger m a n y ) , W a t e r young cranes are fed a combination of the pelleted diet and a mix similar to a “soft bill” diet (Table .). Fresh water should be kept constantly available Ide a l l y , any institution raising crane chicks will and replaced daily or whenever contaminated. ha v e access to a complete, balanced diet. Howeve r , Non-spillable bowls must be deep enough to enable if this is not feasible, or if the diet available is ques- the chick to drink, but still allow it to escape should tionable, a standard dose of water soluble poultry it stumble in (Fig. .). Sta n d a r d one gallon plastic vitamins and electrolytes can be added to the water. po u l t r y water jugs with red lids work well. Sha l l o w The poultry additive should be discontinued as soon bo wls with a large, open surface area req u i r e more as a balanced diet is avai l a b l e . maintenance, because they are more easily contami- After fledging (day  +) or when primaries are fully nated by the chick’s drop p i n g s . gr own, chicks are taken off starter ration and put on Because cranes are wading birds, it seems rea s o n - maintainer ration (protein  - %) . able that teaching the chick to drink would be a simple matter, howeve r , it is not. Videotapes of wild Mississippi Sandhill Cranes show that the adults 8 0 Chapter 5

amount of information gained versus the amount of stress to the cranes. At hatching, crane chicks weigh between   and   grams and can fit in the palm of a hand. When picking up such a small, delicate animal, the “sc o o p ” method is the safest (Fig. .). Chicks can be “sc o o p e d ” up from either the front or from behind. One or two fingers are slipped between the chick’s legs, and its body is held gently in the palm, while the legs dangle between the fingers or over the side of the hand. The other hand covers the chick’s back to Fig. 5.1. Chick feeder and waterer should be “no n - t i p a b l e . ” pre v ent it from jumping off the palm. The legs are left Ph oto ICF un r estrained, but must be prev ented from clawing the ch i c k ’s neck or face. When releasing chicks, support spend hours coaxing the chick to take its first sip, ev en while the chick sits in open marsh water. Deh y dration is a significant health concern when raising chicks. It reduces the desire to eat an d dr i n k , and may cause the chick to act dazed and lethargic. Chicks that have been eating well may stop entirel y when dehydrated. Both hand-rea r ed and paren t - rea r ed chicks must be carefully monitored in their first week for dehydration, and rec e i v e fluids when ne c e s s a r y. For clinical signs associated with dehydr a - tion and treatment, see Table ..

H a n d l i n g Crane chicks are ver y fragile. Imp r oper handling can cause lacerations, broken or damaged limbs, and rup t u r ed yolk sacs, all of which can end in death. Some amount of handling is necessary in order to evaluate the health and growth of the chicks. Fig. 5.2. Scoop method of carrying newly hatched chick. Wh e n e v er deciding to handle chicks, consider the Thom Lewis pictured. Ph oto David H. El l i s

TABLE 5.2 Clinical Signs and Treatment of Dehydration De h yd r at i o n Clinical Si g n s Tre at m e n t >% Not detectable No treatment may be req u i re d -% Slight loss of skin elasticity. Some tenting of skin Subcutaneous flui d s (o ver hocks or elsewh e r e). Dull appearing eyes. Tacky mucous membranes. -% Some loss of skin elasticity with distinct tenting Subcutaneous flui d s of skin possible, but not pron o u n c e d .  - % Mucous membranes dry. Chick dull and depressed. Int r a v enous bolus therapy and Ext r emities cool to the touch. Hea r t rate increa s e d . subcutaneous fluids; warmth, other su p p o rt i v e care (antibiotics, etc.)  - % Chick extremely depressed and near death. Int r a v enous fluids, warmth, antibiotics Chick Re a r i n g 8 1 the body until the legs support the bird’s weight. Be especially careful to prev ent the chick from falling onto its back. A supine chick will flail with its legs and can easily tear its own neck or injure its eyes with its nails. A safe method of carrying birds over  days old is the bouquet method. One palm supports the bird’s chest or keel while the legs are gently restrained by the other hand (Fig. .). The legs are held apart with one or two fingers between them. The bird’s body is held ho r i z ontally with the legs held back out of the way so the chick cannot claw itself. Legs must not be twisted, cr ossed over , or allowed to rub together. Two ver s i o n s ar e available: either the bird is held horizontal or mo r e upright. As chicks grow older, care must be taken during handling so that emerging feathers are not damaged or br oken. As wings and primaries grow, wings must be ca r efully restrained to reduce the risk of injury and feather damage. Fig. 5.4. Jane Nicolich holding an adult Sandhill Crane using the Chicks over six weeks of age are normally carried same “football carry” that is used on large chicks. like small adults. The body is held to the side like a Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n football tucked under the arm, with the forearm hold- ing the bird’s body against the caret a k e r ’s side and the fingers of that same arm holding the legs (Fig. .). W e i g h i n g

Monitoring a chick’s growth (expressed as perce n t weight gain per day) is the primary factor in determin- ing the chick’s health. Weight gain can also be plotted and compared to a normal growth chart for the individual species (Fig. .). It is advisable to weigh a chick in a box on a standing scale (Fig. .) rather than a hanging scale to reduce the risk of leg injuries. The scale should have an accuracy of % until chicks are over    g. Th e floor of the box should be cover ed with a non-slippery material (i.e., carpet). To reduce human contact, chicks may be placed in a closed box during wei g h i n g . Han d - re a r ed chicks, when larger than  kg, can be guided or trained to walk onto a platform scale to reduce the chance of injury during wei g h i n g . Howeve r , many walk-on scales provide only  g in c re m e n t s . Ide a l l y , the first weighing should occur as soon as possible after hatching. Chicks should be weighed at the same time each day, until it is determined that the chick is no longer losing weight. The frequency of weighing the chick will depend on the chick’s health Fig. 5.3. Lorie Shaull demonstrates “bouquet” method of carryi n g and the rearing method used. Normal weekly wei g h t a mid-sized chick. Ph oto David H. El l i s gains for six species are summarized in Table .. 8 2 Chapter 5

Whooping Crane Growth Cu rve

. . ■ Misc.

Fig. 5.5. Growth curve for Whooping Crane chicks. The brief weight decrease following hatching is normal as are sizeable fluc t u a t i o n s ar ound the mean.

Growth Problems

A  - % weight loss in the first - days is normal as the chick absorbs its yolk sac (Fig. .). Chicks that lose more than  % of their body weight should be mo n i t o r ed closely and encouraged to eat (see Tra i n i n g Chicks to Eat and Drink under Han d - r earing in this chapter). If weight loss continues or lethargy sets in, su p p o r t by subcutaneous injection of fluids or by ga v age feedings (see Vet e r i n a r y Techniques in this chapter or Chapter ). Exce s s we i g h tg a i n (a n d res u l t i n g l e go rw i n g pro b - l e m s )i s a m a j o rc o n c e r ni n re a r i n gc r a n e c h i c k s( s e e Vet e r i n a r yTec h n i q u e s s e c t i o n ) .T h i s pro b l e m , pre s e n t in al l rea r i n g m e t h o d s ,i s mo r e co m m o n i nh a n d - re a r i n g .C h i c k wei g h t s h o u l db e m o n i t o re dc a re f u l l y du r i n g th e pe r i o d o fm o s t r a p i dg rowt h , ap p r oxi m a t e l y da y s  - .Wei g h t g a i nm u s tb e co n s i d e re d ove rt h e c o u r s eo f s e ve r a ld a y s , b u tc o n t i n u o u s wei g h t ga i n s exc e e d i n g  % to  % p e rd a yc a nc a u s e pro b l e m s . Howeve r , e ve nc h i c k su n d e r t e nd a y s o fa g e ,o r wh o s e we i g h tg a i n s ar e le s s th a n  %, o c c a s i o n a l l ys u f f e rl e g d e f o r m i t i e s .T h e re f o re , d a i l ym o n i t o r i n gi s cr i t i c a l . Fig. 5.6. Kathy O’M alley weighing a chick in a box. At Pat u x ent, leg problems seldom occur with the Ph oto David H. El l i s small, Mississippi Sandhill Crane, but are common Chick Re a r i n g 8 3

TABLE 5.3 Percent weight change 1 over one-week periods for six species of cranes.2 We e k Spe c i e s3 Si b e r i a n Sa n d h i l l Sa ru s Bro lg a W h i t e - n a pe d Re d - Crow n e d Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e                                                                                                                    

1 For example, during week  , Siberian Cranes increase in weight by an aver age of  %. 2 So u r ce:    -   data from ICF compiled by Ian Fis h e r . 3 Species and number of chicks weighed: Siberian Crane, N =  ; Sandhill Crane (Florida), N =  ; Sar us Crane (Eas t e r n), N =  ; Brolga, N = ; White-naped Crane, N =  ; and Red - c r owned Crane, N =  . Chicks wer e eliminated from this presentation if they developed leg rotations problems. Not all chicks wer e weighed ever y day. with the larger Whooping Crane. Pare n t - re a r ed chicks wa r d. When the chick stands, legs should be even l y gr ow faster than hand-rea r ed chicks, but in spite of spaced, perpendicular to the ground. If the chick’s their rapid growth, they rarely suffer from leg prob - middle toes begin to point either outward or inward, lems. Sev eral factors probably contribute to this lack the bird may be showing the first signs of a leg rot a - of leg deformities. First, paren t - re a r ed chicks typically tion. When a chick has bowed legs, another common ha v e their diet supplemented by their parents with live de f o r m i t y , its middle toes may still be parallel, but the food captured in the pens, and they are continuously legs are splayed either inward or outward at the hock. fed over the course of the day. Second, paren t - re a re d To p re ve n tl e gp ro b l e m s ,e xe rc i s es h o u l db ee n c o u r- chicks are never on concrete, and, perhaps most a g e d( s e e Exe rc i s eu n d e r Han d - re a r i n g Me t h o d s ,t h i s im p o rt a n t l y , the quality and quantity of exer cise the c h a p t e r ) .C h i c k sr a i s e dn e a ra c t i ve ,l i ve im p r i n t i n g chicks rec e i v e following their parents contribute to the m o d e l sm a yn o tn e e ds u p p l e m e n t a le xe rc i s ei ft h e y lo w prev alence of leg prob l e m s . sp e n d a l o to ft i m ef o l l ow i n gt h ea d u l t . If a n yb i rd To monitor for leg deformities, check each chick’s s h ow ss i g n so fl e gd e v i a t i o no rt o or a p i d we i g h tg a i n , legs daily. When the chick walks on a flat surface, the re s p o n dw i t h a c o m b i n a t i o no fe xe rc i s e ,f o o dr a t i o n i n g , middle toes should be parallel, pointing straight for- a n d / o rt a p i n go fl e g s( s e e Vet e r i n a r yTec h n i q u e s ) . 8 4 Chapter 5

Food Rationing for Hand-rea r ed Chicks. ar e wary of humans and rarely attack caretakers Some birds gain exce s s i v ely even with regular exerc i s e . during routine interactions, but unless tamed, they In such cases, the following food withholding sometimes injure themselves or caretakers during techniques can be used to limit weight gain. handling or other disturbances. . Rem o ve food only at night. Usually chicks do Tam i n g can best begin as soon as a chick is not consume much food at night so rem o val limits independent of its parents (ca  months of age), but only the amount of food available to them in the early can also be accomplished with older birds. Wh e n morning hours when cranes normally feed. possible, pen the wild, paren t - re a r ed cranes with . Provide food four times a day for  - mi n u t e ta m e r , hand-rea r ed conspecifics of similar age. Prior in t e r vals, then leave it in the pen overnight. This is the to taming, most of a paren t - re a r ed crane’s interactions pre f e r r ed method for most chicks, because the chick with people have been negative. In taming, gradually still has access to enough food to grow prop e r l y , to in c r ease the amount of positive or neutral experiences stem its hunger, and to prev ent it from devel o p i n g with people. For example, provide treats such as corn, vices such as eating bedding or feces. pinkies (baby mice), or smelt on a daily basis (see also . If the chick is eating pelleted food, provide either Chapter ). Toss treats to the birds, then move far cr umbles only or a mixture of crumbles and pellets so enough away for them to approach and eat the trea t s . the chick has to expend more time and energy to eat Pur r , avoid sudden movements, and crouch down the same amount of food. (i.e., decreasing height decreases threat). Th ro u g h . Rem o ve food at night and provide it three or time, the birds ’ ret r eat distance gradually decrea s e s four times a day for an hour at a time. On this reg i m e , an d eve n t u a l l y so m e b i rd sw i l l ap p ro a c h . Pare n t - re a re d chicks may become frantic or consume bedding in c r a n e sw i l l usually remain somewhat aloof and will which case using one of the other options must be not approach closer than - m. Howeve r , some im p l e m e n t e d . pa re n t - re a r ed breeding adults will attack to prot e c t Reg a r dless of which technique is used, food eggs or chicks. rationing ends as soon as the chick’s weight gain Another taming technique is to merely linger in the sl o ws for several days or abnormal behavior devel o p s . open in a non-threatening way. Begin at the distance Weight gain should be monitored daily, howeve r , until be y ond which cranes no longer pace the far fence the period of rapid growth is over (ca  days of age). (ca  m or more), then move closer as the birds grow In a grou p - r earing situation, if even one chick is accustomed to your presence. After the cranes are sh o wing exce s s i v e weight gain, the entire pen should tame towa r d their caretakers, they, with time, will be rationed or the bird of concern can be temporarily accept other humans as wel l . rem o ved to limit its feeding opportunities. Howeve r , Pare n t - r earing is less labor intensive than con- ca r efully monitor the social interactions of the chicks ventional hand-rearing, but req u i r es more extensive because deprivation of food can result in increa s e d facilities to maintain breeding pairs and rep l a c e m e n t s . ag g re s s i o n . Pare n t - re a r ed chicks are subject to more danger than chicks rea r ed by hand (e.g., inclement wea t h e r , parasites, and greater risk of predation). Pred a t o r pro o fi ng the perimeter fence and flight netting the Pare n t - r earing Crane Chicks en c l o s u r e will help reduce the mortality due to te r r estrial and aerial predators (see Chapter  F) . The paren t - r earing process invol v es a pair of cranes, or occasionally a single bird, raising their own or an Choosing Parents adopted chick. The process closely parallels the rea r i n g of a chick in the wild. From its parents, the chick In choosing pairs to raise chicks of endangered learns to drink, forage, avoid humans and pred a t o r s , species, evaluate the previous parenting experience and learns how to interact with other cranes. Cra n e s of the pair. All captive cranes do not make good rea r ed by their own species imprint properly and pa r ents; some kill or neglect chicks. Bef o r e a pair is make good candidates for release into the wild. Wit h al l o wed to raise a genetically valuable or endangered some taming, they can also be good birds for captive crane, we recommend that the pair be closely br eeding with the advantage of having reduced need mo n i t o r ed and have at least one successful year in for arti fi cial insemination (AI). Without taming, they raising non-endangered cranes or even a chick of Chick Re a r i n g 8 5 some other large-bodied species of precocious fowl In one approach, if a pipped egg is unavailable (e.g., or ). Pref e r r ed pairs or if a pair has a history of problems during hatching, tolerate routine disturbances (such as caret a k e r s a young chick is introduced in place of an egg or feeding and administering treatments). They do dummy egg. At Pat u x ent, this has been successful not red i r ect aggression to eggs or chicks, nor do in three out of six attempts with Sandhill Crane they neglect chicks when disturbed. Good pairs chicks and parents, and four of four attempts with ar e attentive to their chicks (feeding, broo d i n g , Sandhill Crane chicks and Whooping Crane paren t s . defending, and sheltering them), and both members Gen e r a l l y , only experienced parents will tolerate pa r ticipate in incubation. such abrupt changes. If this method is tried with Cros s - f o s t e ri n g , the rearing of a chick by parents an inexperienced pair, only expendable chicks of another species, results in near-normal behavior should be invol ve d . de v elopment, howeve r , the chick may be sexually In the fourth method, the pair’s chick is replaced imprinted on the foster species and thus may experi- by another chick. The chicks being exchanged should ence difficulty pairing with its own species when be similar in age, weight, appearance, and activity sexually mature (see Chapter ). In captivity, this le v el. This technique is often used when a chick imprinting may be altered or rev ersed by rem o ving becomes sick or dies. Replacement of a sick chick with the chick from the foster parents before fled g i n g , a healthy one utilizes the parent rearing capabilities of socializing it in a juvenile cohort of conspecifics, and a valuable pair while allowing more intensive care to then force pairing it at two years of age. be given to the sick chick. If a chick will be rea r ed by foster parents, caref u l In the final method, a chick is fostered to a pair planning is req u i r ed to have a suitable pair ready without eggs or another chick. Pat u x ent has fostered at the hatch date. Nor m a l l y , eggs of two or more Sandhill Crane chicks to Whooping Crane pairs that potential surrogate pairs are manipulated to ensure had never laid or had not rec y cled after an earlier that a suitable pair is rea d y . clutch and wer e not sitting on dummy eggs. Four of twe l v e attempts wer e successful (i.e., chicks survi v ed at least two weeks). Chick ages in successful adoptions Adoption Methods ranged from - days. ICF attempted to introduce Fiv e different adoption methods have proven -hour- to -day-old Florida Sandhill Crane chicks to successful. In the pref e r r ed method, a pair hatches an five pairs of Whooping Cranes. Some adults showed egg they have been incubating and raises the res u l t - ex t r eme interest and/or aggression towa r d the chicks, ing chick. The egg can be their own or one from while others completely ignored them. Chicks that another pair. A second alternative is to introduce a wer e initially rea r ed by surrogate crane parents (ver s u s pipped egg in exchange for an egg that has been hand- or isolation-rearing) showed the most normal incubated at least  , but preferably  - , days. in t e r a c t i v e behaviors with the adults. ICF uses special (ICF has had pairs hatch eggs after as little as one pens (which are placed in the pair’s enclosure prior to week of incubation in the pen.) To decrease the the breeding season to acclimate the pair to the new chances of the pair rejecting or destroying the egg, st ru c t u r e) to introduce the chick to the adoptive place the egg with the pip-hole down. This method pa r ents and assess their responses before actually is used when a pair’s incubation performance has releasing the chick in their pen. been poor or is unknown . Wing tags or leg bands should be rem o ved from In the other three fostering methods, small chicks chicks before adoption is attempted because paren t s ar e introduced to surrogate parents. Because of high ar e likely to peck or pull at these objects and injure the risk to the chick, these methods should not be used chicks. If either parent behaves aggres s i v ely towa r d the routinely nor should they be used with chicks of an chick, if both ignore the chick, or if the chick flee s en d a n g e r ed species. The success of these techniques fr om the parents, the adoption should be terminated. depends on the behavior of the chicks as well as the Egg adoptions are useful in stimulating paren t a l pa r ents. Only chicks that have had previous exposure behavior and to increase chick rearing in the colony to live cranes or taxidermic brooder models and heads (for details see Chapter ). Pat u x ent attempted egg should be used. No matter how attentive the adults adoptions with nine pairs of non-prod u c t i v e birds . ar e, if the chick is afraid of or unres p o n s i v e to live Sev en did not adopt the eggs. Of the two pairs cranes, the attempt will likely fail. that accepted the eggs, one later adopted a chick 8 6 Chapter 5

ex changed for the egg and one hatched the egg. Both Routine Care of Parent-reared Chicks females (ages  and ) laid the following season for the first time. Pat u x ent has also attempted egg adoptions A special protocol for paren t - re a r ed chicks outlines eight times with breeding pairs that either did not lay the schedule and methods for daily care, rou t i n e in that particular year or did not re-lay after an earlier examinations, health care, and weight monitoring. clutch was rem o ved. Fiv e of these attempts wer e with Diagnostic tests (such as fecal parasite screening) and the same Whooping Crane pair in consecutive yea r s . pr ophylactic treatments should be scheduled if disease This pair adopted the eggs and raised chicks in two hi s t o r y of the flock warrants (see example, Fig.  .). years. In the other three years, they rejected the Chicks should be examined and weighed once a wee k dummy eggs, but later accepted foster chicks. Another after the first week until  - days old. Whooping Crane pair which did not lay one yea r All chicks, reg a r dless of treatment schedule, are rejected an introduced dummy egg. Fin a l l y , a visually inspected from a distance daily to detect Mississippi Sandhill Crane pair which did not lay abnormal behavior (e.g., gait problems, impaired for two years, but had in previous years, was given respiration, lethargy, or wing abnormalities). Avoi d dummy eggs. Each year they immediately adopted handling birds in temperature extremes. Frequency of the dummy egg and subsequently hatched or adopted handling should be determined by the health of the and rea r ed a Sandhill Crane chick. chick, the need to monitor growth, the trea t m e n t ICF has attempted six egg adoptions with schedule, and the tolerance of the family to stres s . Whooping Cranes, three with non-layers who did not Once the down of a newly hatched chick is dry, exhibit signs of egg laying and three with post-molt the chick is rem o ved from the pen, weighed, checked la y ers. None wer e successful. Two of two egg adoption for general physical condition (including examination attempts with Siberian Cranes wer e successful. and disinfection of the umbilicus), and given prop h y - One was to a female who exhibited intense nest lactic treatments prescribed by a veterinarian. After building and bill-down behavior, but did not lay an tr eatment, the chick is placed back in the pen at the egg. Another was to a pair in which the male had hatching location. When returning a chick to its pen, prior incubation and chick rearing experience. He make sure the parents can see the chick and that the immediately accepted the egg, built a nest around it, chick is never placed between caretakers and aggres - and began incubating. Over the following  days, the si v e parents. Oth e r wise, the pair may accidentally step female showed complete disinterest and never joined on the chick while rushing after the caretakers as they in incubation. On the ninth day, the egg was rep l a c e d withdraw from the pen. with a pipped egg. The male successfully hatched, The flight capabilities of chicks housed in unnetted br ooded, and fed the chick, but after several hours it pens must be monitored closely after about  days. was found dead (presumably killed by the female). A juvenile that flies into a neighboring pen could be The pair laid eggs and raised a Siberian Crane chick killed by its occupants; one that flies from the facility two years later. could become exposed to predators. App r opriate flig h t To adopt an egg, first watch for signs of laying . To restraint methods are discussed in Chapter  E. av oid disrupting natural rep r oduction, egg adoptions Natural foods (e.g., insects) provided by the paren t s should not be attempted if a pair seems likely to lay. If ar e supplemented with commercially prep a r ed crum - tow a r ds the latter part of the expected laying season, bles or pellets. Fresh food and water is placed near the bi r ds show no clear signs of laying or show a decrea s e nest until the chick is mobile (at - days). If possible, attention given to the nest, an egg adoption may be make food and water containers accessible to both the at t e m p t e d . pa r ents and the chick. This will reduce the number of Proceed by surreptitiously placing a dummy egg in containers needed and allow the parents to teach the a handmade nest in an area of the pen where the pair chick where to locate food and water. After the firs t seems most likely to lay. If the pair initially ignores or fe w days, the food and water bowls are placed near the attacks the egg, continue the adoption. It sometimes ad u l t s ’ feeder (Fig. .). If separate chick feeders and req u i r es a week for the pair to accept the egg and wa t e r ers are used, they can be rem o ved when the chick begin incubating. After incubating for at least  da y s is large enough to use those of the adults (i.e., at ca (longer if possible), exchange the dummy egg for a  - days of age). Some parents red i r ect aggres s i o n pipped egg. If all goes well, allow the pair to hatch or by knocking over waterers or food bowls. If this is a adopt and rear the chick. consistent problem, secure the vessels in place. Chick Re a r i n g 8 7

Han d - r earing Met h o d s

Han d - r earing cranes has some advantages over pa re n t - r earing: many chicks can be rea r ed without the need for a large colony of surrogate parents; the chick’s health and growth can be more easily mo n i t o r ed; the environment, including temperature and sanitation, can be controlled; and chick morta l i t y can be considerably red u c e d . Dis a d v antages to hand-rearing include the cost of Fig. 5.7. After about  days, the chick’s food and water are building the facility, complete with pens large enough mo ved near its paren t s ’ feeder. Ph oto Jane M. Ni co l i c h for adequate exer cise, room for adults to encourage pr oper imprinting, pools, offices, equipment storage ar eas, laundry rooms, etc. Han d - r earing is also In the wild, juvenile cranes leave their parents on laborious, results in more leg and toe problems spring migration or at the onset of the next bree d i n g than paren t - r earing, and is more likely to result in season. If a captive pair is intended to breed again, imprinting prob l e m s . it is best to rem o ve the juvenile from their pen at least th r ee months before the planned egg-laying date. Upon separation from the foster parents, juveniles ar e normally penned with same-aged conspecifics to General Req u i r ements for form social grou p s . Han d - Re a r i n g Working with Parents The Newly Hatched Chick Wor king around parent cranes req u i r es care and training. Previously shy pairs become aggres s i v e and A crane chick being hand-rea r ed should be moved ag g re s s i v e pairs become ver y dangerous when they fr om the hatcher to its properly heated pen or broo d e r ha v e a chick to defend. A crew of three caretakers is bo x once it has dried (- hours after hatching). often req u i r ed to tend a chick: two caretakers fend off The hatchling should be weighed and examined. Th e the adults while the third person provides fresh food umbilicus should be viewed and swabbed or sprayed and water and, when necessary, captures the chick. with betadine (a povidone iodine solution). Som e When the chick becomes larger and faster, a fourth institutions administer prophylactic antibiotics during person sometimes participates in the capture. Use the first few days of the chick’s life (see Vet e r i n a r y ex t r eme caution to avoid stepping on a hidden chick. Techniques this chapter). All pertinent information, While servicing the pen, brooms and flexible plastic including identification numbers, parental informa- shields (made from toy sleds) are useful in fending tion, hatching history, and medical information is off aggres s i v e parents. Hold the broom so that the rec o r ded on the chick’s individual rec o r d (Fig.  .). br ush end parts in the middle and is held at the base of the crane’s neck. This keeps the crane at a distance, T e m p e r a t u r e mi n i m i z es the crane’s ability to rush left or right ar ound the broom, and also reduces the chance of For th e firs t wee k , h a n d - re a re dc h i c k s s h o u l db e in j u r y to the crane. Be constantly prep a r ed to grab ma i n t a i n e d i na m b i e n tt e m p e r a t u re sb e t we e n  - ° C the crane because some birds leap over or slip arou n d ( - ° F) . Mon i t o r n o to n l y th e te m p e r a t u re , b u ta l s o the broo m . t h ec h i c k’s be h a v i o r . C o l dc h i c k ss h i ve ra n dc a l l ; over - h e a t e dc h i c k sp a n t a n d / o rh o l dt h e i r w i n g sa w a yf ro m t h e i rb o d y.Te m p e r a t u re sc a n b ed e c re a s e d by ° C (° F )e a c h wee k f o rh e a l t h y c h i c k s ,b u ts h o u l d no t d ro pb e l ow  .° C ( ° F) u n t i lt h ec h i c k s ar e at le a s t 8 8 Chapter 5 th re e we e k so l d .C h i c k s c a nh a ve a c c e s st o co o l e r are a s taxidermic head, or feeding syringe can all be used in t h ro u g ht h e da y , bu t s h o u l db ec o a xe di n t o or ret u r n e d training crane chicks to eat and drink. Not all chicks t ot h e w a r m e ra re aw h e n c h i l l e da n d f o rt h en i g h t . respond to red. Mississippi Sandhill Cranes and Indoor/outdoor pens with one or more heat African Crowned Cranes respond better to a black bill lamps allow chicks to walk away from the heat source ti p . It is important to accommodate the individual and thus self-regulate body temperature. Placing a needs of each chick. taxidermic crane brooder model or food and water Chicks are introduced to food within a day of bo wls near the heat source will encourage the chick hatching. Many chicks are exhausted after hatching to return to the heat source. Once accustomed to and spend most of the first day resting. Offer food to returning to the heat lamp for warmth, chicks will chicks when they are alert and active. in v estigate their pen, including outdoor runs, and When offering food to chicks, the caretaker either still return to the warmth of the heat lamp to sleep imitates a crane’s “pu r r ” or plays a tape rec o r ding of a just as they would brood under a parent. Heat lamps pa r ent brood call. The caretaker then offers food in a can be rem o ved once the chick is thermocompetent feeding spoon in the puppet’s bill (Fig. .) or dips the (i.e., at approximately  - da y s ) . tip of the feeding utensil in water, then dips the wet Chicks are locked in the indoor pen (control l e d tip in dry crumbles, and offers the adhering food to en v i r onment) at night, especially when weather is cold the chick. Even newly-hatched chicks will usually stab or wet. After a chick exceeds    g, it can be allowed at the food. If they successfully “hit” it, they will get out all night if weather conditions permit and if pens some crumbles in their and will swallow them. ar e predator proo f . Adjust these guidelines accordi n g Feed the chicks until they lose interest, which may be to the chick’s health and weather conditions. in as few as five minutes for newly hatched chicks. As the chick grows more coordinated and has better eyesight, move the feeding utensil closer to the S u b s t r a t e food bowl. Within - days, the chick will begin to Because hand-rea r ed chicks often collect debris in peck at the food where the utensil dips into the bowl . their eyes during the first - days, they are not usu- In several days, the chick will eat the crumbles from ally kept on sand or wood shavings during this period. the bowl anytime the feeding utensil is moved arou n d Howeve r , smooth flooring can also cause prob l e m s in the food. The puppet, taxidermic head, or dowel (e.g., splayed legs, hock rotation, joint damage, or can be suspended on a string passing through an slipped tendons). Be aware that these leg prob l e m s ey elet in the ceiling and tied to the pen wall, so the may also be due to genetic flaws or incubation handler can purr and “bob” the puppet or dowel by pr oblems. To improve footing, use outdoor carpeting flexing the string without entering the pen. Chicks without backing or foam padding. Choose carpet that should be offered food five or six times a day until dries quickly, does not unravel or fray, and does not they are gaining weight and routinely eating on their ha v e loops that can catch small, sharp toenails. own (usually - days). At this time, the chick no During cleaning, replace soiled or wet carpet pieces longer needs training. with clean ones, or replace wet bedding with dry. Al l o wing carpets to dry in sunshine helps destroy bacteria and fungi. To sift feces and spilled food from bedding, use cat litter scoops or scoops constructed of wire mesh.

Training Crane Chicks to Eat and Drink In the wild, parent cranes teach their young what to eat by offering food in their bill tips. When ha n d - r earing a chick, similar methods must be used. Tests on color and shape pref e r ence have shown that most crane chicks respond best to long, thin, red shapes (Kepler    ). Red plastic spoons, red - t i p p e d Fig. 5.8. Feeding chick with puppet head. do wels, or red tape attached to the bill of a puppet, Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n Chick Re a r i n g 8 9

Most newly hatched chicks will readily eat Sometimes it is best to tube feed reluctant cr umbled food, howeve r , chicks that have been chicks, especially if dehydration is a concern. Tub e pa re n t - re a r ed often much prefer live food and may feeding provides nutrition as well as fluids and often completely reject crumbled feed. They may also fail stimulates the chick’s appetite thus promoting self to respond to the color red. Sick chicks may also feeding (see Vet e r i n a r y Techniques in this chapter for reject crumbled feed. formulas and methods). Sev eral techniques can be used on chicks rel u c t a n t The following are techniques to encourage to accept crum b l e s : dri n k i n g . Patience is req u i r ed because it often it takes . Add mealworms, waxworms, or other enticing a combination of techniques over several days before insects to crumbles. For chicks that have been paren t - the chick is observed drinking on its own . rea r ed, this may be the only way to get them to eat. . Use the mounted head, puppet or dowel, to lure If chicks have not been paren t - re a r ed, mealworms or the chick to the water. Stir the water, allow water to other live food should be used with caution because drip from the tip, or move the tip under water to the introduction of live food may further decrease the stimulate the chick to pursue it. ch i c k ’s willingness to eat crumbles. A diet of live . Attract the chick’s attention to the water bowl insects is nutritionally incomplete, and provi d e s by placing marbles or other shiny objects such as exc e s s i v e levels of methionine and cystine which have ma r b l e - s i z ed stones in the water. Vog e l p a r k Wal s ro d e been correlated with bone growth problems (Ser a fi n (Wal s r ode, Germany) uses live insects for this    ). To avoid this problem, crumbled feed should be purpose. Once the chick is drinking on its own , incorporated as soon as possible. rem o ve any inedible objects. When introducing live insect food, place movi n g . A red-tipped syringe or a gavage tube can be insects on top of the crumbles so the chick sees filled with water and held with a drop suspended them. Mealworms will quickly burrow to the bottom fr om the tip. As the chick grabs the red tip, the drop of the bowl. Chicks accustomed to live food will start will fall into its mouth. To avoid aspiration, water digging through crumbles within - days. For chicks should never be squirted from the syringe into the unaccustomed to live food, it may be necessary to ch i c k ’s mouth. offer insects using a puppet or to place mealworms . Water can be dripped from a height of sever a l in their mouths. feet so it splashes into the chick’s water bowl at reg u l a r . Offer moistened crumbles. This has sever a l in t e r vals. Bir ds are naturally attracted to movi n g be n e fi ts. Moistened food stays on the feeding utensil wa t e r , and many chicks will inves t i g a t e . and increases the chances of the chick getting a “go o d . If there is no evidence of drinking, the handler bite.” Moisten food just prior to feeding and discard should lift the chick above the water at an angle so the it after the feeding session to avoid proliferation of ch i c k ’s bill dips into the water once or twice. Rep e a t bacteria and mold. Moistened food also provides the the process, then set the chick down. Alternately, the chick with some fluids during the initial training bill may be gently dipped into the water, but this pe r i o d . must be done cautiously to prev ent the chick from . Offer liquid food in a red-tipped feeding syringe. aspirating water, and to avoid making it fear water. A drop of liquid food, suspended from the end of the This technique is effective for both hand-rea r ed syringe, is consumed by the chick as it pecks at the tip. and paren t - re a r ed chicks. Even t u a l l y , the moistened syringe tip can be dipped in . Provide the chick with a small pool. They will cr umbles and offered to the chick. sometimes drink after wading into the water. . Dip the chick’s beak in crumbles to accustom Deh y dration can be detected by noting the signs him to the food bowl . listed in Table .. Determine elasticity by gently . Place crumbles in mouth to accustom chick to pinching the bare skin of the leg just above the hock. te x t u re . If significant dehydration is evident, administer flui d s Although methods  and  ab o ve have been used su b c u t a n e o u s l y . Injecting fluids sometimes leads a su c c e s s f u l l y , chicks are occasionally so disturbed from chick to drink on its own. Once the chick’s activity this handling that they become frightened of the le v el increases, it becomes easier to teach the chick to keeper and/or bowl. Th e r eafter feeding sessions are find and use water. ev en more time consuming. We recommend using techniques  to  to limit handling. 9 0 Chapter 5

E x e r c i s e Regular exerc i s e is necessary for normal devel o p m e n t and growth of strong, straight legs. Unf o rt u n a t e l y , an exer cise program does not seem to prev ent toe pr oblems. Wild and paren t - re a r ed crane chicks are on the move much of the day. Human caretakers can hardly produce an equivalent amount of exerc i s e for hand-rea r ed chicks, but several techniques can pa r tially substitute. Healthy chicks are fairly active by one or two days of age. Depending upon facilities and the species of crane, the chicks may get enough exer cise if given a Fig. 5.9. Whooping Crane chick swimming for exer cise. large pen (ca   m2) with lots of stimuli (e.g., insects, Ph oto David H. El l i s pools, plants, and toys) and a live adult crane next do o r . If pens lack stimuli and are < m2, conduct  min exer cise periods at least twice a day. chicks at the same time. Chicks should not swim in Chicks can be taken for walks fr om  minutes cool wea t h e r . to all day depending on the age of the chick and on Dis a d v antages of swimming include the expense ma n p o wer avai l a b i l i t y . Avoid exer cising chicks on of purchasing and maintaining the pool, and the smooth, slippery surfaces such as concrete or blacktop. intolerance of some chicks to the stress of force d Walking in natural areas provides good footing and swimming. Many chicks protest swimming, and exposes the chick to new experiences and new foods. some may injure themselves while clambering to At ICF, chicks are exer cised and socialized under escape from the pool. By contrast, others become so su p e r vision in cohorts of two to four beginning a accustomed to the technique that they are content to fe w days after hatching. As chicks get older and their gently float on the water and fail to exer cise. Rel u c t a n t ag g re s s i v eness decreases, more chicks can be exerc i s e d swimmers may be encouraged to be more active by to g e t h e r . Terminate walking before a chick becomes pr oviding insects scattered on top of the water for exhausted, pants, grows frantic, or becomes them to catch, and caretakers purring to encourage overheated. Exce s s i v e exer cise can cause the same chicks to follow or gently nudging them. Som e t i m e s leg problems as lack of exerc i s e . swimming chicks in groups of - will keep them Dis a d v antages of walking are that it is labor mo ving. If several chicks are swum at once, control in t e n s i v e and may encourage exce s s i v e attachment ag g r ession by keeping them separated with broo m s , to caretakers. For birds with leg deviation prob l e m s , long-handled brushes, or your hands. walking can adversely affect the legs. Chicks that A c a re t a k e rs h o u l da l w a y sb ep re s e n tt oo b s e rve th e ar e walked too long can suffer joint injuries. Th e c h i c k si nt h ep o o l . Yo u n gc h i c k sa re o f t e nn o tb u oy a n t veterinarian can advise if walking or swimming e n o u g ht os w i mf o rm o re th a n a fe w m i n u t e sa n dw i l l (aqua therapy, discussed next) will better correct s i n ki fn o t res c u e d . Sw i m m i n gs e s s i o n ss h o u l dr a n g e leg prob l e m s . be t we e n - m i n u t e sa n db et e r m i n a t e db e f o re ch i c k s Vog e l p a r k Wal s r ode has experienced few leg b e c o m ec h i l l e do r s i n k .C h i c k sw i t hl e g p ro b l e m sc a n abnormalities in chicks rea r ed in small pens lined b es w u me i t h e rm o re fre q u e n t l y , o rf o r l o n g e rp e r i o d s with corrugated cardb o a r d and cover ed with  - cm ( u pt o  m i n u t e s ) ,d e p e n d i n gu p o nt h e i rb e h a v i o r. (- in) of woodwool (excelsior). The chicks rec e i v e W h e nc h i c k sa re rem o ve df ro mt h ep o o l ,p l a c et h e m little exer cise other than walking through this thick i n d o o r sn e a rh e a tl a m p su n l e s si t i sa b ove  o C( o F) carpet of woodwool. The diet used at Vog e l p a r k a n ds u n n yo u t s i d e . A c h i c km a yb eu n s t e a d ya f t e r (Table .) may also contribute to their success. s w i m m i n g ,s ou s ec a re w h e np l a c i n gi tb a c ki nt h ep e n . Swi m m i n g (F ig. .) is a useful method of exerc i s e Whether chicks are walked, swum, or put into a for all chicks and is especially important for birds with pr ogram that combines both techniques, they must ce r tain leg problems (e.g., rotated or bowed hocks, be introduced to exer cise slowl y . Swimming is less and traumatic injury of leg joints). To more effici e n t l y st r essful to most chicks and req u i r es less time than use caretaker time, swim two to several compatible walking for similar benefits . Chick Re a r i n g 9 1

Chicks that are sick may need to have their exerc i s e Chicks may also be socialized with chicks of regime modified or restricted until they are fully their own or another species. Socialization can be rec o ver ed. Sick chicks routinely develop leg prob l e m s combined with exer cise by taking two or three chicks if exer cise is not provi d e d . on walks together. Younger chicks are often aggres s i v e and must be closely supervised to prev ent fighting. As chicks grow, aggression decreases so cohorts of Imprinting and Socialization pre - fl edged birds can be formed, but until fled g i n g Penning hand-rea r ed chicks in close visual and age, chicks are housed singly at night. Closely monitor acoustical contact with a live, conspecific crane any newly formed cohort to prev ent injuries. In a new (i.e., imprinting model) helps reduce imprinting on co h o r t, a dominance hierarchy will be established and humans. Obs e r ving interactions of a group of adults ag g r ession or dominance at feeding stations freq u e n t l y (i.e., socialization models) may also facilitate the occurs. Provide - feeding stations to reduce chances de v elopment of normal behavior. This is critical for of injuries while ensuring adequate nutrition for ha n d - re a r ed chicks that are to be used as captive all cranes. Caution is especially important when br eeders or release birds. Socialization is also combining paren t - re a r ed and hand-rea r ed crane encouraged by penning small groups of fledged chicks in one cohort. chicks together. If no other chicks or conspecific adults are avai l a b l e Provide adults or subadults in pens within sight for imprinting models, mirrors can be added to the of the chicks’ outdoor runs, or place individual ch i c k ’s pen. Taxidermic cranes (brooder models) co n s p e c i fi c models in adjacent pens. These model and taxidermic heads (feeding models) can help in cranes should be selected based on their behavior imprinting ver y young or sick chicks. These can be including their ability to adapt to the chick facilities. left in sight of the chick and pelt fragments of crane Cranes which are nervous or call constantly should feathers in the appropriate colors can be left with the not be used. Loud calling can terrify the chicks, and chick for “cuddling.” Chicks may respond stron g l y may incite other models to call, creating a stres s f u l enough to the heads and pelts that, when placed in en v i ro n m e n t . a pen near a live conspecific, acceptance of it is Freq u e n t l y , hand-rea r ed subadults make the best immediate. For more information on imprinting models because they are young and curious, have not se e Chapter . yet become aggres s i v e to humans, adapt more rea d i l y to the pen (especially if raised there), and may actually interact with the chick by purring and tapping on the plexiglass. The model’s interest in the chick may be Types of Han d - re a r i n g curiosity or aggression. It should be assumed that a model will kill a chick if given the opportu n i t y . Old e r ha n d - re a r ed birds may be difficult, even dangerous, to Conventional Hand-rearing use as models because of their aggression towa r d ca re t a k e r s . These chicks are raised by humans without imprinting Dif f e r ent species show different propensities to models (alive or taxidermic). Talking is not excl u d e d se r ve as models. At Pat u x ent, male, female, subadult, fr om the rearing area, and chicks are housed singly or and mature Whooping Cranes have consistently in small groups. These birds can be used for captive pr oved to be good imprinting models. They have exhibition, breeding, and for non-behavioral res e a rc h , sh o wn interest in chicks, vocalizing to them, but may not be suitable for behavioral or rep ro d u c t i v e interacting with them continually, and prot e s t i n g st u d i e s . when caretakers handled the chicks. It is not unusual At one time, this was the most common hand- to see Whooping Crane models feeding chicks rearing method. Many institutions have modified th r ough the fence. Sandhill Cranes, on the other co n v entional hand-rearing to reduce labor, aggres s i o n hand, have consistently been uninterested in the to caretakers, and the risk of these cranes becoming ch i c k ’s wel f a r e and have shown aggression towa r d, sexually imprinted on people. or pred a t o r y interest in, the chicks. At ICF, some Gro u p - re a r ing. Chicks of some species can be Whooping, Wattled, and Siberian Cranes are successfully housed and rea r ed together from hatch- in t e r ested in the chicks and some are not. ing. At Pat u x ent, Florida Sandhill Cranes have been 9 2 Chapter 5

successfully rea r ed in groups of up to four, and Conventional Hand-rearing with Imprinting Cues Mississippi Sandhill Cranes have been rea r ed as pairs and kept together in groups of up to four for as long Precautions are taken to reduce the risk of the chicks as two weeks. Greater Sandhill Cranes and Wh o o p i n g sexually imprinting upon people. These birds are Cranes are too aggres s i v e to be put together, even ha n d - re a r ed by uncostumed caretakers, but with br i e fl y, when ver y you n g . ex p o s u r e to various imprinting cues (e.g., puppet Grou p - r earing is more likely to be successful when heads, taxidermic heads, brooder models, live lighting is reduced in the indoor pen and in the spring co n s p e c i fi c imprinting models, and tape rec o r dings when it is cooler. When attempting grou p - r earing, all of crane calls; see Imprinting in Chapter  and Fig . chicks should be of similar age (i.e., within one day),  D. ). Talking is not excluded from the rearing area and be placed together at the same time. Bec a u s e but is generally discouraged when interacting with chicks spend most of their first  hours sleeping, this the chicks. When interacting with chicks, caret a k e r s is a safe period for shared housing. either play rec o r dings of crane vocalizations or imitate Chick aggression often seems related to hunger, the appropriate crane call. so chicks housed together should rec e i v e more The newly hatched chick has access to a taxidermic fr equent feedings, and have more than one feeding co n s p e c i fi c crane mounted in a brooding posture station available. Int r oducing live food (insects) can (b r ooder model) with its carpels extended and its neck also reduce aggression. Aggression usually diminishes ar ched down w a r d so its beak almost touches the naturally around fledging time. Howeve r , chick gr ound (Fig. . ). Sometimes the model’s beak is ag g r ession is unpredictable, and chicks raised together placed in water or food to encourage the chick to may be amiable for weeks or months, but suddenly drink or eat. A small, portable tape rec o r der placed commence fighting and seriously injure or even kill near the model provides prere c o r ded brood calls each other. Move the most aggres s i v e chicks to during feeding sessions. Alternately, the caret a k e r separate pens. feeding the chick can imitate the crane brood purr Some species of cranes may be grou p - re a r ed by and better coordinate the vocalizations with food including turkey or chicken poults to rec e i v e much pr esentation. Howeve r , playing the rec o r dings during of the aggression. Pat u x ent has used broa d - b re a s t e d feeding sessions may help the chick differen t i a t e bro n z e (not white) turkeys and Cochin chickens be t w een the imprinting cues (i.e., brooder model and because these breeds are placid birds. These aggres s i o n puppet head) and humans. Vocal cues should be used targets help crane chicks learn to feed, and they appear se l e c t i ve l y . Obs e r vations of cranes rearing cranes to stimulate the crane chicks to chase, move arou n d , indicate that parents tend to decrease the frequency and get more exerc i s e . of vocalizations after two weeks of age (Har tup and Crane chicks should not be allowed to kill poults. Hor wich    ). After the chicks have learned where At least one poult should be used for ever y two crane chicks, though a : ratio may be better. Although this method reduces the risk of cranes injuring each ot h e r , some crane chicks are occasionally injured by other crane chicks and poults. Her e again, the most ag g re s s i v e chicks will still need to be moved to separate pens. Using poults increases caretaking needs because pens are fouled more quickly with the additional bi r ds. Poults should be tested and determined to be clean of any disease or parasite which could be transmitted to the crane chicks. Pat u x ent has used this method only when it was necessary to grou p - rear chicks for res e a r ch, and has discontinued using poults with endangered chicks in favor of housing the chicks singly. Although this method has been used successfully, it is not highly recommended by Fig. 5.10. Two Sandhill Crane chicks with brooder model and the authors. head used to promote imprinting. Ph oto Kathleen O’Ma l l ey Chick Re a r i n g 9 3 to locate food and water, vocalizations should be used only to attract the attention of the chick. The brooder model can be left in the pen until the chick loses interest in it. Many chicks at Pat u xe n t cuddle the model and sleep beside it even after thirty days of age. Models should be rem o ved from any chick that tries to tear it up or from chicks that ref u s e to leave it for exerc i s e . Chicks are housed separately in visual contact with one another. They may be exer cised and socialized in gr oups under supervision. At ICF, we have observed that if more than four chicks, preferably of the same species, are raised together, their interest in the human ca r etaker is red u c e d . Ar ound  - weeks of age, the chicks are grou p e d (- bi r ds depending on pen size and other needs) and moved to pens next to adults of the same species. Chicks are allowed to see these socialization models until the following breeding season when the adults ar e sometimes screened off for to promote bree d i n g (see Chapter ).

Fig. 5.11. Sc re e n - r earing. Note imprinting model (adult San d h i l l Rearing in Isolation from Human Contact Crane) in adjacent pen. Ph oto Vickie Lew i s For brevity termed is o l a t i o n - re a ri n g , this method in vo l v es hand-rearing crane chicks while minimizing the visual and auditory interaction with humans. a loose fitting hood and mantle that conceals the Use of this technique produces birds suitable for human form (Fig. . ; see also Chapter  D). Bir ds so ca p t i v e breeding and rel e a s e . rea r ed are suitable for captive breeding or release. If a Th r ee variations of isolation-rearing are scree n - st r ong bond between the costume and chick is not rearing, costume-rearing, and strict isolation-rea r i n g . req u i r ed, the routine medical management can be From early experiments in strict isolation-rearing, the done by costumed personnel, otherwise all negative other two methods evol v ed. Each method differs in experiences are given by uncostumed humans. If the the props (i.e., equipment, costumes, and adult costume will be used at the release site, all capture cranes) req u i r ed, and the amount of human contact episodes are by uncostumed humans except those with the chicks. Sc re e n - re a ri n g (F ig. . ) describes the situation wh e r e chicks are fed by an uncostumed caret a k e r concealed by a portable screen. Talking may or may not be eliminated in the facility, but the caret a k e r remains silent when weighing or medicating the chicks. Visual contact with imprinting models is ma x i m i z ed. The chicks are imprinted on cranes, but remain tolerant of humans. Adults rea r ed by this method are good display animals that breed readily in spite of considerable human contact. In co s t u m e - re a ri n g , the chick is rea r ed with all of the imprinting and socialization techniques, models, and equipment discussed earlier, but with uncostumed humans visible only during stres s f u l Fig. 5.12. Co s t u m e - r earing Sandhill Crane chicks. activities. For all positive interactions, humans wear Ph oto David H. El l i s 9 4 Chapter 5 occurring when the chicks are only - weeks of age. permitted in the incubator room. Tape rec o r ded Dis a d v antages to costume-rearing are that it is labor crane brood calls are played during routine checks. in t e n s i v e, and birds may need to be acclimated to (Pa t u x ent protocol for release birds calls for  mi n humans if they are to remain in captivity. tape bouts, four times per day until hatching; ICF Facilities used for costume-rearing should preve n t bouts var y in length from  sec to  min). Exce s s i v e chicks from seeing uncostumed humans entering or use of the tape may stimulate chicks to hatch too leaving the facility, and should limit motor veh i c l e quickly and suffer an exteriorized yolk sac or other tr a f fi c noises and distant human voices. Solid fencing, pr oblems. Once the egg pips and is moved to the tennis netting, or vegetation can be used to isolate a ha t c h e r , caretakers checking the egg wear the costume facility from its surroundings. Inside the facility, solid so the emerging chick will not see an uncostumed opaque walls, tennis netting, and portable screens can human. A chick needing assistance hatching has its be used to restrict the chick’s ability to see caret a k e r s . head cover ed if it has emerged or is assisted by A one-way viewing window and puppet hole can be costumed caretakers. The wel f a r e of the chick is installed in the main door (Fig. . ). Feeding can be paramount, and the ability to assist the chick has accomplished with the hand puppet from outside the priority over concern for it seeing people. After the pen or the costumed caretaker can enter the pen and chick has hatched and dried, it is rem o ved from the interact with the chick. hatcher by a costumed caretaker and transported to The costumes are specially made or can be a the chick-rearing facility in a closed box (see Chapter mo d i fi ed Hindu sari. They should be constructed of  D for details on rearing cranes for rel e a s e ) . opaque, breathable material, loose fitting, and cover Str ict isolation-rea ri n g was the term originally the caretaker from head to knee. The purpose is (and appropriately) used to describe the method of simply to disguise the human figu r e. The head cover - rearing cranes with minimal contact with both ing or hood should be made of the same material as humans and most other living stimuli. Chicks wer e the costume body, with a face made of camouflag e housed and rea r ed in visual (but no physical) contact sc r een fabric to hide facial features. Some costumes are with other chicks. Live imprinting models wer e not made to look more crane-like by sewing a scattering of used. A puppet head fed the chick through a hole in feathers to a separate piece of material which can be the pen door. Chicks wer e captured by a person attached to the wing sleeves with vel c r o or snaps, co ver ed by a sheet and placed in a box while pens al l o wing rem o val when the costume is laundered . wer e servi c e d . Co s t u m e - r earing begins two days before an egg Ar ound fledging time the chicks wer e introd u c e d hatches at which time human voices are no longer to humans in an abrupt manner. People entered the pen to capture the chicks to do physical exams and to mo ve them to larger pens amidst the floc k . Th e re s u l t so fi s o l a t i o n rea r i n g va r i e dg re a t l y by s p e c i e s( Pu t n a m    ). Som e San d h i l l Cra n e s wer e firs t h e s i t a n tu p o ns e e i n gp e o p l e ,t h e nw i l l i n g l yf o l l owed p e o p l ea n d wer e q u i t ec u r i o u s .T h e s eb i rd sa c t e dl i k e t y p i c a lh a n d - re a re dc h i c k s . San d h i l l Cra n e s re a re da t Pa t u xe n ta n d Red - c r own e d Cr a n e sa t IC F , by co n t r a s t , wer e ne r vou s an d fli g h t yl i k ew i l dc a u g h tb i rd s .

Human Avoidance Conditioning. For those chick-rearing methods where exposure to uncostumed humans is minimized, deliberate negative ex p o s u r e called Human Avoidance Conditioning is often provided, especially if chicks appear too tame for release to the wild. Two different types of condi- tioning have been used successfully. Both are intended Fig. 5.13. Car etaker uses a one way window to observe and feed to train costume-rea r ed chicks to differentiate betwee n the chick while remaining out of sight. Ph oto K. R. Langf o rd the costumed and uncostumed humans. Chick Re a r i n g 9 5

The first type of training invol v es normal handling. so negative contacts with uncostumed humans All positive and parental interactions (e.g., feeding during the rearing process, it is normally unnecessary and protecting) are done by a costumed paren t . to conduct more than - bouts of actual Hum a n Slightly stressful interactions are done costumed, Avoidance Conditioning least the chick grow but with the chick hooded. For extremely negative accustomed to the activity. pro c e d u r es (e.g., taking blood from large chicks), the human is uncostumed. If the chick does not appear upset, upon release we chase it, yell, and clap our hands. Vet e r i n a r y Techniques for The second type of training (detailed below) in vo l v es mock attacks on the chicks. During these Rearing Crane Chicks sessions, the live imprinting and socialization models ar e usually present so that their alarm calls verify the co n t r i buted by Glenn H. Olsen and “da n g e r ” to the chick. Tape rec o r ded alarm calls are Julia A. Langenberg pl a y ed if no adults are available or if there is concern Each rearing method has advantages and disadvan - that the activity will not sufficiently alarm the adults. tages from a medical viewpoint. Surv i v al of crane If facilities permit, visually isolate the birds that are chicks averages higher in a more controlled environ - about to be trained from the rest of the chicks (i.e., ment (i.e., the hand-rea r ed chick survi v al rate, from lock target chicks into their outdoor runs and lock hatching to fledging, is often higher than for paren t - non-target chicks indoors). rea r ed chicks), howeve r , medical management is only For costume-rea r ed Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e s one factor in choosing which rearing method to use. destined for release, training bouts began at about Good medical management of the crane chick tw enty days of age and wer e staged once or twice a begins with the care of the parents, especially the month for chicks that wer e slow to develop wariness female. Her nutritional deficiencies or debilitating (E llis et al.    ). Once the chicks and adults are in diseases may adversely affect the developing embryo place, one or two uncostumed humans surprise the (O lsen    ; Olsen et al.    ). In addition, infectious chicks by bursting into view and racing through the diseases and parasites carried by the adults may be chick area while shouting and making loud noises, passed to offspring either in the egg or directly to a sometimes banging on pots and pans to deliberately hatched chick. frighten the chicks. If a chick does not show fear (either by fleeing, free zing in an erect position, or Preventative Health Program squatting and hiding in the grass), the noisy humans pursue and grab the chick roughly then release it. Th e Chicks should rec e i v e regular vet e r i n a r y examinations humans leave as abruptly as they appeared . especially during the critical first week (see Fig.  . During Human Avoidance Conditioning, the for health care schedules). The type and frequency of costumed parent may or may not be present. If the health problems seen in crane chicks will var y betwee n costumed parent is with the chicks, the parent should species, between collections, and often between hand- flee from the humans or may turn and chase them rea r ed and paren t - re a r ed chicks. A veterinarian should aw a y , thus protecting the chicks. If costumed paren t s also rev i e w the chick’s weight gain and nutritional ar e not present during the avoidance session, it is pro g r a m . often helpful to have the costumed parent interact If, in your environment, neonatal infections are with the chicks shortly after the session in order to ra r e, prophylactic antibiotic injections are not advised. assess the effect of the training session. Wh e r e advisable, give gentamicin ( mg/kg) or Scheduled bouts of Human Avoidance Condition- amikacin ( mg/kg) injections (Fig. . ) for the firs t ing are probably not needed for already wary birds ,  days. Frequent parasite examinations are part of a but appear necessary for calmer, tamer birds. Ner vou s good preve n t a t i v e medicine program. Prop h y l a c t i c chicks or adult models can injure themselves by tr eatment for parasites may be necessary if parasites running or flying into fences, so caretakers should ar e common in your collection (see Fig.  .). rush in quickly, end the activity as quickly as possible, Sc r eening for other infectious diseases (such as and discontinue the “at t a c k ” if birds appear likely to Sal m o n e l l a ) that are carried by adults and dangerou s in j u r e themselves. Because all chicks rec e i v e a dozen or to chicks is also rec o m m e n d e d . 9 6 Chapter 5

If the yolk sac remains exteriorized, it may become torn or infected. If possible, gently manipulate an ex t e r i o r i z ed yolk sac into the abdominal cavity after cleaning the area with a  % povi d o n e - i o d i n e solution. The remaining umbilical opening can be closed using fine, absorbable sutures such as - Dex on (braided polyglycolic acid suture). Use a purse string pattern or - simple interrupted sutures. If the yolk sac cannot be manipulated into the abdominal ca v i t y , it should be surgically rem o ved using a ligature ar ound the stalk (Har tman et al.    ). Fol l o w up ca r e should include applications (twice daily) of po vidone-iodine solution to the umbilicus or incision site and antibiotic injections (gentamicin,  mg / k g subcutaneous) twice daily for the first  da y s . Another condition occasionally seen in chicks is delayed closure of the umbilicus, sometimes accompanied by a small (< mm diameter) yolk sac pr otuberance. When first seen, these small prot ru s i o n s Fig. 5.14. Antibiotics and antihelminthics can be administered if ar e often starting to dry and turn black as the knob is infections are prev alent in a colony. Ph oto David H. El l i s strangulated by the sealing umbilicus. In such cases, do not attempt to force the yolk sac remnant into the abdominal cavity. Rather, bathe the area - ti m e s Yolk Sac Problems d a i l yw i t h  % pov i d o n e - i o d i n e so l u t i o n a n dm a i n t a i n the chick on gentamicin or amikacin. Within - da y s Ex t e ri o ri z ed Yolk Sac. The yolk sac, a divert i c u - the necrotic yolk sac remnant falls off and no furth e r lum of the intestine, is a major source of nutrition tr eatment is req u i r ed. Until it sloughs off, these chicks for the developing embryo and the newly hatched should not be housed with other chicks to preve n t chick for the first  days of life. The yolk sac should penmates from pecking the umbilicus stump. be drawn into the abdominal cavity through the Om p halitis. Gram negative organisms, especially umbilicus prior to hatching. This retraction normally Esc h e r i c h i a co l i , cause infection in the umbilical area occurs with the spasmodic contractions of the or in the yolk sac (Flammer    ). As a preve n t a t i v e abdominal muscles during hatching (Olsen    ). me a s u r e, the chick should be hatched and rea r ed in a Too high humidity during incubation, incorrec t clean environment. The umbilicus should be swabbed incubation temperatures, or pulling the chick or sprayed with a dilute solution of povi d o n e - i o d i n e fr om the egg too soon may all contribute to an soon after hatching. If loss of young chicks from ex t e r i o r i z ed yolk sac (Fig. . ). bacterial infections is common in your colony, maintain such chicks on antibiotics (such as gentamicin,  mg/kg daily) for the first  ho u r s . When an infection develops, clinical signs often include poor appetite, failure to grow, depression, a swollen abdomen, or reddening of the umbilical area . Cul t u r e the site to identify the organism and place the chick on antibiotics. Use fluid therapy if the chick is de h y drated, and swab the umbilical area with % solution of povidone-iodine. Surgical rem o val of the infected yolk sac has been used as an alternate tr eatment in other avian species (Kenny and Cambre    ). This has been attempted several times in cranes, and the chicks often survi v e several days after the Fig. 5.15. Ext e r i o r i z ed yolk sac. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n operation but succumb to peritoneal infections. Chick Re a r i n g 9 7

Yolk Sac Perit onitis. Occ a s i o n a l l y , trauma or solution to help reduce thick mucous secret i o n s . infection results from a rup t u r e of the yolk sac Acetylcysteine is given at l mL (% solution) in within the abdominal cavity. Clinical signs include  mL saline or saline/antibiotic combination. de p r ession, poor appetite, abdominal distension, Nebulization of chicks is done with the same res p i r a t o r y distress, weight loss, and sudden death. equipment as recommended for adults (see Chapter If peritonitis lasts several days, adhesions (scarring) ). An Ult r a - N eb  ne b u l i z er or similar prod u c t within the abdominal cavity frequently occur. pr oducing a small parti c l e - s i z e mist is most effective. Su p p o rt i ve care (fluids, tube feeding, etc.) and The small disposable cups with  cc maximum tr eatment with antibiotics are recommended, but capacity are most effective, as small quantities of ar e often unsuccessful. medicine can be mixed for each nebulization. Th e only difference is that the cage for the chicks is sm a l l e r . At Pat u x ent, we use a Sny der oxygen cage Respiratory Disease (see App e n d i x ) . Typical si g n s of res p i r a t o r y disease in young chicks Fungal infection , specifically aspergillosis, is include open-mouth breathing, raspy breathing, a another cause of res p i r a t o r y disease. Aspergillosis can res p i r a t o r y click, lethargy, reduced appetite, and also occur as a secondary infection in a chick alrea d y cyanotic (blue) or pale mucous membranes. At co m p r omised by bacterial pneumonia and long-term Pat u x ent, paren t - re a r ed chicks are especially vulner- antibiotic therapy. The diagnosis of aspergillosis able to res p i r a t o r y diseases following cool, rainy can be made by radiography, res p i r a t o r y cytology, wea t h e r , especially if the parents are ineffective or cu l t u r e, or serol o g y . One effective antifungal trea t - inexperienced. At Pat u x ent, res p i r a t o r y disease is more ment used in a variety of bird species is to nebulize common in chicks raised by Florida Sandhill Cra n e s with amphotericin B (Olsen    ; Olsen et al.    ). than in chicks raised by Greater Sandhill Cra n e s . A solution is prep a r ed by adding  cc of stock solution In chicks under  days of age, bacterial res p i r a - ( mg/cc amphotericin B) to  cc sterile water. to r y infections are most common following stress or Amphotericin B has the potential for forming a chilling. In older chicks, disseminated visceral coc- pr ecipitate with saline, theref o r e sterile water is cidiosis and fungal infections are the most importa n t pre f e r r ed. Bir ds are nebulized for  min twice daily. causes of res p i r a t o r y disease. Cul t u r es and a cytology Amphotericin B can also be administered intratra- wo r kup from the anterior choana (roof of the cheally or intravenously ( mg/kg - times a day). mouth) and trachea can be important in arriving In addition, fluc o n a z ole is given orally at the rate of at a diagnosis.   mg / k g t w i c ed a i l y f o ru p to  d a y s ,o ri t r a c o n a zo l e Initial treatment will include antibiotic therapy : ( mg/kg) twice daily for up to six months. gentamicin, amikacin, piperacillin sodium, and Another product used for nebulization is clotrima- en ro fl oxacin are all good choices prior to rec e i v i n g zole. This product is nebulized in a small pediatric antibiotic sensitivity test results (see Table .). ne b u l i ze r . We use  cc per nebulization, using O Sup p o rt i v e care is important including fluid therapy to produce the mist. Bir ds remain in the nebulizer for dehydration and tube feeding if anorexia is a  - min twice daily with a schedule of  days on pro b l e m . nebulization,  days off for up to one month. Nebulization therapy is often beneficial to chicks with res p i r a t o r y infections. Nebulizing oxygen itself is Diarrhea and Cloacal Prolapse helpful for a dyspneic or cyanotic chick. Th e r a p y should not exceed  hour daily, and should be divided Diarrhea. Crane chicks, both paren t - re a r ed and into - equal time periods. Antibiotic medications ha n d - re a r ed, sometimes develop diarrhea around used include: eryt h ro m y cin (  mg in  mL saline), day . Cul t u r es often yield heavy growth of E. co l i gentamicin ( mg in  mL saline) (gentamicin is not suggesting it as the causative organism. Howeve r , absorbed by res p i r a t o r y epithelium and theref o r e does E. co l i is normally found in healthy chicks. Th e r a p y not effect concurrent injectable doses), polymyxin B includes antibiotics (see Table .), oral kaolin/pectin, (  ,  U in  mL saline), sulfadimethoxine or bismuth subsalicylate (Pep t o - B ismol) to red u c e (  mg in  mL saline), and tylosin (  mg in diarrhea, and subcutaneous or intravenous flui d  mL saline) (Spink    ). A mucolytic agent, such supplementation to correct dehydration (use lactated as acetylcysteine, can be added to the nebulizing Ri n g e r ’s solution). 9 8 Chapter 5

In older chicks, several causes of diarrhea have been He a t stress. During weather with high tem- id e n t i fi ed including bacterial infections, parasites, pe r a t u r es and high humidity, some birds exhibit reactions to medications, and gastrointestinal forei g n symptoms of heat prostration or heat stres s . bodies. Symptomatic treatment similar to that Whooping and Siberian Crane chicks appear to be described above is used until laboratory res u l t s especially susceptible. Signs of heat stress include indicate a specific diagnosis. open-mouth breathing, panting, wings held away Cloacal prol a p s e s occur in crane chicks. Some are fr om the body, and staggering. If no action is taken, a se c o n d a r y to diarrhea and some are associated with chick can suffer brain damage or die. The bird should ch r onic vent dermatitis. Most prolapses respond to be immediately moved indoors or into the shade, and topical treatment with lubricants (petroleum jelly), should be cooled with cold water. Fluids should be st e r oids, or Preparation-H, but a few need surgical gi v en intravenously or subcutaneously to counteract replacement (see Chapter ). Using gentle fing e r st r ess and shock. pre s s u r e or a moistened, cotton-tipped applicator, Heat stress is often associated with handling the prolapsed cloaca is carefully rei n s e r ted and then bi r ds in hot wea t h e r . If a bird must be handled when held in place using a purse-string suture (Fig. . d) ambient temperatures exceed  ° C ( ° F), move in the skin around the vent opening. the chick to a cool, shaded, or air-conditioned De h yd r a tion. Deh y dration, associated with en v i r onment or handle only in the cool early many diseases, often results in death if left untrea t e d morning hours. (see Table .). Weighing sick chicks daily, or even twice daily, allows the clinician to monitor flui d Nutritional Support loss. Packed cell volume, plasma total solids, BUN (blood urea nitrogen), and uric acid can also be used Ins u f fi cient intake of calories leads to cachexia and to monitor hydration (see Table .) because all are emaciation. The bird will first mobilize body fat and el e v ated in dehydrated birds. Without prop e r then will catabolize muscle. Because young crane hy dration, other therapeutic measures are not as chicks do not have large fat res e r ves, loss of muscle ef f e c t i ve . tissue can occur rapidly and early in disease proc e s s e s . In the sever ely debilitated chick, intravenous Signs of emaciation in birds include a prominent bolus therapy (Redig    ; Harrison    ) is the most keel and translucent skin due to lack of dermal fat ef f e c t i v e initial treatment. For a less sever ely ill bird, (L o wenstine    ). Crane chicks do not have wel l - oral or subcutaneous administration can be used. Th e de v eloped pectoral muscles prior to flight. Th e re f o re , best site for subcutaneous fluids is along the sides just assessment of pectoral muscle mass (Body Condition behind the wings. Index, Fig. .), even though a valid technique in The fluid needs of a bird can be estimated by ad u l t - s i z ed cranes, is not used in chicks. Rather, calculating the daily maintenance need ( ml / k g the muscles surrounding the caudal, thoracic, and body weight) plus the dehydration deficit (- % is lumbosacral spine (palpated as a soft flat mass lying av erage, see Table .). Gen e r a l l y ,  % of the calcu- be t w een the shoulders and to the side of the dorsal lated deficit should be replaced in the first  ho u r s . pr ocesses of the anterior portion of the synsacrum) During the next  -hour period,  % of the defici t ar e evaluated. These muscles are depleted in the plus maintenance should be given . emaciated crane chick. The rapid restoration of fluid balance in the Daily maintenance energy req u i r ements for the debilitated chick is probably more important than crane chick should be calculated. App r oximate caloric the type of solution used, providing that the fluid is maintenance req u i r ement is determined by find i n g 0. 7 5 isotonic. Lactated Ringer’s solution (similar in compo- the basic metabolic rate (BMR), BMR = K(Wkg ) , sition to avian plasma [Redig    ]), normal saline, wh e r e K equals a theoretical constant for kilocalories or half-strength lactated Ringer’s solution (mixed and Wkg is the bird’s weight in kg (Que s e n b e r r y  : with .% dextrose) are often used. Flu i d s et al.    ). For cranes, K =  , theref o r e BMR = 0. 7 5 should be administered at body temperature, so a  (Wkg ) . The daily energy req u i r ements in supply of warm fluids ( - ° C;  -  ° F) can be kilocalories (Kcal/day) are normally at least . ti m e s kept in an incubator or each bolus can be heated in the BMR (see also Nutritional Sup p o r t of a Sic k warm water. Crane section of Chapter ). Chick Re a r i n g 9 9

Blood glucose levels are useful in determining the degree of nutritional depletion. Normal Flo r i d a Sandhill Crane chicks at ICF maintained blood glucose levels over   mg /   mL from hatching th r ough fledging. No critical levels have been deter- mined in cranes, though levels as low  mg /   mL ha v e been documented in emaciated chicks. Val u e s less than  mg /   mL are considered critical in birds of prey and lead to hypoglycemic convulsions and coma (Lowenstine    ). Immediate correction of low blood glucose is best accomplished with intraven o u s or subcutaneous administration of .% dextrose in ha l f - s t r ength lactated Ringer’s solution. Any bird suffering from cachexia and emaciation should rec e i v e a thorough examination to determine the cause of the condition (disease, diet, and manage- ment problems are all possible). If the chick is failing to gain weight, supplemental feeding should be initiated. Long-term caloric and nutritional support of debilitated chicks is best accomplished with oral alimentation (tube feeding and gavage are synonyms) using a flexible rubber tube (Fig. . ) made from a French urinary catheter (size  to  depending on the ch i c k ’s age) mounted on the tip of a - cc syringe. Fig. 5.16. Glenn Olsen tube feeding a Whooping Crane chick. Pass the tube over the tongue and down the esophagus Ph oto David H. El l i s to the level of the thoracic inlet. Palpate the neck to locate the tube and to assure that you are not in the trachea. If the tube is in the esophagus, you will Another formula, known affectionately as palpate two cylindrical struc t u r es, the tube and the Mot h e r O’ Ma l l e y ’s Crane Ste w, is listed in Table . trachea. Del i v ering food in the trachea will be fatal with two variations. The basic formula is used for for the chick. se ve r ely debilitated adults or chicks. If a crane can Chicks under  days of age can be tube fed ever y be n e fi t from complex nutrients, crane pellets are - hours if necessary. For safety, start with about  cc added using starter pellets for chicks or maintainer for a hatchling; use larger amounts (up to   cc) for pellets for adults. The fine solids in this tube-food will older chicks. Chicks weighing less than   g may be gi v e the chick’s digestive system something substantial unable to rec e i v e  cc/feeding; administer the liquid to process, and are believed to stimulate the chick’s diet slowly and watch responses. If the chick starts to appetite and normal digestive processes better than a regurgitate, stop the tube feeding, clean out the mo r e easily digestible food. At Pat u x ent, young mouth, and gently stroke the neck in a down w a r d chicks have gained weight when fed solely on this motion. On subsequent tubings, decrease either the tube feeding diet. rate or the amount of formula to prev ent furth e r Seve r ely debilitated adults should be fed the regurgitation. Because tube feeding also contributes to original formula (Table .); howeve r , most others can fluid balance, adjust total fluid therapy accordi n g l y . be fed one which includes adult pellets. Sev eral cranes For extremely debilitated chicks of any age, at Pat u x ent have survi v ed solely on this diet, and even La f e b e r ’s Emeraid I (see Appendix) is ver y helpful. gained weight over the course of a month. This product contains only carbohydrates and is used In addition, La c t o b a c i l l u s pr oducts (. ts p / k g ; for chicks too sick to digest anything else. It also helps . g/kg) have been given to both young and adult el e v ate dangerously low blood glucose levels. A second cranes to promote digestion and to res t o r e normal pr oduct, Emeraid II, has protein, fat, and fiber for ga s t r ointestinal flora. Howeve r , there have been no crane chicks that can tolerate more nutrition (i.e., studies in cranes documenting the effectiveness of chicks that are not affected by gastrointestinal stasis). this therapy. 1 0 0 Chapter 5

TABLE 5.4 Mother O’Malley’s Crane Stew—Basic Formula  cups (  mL) of warm water  tablespoons ( mL) Vionate (or other vitamin powde r )  heaping tablespoons ( -  mL) Prosobee, Isomil, or other soy-based powde r ed infant formula / tube of Nutri-Cal (concentrated food for debilitated animals, sold in a ¼ oz [  g] tube) / cup ( mL) vegetable oil  cups (  mL) dry baby cereal, preferably mixed style Wat e r Mix all ingredients in a blender (minimum  cup [,  mL] container) and process on high speed until smooth. If the fo r mula seems too thick, add a small amount of water. Mix well before drawing up, and bring to about  ° C ( ° F) or wa r mer before feeding. This formula can be divided into small containers and fr oz en for up to three months. After de f r osting, the formula should be mixed thoroughly before use. Var iation : For chicks that can benefit from complex nutrients, add  cups (ca   g) crane starter pellets to the original recipe. Put the starter pellets in a -cup (  mL) container, and add hot water to the top. Allow pellets to soak until fully expanded and soft (- min). Place half of the pellet mixture into a -cup (,  mL) blender. Add enough water to blend the pellets easily (- cups,   -  mL) and blend on high speed. Strain all the material through a fine sieve. Dis c a r d the solids. (This is a tedious process involving straining and constant stirring to enable the fine solids to pass through the mesh. Without this step, howeve r , none of this food could pass through the small tube needed for young chicks.) To flush fine solids through, you may occasionally need to add more water. Once the solids are strained out, use this for the base and add the rest of the ingredients in the original formula. Var iation : For tube feeding sick older chicks (after all primaries are grown) and sick adults, substitute adult crane pellets for the starter pellets and eliminate the straining step. This food should be thick and able to pass through a large tube, although it may block occasionally when some of the coarser solids swel l .

Ophthalmic Conditions mo r e viscous than drops, they are more likely to al l o w pieces of bedding to cling to the eye area. As a Eye injuries ranging from traumatic conjunctivitis result, drops are often preferable to ointments in to punctures of the cornea have been observed in young birds . crane chicks. A common cause is one chick pecking Seve r e corneal infections associated with at another’s eyes. Other causes of traumatic eye Pseudomonas aerug i n o s a ha v e been seen in Wh o o p i n g lesions include sharp objects (e.g., wires and thorns), and Siberian Crane chicks (Miller et al.    ). Th e s e ab r a s i v e cage materials such as sand substrate or wire infections are probably secondary to minor corneal pa r titions, and self-inflicted injuries caused by the trauma, but rapidly prog r ess to complete corneal chick flailing with its sharp toenails. Flu o r escein dye is de s t r uction and perforation. If ocular discharge does used to determine the presence and extent of corneal not decrease quickly with topical antibiotic trea t m e n t , defects. Ext e n s i v e lacerations, including corneal a culture should be evaluated and intensive topical lacerations, can be sutured using fine (- to -) and parenteral treatment with an aminoglyco s i d e su t u r e material. Antibiotic ophthalmic drops or antibiotic should be starte d . ointments are also used. Ocular discharges can result from debris (especially Orthopedic Problems sand or wood chip bedding) under a lid, traumatic in j u r y, a res p i r a t o r y infection, or infection of the eye. Beak Deformities. Chicks should be observed The pref e r r ed treatment for debris in the eye is to pull daily for signs of abnormal beak growth which can the lid away from the eye and flush the debris out with lead to permanent beak crossing or malocclusion a saline eye wash squirted from a plastic squeeze bottle (popularly known as wry bill or screw bill). Most beak or syringe (without needle). After flushing, apply deformities are seen at a young age, and some can be antibiotic ophthalmic drops to the eye ever y - ho u r s co r r ected with careful beak trimming or by applying a or ointments - ti m e s / d a y . Because ointments are splint to the beak for  to  hours each day for sever a l Chick Re a r i n g 1 0 1 days. Beak deformities have also been observed br eak due to trauma, aggression, exce s s i v e groo m i n g , fo l l o wing exposure to myco t o xin contaminated or with handling. Blood loss from damage to a large feed (Olsen et al.    ). feather may be significant and can lead to shock. Wing Problems. When the rapid growth of the Immediate treatment is to rem o ve the bleeding feather pr i m a r y and secondary feathers exceeds the devel o p - by grasping the shaft with hemostats or pliers at the ment of the muscles and other support tissues in the base and pulling it directly out. In most cases, the wing, the wing may rotate outward at the carpus or hemorrhage will stop immediately. When hemorrhage may droo p . This condition, called angel wing, can continues, the hole from which the quill was rem o ved also be associated with exce s s i v e protein in the diet or can be packed with gel-foam or hemostatic powde r too-rapid growth. Larger species are more prone to and the wing bandaged with a figu re -  wrap so this condition. Sup p o r ting the affected wing in a pre s s u r e is applied to the point of hemorrhage. Th e normal position, using elastic bandage (Vetwrap) or bandage can be rem o ved a few hours after trea t m e n t . ad h e s i v e tape in a figu re -  bandage around the carpus If the bird is in shock or if the blood loss has been and radius/ulna or elbow, is the best means of correc t - exc e s s i v e (> % of blood volume), fluid therapy ing the problem (Fig. . ). To use adhesive tape, tear should be given immediately (see Deh yd r a t i o n ) . off a . cm ( in) wide strip  - cm ( - in) long, Fo o t and leg problems. Foot and leg prob l e m s depending on the bird’s size. Fold the adhesive strip ar e common during captive rearing. Their freq u e n c y over longitudinally leaving only about - cm (- in ) can be reduced through careful attention to diet, at one end with the adhesive side exposed. Wrap the adequate exer cise, proper substrate, controlled wei g h t folded tape around the hand (metacarpals) and gain, and proper handling methods (Olsen    ). fo r ewing (radius-ulna), securing the wing in a normal When these problems do occur, early treatment is folded position. Continue to wrap the tape arou n d critical to normal chick devel o p m e n t . the wing eventually sticking the exposed adhesive Curled toes ar e seen immediately post-hatching section to the folded section of tape. No adhesive tape and may result from incubation or genetic prob l e m s . should be allowed to stick to the down or feathers. Curled toes range in severity from mild cases The wing should be bandaged for two days only in that respond to treatment with splints to severe l y any one treatment. Tape left longer than  days can club-footed chicks that fail to respond to any therapy alter feather (or even bone) growth, and can constrict and must be euthanized. Recognizing the prob l e m blood vessels in the rapidly growing wing. Usually one can, at times, be difficult because neonatal cranes tr eatment is sufficient to correct angel wing, howeve r , normally have edematous (swollen) legs and feet. additional bandaging may be req u i r ed if the prob l e m The toes may appear curled, but are normal when is still evident. Gen e r a l l y , a - hour rest without a the edema subsides. Splinting of toes is usually not bandage is allowed between successive two-day done until  day post-hatching, unless the chick is bandaging episodes. unable to stand or eat (Olsen    ). During development, feathers or blood quills, Deviated or cr ooked toes ar e frequently encoun- especially the large primary or secondary feathers, can te r ed with hand-rea r ed chicks at any age prior to fledging. The deviations appear to be due to laxity of the ligaments and tendons of the toes. Whether this laxity is due to problems with substrate, exerc i s e , nutrition, or a combination of all three, is not clear. The most commonly encountered toe deformity is a single bent or curved digit. Han d - re a r ed chicks under  days of age frequently have one or two bent digits. Older chicks of larger species frequently have curved middle toes. To detect the problem, observe the gait of each chick daily; the middle toe should point straight f o rw a rd with the other toes pointing ca  o to each side. Toe misalignment can be corrected with a splint (O lsen    ); sometimes only - days of support may Fig. 5.17. Sandhill Crane chick taped for angel wing. be adequate. Splints made of small wooden dowel s Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n 1 0 2 Chapter 5

(.-. mm dia) or popsicle sticks are taped to the junction of the foot to the toenail. Sand the cut cr ooked toe using low-tack tape such as fila m e n t ends of the stick or cover the ends with tape to avoi d packing tape (Fig. . ) (Olsen    ). For chicks under abrasion. Place the applicator stick against the outside  days of age if two or more toes are crooked, the foot of the curve on the side of the toe. Do not place the can be taped in a normal walking position to a thin stick above or beneath the toe. If the toe is rotated as ca rd b o a r d or plastic “sn ow s h o e ” splint (Fig. . ). well as laterally bent, try to twist it gently back to the Sno wshoe splints cause problems in older chicks (i.e., normal position. the birds fight the snowshoe, the snowshoes collect When chicks are older than  days, their toes feces and dirt, and they are slippery), but if used they cannot be adequately straightened by one small can be made using moldable cast material (Orth o p l a s t applicator stick. Instead tape two sticks together as or Roylan Pol y fl ex II, see Appendix). The splint the brace, or use one stick on each side of the toe. should be rem o ved ever y - days and the foot ree va l u - Using pre-cut strips of low-tack tape, wrap the tape ated. Leave the snowshoe off for several hours before ar ound the toe. Do not pull tape tightly, but rather replacing it. Sno wshoes are usually helpful for chicks place the tape against the toe and loosely wrap it. under three days of age. After that age, applicator Use the minimum amount of tape to do the job, but sticks and tape work better. the toe should be completely encased from toenail When using wooden applicator sticks as splints, to foot (Olsen    ). Leaving part of the toe exposed cut the stick to lie parallel to the chick’s toe from the can cause circu l a t o r y problems. Leaving the splint on young chicks longer than two days can cause constriction of blood vessels and damage the toe. Some chicks limp when a toe splint is applied. When this occurs, make sure the tape is not too tight, and observe the chick for other leg problems which can occur if a chick does not adjust to a toe splint. Crooked toes, if uncorrected, can eliminate birds from release programs, can leave adults sever ely deformed (F ig. . ), may inhibit natural breeding, and may lead to arthritis and bumblefoot as birds age. In newly hatched chicks, deviation of the legs fr om the hip area, called sp l a y ed leg, is associated with improper incubation or chicks raised on slippery Fig. 5.18. Taping for crooked toes using dowels and filament tape. su r faces, but it may also occur spontaneously. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n Hobbling the legs above and/or below the hocks for - days in a normal position (Fig. . ) using adhesive tape or elastic bandage can be helpful (Olsen    ). In some parrots, this condition responds to vitamin E and selenium injections (Harrison    ), but the effects on cranes are unknown . Han d - re a r ed crane chicks sometimes develop other deviations of the legs (e.g., leg rot a t i o n , angular limb de f o rm i t i e s , or bo wed legs). The most common form is angling or rotation of the leg below the hock, although inward rotation is also occasionally seen. A ch i c k ’s leg position and gait should be closely observed and checked daily by caretaker staff. The middle toes should be parallel and point forwa r d; if one deviates, examine that leg carefully for changes at or below the hock. The causes of this problem are not known , although improper diet, exce s s i v ely rapid growt h , Fig. 5.19. “Sn ow s h o e ” splint for crooked toes. inadequate exer cise, and genetics probably all play a Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n role (Ser a fi n    ,    ). Treatment is much more Chick Re a r i n g 1 0 3

withheld for part of the day, or food and water can be placed at opposite ends of the enclosure. Fra c t u re s can occur in crane chicks and are usually associated with trauma. Fra c t u r es at growth plates are commonly seen and are the most difficult to manage. The same external splints and internal surgical co r r ection techniques are used for chicks and adults. Wing fractures often heal, but with some loss of wing function. This is usually not a problem for captive bi r ds, though it can affect natural fertility if the bird is a male. Fixation of leg fractures is only occasionally successful. Chicks frequently die from complications Fig. 5.20. Seve r ely deformed toes in an adult Sandhill Crane. po s t - s u r g e r y such as prem a t u r e closure of growt h Ph oto David H. El l i s plates, osteomyelitis, and stres s - r elated diseases. Su rv i val depends on intensive care, and even then, s u rv i vors are difficult to res o c i a l i z e with penmates after healing.

P a r a s i t e s Helminth parasites can sever ely debilitate crane chicks. Gap e worm (Cya t h o s t o m a sp . and Syn g a m u s sp .), capillarids, and ascarids are the common nematodes of captive cranes. Aca n t h o c e p h a l a sp . can cause intestinal perforation and peritonitis. Close monitoring of chicks for parasites is essential. Wee k l y la b o r a t o r y testing for parasite eggs in the feces is rec - Fig. 5.21. Whooping Crane taped to control leg rotation. ommended (see Chapter ). Howeve r , feces can test Ph oto Pat u xe n t clear even when chicks are infested, especially with ga p e worms. Infected chicks can be treated with iver - mectin (% solution . mg/kg subcutaneously or successful when the problem is detected early and at orally), fenbendazole (  mg/kg orally), or pyrantel a young age. Tension taping of the rapidly growi n g pamoate (. mg/kg orally). Often two treatments side of the hock (i.e., outside of the curve) using a - days apart with one of these anthelminthics is strip of adhesive tape, can be effective in slowi n g needed to clear the parasites; repeat fecal examinations gr owth on one side of the growth plate to allow the should be done  - days after treatment to insure leg to straighten out (Haeffner    ). Tape hobbles or that the parasites are gone. Prophylactic doses of these splints have also been used with limited success to medications can be given if there is a history of reposition deviating legs. For sever e cases, surgical parasite problems in the flock. (See Fig.  . for an co r r ection using techniques like periosteal stripping example of a parasite screening and prop h y l a c t i c and wedge osteotomies have been tried by ICF, but medication schedule.) with limited success. Coccidiosis, from infection with Eim e r i a gru i s or All splinting/taping methods must be accompanied E. rei c h e n ow i , is a particularly devastating disease in by correction of the contributing causes. If lack of crane chicks. In cranes, coccidiosis is not just a gut exe r cise is suspected as a contributing cause, the safest parasite; it can also be visceral (i.e., the organisms way to increase exer cise once a deviation has devel - in v ade the internal organs including the heart, liver , oped is hydro t h e r a p y , swimming the chick at least lungs, and kidneys). Because coccidiosis is a clinical twice daily for at least  min each time. Su p e rv i s e d pr oblem mostly in young cranes, it is rec o m m e n d e d walking can also be helpful. Exce s s i v e weight gain can that a coccidiostat be used in the food and/or water of be controlled by limiting food avai l a b i l i t y , increa s i n g crane chicks. Ver y often paren t - re a r ed chicks initially exe r cise, and monitoring weight caref u l l y . Food can be consume mostly insects, so the coccidiostat may need 1 0 4 Chapter 5 to be supplied in the water. Amprolium in food Mil l e r , P. E., J. A. Langenberg, L. A. Baeten, and C. P. Moo re . and water (.   %) or monensin sodium in food    . Pseudomonas aerug i n o s a -associated corneal ulcers in ( g/ton) can both be effective coccidiostats. ca p t i v e cranes. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Med i c i n e  :  -  . Howeve r , if a treatment regime using one of these Olsen, G. H.    . Problems associated with incubation and two drugs is used long-term without alternation, it hatching. Pages   -  in Proceedings of the    An n u a l becomes less effective as resistant strains of the parasite Meeting of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, Sea t t l e , de ve l o p . Adults should be monitored for the pres e n c e Was h . of oocysts, and treated as appropriate. This will red u c e Olsen, G. H.    . Orthopedics in cranes: pediatrics and adults. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine ():  - pen contamination and the exposure of the chicks.  . Chicks and adults with coccidia can be treated with Olsen, G. H., J. M. Nicolich, and D. J. Hoffman.    . A tr i m e t h o p r i m - s u l f a m e t h ox a z ole, sulfadimethoxi n e , rev i e w of some causes of death of avian embryos. Pages   - me t ro n i d a z ole, nitrof u r a z one, or pyrimethaine (see   in Proceedings of the    Annual Meeting of the Chapter  for details). Association of Avian Veterinarians, Phoenix, Ariz. Olsen, G. H., J. W. Carpenter, G. F. Gee, N. J. Thomas, and F. J. Dein.    . Myco t o xin caused disease in captive Whooping Cranes (Grus americana) and Sandhill Cra n e s (Grus canadensis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. In pre s s . Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Putnam, M. S.    . Refi ned techniques in crane prop a g a t i o n Ellis, D. H., G. H. Olsen, G. F. Gee, J. M. Nicolich, K. E. at the International Crane Foundation. Pages   -  in J. O’ Ma l l e y , M. Nagendran, S. G. Here f o r d, P. Range, W. T. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Har p e r , R. P. Ingram, and D. G. Smith.    . Tec h n i q u e s National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . for rearing and releasing nonmigratory cranes: lessons from Que s e n b e r r y, K. E., G. Mauldin, and E. Hil l ye r .    . the Mississippi Sandhill Crane program. Proceedings Nort h Nutritional support of the avian patient. Pages  - in American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Proceedings of the    Annual Meeting of the Association Fla m m e r , K.    . Pediatric medicine. Pages   -  in G. J. of Avian Veterinarians, Seattle, Was h . Harrison and L. R. Harrison, editors. Clinical avian medi- Redig, P. T.    . Fluid therapy and acid base balance in the cine and surgery. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. critically ill avian patient. Pages  - in Proceedings of the Hae f f n e r , S.    . Correcting leg and joint abnormalities in International Conference on Avian Medicine, Toro n t o , long-legged precocial birds, with notes on preve n t i o n . Ont a r i o . Association of Avian Vet e r i n a r i a n s . Pages   -  in Proceedings of the Regional Conference of Ser a fi n, J. A.    . Infl uence of dietary energy and sulfur the American Association of Zoological Par ks and amino acid levels upon growth and development of you n g Aquariums, Pittsburgh, Pa. Sandhill Cranes. Page  in Proceedings of the Annual Harrison, G. J.    . What to do until a diagnosis is made. Meeting of the American Association of Zoo Vet e r i n a r i a n s , Pages   -  in G. J. Harrison and L. R. Harrison, editors. Washington, D.C. Clinical avian medicine and surgery. W. B. Sau n d e r s , Ser a fi n, J. A.    . The influence of diet composition upon Philadelphia, Pa. gr owth and development of Sandhill Cranes. Condor Har tman, L., S. Duncan, and G. Archibald.    . The hatch-  :  -  . ing process in cranes with recommendations for assisting Spink, R. R.    . Aer osol therapy. Pages   -  in G. J. abnormal chicks. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Harrison and L. R. Harrison, editors. Clinical avian medi- Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g cine and surgery. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Hart u p , B. K., and R. H. Hor wich.    . Early prenatal care and chick development in a cross-fostering trial with White-naped (Grus vipio) and Greater Sandhill (Grus canadensis tabida) Cranes. Bir d Behavior  : - . Ken n y , D. and R. C. Cambre.    . Indications and tech- niques for the surgical rem o val of the avian yolk sac. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  : - . Kep l e r , C. B.    . Captive propagation of Whooping Cra n e s : a behavioral approach. Pages   -  in S. A. Temple, edi- to r . End a n g e r ed birds: management techniques for pre s e r ving threatened species. Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n Press, Mad i s o n . Lo wenstine, L. J.    . Nutritional disorders of birds. Pag e s   -  in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal medicine. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. CHAPTER 6 Behavior Man a g e m e n t

S cott R. Swengel, Ge o rge W. Archibald, David H. Ellis, and Dwight G. Sm i t h

anagement of crane behavior varies with sheets. Daily observat i o n s ar e essential in monitoring use, age, and rep ro d u c t i v e condition. the pairing and social interaction of cranes in the We discuss five management classes: same pen or adjacent pens. chicks, subadults, breeding birds, Bli n d s (F ig. .) set up near cranes allow for Mcranes for public display, and release birds. Cranes longer-term observations of rel a t i v ely undisturbed ar e individuals, and management practices that are (b y humans) behavior. Cranes behave more normally be n e fi cial to one crane may be harmful to another. when people are not in view, so blinds are a val u a b l e Because management of these classes and individuals supplement to daily observations not just for res e a rc h , over l a p , a combination of behavioral management but also in the management of pairs. Because some techniques often works best for individual cranes. cranes remain disturbed by observers in nearby This chapter emphasizes crane social behavior an d blinds, it is crucial to locate blinds with care and use ho w it affects captive management. Ellis et al. (   ) one-way glass if necessary to enable the observer to described the non-social (maintenance) behavior of all be invisible to the crane. species. Because most body maintenance behavior patterns are superficially alike for both calm and highly stressed cranes, we discuss below only the few maintenance actions that suggest a crane is stres s e d . Studies of crane social behavior that include illustra- tions of displays are Allen (   ) on the Wh o o p i n g Crane; Archibald (   a) and Katz (   ) on the Hooded Crane; Masatomi and Kitagawa (   ) on the Red - c r owned Crane; Poulsen (   ) on Siberian and Common Cranes; Voss (   ,    ), Nesbitt and Ar chibald (   ), and Tacha (   ) on the San d h i l l Crane; and Ellis et al. (In prep .) on all species. Prev i o u s papers describing behavioral management of captive cranes include Archibald (   b), Kepler (   ,    ), Ar chibald and Viess (   ), and Derrickson and Carpenter (   ,    ).

Techniques in Behavior Obs e r vat i o n s

Obs e r ving cranes in the same context and at the same time each day rev eals seasonal changes in social p a t t e r n sa n da b n o r m a l i t i e ss u g g e s t i n gh e a l t hp ro b l e m s . Data collection can be as simple as merely noting abnormalities or social problems, or as complex as a Fig. 6.1. Brian Clauss enters an elevated observation blind. bi rd - by - b i r d tabulation of behavior details on form Ph oto David H. El l i s 1 0 6 Chapter 6

Remote monitor in g (F ig. .) via closed-circuit TV Al e rt - p o s t u r e. When in (C C T V ) is valuable for observing pairing, bree d i n g , this posture, and during or egg laying of cranes without risking them noticing many of the social dis- the observer . Cranes seem to adjust quickly to cameras plays that follow, most mounted high in a pen corner (although they notice cranes perform Crown - cameras that move or make noise). CCTV allows for expansion or Bar e skin the most undisturbed watching of cranes and is ideal expansion. The crane for making videotapes that can be rep l a y ed at high may then begin a speed and searched for significant behavioral patterns, ri t u a l i z ed display walk such as copulation and nest building. For cranes that (Hori zo n t a l - s t ru t or br eak eggs, long-term egg vigils are made easier by Vert i c a l - s t ru t ) with the CC T V . CCTV allows for a second look to determine Fig. 6.3. Crown expansion: bill slowly bobbing up if first impressions can be confirmed by rev i e w of Whooping Cran e . and down in time with vi d e o t a p e s . A rt Billi Wag n e r exaggerated, rhythmic steps (Fig. .). The toes ar e rigidly fanned and extended during the Vert i c a l - st r ut. The crane may either turn its bill away from the in t r uder (Crown - p re s e n t ) or direct its bill down w a r d tow a r d the intrud e r . In higher intensity strutting, the crane either increases the speed of the walk or lower s its head (sometimes nearly to the ground). Common, Hooded, Whooping, Black-necked, Sandhill, and Siberian Cranes (listed in descending order of feather el e v ation) raise their tertial feathers into a bustle during display walks (Fig. .).

Fig. 6.2. Closed circuit television camera monitors Wh o o p i n g Crane. Ph oto David H. El l i s

Agg re s s i v e Displays

Cranes that have red caps or bare skin on their heads expand the cap (Crown - e x p a n s i o n ), extend their wattles (Bare - s k i n - e x p a n s i o n ), or suffuse the bare skin with brighter color to supplement their displays (F ig. .). Cranes with completely feathered heads el e v ate head plumage to increase the apparent size of their heads. These head displays are low- i n t e n s i t y displays when they appear alone, but they are also used as elements of many other aggres s i v e displays. Cranes have several low-intensity displays that are used to intimidate or repel intruders. Most of the displays described below apply to all cranes. Th e no m e n c l a t u r e for these activities follows Ellis et al. (In pre p .). We will describe the displays in increa s i n g or der of intensity. In perhaps the lowest intensity di s p l a y , a crane raises its head to full height and extends its neck upwa r d and slightly forwa r d in an Fig. 6.4. Str ut (ver tical): Eur asian Cran e . A rt Billi Wag n e r Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 0 7

Another low-intensity threat is the Ruf fle - b o w, in which the crane elevates its feathers and slowl y , at firs t , ruf fl es its plumage until at length the whole body is rapidly shaking (Fig. .). This display is much like the maintenance Ruf fle - s h a k e . All species perform the Ruf fle - b o w, and the Blue, Demoiselle, and Wat t l e d Cranes use this as their principal display. San d h i l l Cranes end the Ruf fle - b o w by throwing the head dow n w a r d, then preening the breast or tibiotarsus. The Whooping Crane tucks the bill high at the end of its Ruf fle - b o w (Fig. .). All cranes have a Ri t u a l i ze d - pre e n display in which they place the bill between the back and one wing (Fig. .). Siberian Cranes lower the primaries of one wing and do not move the bill during the display. Other cranes do some rud i m e n t a r y pr eening movements and periodically raise their heads to look around. Sev eral species stamp their feet (Sto m p ) a few times in conjunction with the Ruf fle - b o w or Ritualized Preen. The Red - c r own e d Crane often Stomps, then arches its head back and raises its wings above the back until its head is nearly between the wings over the back (Arc h ). The Whooping Crane version of the Arch we call the But t e r fly (Fig. .). The Red - c r owned Crane and its Fig. 6.6. Ruf fle - b o w-up: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r ne a r est rel a t i v es (see Chapter ) sometimes raise their wings slightly during more intense versions of the Vert i c a l - s t r ut. The Brolga, Sar us, and Wh i t e - n a p e d Cranes have an exaggerated down w a r d bow as part

Fig. 6.5. Ruf fle - b ow - d o wn: Sandhill Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r Fig. 6.7. Ri t u a l i z ed Preen: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r 1 0 8 Chapter 6 of the Ruf fle - b o w. After the ruf fl e, they usually or may not lead to Jump-raking. Cranes also His s bo w deeply forwa r d, then do a Ritualized Thigh loudly while bill-sparring. A minor form of Attack is Preen or elevate the head far over the back. to peck at or grasp the wings or tail of a subordinate We believe that the most aggres s i v e display is the to displace it. Crou c h . In this display, the crane lowers to lying Vocalizations can indicate fear or aggression, po s t u r e with its wings slightly to mostly spread and and like the Unison-call, help drive away intrud e r s its bill in front, usually touching or probing at the and maintain pair bonds (Archibald    a,    b) . gr ound. After performing the Crouch, cranes Pairs Uni s o n - c a l l (F ig. . ) after repelling intrud e r s . sometimes Rus h an intruder by springing up suddenly Gua rd - c a l l s , which are short blasts separated by and charging headlong, flapping their wings and se v eral seconds, also help to defend the territory gliding over the ground rapidly if the intruder fails (A r chibald    b). See Archibald (   a) and Chapter to depart. The crane terminates the Rush with either a  C, especially Fig.  C. , for more details of these Stomp and Ruf fle - b o w, or by Att a c k i n g the intrud e r . vocal displays. Oth e r wise, cranes usually end the Crouch display with an Arch (Red - c r owned) or Ritualized - p re e n (S iberian, Sandhill and others). Methods of Att a c k i n g (F ig. .) include spearing the opponent with the bill (Bil l - s t a b ), Le a p i n g in the air and slashing the intruder with the inner toenails (Jum p - r a k e ), and thrashing with the wings (Win g - t h r a s h ). Cranes sometimes use stealth to ap p r oach an intruder: they circuitously walk closer and closer while feeding, then abruptly Rush the in t r uder (crane, human, or other animal). Rushes can also lead to aerial pursuit as a territory own e r dr i v es away an intrud e r , sometimes slashing at the in t r uder with its feet even during flig h t . Ag g re s s i v e cranes may also bill-spar with one Fig. 6.9. Jum p - r ake: Siberian Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r an o t h e r , spreading their wings and Bill-stabbing at their opponents while standing erect. This may

Fig. 6.8. But t e r fly: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r Fig. 6.10. Unison-call: White-naped cranes. A rt Billi Wag n e r Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 0 9

Dan c i n g consists of bouts of Rushing, Fla p p i n g , Leaping, Tuck-bobbing (Fig. . ), gaping, and feather or stick tossing. Dances last from several seconds to a fe w minutes and are usually pair-related. Howeve r , young cranes often dance in apparent appeasement of dominant cranes. Sometimes Dancing includes sham Bill-stabs and Jump-rakes, but in stable pairs, physical contact is usually not present. Many other elements of aggres s i v e displays (e.g., Crown-expansion) are evident in Dan c e s .

Fig. 6.12. Co wer: Sandhill Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r

wings slightly (the elbow is lifted away from the flank), and give purring calls. Chicks often perfo r m this display. When adult cranes Cower , they are pr obably reve r ting to chick behavior to placate a dominant crane or person. Often a submissive crane will spread its wings with the trailing edges droo p e d and turn its back to a dominant crane (or human) as in the adult female’s Pre- c o p u l a t o r y Dis p l a y (Fi g . . ). This behavior is not limited to one sex and is Fig. 6.11. Tuck-bob: Gray - c r owned Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r often seen in chicks and subadults.

Sub m i s s i v e Behavior Sub m i s s i v e displays and fleeing behavior are useful indicators that a crane is stressed by its environ m e n t . Some captive cranes run away when a person or dominant crane approaches and may push at the fence as if to walk through it. The crane may also ne r vously pace the fence, rake its feet along the fence in a climbing manner, and drag its neck and bill along the fence. These disturbance-related activities can cause physical damage, especially abraded wrists, and even more seriously, broken bills. A submissive crane (Fig. . ) usually retracts its neck and adopts a hunched posture (Co wer ) with its head and neck feathers fluffed, and its crown, wattles, and/or bare skin patches contracted. Freq u e n t l y , Fig. 6.13. Pre- c o p u l a t o r y display: female Black-necked Crane. su b o r dinate cranes lower their heads, spread their A rt Billi Wag n e r 1 1 0 Chapter 6

They may be wing clipped after they fledge. Opi n i o n s var y on whether permanent flight restraint (see Behavioral Management of Chapter  E for details) can prev ent males from balancing properly during copulation and thus Chicks and Subadult Cra n e s limit ferti l i t y . Many pinioned and tenotomized This section provides a summary of the management males ferti l i z e their mate’s eggs. Howeve r , in captive of young chicks; other details are provided in Chapter Red - c r owned Cranes (the heaviest crane), full-winged . Chicks have strong social needs. Most species are males had higher rates of natural fertility than gr egarious, and nearly all cranes flock during the pinioned males (Belterman and King    ). no n - b r eeding season. Flocking probably results in Keep subadult cranes in genetically and in c r eased survi v orship and in foraging advan t a g e s . behaviorally compatible groups ( to  in d i v i d u a l s ) Cranes three months to three years old should be until they are paired. When pairs form in group so c i a l i z ed with conspecifics so that they devel o p pens, extreme aggression often appears, with the normal social behavior. Combine cranes in groups of dominant pair often monopolizing food or water two or more in pens that are at least   m2 for two and occasionally killing pen mates. If the new pair in cranes and prop o r tionately larger for larger grou p s . a group pen is desirable, move the pair to a bree d i n g The group will establish a dominance hierarch y pen. If the pair is unwanted, rem o ve one or both (D errickson and Carpenter    ) based on the size cranes to reduce aggres s i o n . and sex of the cranes, with males and larger cranes If sex is known, juveniles can be grouped by typically being more dominant (Kepler    ). ge n d e r , howeve r , same sex groups can also be aggres - Pare n t - re a r ed cranes will try to establish voc a l si v e, and homosexual pairs can form in such grou p s co n t a c t with their parents after separation and will (A r chibald    b; Kepler    ; Derrickson and also try to reunite if allowed. Place such cranes at least Carpenter    ). Early sexing increases the chances of   m away from and out of sight of their paren t s early rep r oduction through behavioral management. until they integrate into a social unit with other colts. Pare n t - re a r ed crane chicks are typically fearful of people. As such, they should be habituated to humans if they are to remain in captivity (Archibald and Vie s s Behavioral Management of    ). Frequent, nonstressful encounters with humans will help calm them down (e.g., provide a food trea t Breeding Cra n e s when entering the pen). Placing wild colts with tame cranes will also help. Cranes have pronounced species specific variation In grouping colts, avoid penning cranes together in nesting phenology (see Chapter ). Their captive that are likely to be paired later. Cranes treat their management should refl ect species differences and penmates as siblings and may refuse to pair with them al l o w for individual variation as wel l . la t e r . It is wise to keep intended mates separate until they are at least  months of age. Annual Behavior Cycle of Breeding Cranes Cranes that are  months old or older often b e c o m ea g g re s s i ve tow a rd s t h e i rp e n m a t e s ,p a rt i c u l a r l y Cranes exhibit seasonal cycles in social displays those of the same sex. Groups should be reo r g a n i ze d especially in activities related to pairing and those when exce s s i v e aggression appears. Howeve r , it will in vo l v ed in rearing young. It would be helpful to have help to place two food/water stations at opposite data on seasonal trends for all species of cranes in you r ends of the pen so submissive cranes can eat and co l o n y , but such is available only for the Wh o o p i n g drink. Even then, watch for Cowering cranes that Crane and Mississippi Sandhill Crane as described ar e afraid to go to the food. In large pens with  - be l o w. Also, Katz (   ) presented somewhat similar bi r ds, a third station may be needed. Sub m i s s i v e data for two pairs of Hooded Cranes from late cranes that are regularly attacked by penmates should Fe b ru a ry through early Jun e . be rem o ved . For boreal species, display intensity ebbs in winter, Chicks spend much time practicing flying but on warm days in late winter and early spring, when they are two or more months old and need display frequency and intensity increase. As the bree d - an unobstructed area at least  m long for exerc i s e . ing season approaches, vocal and visual behavior Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 1 related to pair-bonding, territorial defense, and bree d - ex cept during incubation or molt when a crane is ing is increasingly evident. Th e r e is also good evidence tr ying to be inconspicuous. Crown contraction at for decreases in performance of some displays during other times signals fear or illness. The Wh o o p i n g the molt and during the incubation and chick rea r i n g Crane exhibited two peaks. Females of both species period when the adults tend to be more secret i v e. Th e cy cle in concert with their mates, but they, on aver a g e , intensity and frequency of several vocal and visual expand to a lesser degree than males. displays again increases in fall, suggesting an autumnal The Unison-call (Fig. . ), a form of antiphonal rec y cling perhaps in response to a photoperiod duet given by both members of a pair, can be mi r r oring that for spring. Th e re a f t e r , perfo r m a n c e pe r formed throughout the year and is given primarily tendency wanes through the early months of winter. in response to conspecific intruders (Wal k i n s h a w In the following paragraphs, we will show some    a; Archibald    b). Wel l - c o o r dinated, freq u e n t general trends in this annual cycle and compare Unison-calling signals that a pair is properly bonded. behavior trends for the migratory Whooping Duetting is also believed to be important in the Crane with those of the nonmigratory Mis s i s s i p p i sy n c h r onization of the crane breeding cycle (Vos s Sandhill Crane. Male-female differences will also be    ). In the Whooping Crane pairs studied at em p h a s i z ed. These generalizations are pres e n t e d Pat u x ent, the Unison-call was heard with some because of their usefulness in crane husbandry. Also fr equency all months of the year (Fig. . ), but was th e r e are seasonal cycles in non-social behavior such highest between October to April and lowest during as the increase in fall food intake (or at least body the July molt. Unlike our Whooping Cranes which weight) especially evident in northern latitude did not breed during the study yea r , our Mis s i s s i p p i br eeding cranes (Swengel    ). Sandhill Cranes exhibited a strong peak from Jun e Our data on social displays derive from a  -m o n t h th r ough August when they did breed. This periodicity period during which we conducted a standard morn- suggests the importance of the Unison call as a ing “wa l k - t h ro u g h ” in the crane colonies at Pat u xe n t territorial display while breeding (Mississippi San d h i l l and rec o r ded the responses to an approaching human. Crane data) and also in rei n f o r cing the bonding of a Because hand-rea r ed cranes responded to the pair during migration (Whooping Crane data). ap p r oaching human as though he was an intrud i n g Contact- or Flight-calling was entirely absent in crane, for hand-rea r ed pairs we wer e able to eval u a t e our pairs of the non-migratory Mississippi San d h i l l seasonal trends merely by rec o r ding all social displays Cranes, but our Whooping Cranes exhibited a as we walked through the colony. Our walk throu g h st r ong peak in Mar ch and April and a minor peak the colony did not elicit social displays in cranes in September (Fig. . ). The Contact-call com- rea r ed by crane foster parents (except for flee i n g municates a bird’s disposition to fly and is prob a b l y behavior) so paren t - re a r ed cranes wer e eliminated im p o r tant in synchronizing long distance movem e n t s fr om the comparisons shown below. Data wer e used of the pair. Contact-calls may be given synchron o u s l y for  male and  female Wh o o p i n g Cranes and  male and  fe m a l e Mississippi Sandhill Cranes. All data Whooping Crane (Male) Unison Call wer e taken on form sheets as an ob s e r ver (who was familiar to the cranes, but who avoided entering their pens) approached to within ca  m of the pen between . and . ho u r s fo l l o wing sunrise. As for all species with a red cap, Whooping Cranes, and to a lesser de g r ee Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e s , expand the red, bare-skin areas and pr esent this area towa r d approa c h i n g in t r uders (Fig. .). For both species, Crown-expansion and pres e n t a t i o n values are high throughout the yea r , Fig. 6.14. Seasonal pattern in Unison-call perfo r mance for Whooping Cran e s . 1 1 2 Chapter 6

The average distance betwee n Whooping Crane (Female) Contact Call members of a pair is another indicator of the strength of the pair bond, especially during migration and nesting. During the incubation period, howeve r , the non-incubating pa r ent seems to avoid the vicinity of the nest causing a peak in the aver a g e distance between mates. Both sexes of both species of cranes performed the exaggerated, rigid-toed, high-stepping that we call Str ut. When Str utting, the body axis is either rotated down and forwa r d Fig. 6.15. Contact-call perfo r mance by month for female Whooping Cran e s . (Ho r i z ontal Str ut) or elevat e d anteriorly (Ver tical Str ut, Fig. .). During a Str ut performance, by males and females or singly by either sex. The Crown-expansion and presentation also occur. male trend (not shown) closely paralleled the female Although both species and both sexes Str ut, in the tr end (Fig. . ). Mississippi Sandhill Cranes, the males normally Contact-calling is often accompanied by a highly Hor i z ontal Str ut with their mates walking (Uni s o n st e r eotyped Pre- fl ight posture (Fig. . ) wherein the walk) in tow. Male Whooping Cranes typically neck is extended up and far forwa r d. Both ethons had Ver tical Str ut while their mates remain stationary similar performance trends in both species. and perform ritualized Preening or some other social We have observed, but not quantified, that the di s p l a y . For the male Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e , intensity of flight related behavior patterns is direc t l y Str utting exhibited a single peak (Fig. . ) in related to the length of the migration; being grea t e s t mi d s u m m e r . Str ut was without peaks and much less in Siberian Cranes, followed by Whooping, Hoo d e d , fr equently performed in the Whooping Cra n e . Red - c r owned, White-naped, and Greater San d h i l l Crouch is the display that shows the stron g e s t Cranes. In captivity, the intensity of migratory male-female and species differences. For Crouch, a restlessness seems also to decrease with age. crane flops onto the ground and lies as if broo d i n g The Gua r d-call or Alarm-call is normally given in young while aggres s i v ely billing the surrou n d i n g response to a distant disturbance such as an unfamiliar vegetation. Female Mississippi Sandhill Cranes may human or other alarming stimulus animal. In both pe r form Crouch any time of the year (Fig. . ), but a Mississippi Sandhill and Whooping Crane pairs, the st r ong peak is evident when they are rearing you n g . Gua r d-call is given less often than the Unison call, and Male Mississippi Sandhill Cranes and either sex of seldom during the early part of the breeding season. Whooping Cranes seldom perform this display. Probably all species show some unique seasonal tr ends. For example, most cranes lay eggs in spring or su m m e r , howeve r , many wild Wattled Cranes lay in winter (Johnson and Barnes    ) and their captive co u n t e r p a r ts lay eggs from fall to spring (Beall    ). Gray Crowned, Black Crowned, Blue, and Dem o i s e l l e Cranes may also lay eggs in indoor winter quarte r s (K . Kawata, Det r oit Zoological Par k, Royal Oak , Michigan; R. Lastavica, Omaha Zoo, Oma h a , Nebraska; and P. Str a s s e r , National Avi a r y, Pit t s b u r g h , Pen n s y l v ania, personal communications). Some performance trends are probably common to most or all cranes. For example, we hypothesize that Fig. 6.16. Pre- fl ight Pos t u r e: Siberian Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r cranes (captive and wild) voc a l i z e less once the eggs Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 3

Dancing and Pre- c o p u l a t o r y display Mississippi Sandhill Crane (Male) St ru t for either species, and Str utting was seasonal only in male Mis s i s s i p p i Sandhill Cra n e s . A l ls p e c i e s o fc r a n e sf e e d ,b ro o d , a n dd e f e n dt h e i r yo u n g ,a n ds o m e p a i r so fm o s to ra l ls p e c i e s ar e e x t re m e l ya g g re s s i ve wh e n ra i s i n g c h i c k s .A l lc r a n e sb e c o m em o re se n s i - ti v e t od i s t u r b a n c ew h e ni n c u b a t i n g an d re a r i n gc h i c k s . Mo s tc r a n e ss h ow s o m eb e h a v i o r a lc h a n g e s as s o c i a t e d w i t ht h em o l t . Mo s tu n d e r g oa n a n n u a lo rb i e n n i a ls i m u l t a n e o u sm o l t Fig. 6.17. Monthly perfo r mance levels in strut for male Mississippi Sandhill Cran e s . o fa l l fli g h tf e a t h e r s( Bl a u u w    ; s e eC h a p t e r  f o rp h y s i o l o g yo fm o l t a n dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fj u ve n a lm o l t ) . Mississippi Sandhill Crane (Female) Cro u c h Af r i c a n Crown e d Cr a n e sa n d Brol g a s , ho weve r , m o l tc o n t i n u o u s l y ; Dem o i s e l l e Cra n e s a n dm o s t San d h i l l Cr a n e sm o l t se q u e n t i a l l y . T h em o l ti s ph y s i o l o g i c a l l y s t re s s f u la n di sa c c o m- pa n i e d by a d e c re a s ei np e rf o r m a n c e va l u e so fs o c i a ld i s p l a y sd u r i n g th e t i m et h a tt h eb i rd is flig h t l e s s . Suc h c h a n g e sa re p ro b a b l ya d a p t a t i o n sf o r s u rv i va l . Be c a u s ec r a n e s( e ve nn o r- m a l l ya g g re s s i ve i n d i v i d u a l s )b e c o m e ver y s h yw h e nm o l t i n g ,m i n i m i ze h u m a nc o n t a c td u r i n gt h i st i m e . T h ef e m a l em a ye ve nb e c o m et h e d o m i n a n tm e m b e ro ft h ep a i rw h i l e t h em a l ei sm o l t i n g .Wa t c hm o l t i n g c r a n e sc a re f u l l yt of o re s t a l l pe n m a t e Fig. 6.18. The annual cycle in Crouch perfo r mance for female Mississippi San d h i l l ag g re s s i o n . In g ro u pp e n s ,m o l tc a n Cran e s . de s t a b i l i z e t h ed o m i n a n c eh i e r a rc h y. Mo l tc a na l s oc a u s ec r a n e st oa p p e a ri l l . By knowing behavioral norms for ar e laid. Katz (   ) found what appeared to be each sex and species, it is possible to promote survi va l reduced calling in captive Hooded Cranes as the and productivity in captive colonies. egg-laying season approached. Probably all species of cranes (captive and wild) begin copulating  to  Pairing Cranes weeks before egg laying, even those that are still migrating (Littlefield and Ryder    ; Wal k i n s h a w Pairing cranes can begin in the birds ’ second yea r .    a; Littlefield    ). Captive pairs build nests a Well-established pairs remain together for many yea r s . fe w days or weeks before egg laying. By watching for When pairing subadult cranes (i.e.,  years of age), be the onset of nest building, a colony manager may aw a r e that new pairs are frequently ephemeral. Pai r s kn o w when to begin arti fi cial insemination (AI) to should not be viewed as permanent until they rem a i n fe rt i l i z e the first eggs. stable for several months and/or rep r oduce. Wil d , Sur p r i s i n g l y , in our walk-through study, we failed subadult Florida Sandhill Cranes usually associate to find strong seasonal trends for such activities as with several potential mates before a firm bond is 1 1 4 Chapter 6 established (Nesbitt and Wenner    ). In choosing pair bonds, especially when the female continues to potential pairs, be mindful that birds of similar dance after the male begins to run and flap in mock age pair more readily: young cranes are sometimes Rushes. In unpaired birds or unstable pairs, dancing intimidated by older adults. Potential mates should can intimidate the subordinate crane. If one crane not be genetically related nor should they have been keeps dancing while the second crane flees, the firs t rea r ed together. crane may chase the fleeing crane and attack. Death Potential mates should be placed in adjacent or serious injury can result if the cranes are not pens ideally with a common door to allow herding immediately separated. A single attack can negate of a crane from one enclosure to the other without weeks of prog r ess in the pairing proc e s s . ca p t u r e. Close contact can be encouraged by placing Cranes can be further manipulated to prom o t e food and water near the fence dividing the two pens. pairing by brailing one wing of the dominant bird Pairing pens should be arranged so that concealed be f o r e placing it in the enclosure of the submissive ca r etakers can observe the birds and quickly enter crane. The brail stresses the crane, reducing its the pens if necessary to separate the birds . ag g r ession. Dominance in cranes is related to Pai r ing stages wer e summarized by Mirande and height; more dominant birds are generally taller Ar chibald (   ) as follows. The first sign of pairing in than submissive ones. Howeve r , the dominance of a the wild is one crane following another. In captivity, su b m i s s i v e crane can be increased by providing a pairing is evidenced when the birds frequently stand mound of earth . to . m high near the fence si d e - b y-side. As pairing continues, the behavior of the separating the cranes. Displaying cranes will often two birds becomes prog re s s i v ely synchron i z ed. Th e y stand on such mounds. By this simple manipulation, feed and rest simultaneously. Syn c h ro n i z ed displays, the dominance of a subordinate crane may be such as threats, Gua r d Calls, and Unison-calls may in c re a s e d . also indicate pairing; howeve r , such behavior can also If cranes seem compatible, they can be left indicate intense intrapair aggression or aggres s i o n together during the day with hourly checks. Wh e n tow a r d caretakers. A crane may interpret its intended Unison-calls and dancing do not lead to aggression ma t e ’s aggres s i v e displays as sexual attraction, but or intimidation, the pair is considered to be solidly when the birds are placed together, the aggres s i v e mated and can be trusted to occupy the same crane may attack. To prev ent injury, keep an over - en c l o s u r e at all times. ag g re s s i v e male in the pen adjacent to the female; she For cranes, some action patterns are “co n t a g i o u s . ” may thereb y be stimulated to lay eggs without risk. For example, if one bird yawns or flaps its wings there For AI pairs with aggres s i v e males, this is sometimes is a good chance that one or more penmates will do the best strategy, even long term. li k e wise. If one crane is extremely aggres s i v e towa rd s Although cranes (even chicks) sometimes da n c e humans, its penmates will often become aggres s i v e. solo or in larger groups, dancing is also associated By pairing cranes with different behavioral traits, with pairing and is believed to synchron i z e mates for characteristics of one crane can be encouraged in the successful copulation. Lack of dancing between two ot h e r . Pare n t - re a r ed cranes become much tamer and cranes can indicate that pairing is not occurring. As a adapt to captivity better if penned or paired with pair bond strengthens, the male generally becomes ha n d - re a r ed birds. Conver s e l y , hand-rea r ed birds can mo r e defensive of the enclosure than does the female. become less attached to humans if integrated with The ultimate indication of successful pairing is pa re n t - re a r ed mates. copulation. Pairs that are well bonded should at Some paired cranes that have not bred can be least attempt to copulate, although some will be induced to become more confident and better unsuccessful because of wing injury, etc. bonded if a crane chick is placed in an adjacent pen. When it is time to mo ve the cranes into the Sometimes the pair attempts to adopt the chick same pen for the first time, move the more dominant (as evidenced by their passing food items through bi r d (usually the male) into the subordinate crane’s the wire to the chick, brood calling, and by their en c l o s u r e. This provides the subordinate bird with lack of threat displays); others will try to kill the a psychological advantage because the pen is its chick or ignore it. te r r i t o r y. Watch the birds constantly at first and separate them immediately if exce s s i v e aggression is observed. Dancing strengthens the developing Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 5

Stress and Disturbance unstable pair bond can result in one crane injuring or killing its mate. Crane pairs are healthier and breed better when Some pairs are compatible but never lay eggs; this disturbance is minimized (Mirande et al.    occasionally occurs with birds that wer e paired when unpubl.). Pairs are normally less stressed when: ver y young. Such birds seem to view each other as () their pens have visual barriers separating them siblings. For these pairs, pair-related displays and fr om neighboring cranes; () routine tasks are done territorial defense are less intense. on a regular schedule; () the same people perfo r m The “Location-call test” is a good means of testing these tasks; and () the breeding area is closed to the strength of a pair bond. This req u i r es that the ce r tain kinds of vehicles (aircraft and large trucks) male be rem o ved from the female by at least   m, and activities (pen repairs and construction) during, but within earshot. If both cranes perform the loud, and three months prior to, the breeding season. single-note Location-call, and promptly answer the Some cranes breed well without visual barrie r s calls of their mate from a distance, the pair bond is be t w een neighboring pairs, but pairs should at least be pr obably genuine. If either member of the pair fails to separated by empty pens to prev ent fighting throu g h Location-call or fails to respond to the other crane’s the fence. Sandhill, White-naped, Red - c r owned, Location-calls, the pair bond is probably weak and the and some other species have bred well without visual pair should be dissolved . barriers, but Whooping, Sar us, and Siberian Cra n e s If a closely bonded pair is to be divided and new need them. pairs formed, Location-calling can seriously delay or Cranes breed best when they have a large, pre v ent the re-pairing process. It is wise to postpone se c u r e te r ri t o r y. Breeding pairs need at least   m2, in t r oducing the new intended mate until a week or but   m2 is preferable. They often benefit from mo r e following separation of the old pair. For m e r a shelter in which to ret i r e from view or gain prot e c - mates must sometimes be separated by a great distance tion during inclement wea t h e r . Trees or bushes in ( km or more) to facilitate pairing them with the pen may provide natural cover . Some pairs bree d other cranes. better if they have a secluded spot for nesting. Sat i s f y Sometimes wild cranes harass captive pairs wh i c h their need to build nests by providing dry twigs or can result in captive males red i r ecting aggres s i o n coarse grasses (fine or moist vegetation will mold tow a r d their mates. In these situations, pairs may need mo r e rapidly). to be separated until the wild cranes leave. The pair If AI is intended, line ca p t u r e corne r s wi t h can generally be safely reunited after a few days. no n a b r a s i v e cloth such as tennis netting for - m Wild cranes occasionally switch mates ev en though in each direction from the corner. At ICF, discarde d neither member of the pair has died (Littlefield    ;  m tall conifers (old Christmas trees) are used to Nesbitt and Wenner    ). Young cranes freq u e n t l y line these corners. form ephemeral pairs in the wild and may take yea r s Str ess can be reduced by taming cranes. Th e to form permanent pairs (Bishop    ; Nesbitt and pr ocess invol v es conditioning birds to human activity Wenner    ). Pairs that produce offspring are much th r ough providing treats (favorite foods), avoi d i n g mo r e likely to persist (Nesbitt and Wenner    ). di r ect eye contact, announcing your approach by In wild Florida Sandhill Cranes, re-pairing efforts var y calling when still far away, and other techniques as by sex: males quickly find new mates, while females discussed in Chapter . may take several years to re-pair (Nesbitt    ). Han d - re a r ed cranes that are overly attached to humans can often be made to breed if they are given Pair Bonds a suitable mate, and if thereafter they have minimal Well paired cranes perform synchronous activities and contact with humans. Once the pair has eggs, its stay near one another most of the time. If a male is pair bond is often strengthened, and further bonds exc e s s i v ely dominant or if the female is dominant over to humans are weakened by the pair’s mutual defense the male, the pair may never breed (Derrickson and of the eggs or chicks. Carpenter    ). Sev eral circumstances can result in Bef o r e including birds in an AI program, allow weak pair bonds. If one member of a pair is exce s s i ve l y young pairs to attempt copulation for one or two su b m i s s i v e to the other or if one mate prefers a neigh- br eeding seasons. Flightless males that are unable to boring crane, the pair bond can be weakened. An f e rt i l i ze eggs due to unilateral wing impairment may 1 1 6 Chapter 6 be clipped on the whole wing to improve their wing people. To reduce the chance of injury to birds and sy m m e t r y and thus help them balance. Allowing visitors, design display pens so that the public cannot the pair to raise a chick may also synchron i z e their come closer than  m to the cranes. rep ro d u c t i v e cycles or strengthen their pair bond, Cranes on display adopt a daily schedule timed to th e re b y increasing the chance of fertility in the future. periods of human visitation. They direct many of their Pare n t - re a r ed cranes may be more likely to copulate social displays towa r d the public, and most rem a i n than hand-rea r ed ones, and cranes hand-rea r ed in within public view. gr oups may be more likely to copulate than birds that Sev eral management practices can encourage wer e hand-rea r ed alone (Derrickson and Carpenter exhibit cranes to breed. Caretaker entrances should    ). Howeve r , most hand-rea r ed cranes that are al l o w servicing so that a portion of the pen is left so c i a l i z ed with others as colts learn to copulate when undisturbed by keepers and the public. Pe rf o r m i n g they become adults. some activities out of sight and with minimal contact If a pair does not produce fertile eggs after one or encourages breeding. Cranes on display feel safer two years of management as described above, it may when they have a “sa n c t u m ” where they can go out of be necessary to re-pair them or initiate AI (Chapter sight of humans. This hiding place can be an indoor  A). In using AI, it is important to disturb the birds sh e l t e r , a sheltered corner, or a patch of dense foliage as little as possible. Some cranes will not lay eggs when ca . m tall. they are regularly handled for AI. One strategy for Novel pen designs can also improve the display such cranes is to wait until the female starts laying value of cranes. Ele v ated overlooks or moats allow eggs, and then initiate AI. Nor m a l l y , the female is not people to view cranes unobstructed. These designs, so stressed by this handling that she fails to lay more ho weve r , req u i r e that the cranes be flig h t l e s s . eggs. This strategy is less useful with Wattled Cra n e s , Mix ed species exhibits are attractive, but because which frequently lay one-egg clutches. For those cranes are solitary nesters, they are unlikely to bree d Wattled Cranes that are adverse to AI, one insemina- when there are more than two cranes in one display. tion - days before the next egg is expected can The dominant pair will too often defend most of the often produce a fertile egg (Monica Tuite, unpubl. pen, driving the remaining cranes from its territory. data). The best AI schedule depends on the parti c u l a r Such pairs may even breed. Howeve r , dangerou s fe m a l e ’s laying history (see Chapter ). Inseminating a encounters are likely whenever a breeding pair is ne r vous female a few days before she is scheduled to penned with conspecifics. The only situation in which lay her second and subsequent clutches, but not a breeding pair can coexist peacefully with other repeatedly between each clutch , can improve the co n s p e c i fi cs is when the pen is ver y large. Pat u xe n t chances of getting several fertile eggs while mi n i m i z - maintains three pairs of Florida Sandhill Cranes in a ing disturbance . Fin a l l y , be sure that egg searches and  ha enclosure. The dominant pair normally defends other visits to the pens of shy cranes are perfo r m e d mo r e than half of the area while leaving enough roo m quickly and, if possible, use binoculars to scan the for the two subordinate pairs to escape and bree d . pen from a distance.

Behavioral Management of Behavioral Management of Cranes for Rel e a s e Cranes for Display This section summarizes the management of cranes Cranes on public display normally rec e i v e more destined for release. For more details see Chapters  disturbance than other captive cranes. Because many and  D. cranes will not breed while on display, it is best to Pare n t - re a r ed and hand-rea r ed cranes for release exhibit only those birds that are of low genetic val u e . ar e managed ver y differen t l y . Pare n t - re a r ed chicks Display cranes should tolerate human visitors but not de v elop normally and req u i r e no special training. be aggres s i v e towa r ds them. Ext r emely aggres s i v e Chicks rea r ed by hand, in isolation from human cranes are dangerous to caretakers and the public, and contact, should be allowed to see and hear conspecific may damage themselves in their attempts to attack adults so that they learn to socialize and breed Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 7 with conspecifics. Nor m a l l y , hand-rea r ed chicks stimuli at certain age periods can rev erse the ar e handled by costumed human caret a k e r s pre f e r ence of early filial imprinting (Gallagher (c o s t u m e -rea r i n g ) .    ,    ; Vidal    ,    ). Co s t u m e - re a r ed chicks can be taken to the release site when they are as young as  wee k s Filial Imprinting and Parental Care (Ho r wich    ). Young cranes exhibit the behav- ioral plasticity important in rapidly learning new Cranes exhibit imprinting patterns similar to domestic su rv i v al techniques. Hor wich (   ,    ) rel e a s e d fo wl. Imprinting probably begins in the egg about  his costume-rea r ed cranes in early fall to coincide days prior to hatching, when chicks begin answer i n g with the period when wild cranes are the most the paren t s ’ brood calls. Chicks follow the adult on gr egarious. Other studies also suggest that captive- the first day and are often away from the nest by day rea r ed cranes integrate better with wild cranes if  or  (Walkinshaw    b). Par ental attachment is released in early fall (Mitchell and Zwank    ). complete within the first  days and becomes stron g e r Wh a t e v er the rearing method, cranes should be during the first  wee k s . released gently over a period of weeks (ge n t l e - Attachment is rei n f o r ced by a radical change in rel e a s e ) to give them time to acclimate (Ho rw i c h pa r ental behavior at hatching. This includes increa s e d    ; Mitchell and Zwank    ). If the chicks are br ood calling, brooding, preening the chick, pree n i n g co s t u m e - re a r ed, this acclimation period can also be the adult’s brood patch, and feeding the chick. Th i s used to introduce them to natural foods. behavior encourages imprinting and the devel o p m e n t Release pens should be large enough to allow cranes of a following response by the chick during the firs t to move comfortably away from mammalian pred a - week, the initial sensitive period of devel o p m e n t tors outside their enclosure. Pens used in successful (Ha r tup and Hor wich    ). releases of Mississippi Sandhill Cranes have been . Brooding of the chick occurred only during the to  ha (- ac r es) in size. first week in our study of Sandhill Cranes. Pree n i n g the chick, although rarely seen, was done by the female while brooding. Wild cranes may brood chicks that are up to six weeks old (G. W. Archibald, ICF, Imprinting, Attachment, personal communication). The female invites the chick to brood by extending the wrist joint laterally and Behavioral while calling loudly and pointing her bill into or pr eening the opened cavity. The moving bill tip is Dev elopment in Cra n e s ver y attractive to crane chicks, and probably induces co n t r i buted by Ro b e rt H. Ho rw i c h the chick to accept brooding. Pecking the paren t ’s bill, the chick’s greeting, is a ritualized feeding behavior. Th e r e have been few studies of crane imprinting or It was elicited in puppet-rea r ed chicks by extending early development (Voss    ; Layne    ). Mos t the puppet’s bill towa r d the chick (Fig. . ). A imprinting res e a r ch in the    ’s focused on the st e r eotyped bill presentation by White-naped Cra n e s sh o r t-term effects of imprinting on social pref e re n c e s . also elicited the bill peck. A similar feeding posture Domestic fowl (Gal l u s do m e s t i c u s ) and domestic occurs in wild Sandhill Cranes (Layne    ). (Ana s pl a t y rh y n c h o s ) rapidly restrict their filial attach- ment and following response to their parent, human Sexual Imprinting ca re t a k e r , or to other stimuli encountered shortly after hatching. This learning phenomenon has been called Sexual imprinting is a form of learning which shares filial imprin t i n g (B ateson    ). Many studies many characteristics with filial imprinting, but which (H ess    ; Hess and Pet r ovich    ) show that also influences mate choice at sexual maturity. Th e r e th e r e is a “cr i t i c a l ” period when precocial birds ar e many instances of birds sexually imprinting on imprint on a parental model. humans or other bird species (Immelmann    ), but An accumulating body of evidence indicates that studies have shown that the process is rev ersible if rel a t i v ely early experie n c e s ha v e profound effects on cro s s - f o s t e r ed or hand-rea r ed birds are introduced to sexual choice later in life (Immelmann    ; Bat e s o n their own species during or before the end of the    ). This evidence indicates that exposure to social se n s i t i v e period. 1 1 8 Chapter 6

Spalding in Jaynes    ). Howeve r , there are some innate pref e r ences (Hinde    ; Gaioni et al.    ). Ini t i a l l y , vocal cues seem more important than visual ones (Ramsay    ; Gottlieb    ), and there may be other innate pref e r ences for certain colors and forms (Jaynes    ; Schaefer and Hess    ; Sal z en and Mey er    ). As part of our rei n t r oduction study (Ho rw i c h    ,    ; Hor wich et al.    ), we rea r ed crane chicks with a stuffed crane model that emitted br ooding calls, fed chicks using a crane-head puppet (F ig.  D. ), and led them while costumed and using the same puppet emitting the same calls (Fig.  D. ). Although the main goal of costume-rearing (see Chapter  D) was to imprint crane chicks on a crane-like substitute, we also hoped that use of the costume would allow us to control the birds after release while leaving them still fearful of uncostumed humans. The costume, although not overly crane- like, broke up the human gestalt by de-emphasizing Fig. 6.19. Siberian Crane chick greeting puppet head. the head, face, and hands while emphasizing the Ph oto David H. El l i s crane head and voice. Although the chicks rea re d with the costume did not show affinity to humans, they did not exhibit much fear either. Bef o r e rel e a s e , Vidal (   ,    ) neatly delineated two imprinting an uncostumed person could approach within  m of periods in chickens. He noted an early sensitive period the mildly wary chicks, but after associating with for learning the following response and a second wild cranes for  weeks, the chicks’ flight distance in sexual imprinting period at  - days. Cockerel s response to human approach had increased to   m exposed to a model at this later period became (Ho r wich et al.    ). Fear of humans can, of course, sexually imprinted on it despite their earlier training be taught (see Human Avoidance Conditioning in to follow a different model. Chapters  and  D) . Proper sexual imprinting is critical in crane At - weeks of age, our chicks wer e given choices rei n t r oduction programs. Although the rearing of of stimuli in an attempt to assess the early effects Whooping Cranes by wild Sandhill Crane parents has of filial imprinting (Hor wich and Owen unpubl.). pr oduced a small wild population of Wh o o p i n g For all chicks, the most important stimulus was the Cranes in the Intermountain West, these cranes are mo ving puppet head. They responded quickly by not breeding (Ellis et al.    a). Cros s - f o s t e ri n g is pecking the bill. It was clearly chosen over a mounted be l i e v ed to have resulted in imprinting prob l e m s body or a vocalizing speaker. pre v enting the Whooping Cranes from breeding The moving bill tip directs chicks of all ages in with their own species. The recent discover y of a feeding (Har tup and Hor wich    ). When feeding Wh o o p i n g - S andhill Crane hybrid at Bosque del a chick, White-naped Cranes sometimes drop and Apache National Wildlife Refuge (Pratt    ) and pick up an insect as many as  times before the unusual behavior by cros s - f o s t e r ed females (Mah a n chick will accept it. This motion was ver y attractive    ; Swengel, personal observation) confirm this. to chicks, who eventually picked up insects on their own. The parental bill attracts the chick, and the chick greets the parent by purring and pecking the Imprinting Stimuli extended bill. Later, juveniles watch the paren t s ’ bills Newly hatched precocial birds can be imprinted on a pr obing the ground, and probe the same area. Bil l wide variety of objects in the absence of their natural mo vement is also ver y attractive in other prec o c i a l pa r ents, indicating that early parental recognition is bi r ds (Tinbergen and Per deck    ; Hailman    ; largely acquired (Lorenz    ,    ; Ramsay    ; Johnson and Horn    ). Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 9

We tested the chicks’ responses to various parts of gradually entered a more independent foraging phase the crane puppet head during their first few wee k s . at - weeks of age. At fledging ( - weeks), they None of the main puppet features (red patch, head, or reattached to the costumed parent, stayed near it ey e) was consistently important to the chicks. Chicks much of the time, and pecked its feathers. The intense exposed to a mounted body for only a short period sociality exhibited during this reattachment period tended to choose the puppet, while those exposed to induced the costume-rea r ed chicks to rapidly join wild the body for a longer period of time tended to choose cranes following release (Hor wich et al.    ). Th i s the body. This observation follows the general rul e period seems equivalent to the sexual imprinting that the longer the exposure, the stronger the pref e r - period (when the initial attachment can be reve r s e d ) ence (Bateson    ). Sound is another ver y importa n t in chickens, as identified by Vidal (   ) at - wee k s stimulus for other precocial birds (Gottlieb    ). Our when the adult plumage was largely complete. results indicate that crane chicks are most res p o n s i v e Periodic reg r essions may be in synchrony with to brood calls during the first  wee k s . seasonal activities, as seen in mammals (Hor wich et al. These experiments provided information for use in    ; Hor wich et al.    ) and cranes (Hor wich    ; ca p t i v e rearing. Although red is often used for feeding Hor wich et al.    ). The initial close bond of paren t dishes or for rods dangling in the food bowl to induce and chick during the first month protects the chick feeding in young chicks (Kepler    ), the red patch when it is most vulnerable and needs parental feeding. of the puppet head did not interest the chicks. The red As the chick grows stronger and can feed itself, it patch is used in aggres s i v e displays in Sandhill Cra n e s begins a period of independent foraging, during (Voss    ). Howeve r , when combative San d h i l l which it follows its parents at a greater distance. Th e Crane chicks wer e separated by the puppet head, they chicks reg r ess by increasing contact with the parents red i r ected their attacks at the red patch of the puppet at fledging time when they would otherwise be most (E rickson et al.    ). likely to become lost if they fly far from their paren t s By dangling a puppet-like head in the food dish (Ho r wich    ). This ren e wed bonding may also (F ig.  D. ), we taught chicks to feed themselves in vo l v e species and sexual identification. They exhibit (Ho r wich    ; Erickson et al.    ). By pecking a second reattachment period just before and during repeatedly at the moving beak tip, they even t u a l l y migration (Hor wich    ; Hor wich et al.    ). Man y pecked the food below it. This gradually changed to other bird species, both migratory and non-migratory, ri t u a l i z ed pecking of the beak tip before feeding as well as mammals, show this same cyclic greg a r i o u s - until, fina l l y , they pecked only the food. At Pat u xe n t , ness (Nie v ergelt    ; Guiness et al.    ). Bes i d e s a taxidermic mount of a crane head (suspended from functioning to keep cranes on the correct migration the ceiling with its bill contacting the food and route, this reattachment or gregariousness may allow manipulated from outside the pen; Fig. . ) proved orphaned chicks to learn the route from flock mates in ef f e c t i v e in teaching Whooping and Sandhill Cra n e the absence of their paren t s . chicks to eat (Ellis et al.    b) .

Behavioral Cycles and Reattachment Periods Qua n t i t a t i v e studies of bird and mammal behavior ha v e shown that paren t - y oung attachment and many other activities follow a cyclic pattern, with two or mo r e cycles occurring in young animals before fledging or weaning (Hor wich    ,    ; Ellis    ). This has been termed a reg re s s i o n or rea t t a c h m e n t pe ri o d (Ho r wich    ). This concept is fundamental to understanding ontogeny and sociality in mammals (Ho r wich et al.    ) and birds (Ellis    ). After the initial attachment period, there follows a period of gradual independence from the paren t . After spending  % of their time next to a surrog a t e pa r ent during the first  weeks, Sandhill Crane chicks 1 2 0 Chapter 6

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International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . of the Wattled Crane in Natal. Pages   -  in J. T. Har r i s , Nesbitt, S. A.    . The significance of mate loss in Flo r i d a ed i t o r . Proceedings of the    International Cra n e Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin   :  -  . Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Nesbitt, S. A., and G. W. Archibald.    . The agonistic rep e r - Johnson, M. H., and G. Horn. Dev elopment of filial pref e r - to i r e of Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin  : -  . ences in dark- re a r ed chicks. Animal Behavior  :  -  . Nesbitt, S. A., and A. S. Wen n e r .    . Pair formation and Katz, B.    . Breeding ethology of the Hooded Crane. Pag e s mate fidelity in Sandhill Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C.   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Cra n e Le wis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Ser vice, For t Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and Collins, Colo. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Kep l e r , C. B.    . Dominance and dominance-related behav- Nie v ergelt, B.    . A comparison of rutting behavior and ior in the Whooping Crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewi s , gr ouping in the Ethiopian and alpine ibex. Pages   -  in ed i t o r . Proceedings International Crane Work s h o p . V. C. Geist and F. Wal t h e r , editors. The behavior of ungu- Oklahoma State Uni v ersity Publishing and Pri n t i n g , lates and its relation to management. International Uni o n Sti l l w a t e r . for the Conservation of Nat u r e and Natural Re s o u rc e s , Kep l e r , C. B.    . Captive propagation of Whooping Cra n e s : Morges, Swi t ze r l a n d . a behavioral approach. Pages   -  in S. A. Temple, edi- Poulsen, H.    . Agonistic behavior of two species of cranes. to r . End a n g e r ed birds: management techniques for Dansk Ornithologisk For enings Tidsskridt  :  -  . pre s e r ving threatened species. Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n Pratt, J. J.    . The Wh o o p e r - S andhill Crane hybrid. Grus Press, Madison.   pp . Americana  (): . Layne, J. N.    . Nesting, development of the young, and Ra m s a y , A. O.    . Familial recognition in domestic birds . pa r ental behavior of a pair of Florida Sandhill Cra n e s . Auk  :- . Florida Field Naturalist : - . Sal z en, E. A., and C. C. Me ye r.    . Rev ersibility of imprint- Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . Mate-swapping of Sandhill Cra n e s . ing. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psyc h o l o g y Journal of Field Ornithology  :  -  .  :  -  . Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . A rec o r d of preterritorial copulation by Sc h a e f e r , H. H., and E. H. Hess.    . Color pref e r ences in Sandhill Cranes. Western Bir ds  :  . imprinting objects. Zeitschrift fur Tie r p s yc h o l o g i e Li t t l e fi eld, C. D., and R. A. Ryde r .    . Breeding biology of  :  -  . the Greater Sandhill Crane on Malheur National Wil d l i f e Swengel, S.    . Sexual size dimorphism and size indices of Refuge, Oregon. Pages   -  in Transactions of the  rd six species of captive cranes at the International Cra n e Nor th American Wildlife and natural res o u r ces conferen c e . Foundation. Proceedings Nor th American Cra n e Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. Wor kshop :  -  . Lo r enz, K. Z.    . The companion in the bird’s world. Auk Tacha, T. C.    . Behavior and taxonomy of Sandhill Cra n e s  :  -  . fr om mid-continental Nor th America. Ph.D. disserta t i o n , Lo r enz, K. Z.    . Studies in animal and human behavior. Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y , Sti l l w a t e r .   pp . Vol. . Translated by R. Mar tin. Har var d Uni v ersity Pres s , Tinbergen, N., and A. C. Per deck.    . On the stimulus Cambridge, Mass.   pp . situation releasing the begging response in the newl y Mahan, T. A., and B. S. Simmers.    . Social pref e r ence of hatched Herring Gull chick (La ru s ar g e n t a t u s Pon t . ) . four cross-foster rea r ed Sandhill Cranes. Proceedings Nort h Behavior :- . American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Vidal, J. M.    . L’e m p r einte chez les animaux. La Rec h e rc h e  : - . 1 2 2 Chapter 6

Vidal, J. M.    . The relations between filial and sexual imprinting in the Domestic Fowl: effects of age and social experience. Animal Behavior  :  -  . Voss, K. S.    . Ontogeny of behavior of the Greater San d h i l l Crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s International Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y Publishing and Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . Voss, K. S.    . Agonistic behavior of the Greater San d h i l l Crane. Pages  - in R. D. Feldt, editor. Eastern Grea t e r Sandhill Crane Symposium, October  - ,    , Michigan City, Ind i a n a . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    a. Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r Press, New Yor k.   pp . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    b. A history of Sandhill Cranes on the Haehnle San c t u a r y, Michigan. Jac k - P ine Warbler  : - . CHAPTER 6 Behavior Man a g e m e n t

S cott R. Swengel, Ge o rge W. Archibald, David H. Ellis, and Dwight G. Sm i t h

anagement of crane behavior varies with sheets. Daily observat i o n s ar e essential in monitoring use, age, and rep ro d u c t i v e condition. the pairing and social interaction of cranes in the We discuss five management classes: same pen or adjacent pens. chicks, subadults, breeding birds, Bli n d s (F ig. .) set up near cranes allow for Mcranes for public display, and release birds. Cranes longer-term observations of rel a t i v ely undisturbed ar e individuals, and management practices that are (b y humans) behavior. Cranes behave more normally be n e fi cial to one crane may be harmful to another. when people are not in view, so blinds are a val u a b l e Because management of these classes and individuals supplement to daily observations not just for res e a rc h , over l a p , a combination of behavioral management but also in the management of pairs. Because some techniques often works best for individual cranes. cranes remain disturbed by observers in nearby This chapter emphasizes crane social behavior an d blinds, it is crucial to locate blinds with care and use ho w it affects captive management. Ellis et al. (   ) one-way glass if necessary to enable the observer to described the non-social (maintenance) behavior of all be invisible to the crane. species. Because most body maintenance behavior patterns are superficially alike for both calm and highly stressed cranes, we discuss below only the few maintenance actions that suggest a crane is stres s e d . Studies of crane social behavior that include illustra- tions of displays are Allen (   ) on the Wh o o p i n g Crane; Archibald (   a) and Katz (   ) on the Hooded Crane; Masatomi and Kitagawa (   ) on the Red - c r owned Crane; Poulsen (   ) on Siberian and Common Cranes; Voss (   ,    ), Nesbitt and Ar chibald (   ), and Tacha (   ) on the San d h i l l Crane; and Ellis et al. (In prep .) on all species. Prev i o u s papers describing behavioral management of captive cranes include Archibald (   b), Kepler (   ,    ), Ar chibald and Viess (   ), and Derrickson and Carpenter (   ,    ).

Techniques in Behavior Obs e r vat i o n s

Obs e r ving cranes in the same context and at the same time each day rev eals seasonal changes in social p a t t e r n sa n da b n o r m a l i t i e ss u g g e s t i n gh e a l t hp ro b l e m s . Data collection can be as simple as merely noting abnormalities or social problems, or as complex as a Fig. 6.1. Brian Clauss enters an elevated observation blind. bi rd - by - b i r d tabulation of behavior details on form Ph oto David H. El l i s 1 0 6 Chapter 6

Remote monitor in g (F ig. .) via closed-circuit TV Al e rt - p o s t u r e. When in (C C T V ) is valuable for observing pairing, bree d i n g , this posture, and during or egg laying of cranes without risking them noticing many of the social dis- the observer . Cranes seem to adjust quickly to cameras plays that follow, most mounted high in a pen corner (although they notice cranes perform Crown - cameras that move or make noise). CCTV allows for expansion or Bar e skin the most undisturbed watching of cranes and is ideal expansion. The crane for making videotapes that can be rep l a y ed at high may then begin a speed and searched for significant behavioral patterns, ri t u a l i z ed display walk such as copulation and nest building. For cranes that (Hori zo n t a l - s t ru t or br eak eggs, long-term egg vigils are made easier by Vert i c a l - s t ru t ) with the CC T V . CCTV allows for a second look to determine Fig. 6.3. Crown expansion: bill slowly bobbing up if first impressions can be confirmed by rev i e w of Whooping Cran e . and down in time with vi d e o t a p e s . A rt Billi Wag n e r exaggerated, rhythmic steps (Fig. .). The toes ar e rigidly fanned and extended during the Vert i c a l - st r ut. The crane may either turn its bill away from the in t r uder (Crown - p re s e n t ) or direct its bill down w a r d tow a r d the intrud e r . In higher intensity strutting, the crane either increases the speed of the walk or lower s its head (sometimes nearly to the ground). Common, Hooded, Whooping, Black-necked, Sandhill, and Siberian Cranes (listed in descending order of feather el e v ation) raise their tertial feathers into a bustle during display walks (Fig. .).

Fig. 6.2. Closed circuit television camera monitors Wh o o p i n g Crane. Ph oto David H. El l i s

Agg re s s i v e Displays

Cranes that have red caps or bare skin on their heads expand the cap (Crown - e x p a n s i o n ), extend their wattles (Bare - s k i n - e x p a n s i o n ), or suffuse the bare skin with brighter color to supplement their displays (F ig. .). Cranes with completely feathered heads el e v ate head plumage to increase the apparent size of their heads. These head displays are low- i n t e n s i t y displays when they appear alone, but they are also used as elements of many other aggres s i v e displays. Cranes have several low-intensity displays that are used to intimidate or repel intruders. Most of the displays described below apply to all cranes. Th e no m e n c l a t u r e for these activities follows Ellis et al. (In pre p .). We will describe the displays in increa s i n g or der of intensity. In perhaps the lowest intensity di s p l a y , a crane raises its head to full height and extends its neck upwa r d and slightly forwa r d in an Fig. 6.4. Str ut (ver tical): Eur asian Cran e . A rt Billi Wag n e r Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 0 7

Another low-intensity threat is the Ruf fle - b o w, in which the crane elevates its feathers and slowl y , at firs t , ruf fl es its plumage until at length the whole body is rapidly shaking (Fig. .). This display is much like the maintenance Ruf fle - s h a k e . All species perform the Ruf fle - b o w, and the Blue, Demoiselle, and Wat t l e d Cranes use this as their principal display. San d h i l l Cranes end the Ruf fle - b o w by throwing the head dow n w a r d, then preening the breast or tibiotarsus. The Whooping Crane tucks the bill high at the end of its Ruf fle - b o w (Fig. .). All cranes have a Ri t u a l i ze d - pre e n display in which they place the bill between the back and one wing (Fig. .). Siberian Cranes lower the primaries of one wing and do not move the bill during the display. Other cranes do some rud i m e n t a r y pr eening movements and periodically raise their heads to look around. Sev eral species stamp their feet (Sto m p ) a few times in conjunction with the Ruf fle - b o w or Ritualized Preen. The Red - c r own e d Crane often Stomps, then arches its head back and raises its wings above the back until its head is nearly between the wings over the back (Arc h ). The Whooping Crane version of the Arch we call the But t e r fly (Fig. .). The Red - c r owned Crane and its Fig. 6.6. Ruf fle - b o w-up: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r ne a r est rel a t i v es (see Chapter ) sometimes raise their wings slightly during more intense versions of the Vert i c a l - s t r ut. The Brolga, Sar us, and Wh i t e - n a p e d Cranes have an exaggerated down w a r d bow as part

Fig. 6.5. Ruf fle - b ow - d o wn: Sandhill Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r Fig. 6.7. Ri t u a l i z ed Preen: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r 1 0 8 Chapter 6 of the Ruf fle - b o w. After the ruf fl e, they usually or may not lead to Jump-raking. Cranes also His s bo w deeply forwa r d, then do a Ritualized Thigh loudly while bill-sparring. A minor form of Attack is Preen or elevate the head far over the back. to peck at or grasp the wings or tail of a subordinate We believe that the most aggres s i v e display is the to displace it. Crou c h . In this display, the crane lowers to lying Vocalizations can indicate fear or aggression, po s t u r e with its wings slightly to mostly spread and and like the Unison-call, help drive away intrud e r s its bill in front, usually touching or probing at the and maintain pair bonds (Archibald    a,    b) . gr ound. After performing the Crouch, cranes Pairs Uni s o n - c a l l (F ig. . ) after repelling intrud e r s . sometimes Rus h an intruder by springing up suddenly Gua rd - c a l l s , which are short blasts separated by and charging headlong, flapping their wings and se v eral seconds, also help to defend the territory gliding over the ground rapidly if the intruder fails (A r chibald    b). See Archibald (   a) and Chapter to depart. The crane terminates the Rush with either a  C, especially Fig.  C. , for more details of these Stomp and Ruf fle - b o w, or by Att a c k i n g the intrud e r . vocal displays. Oth e r wise, cranes usually end the Crouch display with an Arch (Red - c r owned) or Ritualized - p re e n (S iberian, Sandhill and others). Methods of Att a c k i n g (F ig. .) include spearing the opponent with the bill (Bil l - s t a b ), Le a p i n g in the air and slashing the intruder with the inner toenails (Jum p - r a k e ), and thrashing with the wings (Win g - t h r a s h ). Cranes sometimes use stealth to ap p r oach an intruder: they circuitously walk closer and closer while feeding, then abruptly Rush the in t r uder (crane, human, or other animal). Rushes can also lead to aerial pursuit as a territory own e r dr i v es away an intrud e r , sometimes slashing at the in t r uder with its feet even during flig h t . Ag g re s s i v e cranes may also bill-spar with one Fig. 6.9. Jum p - r ake: Siberian Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r an o t h e r , spreading their wings and Bill-stabbing at their opponents while standing erect. This may

Fig. 6.8. But t e r fly: Whooping Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r Fig. 6.10. Unison-call: White-naped cranes. A rt Billi Wag n e r Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 0 9

Dan c i n g consists of bouts of Rushing, Fla p p i n g , Leaping, Tuck-bobbing (Fig. . ), gaping, and feather or stick tossing. Dances last from several seconds to a fe w minutes and are usually pair-related. Howeve r , young cranes often dance in apparent appeasement of dominant cranes. Sometimes Dancing includes sham Bill-stabs and Jump-rakes, but in stable pairs, physical contact is usually not present. Many other elements of aggres s i v e displays (e.g., Crown-expansion) are evident in Dan c e s .

Fig. 6.12. Co wer: Sandhill Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r

wings slightly (the elbow is lifted away from the flank), and give purring calls. Chicks often perfo r m this display. When adult cranes Cower , they are pr obably reve r ting to chick behavior to placate a dominant crane or person. Often a submissive crane will spread its wings with the trailing edges droo p e d and turn its back to a dominant crane (or human) as in the adult female’s Pre- c o p u l a t o r y Dis p l a y (Fi g . . ). This behavior is not limited to one sex and is Fig. 6.11. Tuck-bob: Gray - c r owned Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r often seen in chicks and subadults.

Sub m i s s i v e Behavior Sub m i s s i v e displays and fleeing behavior are useful indicators that a crane is stressed by its environ m e n t . Some captive cranes run away when a person or dominant crane approaches and may push at the fence as if to walk through it. The crane may also ne r vously pace the fence, rake its feet along the fence in a climbing manner, and drag its neck and bill along the fence. These disturbance-related activities can cause physical damage, especially abraded wrists, and even more seriously, broken bills. A submissive crane (Fig. . ) usually retracts its neck and adopts a hunched posture (Co wer ) with its head and neck feathers fluffed, and its crown, wattles, and/or bare skin patches contracted. Freq u e n t l y , Fig. 6.13. Pre- c o p u l a t o r y display: female Black-necked Crane. su b o r dinate cranes lower their heads, spread their A rt Billi Wag n e r 1 1 0 Chapter 6

They may be wing clipped after they fledge. Opi n i o n s var y on whether permanent flight restraint (see Behavioral Management of Chapter  E for details) can prev ent males from balancing properly during copulation and thus Chicks and Subadult Cra n e s limit ferti l i t y . Many pinioned and tenotomized This section provides a summary of the management males ferti l i z e their mate’s eggs. Howeve r , in captive of young chicks; other details are provided in Chapter Red - c r owned Cranes (the heaviest crane), full-winged . Chicks have strong social needs. Most species are males had higher rates of natural fertility than gr egarious, and nearly all cranes flock during the pinioned males (Belterman and King    ). no n - b r eeding season. Flocking probably results in Keep subadult cranes in genetically and in c r eased survi v orship and in foraging advan t a g e s . behaviorally compatible groups ( to  in d i v i d u a l s ) Cranes three months to three years old should be until they are paired. When pairs form in group so c i a l i z ed with conspecifics so that they devel o p pens, extreme aggression often appears, with the normal social behavior. Combine cranes in groups of dominant pair often monopolizing food or water two or more in pens that are at least   m2 for two and occasionally killing pen mates. If the new pair in cranes and prop o r tionately larger for larger grou p s . a group pen is desirable, move the pair to a bree d i n g The group will establish a dominance hierarch y pen. If the pair is unwanted, rem o ve one or both (D errickson and Carpenter    ) based on the size cranes to reduce aggres s i o n . and sex of the cranes, with males and larger cranes If sex is known, juveniles can be grouped by typically being more dominant (Kepler    ). ge n d e r , howeve r , same sex groups can also be aggres - Pare n t - re a r ed cranes will try to establish voc a l si v e, and homosexual pairs can form in such grou p s co n t a c t with their parents after separation and will (A r chibald    b; Kepler    ; Derrickson and also try to reunite if allowed. Place such cranes at least Carpenter    ). Early sexing increases the chances of   m away from and out of sight of their paren t s early rep r oduction through behavioral management. until they integrate into a social unit with other colts. Pare n t - re a r ed crane chicks are typically fearful of people. As such, they should be habituated to humans if they are to remain in captivity (Archibald and Vie s s Behavioral Management of    ). Frequent, nonstressful encounters with humans will help calm them down (e.g., provide a food trea t Breeding Cra n e s when entering the pen). Placing wild colts with tame cranes will also help. Cranes have pronounced species specific variation In grouping colts, avoid penning cranes together in nesting phenology (see Chapter ). Their captive that are likely to be paired later. Cranes treat their management should refl ect species differences and penmates as siblings and may refuse to pair with them al l o w for individual variation as wel l . la t e r . It is wise to keep intended mates separate until they are at least  months of age. Annual Behavior Cycle of Breeding Cranes Cranes that are  months old or older often b e c o m ea g g re s s i ve tow a rd s t h e i rp e n m a t e s ,p a rt i c u l a r l y Cranes exhibit seasonal cycles in social displays those of the same sex. Groups should be reo r g a n i ze d especially in activities related to pairing and those when exce s s i v e aggression appears. Howeve r , it will in vo l v ed in rearing young. It would be helpful to have help to place two food/water stations at opposite data on seasonal trends for all species of cranes in you r ends of the pen so submissive cranes can eat and co l o n y , but such is available only for the Wh o o p i n g drink. Even then, watch for Cowering cranes that Crane and Mississippi Sandhill Crane as described ar e afraid to go to the food. In large pens with  - be l o w. Also, Katz (   ) presented somewhat similar bi r ds, a third station may be needed. Sub m i s s i v e data for two pairs of Hooded Cranes from late cranes that are regularly attacked by penmates should Fe b ru a ry through early Jun e . be rem o ved . For boreal species, display intensity ebbs in winter, Chicks spend much time practicing flying but on warm days in late winter and early spring, when they are two or more months old and need display frequency and intensity increase. As the bree d - an unobstructed area at least  m long for exerc i s e . ing season approaches, vocal and visual behavior Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 1 related to pair-bonding, territorial defense, and bree d - ex cept during incubation or molt when a crane is ing is increasingly evident. Th e r e is also good evidence tr ying to be inconspicuous. Crown contraction at for decreases in performance of some displays during other times signals fear or illness. The Wh o o p i n g the molt and during the incubation and chick rea r i n g Crane exhibited two peaks. Females of both species period when the adults tend to be more secret i v e. Th e cy cle in concert with their mates, but they, on aver a g e , intensity and frequency of several vocal and visual expand to a lesser degree than males. displays again increases in fall, suggesting an autumnal The Unison-call (Fig. . ), a form of antiphonal rec y cling perhaps in response to a photoperiod duet given by both members of a pair, can be mi r r oring that for spring. Th e re a f t e r , perfo r m a n c e pe r formed throughout the year and is given primarily tendency wanes through the early months of winter. in response to conspecific intruders (Wal k i n s h a w In the following paragraphs, we will show some    a; Archibald    b). Wel l - c o o r dinated, freq u e n t general trends in this annual cycle and compare Unison-calling signals that a pair is properly bonded. behavior trends for the migratory Whooping Duetting is also believed to be important in the Crane with those of the nonmigratory Mis s i s s i p p i sy n c h r onization of the crane breeding cycle (Vos s Sandhill Crane. Male-female differences will also be    ). In the Whooping Crane pairs studied at em p h a s i z ed. These generalizations are pres e n t e d Pat u x ent, the Unison-call was heard with some because of their usefulness in crane husbandry. Also fr equency all months of the year (Fig. . ), but was th e r e are seasonal cycles in non-social behavior such highest between October to April and lowest during as the increase in fall food intake (or at least body the July molt. Unlike our Whooping Cranes which weight) especially evident in northern latitude did not breed during the study yea r , our Mis s i s s i p p i br eeding cranes (Swengel    ). Sandhill Cranes exhibited a strong peak from Jun e Our data on social displays derive from a  -m o n t h th r ough August when they did breed. This periodicity period during which we conducted a standard morn- suggests the importance of the Unison call as a ing “wa l k - t h ro u g h ” in the crane colonies at Pat u xe n t territorial display while breeding (Mississippi San d h i l l and rec o r ded the responses to an approaching human. Crane data) and also in rei n f o r cing the bonding of a Because hand-rea r ed cranes responded to the pair during migration (Whooping Crane data). ap p r oaching human as though he was an intrud i n g Contact- or Flight-calling was entirely absent in crane, for hand-rea r ed pairs we wer e able to eval u a t e our pairs of the non-migratory Mississippi San d h i l l seasonal trends merely by rec o r ding all social displays Cranes, but our Whooping Cranes exhibited a as we walked through the colony. Our walk throu g h st r ong peak in Mar ch and April and a minor peak the colony did not elicit social displays in cranes in September (Fig. . ). The Contact-call com- rea r ed by crane foster parents (except for flee i n g municates a bird’s disposition to fly and is prob a b l y behavior) so paren t - re a r ed cranes wer e eliminated im p o r tant in synchronizing long distance movem e n t s fr om the comparisons shown below. Data wer e used of the pair. Contact-calls may be given synchron o u s l y for  male and  female Wh o o p i n g Cranes and  male and  fe m a l e Mississippi Sandhill Cranes. All data Whooping Crane (Male) Unison Call wer e taken on form sheets as an ob s e r ver (who was familiar to the cranes, but who avoided entering their pens) approached to within ca  m of the pen between . and . ho u r s fo l l o wing sunrise. As for all species with a red cap, Whooping Cranes, and to a lesser de g r ee Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e s , expand the red, bare-skin areas and pr esent this area towa r d approa c h i n g in t r uders (Fig. .). For both species, Crown-expansion and pres e n t a t i o n values are high throughout the yea r , Fig. 6.14. Seasonal pattern in Unison-call perfo r mance for Whooping Cran e s . 1 1 2 Chapter 6

The average distance betwee n Whooping Crane (Female) Contact Call members of a pair is another indicator of the strength of the pair bond, especially during migration and nesting. During the incubation period, howeve r , the non-incubating pa r ent seems to avoid the vicinity of the nest causing a peak in the aver a g e distance between mates. Both sexes of both species of cranes performed the exaggerated, rigid-toed, high-stepping that we call Str ut. When Str utting, the body axis is either rotated down and forwa r d Fig. 6.15. Contact-call perfo r mance by month for female Whooping Cran e s . (Ho r i z ontal Str ut) or elevat e d anteriorly (Ver tical Str ut, Fig. .). During a Str ut performance, by males and females or singly by either sex. The Crown-expansion and presentation also occur. male trend (not shown) closely paralleled the female Although both species and both sexes Str ut, in the tr end (Fig. . ). Mississippi Sandhill Cranes, the males normally Contact-calling is often accompanied by a highly Hor i z ontal Str ut with their mates walking (Uni s o n st e r eotyped Pre- fl ight posture (Fig. . ) wherein the walk) in tow. Male Whooping Cranes typically neck is extended up and far forwa r d. Both ethons had Ver tical Str ut while their mates remain stationary similar performance trends in both species. and perform ritualized Preening or some other social We have observed, but not quantified, that the di s p l a y . For the male Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e , intensity of flight related behavior patterns is direc t l y Str utting exhibited a single peak (Fig. . ) in related to the length of the migration; being grea t e s t mi d s u m m e r . Str ut was without peaks and much less in Siberian Cranes, followed by Whooping, Hoo d e d , fr equently performed in the Whooping Cra n e . Red - c r owned, White-naped, and Greater San d h i l l Crouch is the display that shows the stron g e s t Cranes. In captivity, the intensity of migratory male-female and species differences. For Crouch, a restlessness seems also to decrease with age. crane flops onto the ground and lies as if broo d i n g The Gua r d-call or Alarm-call is normally given in young while aggres s i v ely billing the surrou n d i n g response to a distant disturbance such as an unfamiliar vegetation. Female Mississippi Sandhill Cranes may human or other alarming stimulus animal. In both pe r form Crouch any time of the year (Fig. . ), but a Mississippi Sandhill and Whooping Crane pairs, the st r ong peak is evident when they are rearing you n g . Gua r d-call is given less often than the Unison call, and Male Mississippi Sandhill Cranes and either sex of seldom during the early part of the breeding season. Whooping Cranes seldom perform this display. Probably all species show some unique seasonal tr ends. For example, most cranes lay eggs in spring or su m m e r , howeve r , many wild Wattled Cranes lay in winter (Johnson and Barnes    ) and their captive co u n t e r p a r ts lay eggs from fall to spring (Beall    ). Gray Crowned, Black Crowned, Blue, and Dem o i s e l l e Cranes may also lay eggs in indoor winter quarte r s (K . Kawata, Det r oit Zoological Par k, Royal Oak , Michigan; R. Lastavica, Omaha Zoo, Oma h a , Nebraska; and P. Str a s s e r , National Avi a r y, Pit t s b u r g h , Pen n s y l v ania, personal communications). Some performance trends are probably common to most or all cranes. For example, we hypothesize that Fig. 6.16. Pre- fl ight Pos t u r e: Siberian Crane. A rt Billi Wag n e r cranes (captive and wild) voc a l i z e less once the eggs Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 3

Dancing and Pre- c o p u l a t o r y display Mississippi Sandhill Crane (Male) St ru t for either species, and Str utting was seasonal only in male Mis s i s s i p p i Sandhill Cra n e s . A l ls p e c i e s o fc r a n e sf e e d ,b ro o d , a n dd e f e n dt h e i r yo u n g ,a n ds o m e p a i r so fm o s to ra l ls p e c i e s ar e e x t re m e l ya g g re s s i ve wh e n ra i s i n g c h i c k s .A l lc r a n e sb e c o m em o re se n s i - ti v e t od i s t u r b a n c ew h e ni n c u b a t i n g an d re a r i n gc h i c k s . Mo s tc r a n e ss h ow s o m eb e h a v i o r a lc h a n g e s as s o c i a t e d w i t ht h em o l t . Mo s tu n d e r g oa n a n n u a lo rb i e n n i a ls i m u l t a n e o u sm o l t Fig. 6.17. Monthly perfo r mance levels in strut for male Mississippi Sandhill Cran e s . o fa l l fli g h tf e a t h e r s( Bl a u u w    ; s e eC h a p t e r  f o rp h y s i o l o g yo fm o l t a n dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fj u ve n a lm o l t ) . Mississippi Sandhill Crane (Female) Cro u c h Af r i c a n Crown e d Cr a n e sa n d Brol g a s , ho weve r , m o l tc o n t i n u o u s l y ; Dem o i s e l l e Cra n e s a n dm o s t San d h i l l Cr a n e sm o l t se q u e n t i a l l y . T h em o l ti s ph y s i o l o g i c a l l y s t re s s f u la n di sa c c o m- pa n i e d by a d e c re a s ei np e rf o r m a n c e va l u e so fs o c i a ld i s p l a y sd u r i n g th e t i m et h a tt h eb i rd is flig h t l e s s . Suc h c h a n g e sa re p ro b a b l ya d a p t a t i o n sf o r s u rv i va l . Be c a u s ec r a n e s( e ve nn o r- m a l l ya g g re s s i ve i n d i v i d u a l s )b e c o m e ver y s h yw h e nm o l t i n g ,m i n i m i ze h u m a nc o n t a c td u r i n gt h i st i m e . T h ef e m a l em a ye ve nb e c o m et h e d o m i n a n tm e m b e ro ft h ep a i rw h i l e t h em a l ei sm o l t i n g .Wa t c hm o l t i n g c r a n e sc a re f u l l yt of o re s t a l l pe n m a t e Fig. 6.18. The annual cycle in Crouch perfo r mance for female Mississippi San d h i l l ag g re s s i o n . In g ro u pp e n s ,m o l tc a n Cran e s . de s t a b i l i z e t h ed o m i n a n c eh i e r a rc h y. Mo l tc a na l s oc a u s ec r a n e st oa p p e a ri l l . By knowing behavioral norms for ar e laid. Katz (   ) found what appeared to be each sex and species, it is possible to promote survi va l reduced calling in captive Hooded Cranes as the and productivity in captive colonies. egg-laying season approached. Probably all species of cranes (captive and wild) begin copulating  to  Pairing Cranes weeks before egg laying, even those that are still migrating (Littlefield and Ryder    ; Wal k i n s h a w Pairing cranes can begin in the birds ’ second yea r .    a; Littlefield    ). Captive pairs build nests a Well-established pairs remain together for many yea r s . fe w days or weeks before egg laying. By watching for When pairing subadult cranes (i.e.,  years of age), be the onset of nest building, a colony manager may aw a r e that new pairs are frequently ephemeral. Pai r s kn o w when to begin arti fi cial insemination (AI) to should not be viewed as permanent until they rem a i n fe rt i l i z e the first eggs. stable for several months and/or rep r oduce. Wil d , Sur p r i s i n g l y , in our walk-through study, we failed subadult Florida Sandhill Cranes usually associate to find strong seasonal trends for such activities as with several potential mates before a firm bond is 1 1 4 Chapter 6 established (Nesbitt and Wenner    ). In choosing pair bonds, especially when the female continues to potential pairs, be mindful that birds of similar dance after the male begins to run and flap in mock age pair more readily: young cranes are sometimes Rushes. In unpaired birds or unstable pairs, dancing intimidated by older adults. Potential mates should can intimidate the subordinate crane. If one crane not be genetically related nor should they have been keeps dancing while the second crane flees, the firs t rea r ed together. crane may chase the fleeing crane and attack. Death Potential mates should be placed in adjacent or serious injury can result if the cranes are not pens ideally with a common door to allow herding immediately separated. A single attack can negate of a crane from one enclosure to the other without weeks of prog r ess in the pairing proc e s s . ca p t u r e. Close contact can be encouraged by placing Cranes can be further manipulated to prom o t e food and water near the fence dividing the two pens. pairing by brailing one wing of the dominant bird Pairing pens should be arranged so that concealed be f o r e placing it in the enclosure of the submissive ca r etakers can observe the birds and quickly enter crane. The brail stresses the crane, reducing its the pens if necessary to separate the birds . ag g r ession. Dominance in cranes is related to Pai r ing stages wer e summarized by Mirande and height; more dominant birds are generally taller Ar chibald (   ) as follows. The first sign of pairing in than submissive ones. Howeve r , the dominance of a the wild is one crane following another. In captivity, su b m i s s i v e crane can be increased by providing a pairing is evidenced when the birds frequently stand mound of earth . to . m high near the fence si d e - b y-side. As pairing continues, the behavior of the separating the cranes. Displaying cranes will often two birds becomes prog re s s i v ely synchron i z ed. Th e y stand on such mounds. By this simple manipulation, feed and rest simultaneously. Syn c h ro n i z ed displays, the dominance of a subordinate crane may be such as threats, Gua r d Calls, and Unison-calls may in c re a s e d . also indicate pairing; howeve r , such behavior can also If cranes seem compatible, they can be left indicate intense intrapair aggression or aggres s i o n together during the day with hourly checks. Wh e n tow a r d caretakers. A crane may interpret its intended Unison-calls and dancing do not lead to aggression ma t e ’s aggres s i v e displays as sexual attraction, but or intimidation, the pair is considered to be solidly when the birds are placed together, the aggres s i v e mated and can be trusted to occupy the same crane may attack. To prev ent injury, keep an over - en c l o s u r e at all times. ag g re s s i v e male in the pen adjacent to the female; she For cranes, some action patterns are “co n t a g i o u s . ” may thereb y be stimulated to lay eggs without risk. For example, if one bird yawns or flaps its wings there For AI pairs with aggres s i v e males, this is sometimes is a good chance that one or more penmates will do the best strategy, even long term. li k e wise. If one crane is extremely aggres s i v e towa rd s Although cranes (even chicks) sometimes da n c e humans, its penmates will often become aggres s i v e. solo or in larger groups, dancing is also associated By pairing cranes with different behavioral traits, with pairing and is believed to synchron i z e mates for characteristics of one crane can be encouraged in the successful copulation. Lack of dancing between two ot h e r . Pare n t - re a r ed cranes become much tamer and cranes can indicate that pairing is not occurring. As a adapt to captivity better if penned or paired with pair bond strengthens, the male generally becomes ha n d - re a r ed birds. Conver s e l y , hand-rea r ed birds can mo r e defensive of the enclosure than does the female. become less attached to humans if integrated with The ultimate indication of successful pairing is pa re n t - re a r ed mates. copulation. Pairs that are well bonded should at Some paired cranes that have not bred can be least attempt to copulate, although some will be induced to become more confident and better unsuccessful because of wing injury, etc. bonded if a crane chick is placed in an adjacent pen. When it is time to mo ve the cranes into the Sometimes the pair attempts to adopt the chick same pen for the first time, move the more dominant (as evidenced by their passing food items through bi r d (usually the male) into the subordinate crane’s the wire to the chick, brood calling, and by their en c l o s u r e. This provides the subordinate bird with lack of threat displays); others will try to kill the a psychological advantage because the pen is its chick or ignore it. te r r i t o r y. Watch the birds constantly at first and separate them immediately if exce s s i v e aggression is observed. Dancing strengthens the developing Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 5

Stress and Disturbance unstable pair bond can result in one crane injuring or killing its mate. Crane pairs are healthier and breed better when Some pairs are compatible but never lay eggs; this disturbance is minimized (Mirande et al.    occasionally occurs with birds that wer e paired when unpubl.). Pairs are normally less stressed when: ver y young. Such birds seem to view each other as () their pens have visual barriers separating them siblings. For these pairs, pair-related displays and fr om neighboring cranes; () routine tasks are done territorial defense are less intense. on a regular schedule; () the same people perfo r m The “Location-call test” is a good means of testing these tasks; and () the breeding area is closed to the strength of a pair bond. This req u i r es that the ce r tain kinds of vehicles (aircraft and large trucks) male be rem o ved from the female by at least   m, and activities (pen repairs and construction) during, but within earshot. If both cranes perform the loud, and three months prior to, the breeding season. single-note Location-call, and promptly answer the Some cranes breed well without visual barrie r s calls of their mate from a distance, the pair bond is be t w een neighboring pairs, but pairs should at least be pr obably genuine. If either member of the pair fails to separated by empty pens to prev ent fighting throu g h Location-call or fails to respond to the other crane’s the fence. Sandhill, White-naped, Red - c r owned, Location-calls, the pair bond is probably weak and the and some other species have bred well without visual pair should be dissolved . barriers, but Whooping, Sar us, and Siberian Cra n e s If a closely bonded pair is to be divided and new need them. pairs formed, Location-calling can seriously delay or Cranes breed best when they have a large, pre v ent the re-pairing process. It is wise to postpone se c u r e te r ri t o r y. Breeding pairs need at least   m2, in t r oducing the new intended mate until a week or but   m2 is preferable. They often benefit from mo r e following separation of the old pair. For m e r a shelter in which to ret i r e from view or gain prot e c - mates must sometimes be separated by a great distance tion during inclement wea t h e r . Trees or bushes in ( km or more) to facilitate pairing them with the pen may provide natural cover . Some pairs bree d other cranes. better if they have a secluded spot for nesting. Sat i s f y Sometimes wild cranes harass captive pairs wh i c h their need to build nests by providing dry twigs or can result in captive males red i r ecting aggres s i o n coarse grasses (fine or moist vegetation will mold tow a r d their mates. In these situations, pairs may need mo r e rapidly). to be separated until the wild cranes leave. The pair If AI is intended, line ca p t u r e corne r s wi t h can generally be safely reunited after a few days. no n a b r a s i v e cloth such as tennis netting for - m Wild cranes occasionally switch mates ev en though in each direction from the corner. At ICF, discarde d neither member of the pair has died (Littlefield    ;  m tall conifers (old Christmas trees) are used to Nesbitt and Wenner    ). Young cranes freq u e n t l y line these corners. form ephemeral pairs in the wild and may take yea r s Str ess can be reduced by taming cranes. Th e to form permanent pairs (Bishop    ; Nesbitt and pr ocess invol v es conditioning birds to human activity Wenner    ). Pairs that produce offspring are much th r ough providing treats (favorite foods), avoi d i n g mo r e likely to persist (Nesbitt and Wenner    ). di r ect eye contact, announcing your approach by In wild Florida Sandhill Cranes, re-pairing efforts var y calling when still far away, and other techniques as by sex: males quickly find new mates, while females discussed in Chapter . may take several years to re-pair (Nesbitt    ). Han d - re a r ed cranes that are overly attached to humans can often be made to breed if they are given Pair Bonds a suitable mate, and if thereafter they have minimal Well paired cranes perform synchronous activities and contact with humans. Once the pair has eggs, its stay near one another most of the time. If a male is pair bond is often strengthened, and further bonds exc e s s i v ely dominant or if the female is dominant over to humans are weakened by the pair’s mutual defense the male, the pair may never breed (Derrickson and of the eggs or chicks. Carpenter    ). Sev eral circumstances can result in Bef o r e including birds in an AI program, allow weak pair bonds. If one member of a pair is exce s s i ve l y young pairs to attempt copulation for one or two su b m i s s i v e to the other or if one mate prefers a neigh- br eeding seasons. Flightless males that are unable to boring crane, the pair bond can be weakened. An f e rt i l i ze eggs due to unilateral wing impairment may 1 1 6 Chapter 6 be clipped on the whole wing to improve their wing people. To reduce the chance of injury to birds and sy m m e t r y and thus help them balance. Allowing visitors, design display pens so that the public cannot the pair to raise a chick may also synchron i z e their come closer than  m to the cranes. rep ro d u c t i v e cycles or strengthen their pair bond, Cranes on display adopt a daily schedule timed to th e re b y increasing the chance of fertility in the future. periods of human visitation. They direct many of their Pare n t - re a r ed cranes may be more likely to copulate social displays towa r d the public, and most rem a i n than hand-rea r ed ones, and cranes hand-rea r ed in within public view. gr oups may be more likely to copulate than birds that Sev eral management practices can encourage wer e hand-rea r ed alone (Derrickson and Carpenter exhibit cranes to breed. Caretaker entrances should    ). Howeve r , most hand-rea r ed cranes that are al l o w servicing so that a portion of the pen is left so c i a l i z ed with others as colts learn to copulate when undisturbed by keepers and the public. Pe rf o r m i n g they become adults. some activities out of sight and with minimal contact If a pair does not produce fertile eggs after one or encourages breeding. Cranes on display feel safer two years of management as described above, it may when they have a “sa n c t u m ” where they can go out of be necessary to re-pair them or initiate AI (Chapter sight of humans. This hiding place can be an indoor  A). In using AI, it is important to disturb the birds sh e l t e r , a sheltered corner, or a patch of dense foliage as little as possible. Some cranes will not lay eggs when ca . m tall. they are regularly handled for AI. One strategy for Novel pen designs can also improve the display such cranes is to wait until the female starts laying value of cranes. Ele v ated overlooks or moats allow eggs, and then initiate AI. Nor m a l l y , the female is not people to view cranes unobstructed. These designs, so stressed by this handling that she fails to lay more ho weve r , req u i r e that the cranes be flig h t l e s s . eggs. This strategy is less useful with Wattled Cra n e s , Mix ed species exhibits are attractive, but because which frequently lay one-egg clutches. For those cranes are solitary nesters, they are unlikely to bree d Wattled Cranes that are adverse to AI, one insemina- when there are more than two cranes in one display. tion - days before the next egg is expected can The dominant pair will too often defend most of the often produce a fertile egg (Monica Tuite, unpubl. pen, driving the remaining cranes from its territory. data). The best AI schedule depends on the parti c u l a r Such pairs may even breed. Howeve r , dangerou s fe m a l e ’s laying history (see Chapter ). Inseminating a encounters are likely whenever a breeding pair is ne r vous female a few days before she is scheduled to penned with conspecifics. The only situation in which lay her second and subsequent clutches, but not a breeding pair can coexist peacefully with other repeatedly between each clutch , can improve the co n s p e c i fi cs is when the pen is ver y large. Pat u xe n t chances of getting several fertile eggs while mi n i m i z - maintains three pairs of Florida Sandhill Cranes in a ing disturbance . Fin a l l y , be sure that egg searches and  ha enclosure. The dominant pair normally defends other visits to the pens of shy cranes are perfo r m e d mo r e than half of the area while leaving enough roo m quickly and, if possible, use binoculars to scan the for the two subordinate pairs to escape and bree d . pen from a distance.

Behavioral Management of Behavioral Management of Cranes for Rel e a s e Cranes for Display This section summarizes the management of cranes Cranes on public display normally rec e i v e more destined for release. For more details see Chapters  disturbance than other captive cranes. Because many and  D. cranes will not breed while on display, it is best to Pare n t - re a r ed and hand-rea r ed cranes for release exhibit only those birds that are of low genetic val u e . ar e managed ver y differen t l y . Pare n t - re a r ed chicks Display cranes should tolerate human visitors but not de v elop normally and req u i r e no special training. be aggres s i v e towa r ds them. Ext r emely aggres s i v e Chicks rea r ed by hand, in isolation from human cranes are dangerous to caretakers and the public, and contact, should be allowed to see and hear conspecific may damage themselves in their attempts to attack adults so that they learn to socialize and breed Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 7 with conspecifics. Nor m a l l y , hand-rea r ed chicks stimuli at certain age periods can rev erse the ar e handled by costumed human caret a k e r s pre f e r ence of early filial imprinting (Gallagher (c o s t u m e -rea r i n g ) .    ,    ; Vidal    ,    ). Co s t u m e - re a r ed chicks can be taken to the release site when they are as young as  wee k s Filial Imprinting and Parental Care (Ho r wich    ). Young cranes exhibit the behav- ioral plasticity important in rapidly learning new Cranes exhibit imprinting patterns similar to domestic su rv i v al techniques. Hor wich (   ,    ) rel e a s e d fo wl. Imprinting probably begins in the egg about  his costume-rea r ed cranes in early fall to coincide days prior to hatching, when chicks begin answer i n g with the period when wild cranes are the most the paren t s ’ brood calls. Chicks follow the adult on gr egarious. Other studies also suggest that captive- the first day and are often away from the nest by day rea r ed cranes integrate better with wild cranes if  or  (Walkinshaw    b). Par ental attachment is released in early fall (Mitchell and Zwank    ). complete within the first  days and becomes stron g e r Wh a t e v er the rearing method, cranes should be during the first  wee k s . released gently over a period of weeks (ge n t l e - Attachment is rei n f o r ced by a radical change in rel e a s e ) to give them time to acclimate (Ho rw i c h pa r ental behavior at hatching. This includes increa s e d    ; Mitchell and Zwank    ). If the chicks are br ood calling, brooding, preening the chick, pree n i n g co s t u m e - re a r ed, this acclimation period can also be the adult’s brood patch, and feeding the chick. Th i s used to introduce them to natural foods. behavior encourages imprinting and the devel o p m e n t Release pens should be large enough to allow cranes of a following response by the chick during the firs t to move comfortably away from mammalian pred a - week, the initial sensitive period of devel o p m e n t tors outside their enclosure. Pens used in successful (Ha r tup and Hor wich    ). releases of Mississippi Sandhill Cranes have been . Brooding of the chick occurred only during the to  ha (- ac r es) in size. first week in our study of Sandhill Cranes. Pree n i n g the chick, although rarely seen, was done by the female while brooding. Wild cranes may brood chicks that are up to six weeks old (G. W. Archibald, ICF, Imprinting, Attachment, personal communication). The female invites the chick to brood by extending the wrist joint laterally and Behavioral while calling loudly and pointing her bill into or pr eening the opened cavity. The moving bill tip is Dev elopment in Cra n e s ver y attractive to crane chicks, and probably induces co n t r i buted by Ro b e rt H. Ho rw i c h the chick to accept brooding. Pecking the paren t ’s bill, the chick’s greeting, is a ritualized feeding behavior. Th e r e have been few studies of crane imprinting or It was elicited in puppet-rea r ed chicks by extending early development (Voss    ; Layne    ). Mos t the puppet’s bill towa r d the chick (Fig. . ). A imprinting res e a r ch in the    ’s focused on the st e r eotyped bill presentation by White-naped Cra n e s sh o r t-term effects of imprinting on social pref e re n c e s . also elicited the bill peck. A similar feeding posture Domestic fowl (Gal l u s do m e s t i c u s ) and domestic ducks occurs in wild Sandhill Cranes (Layne    ). (Ana s pl a t y rh y n c h o s ) rapidly restrict their filial attach- ment and following response to their parent, human Sexual Imprinting ca re t a k e r , or to other stimuli encountered shortly after hatching. This learning phenomenon has been called Sexual imprinting is a form of learning which shares filial imprin t i n g (B ateson    ). Many studies many characteristics with filial imprinting, but which (H ess    ; Hess and Pet r ovich    ) show that also influences mate choice at sexual maturity. Th e r e th e r e is a “cr i t i c a l ” period when precocial birds ar e many instances of birds sexually imprinting on imprint on a parental model. humans or other bird species (Immelmann    ), but An accumulating body of evidence indicates that studies have shown that the process is rev ersible if rel a t i v ely early experie n c e s ha v e profound effects on cro s s - f o s t e r ed or hand-rea r ed birds are introduced to sexual choice later in life (Immelmann    ; Bat e s o n their own species during or before the end of the    ). This evidence indicates that exposure to social se n s i t i v e period. 1 1 8 Chapter 6

Spalding in Jaynes    ). Howeve r , there are some innate pref e r ences (Hinde    ; Gaioni et al.    ). Ini t i a l l y , vocal cues seem more important than visual ones (Ramsay    ; Gottlieb    ), and there may be other innate pref e r ences for certain colors and forms (Jaynes    ; Schaefer and Hess    ; Sal z en and Mey er    ). As part of our rei n t r oduction study (Ho rw i c h    ,    ; Hor wich et al.    ), we rea r ed crane chicks with a stuffed crane model that emitted br ooding calls, fed chicks using a crane-head puppet (F ig.  D. ), and led them while costumed and using the same puppet emitting the same calls (Fig.  D. ). Although the main goal of costume-rearing (see Chapter  D) was to imprint crane chicks on a crane-like substitute, we also hoped that use of the costume would allow us to control the birds after release while leaving them still fearful of uncostumed humans. The costume, although not overly crane- like, broke up the human gestalt by de-emphasizing Fig. 6.19. Siberian Crane chick greeting puppet head. the head, face, and hands while emphasizing the Ph oto David H. El l i s crane head and voice. Although the chicks rea re d with the costume did not show affinity to humans, they did not exhibit much fear either. Bef o r e rel e a s e , Vidal (   ,    ) neatly delineated two imprinting an uncostumed person could approach within  m of periods in chickens. He noted an early sensitive period the mildly wary chicks, but after associating with for learning the following response and a second wild cranes for  weeks, the chicks’ flight distance in sexual imprinting period at  - days. Cockerel s response to human approach had increased to   m exposed to a model at this later period became (Ho r wich et al.    ). Fear of humans can, of course, sexually imprinted on it despite their earlier training be taught (see Human Avoidance Conditioning in to follow a different model. Chapters  and  D) . Proper sexual imprinting is critical in crane At - weeks of age, our chicks wer e given choices rei n t r oduction programs. Although the rearing of of stimuli in an attempt to assess the early effects Whooping Cranes by wild Sandhill Crane parents has of filial imprinting (Hor wich and Owen unpubl.). pr oduced a small wild population of Wh o o p i n g For all chicks, the most important stimulus was the Cranes in the Intermountain West, these cranes are mo ving puppet head. They responded quickly by not breeding (Ellis et al.    a). Cros s - f o s t e ri n g is pecking the bill. It was clearly chosen over a mounted be l i e v ed to have resulted in imprinting prob l e m s body or a vocalizing speaker. pre v enting the Whooping Cranes from breeding The moving bill tip directs chicks of all ages in with their own species. The recent discover y of a feeding (Har tup and Hor wich    ). When feeding Wh o o p i n g - S andhill Crane hybrid at Bosque del a chick, White-naped Cranes sometimes drop and Apache National Wildlife Refuge (Pratt    ) and pick up an insect as many as  times before the unusual behavior by cros s - f o s t e r ed females (Mah a n chick will accept it. This motion was ver y attractive    ; Swengel, personal observation) confirm this. to chicks, who eventually picked up insects on their own. The parental bill attracts the chick, and the chick greets the parent by purring and pecking the Imprinting Stimuli extended bill. Later, juveniles watch the paren t s ’ bills Newly hatched precocial birds can be imprinted on a pr obing the ground, and probe the same area. Bil l wide variety of objects in the absence of their natural mo vement is also ver y attractive in other prec o c i a l pa r ents, indicating that early parental recognition is bi r ds (Tinbergen and Per deck    ; Hailman    ; largely acquired (Lorenz    ,    ; Ramsay    ; Johnson and Horn    ). Be h avior Ma n ag e m e n t 1 1 9

We tested the chicks’ responses to various parts of gradually entered a more independent foraging phase the crane puppet head during their first few wee k s . at - weeks of age. At fledging ( - weeks), they None of the main puppet features (red patch, head, or reattached to the costumed parent, stayed near it ey e) was consistently important to the chicks. Chicks much of the time, and pecked its feathers. The intense exposed to a mounted body for only a short period sociality exhibited during this reattachment period tended to choose the puppet, while those exposed to induced the costume-rea r ed chicks to rapidly join wild the body for a longer period of time tended to choose cranes following release (Hor wich et al.    ). Th i s the body. This observation follows the general rul e period seems equivalent to the sexual imprinting that the longer the exposure, the stronger the pref e r - period (when the initial attachment can be reve r s e d ) ence (Bateson    ). Sound is another ver y importa n t in chickens, as identified by Vidal (   ) at - wee k s stimulus for other precocial birds (Gottlieb    ). Our when the adult plumage was largely complete. results indicate that crane chicks are most res p o n s i v e Periodic reg r essions may be in synchrony with to brood calls during the first  wee k s . seasonal activities, as seen in mammals (Hor wich et al. These experiments provided information for use in    ; Hor wich et al.    ) and cranes (Hor wich    ; ca p t i v e rearing. Although red is often used for feeding Hor wich et al.    ). The initial close bond of paren t dishes or for rods dangling in the food bowl to induce and chick during the first month protects the chick feeding in young chicks (Kepler    ), the red patch when it is most vulnerable and needs parental feeding. of the puppet head did not interest the chicks. The red As the chick grows stronger and can feed itself, it patch is used in aggres s i v e displays in Sandhill Cra n e s begins a period of independent foraging, during (Voss    ). Howeve r , when combative San d h i l l which it follows its parents at a greater distance. Th e Crane chicks wer e separated by the puppet head, they chicks reg r ess by increasing contact with the parents red i r ected their attacks at the red patch of the puppet at fledging time when they would otherwise be most (E rickson et al.    ). likely to become lost if they fly far from their paren t s By dangling a puppet-like head in the food dish (Ho r wich    ). This ren e wed bonding may also (F ig.  D. ), we taught chicks to feed themselves in vo l v e species and sexual identification. They exhibit (Ho r wich    ; Erickson et al.    ). By pecking a second reattachment period just before and during repeatedly at the moving beak tip, they even t u a l l y migration (Hor wich    ; Hor wich et al.    ). Man y pecked the food below it. This gradually changed to other bird species, both migratory and non-migratory, ri t u a l i z ed pecking of the beak tip before feeding as well as mammals, show this same cyclic greg a r i o u s - until, fina l l y , they pecked only the food. At Pat u xe n t , ness (Nie v ergelt    ; Guiness et al.    ). Bes i d e s a taxidermic mount of a crane head (suspended from functioning to keep cranes on the correct migration the ceiling with its bill contacting the food and route, this reattachment or gregariousness may allow manipulated from outside the pen; Fig. . ) proved orphaned chicks to learn the route from flock mates in ef f e c t i v e in teaching Whooping and Sandhill Cra n e the absence of their paren t s . chicks to eat (Ellis et al.    b) .

Behavioral Cycles and Reattachment Periods Qua n t i t a t i v e studies of bird and mammal behavior ha v e shown that paren t - y oung attachment and many other activities follow a cyclic pattern, with two or mo r e cycles occurring in young animals before fledging or weaning (Hor wich    ,    ; Ellis    ). This has been termed a reg re s s i o n or rea t t a c h m e n t pe ri o d (Ho r wich    ). This concept is fundamental to understanding ontogeny and sociality in mammals (Ho r wich et al.    ) and birds (Ellis    ). After the initial attachment period, there follows a period of gradual independence from the paren t . After spending  % of their time next to a surrog a t e pa r ent during the first  weeks, Sandhill Crane chicks 1 2 0 Chapter 6

Ellis, D. H., G. H. Olsen, G. F. Gee, J. M. Nicolich, K. E. O’ Ma l l e y , M. Nagendran, S. G. Here f o r d, P. Range, W. T. Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Har p e r , R. P. Ingram, and D. G. Smith.    b. Tec h n i q u e s for rearing and releasing nonmigratory cranes: lessons from Allen, R. P.    . The Whooping Crane. Res e a r ch rep o r t No. . Mississippi Sandhill Crane program. Proceedings Nort h National Audubon Soc i e t y , New Yor k.   pp . American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Ar chibald, G. W.    a. Misty mornings in crane country. Ellis, D. H., S. R. Swengel, G. W. Archibald, and C. B. Kep l e r . Animal Kingdom  ():  - . In prep . A sociogram for the cranes of the world. Ar chibald, G. W.    b. Methods for breeding and rea r i n g Erickson, D., F. Boll, and R. Hor wich.    . Raising crane. cranes in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . Videocassette. Ootek Production, Sauk City, Wis . Ar chibald, G. W.    a. 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Hor wich, R. H., R. Van Dyke, and S. J. H. Cogswell.    . Masatomi, H., and T. Kitagawa.    . Bionomics and sociol- Reg re s s i v e growth periods as a mechanism for herd forma- ogy of Tancho or the Japanese Crane, Gru sj a p o n e n s i s, II. tion in Siberian ibex (Cap r a ib e x ). Zoologische Gart e n Ethogram. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hok k a i d o  : - . Uni ve r s i t y , Series VI, Zoology  ():   -  . Hor wich, R. H., J. Wood, and R. Anderson.    . Release of Mirande, C. M., and G. W. Archibald.    . Sexual maturity Sandhill Crane chicks hand-rea r ed with arti fi cial stimuli. and pair formation of captive cranes at the Int e r n a t i o n a l Pages   -  in D. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Nort h Crane Foundation. Pages   -  in Proceedings American American Crane Work s h o p . Florida Nongame Wil d l i f e Association of Zoological Par ks and Aquariums    Program Technical Rep o r t # . Annual Conferen c e . Immelmann, K.    . Sexual and other long-term aspects of Mirande, C. M., J. W. Carpenter, and A. Bur ke.    un p u b l . imprinting in birds and other species. Pages   -  in D. The effect of disturbance on the rep r oduction and manage- S. Lehrman, R. A. Hinde, and E. Sha w , editors. Adva n c e s ment of captive cranes. Paper presented at the    Nort h in the study of behavior. Vol. . Academic Press, New York . American Crane Work s h o p .  pp . Jaynes, J.    . Imprinting: the interaction of learned and Mitchell, L. C., and P. J. Zwank.    . Comparison of rel e a s e innate behavior. . Dev elopment and generalization. methods for parent rea r ed Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e s . Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psyc h o l o g y Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , edi-  ():   -  . tors. Proceedings of the    International Cra n e Johnson, D. N., and P. R. Barnes.    . The breeding biology Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . of the Wattled Crane in Natal. Pages   -  in J. T. Har r i s , Nesbitt, S. A.    . The significance of mate loss in Flo r i d a ed i t o r . Proceedings of the    International Cra n e Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin   :  -  . Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Nesbitt, S. A., and G. W. Archibald.    . The agonistic rep e r - Johnson, M. H., and G. Horn. Dev elopment of filial pref e r - to i r e of Sandhill Cranes. Wilson Bulletin  : -  . ences in dark- re a r ed chicks. Animal Behavior  :  -  . Nesbitt, S. A., and A. S. Wen n e r .    . Pair formation and Katz, B.    . Breeding ethology of the Hooded Crane. Pag e s mate fidelity in Sandhill Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C.   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Cra n e Le wis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Ser vice, For t Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and Collins, Colo. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Kep l e r , C. B.    . Dominance and dominance-related behav- Nie v ergelt, B.    . A comparison of rutting behavior and ior in the Whooping Crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewi s , gr ouping in the Ethiopian and alpine ibex. Pages   -  in ed i t o r . Proceedings International Crane Work s h o p . V. C. Geist and F. Wal t h e r , editors. The behavior of ungu- Oklahoma State Uni v ersity Publishing and Pri n t i n g , lates and its relation to management. International Uni o n Sti l l w a t e r . for the Conservation of Nat u r e and Natural Re s o u rc e s , Kep l e r , C. B.    . Captive propagation of Whooping Cra n e s : Morges, Swi t ze r l a n d . a behavioral approach. Pages   -  in S. A. Temple, edi- Poulsen, H.    . Agonistic behavior of two species of cranes. to r . End a n g e r ed birds: management techniques for Dansk Ornithologisk For enings Tidsskridt  :  -  . pre s e r ving threatened species. Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n Pratt, J. J.    . The Wh o o p e r - S andhill Crane hybrid. Grus Press, Madison.   pp . Americana  (): . Layne, J. N.    . Nesting, development of the young, and Ra m s a y , A. O.    . Familial recognition in domestic birds . pa r ental behavior of a pair of Florida Sandhill Cra n e s . Auk  :- . Florida Field Naturalist : - . Sal z en, E. A., and C. C. Me ye r.    . Rev ersibility of imprint- Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . Mate-swapping of Sandhill Cra n e s . ing. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psyc h o l o g y Journal of Field Ornithology  :  -  .  :  -  . Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . A rec o r d of preterritorial copulation by Sc h a e f e r , H. H., and E. H. Hess.    . Color pref e r ences in Sandhill Cranes. Western Bir ds  :  . imprinting objects. Zeitschrift fur Tie r p s yc h o l o g i e Li t t l e fi eld, C. D., and R. A. Ryde r .    . Breeding biology of  :  -  . the Greater Sandhill Crane on Malheur National Wil d l i f e Swengel, S.    . Sexual size dimorphism and size indices of Refuge, Oregon. Pages   -  in Transactions of the  rd six species of captive cranes at the International Cra n e Nor th American Wildlife and natural res o u r ces conferen c e . Foundation. Proceedings Nor th American Cra n e Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. Wor kshop :  -  . Lo r enz, K. Z.    . The companion in the bird’s world. Auk Tacha, T. C.    . Behavior and taxonomy of Sandhill Cra n e s  :  -  . fr om mid-continental Nor th America. Ph.D. disserta t i o n , Lo r enz, K. Z.    . Studies in animal and human behavior. Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y , Sti l l w a t e r .   pp . Vol. . Translated by R. Mar tin. Har var d Uni v ersity Pres s , Tinbergen, N., and A. C. Per deck.    . On the stimulus Cambridge, Mass.   pp . situation releasing the begging response in the newl y Mahan, T. A., and B. S. Simmers.    . Social pref e r ence of hatched Herring Gull chick (La ru s ar g e n t a t u s Pon t . ) . four cross-foster rea r ed Sandhill Cranes. Proceedings Nort h Behavior :- . American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Vidal, J. M.    . L’e m p r einte chez les animaux. La Rec h e rc h e  : - . 1 2 2 Chapter 6

Vidal, J. M.    . The relations between filial and sexual imprinting in the Domestic Fowl: effects of age and social experience. Animal Behavior  :  -  . Voss, K. S.    . Ontogeny of behavior of the Greater San d h i l l Crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s International Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y Publishing and Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . Voss, K. S.    . Agonistic behavior of the Greater San d h i l l Crane. Pages  - in R. D. Feldt, editor. Eastern Grea t e r Sandhill Crane Symposium, October  - ,    , Michigan City, Ind i a n a . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    a. Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r Press, New Yor k.   pp . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    b. A history of Sandhill Cranes on the Haehnle San c t u a r y, Michigan. Jac k - P ine Warbler  : - . CHAPTER 7 Rep ro d u c t i v e Phy s i o l o g y

Ge o rge F. Gee and Sh i r l ey E. Ru s s m a n

ranes differ physiologically from the In the following, we emphasize crane physiology. mo r e commonly studied avian species by The ref e r ences in Table . pr ovide additional details exhibiting an incomplete annual molt , on avian physiology. lo w rep ro d u c t i v e rate, and de l a y ed sexual Cma t u ri t y . Cranes appear to be especially su s c e p t i b l e to stres s fr om physical and behavioral disturbance, unfamiliar territories, and disease. Although mature Rep ro d u c t i o n cranes normally rep r oduce annually, they may experience one or more years of reduced prod u c t i v i t y Cranes generally mate for life (Walkinshaw    ), ap p a r ently due to stress (Mirande et al.    un p u b l . ) . but they do replace mates that die and some mate Unf o rt u n a t e l y , little is known specifically about crane swapping has been rep o r ted (Littlefield    ; E. Kuy t , rep ro d u c t i v e physiology; what little we do know Dep a r tment of Env i r onment, Edmonton, Canada, indicates that cranes function like other birds . personal communication). Cranes begin laying when In some ways most birds, including cranes, can tolerate environmental insults better than mammals. For example, some foods which are toxic to mammals TABLE 7.1 pr ovide good nutrition for birds. Brea k d o wn prod u c t s Avian physiology references. of food absorbed from the intestines are shunted To p i c Re f e re n c e th r ough the liver and kidneys where to xic prod u c t s ar e rem o ved be f o r e reaching the general circu l a t i o n Env i r onmental, ecological Farner et al.    (St u r kie    ,    ; Duke    ). In another area , General, molt Farner et al.    although cranes have long, exposed legs, they can Light, photoref r a c t o r i n e s s Farner et al.    withstand cold extremes by using counter curren t Incubation, domestic fowl Landauer    ci rc u l a t i o n in the tibiotarsus to conserve body heat Mol t Lucas and Ste t t e n h e i m and prev ent hypothermia by warming blood ret u r n i n g    a,    b f ro mt h ef e e t (Wh i t t o w    ). Un l i k em a m m a l s ,c r a n e s (and all other birds) are better adapted to stave off Rep r oduction, behavior Lofts and Mur ton    de h y dration because they excr ete nitrogenous wastes General, light, rep ro d u c t i o n Marshall    as semi-solid ur a t e s instead of urea. This mechanism Season, rep r oduction, migration Marshall    a,    b co n s e r ves body water that would be req u i r ed to carry End a n g e r ed species Mar tin    away the urea (Grimminger and Scanes    ). Rep ro d u c t i v e cycl e s Mur ton and Wes t w o o d Cranes and swans possess a unique anatomical    fe a t u r e; the trachea is coiled and posteriorly em b e d - de d in the bony mass of the sternum (Pet t i n g i l l Rep ro d u c t i v e and Nal b a n d o v    ph y s i o l o g y , domestic fowl    ). The amount of tracheal coiling varies by species with the Gray Crowned Crane possessing the General, anatomy Pettingill    least coiled and the Japanese Crane the most highly General, rep ro d u c t i o n Skutch    coiled trachea. Some authors relate the coiled and Inc u b a t i o n Str omberg    elongated trachea to sound amplification, other Anatomy and physiology, Stu r kie    authors believe it decreases skeletal mass, and still domestic fowl others relate it to thermoregulation (Prange et al. Incubation, domestic fowl Taylor       ; Gaunt et al.    ). 1 2 4 Chapter 7

- years old (Walkinshaw    ; S. A. Nesbitt, Flo r i d a The hypothalamus is not only controlled by higher Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Gai n e s v i l l e , neural centers in the brain, but also through fe e d b a c k Florida, personal communication), but there are me c h a n i s m s fr om within the rest of the body. Th e ex ceptions in captivity and in the wild (see Chapter ; hypothalamus produces the following releasing or Radke and Radke    ). inhibiting factors : LHRH, thyrot ro p i n - re l e a s i n g Rep r oduction is controlled by an in t e g r a t e d hormone (TRH), prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF ) , ne u ro e n d o c r ine system (K obayashi and Wada    ; somatostatin, growt h - r eleasing factor (GRF), and van Tie n h o ven    ; El Halawani et al.    ; Oks c h e co rt i c o t ro p i n - r eleasing factor (CRF) (Kobayashi and    ). To use an analogy, the system functions like a Wada    ; El Halawani et al.    ; Farner    ). symphony orchestra. The brain and related neural Table . pr ovides the specific function, signs, and systems conduct the orchestra and the endocrine effects of the hypothalmic and pituitary hormones organs, gonads, and accessory rep ro d u c t i v e organs that control rep ro d u c t i o n . pr oduce the music. Like the conductor’s eyes and The go n a d o t ro p i n s ar e produced and released in ears, the bird’s visual, tactile, olfactory, auditory, and response to LHRH (Bluhm et al.    ; Bluhm    a) other neural sensory elements relay environ m e n t a l (F ig. ., Cycle ). The ratio of follicle stimulating and body conditions, so the brain, more specifica l l y hormone (FSH) to luteinizing hormone (LH) rel e a s e d the hypothalamus and pituitary, can control fr om the pituitary in response to LHRH stimulation rep ro d u c t i v e functions. differs and is dependent on the circulating levels Light entrains endogenous physiological rhythms, of gonadal steroids (androgens, estrogens, and especially production and release of luteinizing pr ogestins) (Cusick and Wilson    ; Davies et al. hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), to time the    ; Cheng and Bal t h a z a r t    ; Gorbman et al. rep ro d u c t i v e effort (Win g field et al.    ; Wada    ;    ; Scanes    ). In a basic feedback mechanism , Gwinner and Dittami    ; Farner    ; Hiatt et al. in c re a s e d plasma levels of FSH and LH lead to    ). By their presence or absence, rainfall, humidity, in c r eased gonadal steroid le v els, and eventually and a variety of other en v i r onmental and behavioral (F ig. ., Cycle ) the el e v ated steroid levels decr ea s e fa c t o r s can either induce or thwart rep ro d u c t i o n LHRH release (Temple    ; Pavgi and Chandola (M arshall    a,    b; Ghosh and Banerjee    ;    ; Lal and Thapliyal    ; Groscolas et al.    ; Win g field    ; Vleck and Priedkalns    ; Blu h m Sharp et al.    ; Hiatt et al.    ).    a). Behavioral interactions (e.g., presence of Som a t o s t a t i n , which is secreted from the mate or territorial encounters with conspecifics) lead pa n c r eas and small intestine, inhibits release of to increased or decreased rep ro d u c t i v e development gr owth hormone and is an important component in (E l Halawani et al.    ,    ; Ottinger    ; ca r b o h y drate metabolism. Arginine vasotocin and Bluhm    b) . isoleucine oxytocin (mesotocin) are produced by Feedback mechanisms on the central nervou s ne u ro s e c re t o r y neuron s located in the hypothalamus. system effecting control of rep r oduction include Vasotocin and oxytocin are stored in the pituitary endocrine products from the pi t u i t a r y, target hor- (posterior lobe) before release (Kobayashi and Wad a mo n e s (f r om rep ro d u c t i v e organs), and no n - t a r g e t    ; Gorbman et al.    ). ho rm o n e s . Other feedback factors ar e less understood and include ref r a c t o r y periods, target tissue exhaus- M a l e tion, and entrainment of endogenous rhythms . Th e brain and pineal show obvious endogenous rhythms The rep ro d u c t i v e system in both sexes of cranes while helping to control the release of inhibiting or reg r esses in the summer and fall and de ve l o p s ag a i n releasing factors in the hypothalamus (Kobayashi the next sp ri n g . Gen e r a l l y , male cranes prod u c e and Wada    ; Gorbman et al.    ; Ueck and se m e n at least one year ea r l i e r than females prod u c e Umar    ). The hypothalamus, deep at the base eggs. For example,  % of captive male Wh o o p i n g of the brain, acts as the rep ro d u c t i v e coordi n a t o r . Cranes ( of  ) produced semen by three years of The brain senses surrounding conditions, integrates age, but only  % of captive female Whooping Cra n e s information from the internal milieu, and uses neural ( of  ) lay eggs by five years of age (Ellis et al.    ). and chemical pathways to signal the hy p o t h a l a m u s to A healthy, well-fed crane may be rep ro d u c t i v ely turn on or off production of releasing or inhibiting ac t i v e each breeding season for its en t i r e adult life fa c t o r s (Win g field    ). ( or more yea r s ) . Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y 1 2 5 1 2 6 Chapter 7 Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y 1 2 7 1 2 8 Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.2 Male reproductive tract. Te s t e s Ep i d i d y m i s

Ure t e r

Vas defere n s

ì C o p ro d e u m ï ï C loac a í Uro d e u m ï ï Pro c to d e u m î

Ar t Kate Spen c e r

The crane’s rep ro d u c t i v e tract (Fig. .) res e m b l e s Lake    ; King    ). In the domestic chicken, that of the domestic fowl but is larger (Johnson    a, spermatids may be released into the seminiferou s    b). By locating the terminal papilla of the vas tubule lumen early in its regeneration phase. After de f e r ens in the urodeum (middle chamber of the regeneration and early in the rep ro d u c t i v e season, cloaca), one can se x rep ro d u c t i v ely active cranes. the seminiferous tubules in most birds are full of Male cranes possess a rud i m e n t a r y phallus and spermatids. Sperm cells mature from the spermatids ej a c u l a t o r y groo ve in the cloaca; theref o r e, co p u l a t i o n and ac c u m u l a t e in the much convoluted vas deferen s is completed by cloacal contact with the ever ted be f o r e ejaculation (Stu r kie    ; Lake    ; Joh n s o n cloaca of the female (Gee    ).    b). The entire process, from spermatid to sperm, The crane stores se m e n in the distal vas deferen s takes  to  days in domestic fowl during the and releases it when stimulated. Components of the height of the rep ro d u c t i v e season (Johnson    b). ejaculate (sperm, other cells, and lymph) come from A spermatozoa takes one to four days to pass throu g h the seminiferous tubules within the testes, the cells the vas deferens (Mun r o    ). In the Japanese Qua i l lining the vas deferens, and from the lymph folds in (Co t u r nix coturnix japonica), Jones and Jackson (   ) the cloaca. Cranes do not produce specialized ac c e s - estimated that the entire process req u i r es ca  da y s . so r y seminal flui d s like some other birds (Quay    ; For cranes, this duration is unknown . Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y 1 2 9

FIGURE 7.3 Female reproductive anatomy (Florida Sandhill Crane) Em p ty Fo l l i c l e Im m at u re Yo l k

Mat u re Yo l k

In f u n d i bu lum (13cm)

Magnum (39cm)

Isthmus (18cm)

Ut e rus (Shell Gland) (17cm) Vagina (5cm)

ì C o p ro d e u m ï ï C loac a í Uro d e u m ï ï Pro c to d e u m î

Ar t Kate Spen c e r

F e m a l e at any one time, and one is always larger than the res t (follicular hierarchy). Follicles that become yolk fill e d , With increasing daylight in the spring, the ovar y but are not ovulated, are rea b s o r b e d . and ovi d u c t de v elop on the left side of the peritoneal In c h i c k e n sa n dc r a n e s ,t h e e g gp ro d u c t i o nc yc l e cavity (Fig. .). The ovar y contains thousands of b e g i n sw i t ht h ee n l a r g e m e n to fs e ve r a lo o c y t e si n t o oocytes and several developing ova. With the chicken, ova ( f o l l i c u l a rm a t u r a t i o n ) . In ch i c k e n s , a de s c e n d i n g the mature oocyte, also known as the yol k , co n t a i n s si z e h i e r a rc h yi so bv i o u si nt h el a r g e s tt h re eo r fo u r about  % water,  % lipid, and  % prot e i n ova .T h et h re el a r g e s tf o l l i c l e s( F-F ) ha v e di f f e re n t (Johnson    a). As for all birds, crane ovaries contain en d o c r i n o l o g i c a l re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .T h el a r g e s tf o l l i c l e mo r e oocytes than will ever be needed. The devel o p - (F ) pro d u c e s pro g e s t e ro n e an d pro s t a g l a n d i n s be f o r e ing ovu m is highly vas c u l a r i z ed with only the central a n di m m e d i a t e l yf o l l ow i n g ov u l a t i o n( He rt e l e n d ye ta l . stigma containing a lesser number of arteries and    ;Da ya n d Nal b a n d o v    ; Poy s e ra n d Pha r m veins on the exterior surface. Just before ovulation,    ) .T h et h i rd l a r g e s tf o l l i c l e( F) p ro d u c e st h el a r g e s t the stigma blanches (blood flow stops and the blood q u a n t i t i e so f es t ro g e n s an d re l e a s e st h eh o r m o n ei n drains out of the area), and the stigma rup t u re s d a i l yc yc l e st o su p p o r t t h eg row t ho ft h el a r g e s tf o l l i c l e releasing the ovum. Only a few ova are developing ( Hu a n ge t al .    ; K a m i yo h k ia n dTan a k a    ;Wan g 1 3 0 Chapter 7 an d Bah r    ;Joh n s o n    a ) .T h ee n d o c r i n o l o g i c a l rising levels of LHRH (F ig. ., Cycle ) which f u n c t i o n so ft h es e c o n dl a r g e s tf o l l i c l e (F ) ar e in t e r m e - stimulates the release of gonadotr op i n s (FSH and di a t e be t we e n F an d F. In c r a n e s ,w h i c hl a yo n et o LH) from the pituitary (Cheng and Bal t h a z a r t    ; t h re ee g gc l u t c h e s (Si j u a d e    ;Wyl i e    ;Blo s s o m Bluhm et al.    ; Scanes et al.    ; Sil v erin    ;    ; s e eC h a p t e r  fo r d e t a i l s ) ,t h e s ee ve n t sm a y di f f e r Bluhm    a; Scanes    ). Th e re a f t e r , LHRH and f ro mp o u l t ry w i t hl a r g em u l t i - e g gc l u t c h e s . other components of the rep ro d u c t i v e cycle support Each segment of the oviduct (see Johnson    a for rep ro d u c t i v e development in both sexes (Fig. .). LH details) serves a function in the process of ferti l i z a t i o n co n t r ols gonadal secretion of estrogens and androg e n s and egg production. Sperm penetration of the ova (Na l b a n d o v    ; Mur ton and Westwood    ; occurs in the infundibulum and fe rt i l i z a t i o n occurs in Maung and Follett    ). the magnum. The albumen is added while the egg The actions of es t r ogens and andr og e n s appear to passes through the ma g n u m . The inner and outer be the result of interactions with environmental and shell membrane are added to the egg in the is t h m u s social cues to induce proper sexual behavior (Cheng wh e r e (in the chicken) the embryo reaches the  to     ; Hutchinson    ; Slater    ; Donham    ; cell stage (Patterson    ; Olsen    ; Eya l - G iladi Dittami    ; Akesson and Raveling    ; Bluhm et al. and Kochav    ; Kochav et al.    ). The egg is    ; Bluhm    a,    b). An d ro g e n s , prod u c e d completed in the shell gland or uterus where salts and primarily by the ovar y, are important to the normal water are added to expand the egg within the shell cy clic phenomenon associated with egg pr od u c t i o n . membranes. About three quarters of the time needed The LH surge associated with ovulation is always for egg formation is spent in the shell gland. In the pr eceded by an androgen rise (van Tie n h o ven    ; chicken, the embryo has reached the blastocyst stage Ka m i y oshi and Tanaka    ; Johnson    a) . containing about  ,  cells when the egg is laid. An d r ogens may also be responsible for rank in a Cranes take - days to fo r m eggs. The period female dominance hierarchy (Hohn and Cheng    ). be t w een ovulation and oviposition in Sandhill and An d r ogen levels in both sexes of some birds rise in Red Crowned Cranes is  - ho u r s . She l l fo r m a t i o n response to aggres s i v e and territorial encounters, while takes about  ho u r s and is equal to the rate of cal- in other birds, it is the rising androgen levels which cium deposition in chickens (about   mg per hour) in c r ease aggres s i v e encounters (Adk i n s - R egan    ; (M. S. Putnam, Uni v ersity of Wisconsin, Mad i s o n , Akesson and Raveling    ; Wada    ; Win g fiel d Wisconsin, personal communication). Cranes pro-    a,    b,    ; Win g field et al.    ). duce one to three eggs per clutch and may prod u c e Prog e s t e ro n e s ar e secreted by the follicles se v eral clutches per season if the preceding clutches th r oughout the rep ro d u c t i v e period. Sec r etions of ar e lost. The number of eggs produced may be pro g e s t e r one by the preov u l a t o r y follicle increase from in c re a s e d if eggs are rem o ved as laid, but the clutch a low level two to three days before ovulation to a in t e r val will be less predictable. Cranes will stop pro- peak several hours after ovulation (Shahabi et al.    ; ducing eggs if eggs are added to the nest (Lack    ). van Tie n h o ven    ; Bahr et al.    ; Kamiyoshi and Tanaka    ; Johnson    b). Prog e s t e r one is impor- tant to the gr owth and function of the o vi d u c t an d acts on the oviduct to in c r ease secretion of albumen . End o c r i n o l o g y Plasma pr ostaglandins and vasotocin in c r ease to their highest levels before ovi p o s i t i o n (D ay and A series of complex endocrinological and behavioral Nal b a n d o v    ; Poyser and Pharm    ; Joh n s o n ev ents begins weeks before the production of eggs    a) . Pro s t a g l a n d i n sb e g i nt o ri s e i nt h e pre ov u l a t o r y and semen (F ig. ., Cycle ) (Haase et al.    ; El follicle about six hours before ovulation and continue Halawani et al.    ,    ). The sequence for cranes to rise in the postovu l a t o r y follicle until after ovi p o s i - remains to be determined, but is probably similar to tion (van Tie n h o ven    ; Poyser and Pharm    ; those in other birds. In rep ro d u c t i v ely active San d h i l l Johnson    a). Exogenous doses of pros t a g l a n d i n s Cranes, the gonad mass and size increase, and estro- ar e potent stimulants of oviposition (Her telendy et al. gen and testosterone levels rise in the spring. Gon a d    ; Har g r ove and Ottinger    ). Because many weight, testosterone and estrogen increase in nonpro- hormonal interactions in cranes are unknown , du c t i v e adults but less than in rep ro d u c t i v ely active ho r mone therapy is not rec o m m e n d e d wi t h o u t cranes (Tacha et.al.    ). The sequence begins with ex t e n s i v e laboratory support. Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y 1 3 1

Inc u b a t i o n Mol t

Cranes need about four months to complete the During mo l t , new feathers push out the old. Fir s t , nesting cycle. Nest building begins a few days before natal down is replaced or cover ed by juvenal plumage. egg production in the female crane and may start even The ju v enal plumage is replaced by basic plumage earlier in the male. The endocrine events leading to during the first fall and winter. Subsequent molts of nest building include increasing levels of FSH and the basic plumage follow each year throughout the LH, estrogen, prog e s t e r one, and prolactin (Cheng bi r d’s life. In any one yea r , feather molts can be com-    ,    ; Cheng and Bal t h a z a r t    ; Bluhm et al. plete (all feathers) or incomplete (affecting certa i n    ). Males and females may both build nests if in tracts or specific feathers) (Lucas and Ste t t e n h e i m separate pens. Unmated wild birds may also build    a,    b; Noo r dhuis    ). nests (Gee, personal observation). When given a In cranes, contour feathers emerge during the choice of materials, male Sandhill Cranes at Pat u xe n t first two months. First, the primary remiges (large build coarser, looser nests than females. Nest building feathers of the hand) emerge, then the secondaries often continues after egg laying if stimulated by rising (large feathers on the ulna, elbow, and upper arm) water levels. Sometimes nests become extensive, and rectrices (tail), and within the next - weeks the floating platforms. Howeve r , if water levels rise too body contour feathers grow, completing the juven a l ra p i d l y , Sandhill Cranes will abandon the submerged plumage. The natal down clings to the tips of the nest (P. W. Sky es, Jr., USFWS, Athens, Georgia, emerging contour feathers for a few weeks before and S. A. Nesbitt, Florida Game and Fresh Water br eaking off (Stephenson    ). Young cranes can fly Fish Commission, Gainesville, Florida, personal ev en before the remiges harde n . co m m u n i c a t i o n s ) . Some im m a t u r e cranes need  or more years Both sexes incubate the eggs (Walkinshaw    ). to completely molt all juvenal remiges (Lewis    ; In incubating birds pr olactin levels r is e and most of Gee    ; Layne    ; Nesbitt    ; Kaschentseva the other rep ro d u c t i v e hormone levels decline. Th e    ). Howeve r , the body contours and rectrices are metabolic clearance rate of some of the rep ro d u c t i v e pr obably replaced annually. In Greater San d h i l l hormones may increase at the same time due to Cranes, all secondary remiges are replaced in in c r eases in thyroid activity (Jallageas and .-y ear-old birds and all primary remiges in Assenmacher    ; Kar and Chandola    ). Although .-y ear-old birds (Lewis    ; Gee    ). some feathers may be lost during the incubation In breeding Whooping Cranes, molt of the basic period (see Molt section in this chapter), cranes do remiges begins during the incubation period, and not develop a brood patch. Egg production normally most are lost in one or a few days. Breeding San d h i l l stops after incubation begins, howeve r , captive Cranes molt their remiges during incubation too, but Sandhill Cranes that have been brooding chicks can molt may continue for two or more months. Som e resume egg laying if a chick is rem o ved . adult Sandhill Cranes, adult Whooping Cranes, and Crane rep ro d u c t i v e physiology has rec e i v ed little possibly other species may not complete their molt st u d y . Years of study are necessary to understand the of remiges ever y year (Lewis    ). Cranes do not unusual events that occur in captive crane colonies. respond to exogenous hormonal treatments (prog e s - te r one thyroxine, and FSH) as do waterfo wl, doves and domestic fowl (Payne    ; Assenmacher and Jallageas    ; van Tie n h o ven    ; Dittami    ; Gee    ). Howeve r , there may be ways to induce molt using chemical agents or lights. Th e r e is some anecdotal evidence that a sudden reduction in art i fi cial photoperiod can induce rapid and extensive molt (S. Hae f f n e r , Den v er Zoo, Den ve r , Colorado, personal communication). The induction of molt on demand would be a useful management tool, but will req u i r e more res e a rc h . 1 3 2 Chapter 7

Ext e r nal Fac t o r s Con c l u s i o n s

Con t ro l l i n g Bree d i n g Although the general pattern of avian physiology Crane rep r oduction can be influenced by a variety of ap p l i e s to cranes, we have identified many physio- factors such as stress, nutrition, disease, and photo- logical mechanisms (e.g., effects of disturbance) that period. Inc r easing or long photoperiod is probably the need further study. Studies with cranes are expensive most influential factor and has been linked to avian co m p a r ed to those done with domestic fowl because rep ro d u c t i v e periodicity since the late    ’s (Far n e r of the cr a n e ’s larger size , lo w rep ro d u c t i v e rate, and    ). For rep ro d u c t i v ely active Sandhill Cra n e s , de l a y ed sexual matur it y . gonad weights and testosterone and estrogen level s To summarize, the crane rep ro d u c t i v e system is sh o w a positive correlation with photoperiod (Tac h a composed of physiological and anatomical elements et al.    ). The natural photoperiod at temperate whose function is controlled by an integrated neural- latitudes is sufficient to breed all species of cranes in en d o c r ine system. Males generally produce semen ca p t i v i t y . Howeve r , cranes from northern latitudes at a younger age than when females lay eggs. Eggs held captive at temperate latitudes often breed more ar e laid in clutches of two ( to ), and females will rea d i l y , earlier, and have greater fecundity if provi d e d lay additional clutches if the preceding clutches with an arti fi cially lengthened photoperiod in the ar e rem o ved . early spring (Gee and Pendleton    ). By extending Both sexes build nests and incubate the eggs. photoperiod in the spring in the mid-temperature Mol t begins during incubation and body molt may latitude, we can bring together several environ m e n t a l be completed annually in breeding pairs. Howeve r , factors favoring rep r oduction (see Chapter ). remiges are replaced sequentially over  to  years, or A variety of st re s s o r s , such as disease, inclement ab r uptly ever y  to  years in other species. Mos t wea t h e r , moves to new pens, intraspecific conflict, and im m a t u r e birds replace their juvenal remiges over a human activities, can in t e rf e r e with the onset and  to  year period. maintenance of rep ro d u c t i o n (M irande et al.    Str ess inter fe r es with rep r oduction in cranes unpubl.). In birds, disturbance can cause a variety of by reducing egg production or terminating the physiological and behavioral changes that result in rep ro d u c t i v e effort. In other birds, stress elevat e s st r ess (Marshall    a,    b; Ghosh and Ban e r j e e c o rt i c o s t e rone levels and decreases LHRH release.    ). The most conspicuous stress effect in birds is an We know little about the physiological response el e v ation of plasma co rt i c o s t e ro n e le v els (Siegel    ; of cranes to stres s . Dittami    ; Deviche    ; Dufty and Win g fiel d    ) and a suppression of LHRH releases (Bluhm et al.    ) which in turn disrupt the endocrine balance responsible for regeneration of the rep ro d u c t i v e tract, ovulation and other rep ro d u c t i v e functions (van Tie n h o ven    ; Deviche    ; Ghosh and Ban e r j e e    ). By contrast, cyclical variations of low levels of c o rt i c o s t e rone are essential to the ovu l a t o r y cycl e (F ollett and Davies    ; Pec z ely and Pethes    ; van Tie n h o ven    ; Pec z ely    ). How stress affects the crane rep ro d u c t i v e effort and how it can be accommo- dated needs more study. Re p ro d u c t i ve Ph y s i o lo g y 1 3 3

Deviche, P.    . Interactions between adrenal function and rep r oduction in male birds. Pages   -  in S. Mikami, K. Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Homma, and M. Wada, editors. Avian endocrinology: en v i r onmental and ecological perspectives. Japan Science Adk i n s - R egan, E.    . Effect of sex steroids on the rep ro d u c - Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . ti v e behavior of castrated male Ring Doves (Stre p t o p e l i a Dittami, J. P.    . Seasonal changes in the behavior and sp .). Physiological Behavior  :  -  . plasma titers of various hormones in Barheaded Gee s e , Akesson, T. R., and D. G. Raveling.    . Endocrine and An s e ri n d i c u s. Zeitschrift fuer Tie r p s y chologie  :  -  . behavioral correlates of nesting Canada Geese. Canadian Donham, R. S.    . Annual cycle of plasma luteinizing hor-  :  -  . mone and sex hormones in male and female Mal l a r ds (Ana s As s e n m a c h e r , I., and M. Jallageas.    . Ada p t i v e aspects of p l a t y ry n c h o s). Biology of Rep r oduction  :   -   . endocrine regulations in birds. Pages  -  in S. Ishii et al., Duf t y , A. M., Jr., and J. C. Win g field.    . Temporal patterns editors. Hormones, adaptations, and evolution. Jap a n of circulating LH and steroid hormones in a , Sc i e n t i fi c Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . the Brown-headed Cowb i r d, Nol o t h r us ater. I. Mal e s . Bah r , J. M., S. C. Wang, M. Y. Huang, and F. O. Calvo.    . Journal of Zoo l o g y , London   :  -  . Ste r oid concentrations in isolated theca granulosa layers of Duke, G. E.    . Alimentary canal: secretion and digestion, pre ov u l a t o r y follicles during the ovu l a t o r y cycle of the special digestive functions and absorption. Pages   -  in domestic hen. Biology of Rep r oduction  :  -  . P. D. Stu r kie, editor. Avian physiology. th ed. Spr i n g e r - Blossom, J.    . A breeding of the African Crowned Cra n e Verlag, New York . (Balearica reg u l o ru m ). Proceedings of Symposium of the El Halawani, M. E., W. H. Bur ke, and L. A. Ogr en.    . Association of British Wild Animal Keepers : - . Invo l v ement of catecholaminergic mechanisms in the Bluhm, C. K.    a. Seasonal variation in pituitary res p o n s i v e- photoperiodically induced rise in serum luteinizing hor- ness to luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone of Mal l a rd s mone of Japanese Quail (C o t u rn i x c o t u rn i xj a p o n i c a). and Canvasbacks. General and Comparative General and Comparative Endocrinology  : - . 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Layne, J. N.    . Obs e r vations on wing molt of Flo r i d a Oksche, A.    . Refl ections on the structural basis of avian Sandhill Cranes. Florida Field Naturalist : - . ne u r oendocrine systems. Pages - in S. Mikami, K. Le wis, J. C.    . Molt of the remiges of Grus canadensis. Pag e s Homma, and M. Wada, editors. Avian endocrinology:   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceeding    Cra n e en v i r onmental and ecological perspectives. Japan Scientific Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Ser vice, For t Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . Co l l i n s . Ott i n g e r , M. A.    . Hormonal control of rep ro d u c t i v e Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . Mate-swapping of Sandhill Cra n e s . behavior in the avian male. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Journal of Field Ornithology  :  -  . Patterson, J. T.    . Studies on the early development of the Lofts, B., and R. K. Mur ton.    . 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Endocrinology  :  -  . using wing molt—pre l i m i n a r y finding. Pages   -  in J. Sha r p , P. J., H. Klandorf, and A. S. McNe i l l y .    . Pla s m a C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Pla t t e pr olactin, thyroxine, triiodothyroxine, testosterone, and Ri v er Whooping Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust, Gra n d luteinizing hormone during a photoinduced rep ro d u c t i v e Island, Neb r . cy cle in Mal l a r d drakes. Journal of Experimental Zoo l o g y Noo r dhuis, R.    . Patterns of primary molt: ecophysiologi-   :  -  . cal adaptations. Limosa  : - . Siegel, H. S.    . Adr enals, stress, and the environ m e n t . Olsen, M. W.    . Maturation, fertilization and early cleavag e Wor l d ’s Pou l t r y Science Journal  :  -  . in the hen’s eggs. Journal Morphology  :  -  . Sijuade, A. A.    . Breeding the West African Crowned Cra n e in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . 1 3 6 Chapter 7

Sil v erin, B.    . Annual gonadotrophin and testosteron e Wang, S. C., and J. M. Bah r .    . Estradiol secretion by theca cy cles in free-living male birds. Journal of Exp e r i m e n t a l cells of the domestic hen during the ovu l a t o r y cycl e . Zoology   :  -  . Biology of Rep r oduction  :  -  . Skutch, A.    . Bir ds and their young. Uni v ersity of Tex a s Wh i t t o w, G. C.    . Regulation of body temperature. Pag e s Press, Austin.   pp .   -  in P. D. Stu r kie, editor. Avian physiology. th ed. Sla t e r , P. J. B.    . Sex hormones and behavior. Institute of Spr i n g e r - V erlag, New York . Bio l o g y . Studies in Biology No.   . E. Arnold Pub l i s h e r , Win g field, J. C.    . Fine temporal adjustment of rep ro d u c - London.  pp . ti v e functions. Pages   -  in A. Epple and M. H. Stephenson, J. D.    . Plumage development and growth of Stetson, editors. Avian endocrinology. Academic Pres s , young Whooping Cranes. M.S. thesis, Oregon Sta t e New York . Uni ve r s i t y , Corvallis.  pp . Win g field, J. C.    a. Androgens and mating systems: testos- Str omberg, J.    . A guide to better hatching. Stro m b e r g te r one-induced polygamy in normal monogamous birds . Publishing Co., For t Dodge, Iowa.   pp . Auk   :  -  . Stu r kie, P. D.    . Alimentary canal: anatomy, preh e n s i o n , Win g field, J. C.    b. Env i r onmental and endocrine control deglutition, passage of ingesta, motility. Pages   -  in of rep r oduction in the Song Spa r r ow, Melospiza melodia. II. Avian physiology. Comstock/Cornell Uni v ersity Pres s , Agonistic interactions as environmental information stimu- Ithaca, New York . lating secretion of testosterone. General and Comparative Stu r kie, P. D.    . Avian physiology. nd ed. Comstock/ Endocrinology  :  -  . Cornell Uni v ersity Press, Ithaca, New Yor k.   pp . Win g field, J. C.    . Env i r onmental and endocrine control of Stu r kie, P. D.    . Avian physiology. th ed. Spr i n g e r - Ve r l a g , territorial behavior in birds. Pages   -  in B. K. Fol l e t t , New Yor k.   pp . S. Ishii, and A. Chandola, editors. The endocrine system Tacha, T. C., P. A. Vohs, G. C. Iverson, and J. A. Bantle.    . and the environment. Japan Scientific Society Press, Tok yo / Rep ro d u c t i v e physiology of Sandhill Cranes during winter Spr i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . and spring. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Win g field, J. C., C. M. Vleck, and D. S. Far n e r .    . Effect of Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g day length and re p ro d u c t i ve state on diel rhythms of Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and U. S. Fish and luteinizing hormone levels in the plasma of Wh i t e - c r own e d Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Spa r r ows, Zon o t r i c h i a l e u c o p h ry sg a m b e l i i. Journal of Tay l o r , L. W., editor.    . Fer tility and hatchability of chicken Experimental Zoology   :  -  . and turkey eggs. John Wiley & Sons, New Yor k.   pp . Win g field, J. C., G. F. Ball, A. M. Duf t y , Jr., R. E. Heg n e r , and Temple, S. A.    . Plasma testosterone during the annual M. Ramenofsky.    . Tes t o s t e r one and aggression in birds . re p ro d u c t i ve cycle of Starlings (Stu rn u s vu l g a r i s ). Gen e r a l American Scientist  :  -  . and Comparative Endocrinology  :  -  . Wylie, S. R.    . A rev i e w of techniques in the maintenance Ueck, M., and H. Uma r .    . Env i r onmental, neural, and and propagation of cranes. Pages  - in Proceedings Fir s t endocrine influences on the parenchyma of the avian pineal International Bir ds in Captivity Symposium, Seattle, Was h . organ and its various responses. Pages   -  in S. Mik a m i , K. Homma, and M. Wada, editors. Avian endocrinology: en v i r onmental and ecological perspectives. Japan Scientific Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . van Tie n h o ven, A.    . Neu r oendocrinology of avian rep r o- duction, with special emphasis on the rep ro d u c t i v e cycle of the fowl (Ga l l u sd o m e s t i c u s). Wor l d ’s Pou l t r y Science Journal  :  -  . Vleck, C. M., and J. Priedkalns.    . Rep r oduction in Zeb r a Finches: hormone levels and effect of dehydration. Condor  : - . Wada, M.    . Env i r onmental cycles, circadian clock, and an d r ogen-dependent behavior in birds. Pages   -  in S. Mikami, K. Homma, and M. Wada, editors. Avi a n endocrinology and ecological perspectives. Japan Scientific Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . Wada, M.    . Photoperiodism in avian rep r oduction. Pag e s   -  in K. Ochiai, Y. Arai, T. Shioda, and M. Tak a h a s h i , editors. Endocrine correlates of rep r oduction. Jap a n Sc i e n t i fi c Society Press, Tok yo / Sp r i n g e r - V erlag, Ber l i n . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Att e n t i v eness of cranes at their nests. Auk  :  -  . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r Press, New Yor k.   pp . CHAPTER 8 Medicine and Sur g e r y

Glenn H. Olsen, James W. Carpe n t e r, and Julia A. Langenberg

uccess in captive rearing and propagation of ob vious problems or complications. A crane in critical cranes is dependent on establishing approp r i - condition should, of course, rec e i v e immediate trea t - ate health monitoring, disease prev ention, and ment and be given a thorough examination later. parasite control proc e d u r es. A knowledge of Head and Eyes. Restrain the crane (as described Scommon diseases, surgical proc e d u r es, anesthesia, in Chapter ). Examine the eye area for swollen lids, and clinical pathology is cruc i a l . squinting, discharge, or a change in color of the globe. These changes can be due to injury, infection, forei g n bodies under the lids, or swollen sinuses. Dil a t e d pupils may indicate shock, concussion, or blindness. Initial Exa m i n a t i o n Hemorrhage in the anterior chamber or ear canal can be due to trauma to the head. A small light source is H i s t o r y used to check pupillary response. In birds, pupils respond independently (i.e., no consensual refl ex Bef o r e the crane is rem o ved from its pen or enclosure, as in most mammals). the veterinarian should obtain a complete history. If abnormalities are noted or suspected during Questions asked should range from general infor- the initial superficial eye examination, the deeper mation such as age, sex, and length of time in the st ru c t u r es of the eye should be examined using an collection, to those more specific, including: ophthalmoscope. Because birds have striated rather .Cur r ent clinical signs of disease including than smooth muscle in the iris and ciliary body, unusual behavior. at r opine will not cause pupil dilation as in the . Medical treatment given to date. mammalian eye. Iris color in Sandhill Cranes is blue .His t o r y of clinical signs in the crane floc k . in young chicks, changing to gray or gray-green, and . Recent changes in management proc e d u r es or in finally yel l o w or orange as the bird matures. The ret i n a the crane’s environ m e n t . is normally avas c u l a r . A dark, ribbon-like struc t u r e . Unusual behavior (see Chapter ): listlessness, called the pecten is attached to the retina. The pecten reluctance to fly or move wings, lack of balance, is highly vascular and is considered to be the source of restlessness, lameness or limping, straining, oxygen and nutrition for the ret i n a . ruf fl ed feathers, head held low, shiver i n g , Be a k . T h eb e a ks h o u l db ee x a m i n e d f o rb i t ea n d fainting, eyes partially closed, reg u r g i t a t i o n , over g r ow t h .T h es i d e so ft h eb e a ks h o u l db e ch e c k e d reluctance to rise, etc. f o re ve n n e s so f wea r .Cr a n eb e a k sg row s e ve r a lc e n t i m e- . Changes in food and water consumption. t e r sp e r yea r . As a re s u l t ,s o m ed e f o r m e db e a k s req u i r e . Appearance and consistency of drop p i n g s . f re q u e n tt r i m m i n g( e ve ry - mo n t h s ) . Be a kt r i m m i n g . Ove r t signs of trauma or swelling in extrem i t i e s . m a ya l s ob e re q u i re df o r n o n - d e f o r m e db e a k sd u r i n g .Ble e d i n g . t h ew i n t e rw h e nn o r m a l p ro b i n gb e h a v i o ri si n h i b i t e d by f ro ze ng ro u n d .W h e nt r a u m ai ss u s p e c t e d ,t h eb e a k s h o u l db ep a l p a t e df o rf r a c t u re or o t h e rd a m a g e .T h e Physical Examination n a re ss h o u l db ee x a m i n e df o ra n yd i s c h a r g eo rp l u g s . The physical examination should be thorough but Mouth. Often during the examination, the crane brief (i.e., normally not exceeding  min). A checklist will open its mouth to voc a l i z e, allowing a view of the (F ig.  .) and an assistant help assure thorou g h n e s s . st ru c t u r es inside. If not, the mouth can be opened by Even when an obvious injury is present, a complete gently prying at the commissure with the index fing e r examination should be performed to detect less on one side and the thumb on the other side. 1 3 8 Chapter 8

Nor m a l l y , the mucous membranes are bright pink, Deformities of the ver tebrae (Fig. .) are unusual but some cranes have gray or black pigmented tissues in cranes. Scoliosis and wryneck are seen occasionally on the mucous membranes. Level of hydration can be in young chicks (Fig. .). On palpation, the neck estimated based on moistness of the mucous mem- cannot be extended straight, or will not assume a branes. The tongue should be long and thin. Th e r e is normal curvat u re . a small, bright red struc t u r e at the tracheal opening Thorax. The thoracic body cavity should be (glottis) in Sandhill and Whooping Cra n e s . examined by palpation and by listening to the heart, Vitamin A deficiency can appear as prol i f e r a t i ve , lungs, and air sacs using a stethoscope. A bilateral plaque-like lesions of the epithelium of the alimentary enlargement, found on palpation of the thoracic inlet, mucosa, conjunctiva, eyelids, ear canal, or skin. is associated with enlarged thyroids (goiter) as seen Prot o z oan (Tri c h o m o n a s ) and fungal (Can d i d a ) infec- tions will occur as thick white, raised, plaque-like lesions covering the mucosa within the oral cavity and which may extend into the esophagus, proven t r i c u l u s , etc. Can d i d a is also seen as a lesion causing beak er osion. By contrast, scab-like lesions around the co m m i s s u r e of the mouth or on the eyelids are characteristic of the dry form of avian pox. “Wet ” po x produces raised plaques in the oral cavity, esophagus, etc. and is considered a more sever e, life threatening form of pox disease. Aud i to r y Can a l . T h ea u d i t o ry c a n a l s( Fi g . .) s h o u l db ee x a m i n e df o re x u d a t e ,i n f e c t i o n ,o rb l o o d . In c a s e so fs u s p e c t e dt r a u m ad u et oa g g re s s i o n ,t h ec a n a li s o f t e ns w o l l e n , p a rt i a l l yc l o s e d ,a n d fil l e dw i t h bl o o d . Neck. Ca r efully palpate the neck, trachea, and esophagus for the presence of solids, liquids, or gas (air). Because the lower part of the cervical esophagus of cranes, unlike many other bird groups, is not wel l de v eloped as a storage area (crop), food and liquids generally pass quickly to the proventriculus, with the result that, on most examinations, the esophagus is em p t y . Gross distention can indicate blockage or Fig. 8.2. Ve rt e b ral deformities (rad i o g r aph). im p a c t i o n . Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n

Fig. 8.1. Auricular feathers cover the auditory canal. Fig. 8.3. Wryneck in a Sandhill Crane chick. Ph oto David H. El l i s Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 3 9 in some bird groups, but not yet rep o r ted in cranes. oped pectoral muscles than birds with flight impair- Some cranes occasionally develop subcutaneous ment. Gen e r a l l y , birds with amputations of a wing emphysema. In this condition, air-filled pockets under ha v e a loss of pectoral musculature, especially on the the skin occur along the thorax or over the thighs, side of the amputation. The greatest value in using abdomen, neck, and even the head (Fig. .). BCI is not the comparison between birds, but rather a Gen e r a l l y , trauma, with rup t u r e of an air sac and comparison with previous BCI readings for the indi- leakage of air under the skin, is suspected as the cause, vidual. Caretakers should be trained to palpate and but often no wound can be found. rec o r d BCI any time a crane is handled. A drop in BCI normally indicates weight loss and a possible medical problem. Weighing is the best method for evaluating body condition and monitor- ing a bird’s overall nutritional status. Dir ect wei g h t s can be taken as described in Chapter  (see Fig. .). Weight loss signals the need for a complete examina- tion by the vet e r i n a r i a n . Abdomen. Gently palpate the abdomen for inter- nal masses, fluid (ascites), or ovulated eggs. Gen e r a l l y the liver is not palpated unless enlarged. The gizzard and intestines are easily palpated, and any crep i t u s (gas), excess fluid, thickening, or masses in the intestines are possible to detect. The vent area should be examined for lesions, growths, prot r usions, and for Fig. 8.4. Subcutaneous emphysema over the head of a male feces or urates accumulating on the feathers. A soiled Greater Sandhill Crane. Ph oto David H. El l i s vent in young chicks is frequently a sign of diarrhea, often caused by Esc h e r i c h i a co l i infections (see Chapter , Vet e r i n a r y Techniques section). The uropygial or Bo d y Condition Index and Wei g h t . By palpat- pr een gland above the base of the tail can be palpated ing the breast (pectoral) muscles and sternum (keel), for enlargement which can be caused by neoplasia, the degree of development or atrophy of skeletal mus- impaction, or infection. cles can be estimated and is rep o r ted as the bird’s body Skin and Plum a ge. Examine the general condi- condition index (BCI) (Fig. .). A BCI of  or  (on a tion of the skin and plumage. Look at the general level scale of -) is indicative of a well-muscled or plump of hydration as indicated by the elasticity of the skin. bi r d and the pectoral muscles will be rounded con- Look for mites, lice, skin swellings (emphysema, vexly from the keel. A bird with a BCI of  will have a abscesses), and missing or damaged feathers. Dul l , rather flat profi le to the pectoral muscles. A BCI of  split, or frayed feathers and stress bars across the feath- is a bird with a concave shape to the pectoral muscula- ers can indicate nutritional deficiencies, hormonal tu r e, and a BCI of  indicates sever e muscle atrop h y imbalances, or stress. Feather cysts and abnormally and emaciation. Dif f e r ences exist seasonally in indi- de v eloped feathers are sometimes seen, especially on viduals and from bird to bird: healthy wild cranes and the wings. Skin irritation and broken feathers or an ca p t i v e cranes that fly free usually have more devel - ar ea of missing feathers on the thighs are seen in

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 8.5. Body Condition Index (BCI) is an indicator of nutrition: cross section through mid sternum of Sandhill Crane (cavities are tr acheal passages). A rt Kate Spe n c e r 1 4 0 Chapter 8 self-mutilation. A similar condition is often associated Tem pe r at u r e. Unlike smaller birds, cranes appear with rep ro d u c t i v e activity in male cranes in the spring to have a rel a t i v ely constant body temperature ( .° especially after being handled for arti fi cial insemina- C, +.° [  .° F, +.°] in Whooping Cranes and tion (AI) for an extended period.  .° C, +.° [  .° F, +.°] in Sandhill Cra n e s ) . Wings. Examine each wing, palpating all Although elevated temperatures have been observed bones and joints while also assessing muscle tone in cranes suffering from bacterial disease, exert i o n , and extension. Be careful to maintain the wing in a and stress, cloacal temperature monitoring is not natural position to avoid injury. Check the wings for commonly part of the physical examination. sw elling, bruising, or abrasions which are parti c u l a r l y common on the point of the carpus (wrist area ) . Subcutaneous hemorrhage in cranes will develop a gr een discoloration due to biliver din (green pigment) Initial Car e of a Sick Cra n e released as red blood cells (RBCs) are destroyed . Matted feathers on a wing or over the body often After a sick or injured crane is found, it may be some indicate a wound. time before a clear diagnosis is made. Causes for not Legs. Palpate each leg bone and joint while assess- having an immediate defini t i v e diagnosis can be: ing muscle tone. Check the toes for normal extension, () the crane is too weak to undergo extensive testing, for broken nails, and for swollen areas on the toes or () tests being performed for the suspected condition plantar foot. Toe swellings occur with fractures, luxa- take time (sometimes days or weeks) for results to be tions, and bumblefoot (pododermatitis), an infection rec e i v ed, () the crane’s condition is attributed to fr equently caused by Staphylococcus aureu s . Cra n e s multiple etiologies, not all of which have been prop - with a leg injury that forces them to stand on one erly identified, and () the condition is difficult to foot, often develop pres s u r e necrosis of this foot with diagnose because the initial cause is no longer pres e n t . resulting open wounds that develop into bumblefoot. Having collected the req u i r ed samples to confirm the Aus c u l tation. Auscultation of the chest should clinical diagnosis, the practitioner must begin therapy be included in ever y examination. Using a until the results from the tests arrive. stethoscope, it is possible to determine heart rate, Even prior to diagnosis, it is often important to rhythm, and location of sound as well as to detect begin some form of therapy. Of all the initial thera- ca r diac murmurs in chicks as young as  days. Some of pies, fluid therapy is the most important except in these murmurs res o l v e within the first few days after cases of sever e anemia or hypoproteinemia. For cranes hatching. Others are due to the most common con- in shock from disease or trauma, bolus intraven o u s genital anatomic anomalies (i.e., atrial or ven t r i c u l a r therapy has been useful (Redig    ). We rec o m m e n d septal defects). Other murmurs have been detected in using lactated Ringer’s solution because of its similar- se ve r ely anemic or dehydrated cranes and in cranes ity to avian plasma. Normal saline is also a good with pericarditis due to infection or visceral gout. choice. Estimate the dehydration level ( % dehydr a - Arrhythmia and cardiac tamponade have also been tion is a suitable estimate if dehydration is detected). detected in cranes. Auscultation of the thorax is also The maintenance fluid req u i r ement for a crane is useful for assessing the res p i r a t o r y system. Unl i k e about  mL / k g / d a y . App r oximately  % of the smaller birds, crane respiration produces distinct de fi cit should be given in the first  hours. Th e sounds associated with air movement. These sounds remainder of the deficit and the calculated mainte- ar e normally louder on inspiration than expiration. nance dose should be given over the next two days. Clicks, wheezes, fluid-type sounds, or total absence The fluids should be kept warm ( .° C,  ° F) in of air movement sounds in one or more location can an incubator or warm water bath. indicate a res p i r a t o r y problem. Occ a s i o n a l l y , unusual Fluids can be deliver ed by one of several rou t e s . res p i r a t o r y sounds are found on one examination and The initial calculated dose of fluid can be adminis- not on the next. The cause of these transitory sounds te r ed as a bolus intraven o u s l y . The jugular or the ar e unknown, but apparently are not related to major medial tarsal vein are the easiest veins to access in the disease problems. Unilateral, dull res p i r a t o r y sounds crane patient, although the ulnar or brachial vein can can indicate blockage of the major bronchi, or consol- be used. Care needs to be taken to ensure that there is idation of lungs and air sacs on one side, and are often no further blood loss from hematoma formation, he a r d in advanced cases of aspergillosis. especially when using the jugular or brachial vein for Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 4 1 this proc e d u r e. Apply pres s u r e over the ven i p u n c t u r e A recumbent crane should be placed under the site for - min immediately after withdrawal of the heat lamp, but continuously monitored for signs of needle. Using a small-gauge needle ( -gauge [/-i n ] overheating. When the crane becomes more active, or  -gauge [/-in]) or butterfly needle may also it will move in or out from under the lamp as it he l p . For repeated intravenous therapy, a catheter req u i r es heat supplementation. ( - -gauge in adults) can be placed in the medial Sev eral medications may be indicated when the tarsal, jugular, or brachial vein (under anesthesia). sick or injured crane is first presented. Corti c o s t e ro i d s Another equivalent route for frequent fluid admin- such as dexamethasone or methyl prednisolone (see istration is the intraosseous route (Ritchie et al.    ). Table . for dosages) are indicated in cranes suffering For this technique, feathers are rem o ved from the fr om acute trauma or shock. Antibiotics are req u i re d carpal joint area, and the site is scrubbed with a disin- in some traumatized and sick cranes. Ide a l l y , the fectant soak, rinsed, and sprayed with alcohol or antibiotic chosen is based on cultures of the disease iodine. A long needle ( - -gauge, spinal needle) is site and sensitivity testing, but results from such test- used as a drill to pierce the distal cortex of the ulna ing can take - days. Th e re f o r e, the clinician must and enter the marrow cavity. You should then be able decide on initial antibiotic therapy based on prev i o u s to aspirate marrow. Flush the catheter with saline or experience with the disease and the expected types of heparin saline, then place an injection cap over the bacteria to be isolated by culturing. end of the needle. Sut u r e or glue the needle to the En ro floxacin, ampicillin, an aminoglyco s i d e - p e n i - skin of the wing. Fin a l l y , the wing is bandaged in a cillin combination such as amikacin and piperacillin Fig u re -  pattern to restrict movement and to cover the sodium (with supplemental fluid therapy), and exposed needle hub and cap, protecting it from the trimethoprim-sulfa combinations are each used on pr obing beak of the crane. ce r tain cases (see Table . for dosages). Enro fl oxacin is In no n - c r i t i c a l ca s e s , flui d s ca n be ad m i n i s t e re d by a useful broad spectrum antibiotic, howeve r , in you n g th e su b c u t a n e o u s ro u t e .T h e a d va n t a g eo f th i s rou t e is mammals, this drug has been shown to interfe r e with th a t it is t h el e a s t tr a u m a t i c fo r t h ec r a n e an d ca n ea s i l y joint cartilage development. Although ontogenic be us e d fo r rep e a t e d d o s a g e s .T h e d i s a d va n t a g ei s th a t pr oblems have not been rep o r ted in any bird, use ab s o r p t i o n ra t e s ar e sl o wer , of t e n as lo n g as  m i ni n a this drug with caution. Ampicillin is used with the he a l t h y cr a n e an d lo n g e r in se ve re l y d e p re s s e dc r a n e s . in j u r ed, dehydrated crane because of this drug ’s safety, Th e be s t are a s fo r su b c u t a n e o u s flui d ad m i n i s t r a t i o n lo w renal toxi c i t y , and bacteriocidal pro p e rt i e s . in cr a n e s ar e th e flan k s ju s t in fro n t of t h el e g s , th e Am i n o g l y coside-penicillin combinations are useful in ba s e of th e ne c k , or in t r a s c a p u l a r are a . sick cranes, especially for res p i r a t o r y diseases, but not With dehydration and capture myop a t h y , there in cases involving impaired kidney function because may be an accompanying alteration in the acid-base am i n o g l y cosides can be toxic to the kidneys. balance resulting in acidosis. Ide a l l y , the level of Vit a m i n i n j e c t i o n sc a nb eg i ve na sp a rt o ft h e acidosis should be determined through laboratory s u p p o rt i ve p ro g r a m( s e ed o s a g e si nTab l e .). Vit a m i n testing, but immediate results are not always avai l a b l e . A is i m p o rt a n ti nc a s e sw h e re a d e fic i e n c yi s su s p e c t e d Th e re f o r e, if acidosis is suspected, a crane can be given ( s e ei n i t i a le x a m i n a t i o n )o r i nb u m b l e f o o t . Iron  mE q/kg of sodium bicarbonate subcutaneously with d e x t r a ni n j e c t i o n s( s e eTab l e . f o rd o s a g e )a re gi ve n fluids ever y  min to a maximum of  mEq / k g . i nc a s e s o fa n e m i aa si n d i c a t e d by a lo w he m a t o c r i t Fluids containing dextrose are considered acidifying a n dp a l em u c o u sm e m b r a n e s .T h eu s eo fi ro nd e x t r a n agents and should be used carefully in the dehydr a t e d h a sb e e ns h ow nu s e f u l i nr a p t o r s( Re d i g    ) ,b u tn o or acidotic crane. It is rare for a sick adult crane to be s i m i l a rt e s t so rd r a m a t i c re s u l t sh a ve b e e ns e e ni n se ve r ely hypoglycemic. Howeve r , for young chicks, cr a n e s . giving glucose or dextrose orally or by injection may be critical to survi va l . For sick birds in general, a heated environment ( - o C,  - o F) is helpful. This is especially tr ue in ver y young crane chicks. Often sick older cranes are brought into a room heated to  o C ( o F) and equipped with a heat lamp to raise the te m p e r a t u r e in one area up to about  o C ( o F) . 1 4 2 Chapter 8

TABLE 8.1 Medications commonly used for cranes.1 Route of Tre atment Dru g In d i c at i o n s Ad m i n i s t r at i o n2 Do s ag e S c h e d u l e An t i b i ot i c s Am i k a c i n Broa d - s p e c t r um, less nephrot ox i c IM  mg / k g /d a y than gentamicin; often used in conjunction with piperacillin sodium; en s u r e adequate hydr a t i o n Am p i c i l l i n Broa d - s p e c t r um antibacterial drug for IM   mg / k g /d a y gr a m - n e g a t i v e and gram-positive bacteria, useful for several pathogenic enteric organisms Ca r b e n i c i l l i n Good only for  days after mixing; IM , I V   mg / k g -/d a y synergistic with aminoglyco s i d e s Cefotaxime sodium Broa d - s p e c t r um; sometimes used in IM  -  mg / k g /d a y conjunction with aminoglyco s i d e s Ce p h a l e x i n Broa d - s p e c t r um; effective against or a l  - mg / k g /d a y most gram-positive organisms and some gram-negative organisms, including various enteric organisms Ce p h a l o t h i n Same as cephalexin IM   mg / k g /d a y Ch l o r a m p h e n i c o l Broa d - s p e c t r um activity against SQ   mg / k g /d a y both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, rickettsia, and chlamydi a Enro fl oxa c i n Broa d - s p e c t r um antibiotic IM, oral - mg / k g /d a y Gen t a m i c i n Broa d - s p e c t r um; used therapeutically IM  mg / k g -/d a y to treat bacterial infections in cranes and ( in newl y pr ophylactically against bacterial hatched chicks) infections in newly hatched chicks; en s u r e adequate hydr a t i o n Piperacillin sodium Used with amikacin IM   mg / k g /d a y Trimethoprim sulfa Res p i r a t o r y and enteric infections, also used as or a l  - mg / k g  -/d a y anticoccidial; regurgitation common orally IM  mg / k g  /d a y

Tyl o s i n Eff e c t i v e against gram-positive and some SQ  mg / k g /d a y gr a m - n e g a t i v e bacteria mycoplasma, and ch l a m y dia; useful for res p i r a t o r y infections Co rt i co s t e ro i d s Dex a m e t h a s o n e Shock, trauma, endotoxemia capture IM, IV, SQ - mg / k g -/d a y myo p a t h y , etc. (r educe doses for long-term therapy) Pred n i s o l o n e Shock, trauma, chronic lameness IM, IV  mg / k g -/d a y Pred n i s o l o n e Sho c k IM, IV  - mg / k g as needed sodium succinate Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 4 3

TABLE 8.1 CONTINUED Medications commonly used for cranes. Route of Tre atment Dru g In d i c at i o n s Ad m i n i s t r at i o n2 Do s ag e S c h e d u l e Vita m i n s Vitamin A (Aquasol Hyp o vitaminosis A, sinusitis, IM . mL / k g twice wee k l y A)   ,  un i t s / m L ophthalmic diseases, avian pox

Vitamins A, D3, E Hyp ov i t a m i n o s i s A, ophthalmic IM . mL / k g once wee k l y (In j a c o m -   )   ,  diseases, fractures, egg binding, units A,   ,  units soft shelled eggs, and res p i r a t o r y D3/m L infections (especially sinusitis) Vitamin B complex CNS signs, trauma, muscular IM - mg/kg /d a y weakness, anemia, debilitation, and anorex i a Vitamin E and selenium Muscular weakness, capture myop a t h y , IM . -. mg/kg once ever y ( mg Vitamin E, leg dysfunctions, prior to or at  da y s  mg Se/ m L ) times of capture or stressful even t In j e c t able Tra n qu i l i z ers and Anesthetics Ketamine HCl Dis a s s o c i a t i v e anesthetic IM  - mg / k g once, lasts  - mi n Xyl a z i n e Tra n q u i l i ze r , given with ketamine IM .-. mg / k g on c e Dia ze p a m Tra n q u i l i ze r , use alone or with ketamine IM .-. mg / k g once, lasts - hr Mid a zo l a m Tra n q u i l i ze r IM  mg / k g on c e Yoh i m b i n e To rev erse xylazine IV . mg / k g repeat in  min as needed Tol a zo l i n e To rev erse xylazine IV  mg / k g on c e Flu m a ze n i l To rev erse midazol a m IM . mg / k g on c e Other Medicati o n s Doxa p r a m Res p i r a t o r y stimulant IM, IV - mg / k g /d a y Iron dextran Fol l o wing hemorrhage or for iron IM  mg / k g once ever y - de fi ciency anemia days if hematocrit is still low Phe n y l b u t a zo n e Non - s t e r oid anti-inflam m a t o r y, Ora l .- mg / k g 2-3 times per day and anti-pyret i c Met h o c a r b a m o l Muscle rel a x a n t Ora l  mg/kg on c e IV  . mg / k g

1 From Custer et al.    ; Bush et al.    ,    a,    b; Lock et al.    ; Carpenter    ,    ; Klein et al.    ; Olsen and Carpenter    .

2 IM = intramuscular; SQ = subcutaneous; IV = intrave n o u s .

3 Dose based on trimethoprim suspension ( mg trimethoprim and  mg sulfamethoazol e / m L ) .

4 Dose based on trimethoprim  % for injection ( mg trimethoprim and   mg sulfadiazine/mL). 1 4 4 Chapter 8

pr eparations can be used. After several successful feed- ings and normal fecal production, a more complex Nutritional Sup p o r t of a diet providing protein, fat, and fiber may be tube fed long term. Sev eral different formulas have been used Sic k Cra n e successfully in cranes. One common approach is to If a crane is not eating, supplemental feeding (i.e., make a gruel from the crane’s pelleted diet then sup- tube feeding or gavage) may be req u i r ed. Ins u f fic i e n t plementing with several additional nutrients (e.g., intake of calories can lead to emaciation quickly in a Table .). Other choices are Emeraid II (mixed : sick crane. The bird will first mobilize body fat and with warm water) and liquid human enteral prod u c t s . then will catabolize muscle. Seve r e nutritional deple- Most of these formulations have a caloric density of tion is indicated by a drop in blood glucose; most .-. kcal/mL. To determine the amount of tube normal adult cranes will maintain a blood glucose feeding formula that the crane needs each day, calcu- over   mg /   mL (Table .A). Restoring and late the adult crane’s daily energy req u i r ement (see maintaining a positive energy balance and adequate also the Nutritional Sup p o r t section of Chapter ) pr otein, vitamin, and mineral intake is critical in the using this formula: tr eatment of sick cranes. Daily Energy Req u i r ement (Kcal) = . ´ Bas i c Tube feeding of cranes is easily accomplished with Metabolic Rate (BMR). 0. 7 5 one person holding the crane in the normal fashion BMR =  ´ Wei g h t kg (Qu e s e n b e r r y et al.    ). (F ig. . ), while a second person grasps the head and, using the thumb and fore- fin g e r , gently forces the The daily energy req u i r ement divided by Kcal/mL beak open. With the other hand, a flexible tube (we of the formula equals mL of formula needed per day. use red rubber urinary catheters, size  - French) is The total volume should be divided into - meal. Do in s e r ted into the mouth, over the tongue, and down not feed more than   mL at one meal. It is best to the esophagus to the level of the thoracic inlet or st a r t with meals of  - mL . pr oventriculus. Care must be taken at this point to Once a crane is eating normally again, tube feeding determine that the tube is in the esophagus and not can be discontinued. The crane needs to eat approxi - the trachea. This is done by inspecting the mouth and mately   -  g of pelleted food daily to maintain its seeing that the tube passes over the glottis. When the body weight. It is often better to allow a crane some tube is in place prop e r l y , two cylindrical struc t u r es can weight loss as it feeds itself rather than to continue the be palpated, the trachea and the tube in the esopha- st r essful practice of tube feeding. gus. If the tube is in the trachea, then only one cylindrical struc t u r e will be felt, and the tube should be rem o ved immediately and rei n s e r ted prop e r l y be f o r e administering the food. Clinical Pat h o l o g y A  -  -cc syringe containing the chosen tube feeding formula (see below) is attached to the tube, H e m a t o l o g y and the food is gently forced down the tube while watching the mouth for regurgitation. If the bird Bl o o dp a r a m e t e r sa re i n va l u a b l ei nd i a g n o s i n gd i s e a s e s st a r ts to regurgitate, stop tube feeding. First rem o ve a n dm o n i t o r i n gh e a l t h . It i sa d v i s a b l et oe s t a b l i s hb a s e- the tube, then quickly clean out the mouth especially l i n eb l o o dp ro fil e sf o r yo u rc o l l e c t i o n . Sta n d a r d av i a n ar ound the airwa y , and then gently stroke the neck in h e m a t o l o g yt e c h n i q u e sa re a p p ro p r i a t ef o rc r a n e s . a down w a r d motion to encourage swallowi n g . Exc e l l e n th e m a t o l o g y re f e re n c e s ,c o m p l e t ew i t hc o l o r Dec r ease the amount of formula fed on subsequent p l a t e so fa v i a nb l o o dc e l l s ,a re Dei n (   ) ,C a m p b e l l tubings to prev ent further regurgitation. Because tube (   ,    ), an d Ha w k e ya n d Den n e t (   ). feeding also contributes to fluid balance, adjust total Eq uipment for Blood Collection. Blood can fluid therapy accordi n g l y . be collected using a -cc, -cc,  -cc, or  -cc syringe. In the sever ely emaciated crane, an initial tube The only use for the  -cc syringe is collecting blood feeding or two should be of a high carbohydrate, low for transfusions. A  -gauge needle is adequate for pr otein diet. Products useful in such situations are collecting small amounts of blood, but larger needles Emeraid I and some human enteral diets. Emeraid I ( - -gauge) or a catheter are pref e r r ed for collecting is usually mixed : with water, though more dilute larger samples. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 4 5

TABLE 8.2A Normal hematologic and serum chemistry values for captive cranes1 Re d - Sandhill Whooping Siberian c rowned Wattled Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Cr a n e Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Hematocrit (%)  .  -  .  -  .  -  .  -  .  - Hemoglobin (g/  mL )  .  .- .  .  .- . —————— Red Blood Cell . .-. . .-. —————— ( /m m ) White Blood Cell  . .- .  .  .- .  . .- .  . .- .  . .- . ( /m m ) Total Protein (g/  mL ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-.

Albumin (g/  mL ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. Globulin (g/  mL ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. Al b u m i n / Gl o b u l i n . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. Alkaline Phosphatase   .  -   .  -  .  -   .   -   .  - (I U / L ) Lactic Deh yd r ogenase   .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -    .  -  (I U / L ) As p a r tate Aminotransferase   .  -    .   -    .   -      -    .   -  (I U / L ) Alanine Aminotransferase  .  -   .  -  . -  .  -  .  - (I U / L ) Glucose (mg/  mL )   .  -    .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -  Uric Acid (mg/  mL ) . .- . . .- . . .- . . .- . . .- . Creatinine (mg/  mL ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. Ch o l e s t e r ol (mg/  mL )   .  -    .  -    .   -    .   -    .   -  Creatine kinase (U/L) ————   .  -    .  -   .  -  Tri g l y ceride (mg/dL) ————   .   -    .   -    .  -  Iron (mg/dL) ————   .  -    .  -    .   -  Calcium (mg/  mL ) . .- . . .-.  . .- .  .  .- .  .  .- . Pho s p h o r us (mg/  mL ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. Sodium (mEq/ L )   .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -  Chloride (mEq/ L )   .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -    .   -  Potassium (mEq/ L ) . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-. . .-.

1 Based on Gee et al.    ; Carpenter    ; and unpublished work at Pat u x ent and ICF. 1 4 6 Chapter 8

Bl ood Collection. Sample req u i r ements var y The medial metatarsal v ei n is another pref e r re d ac c o r ding to laboratory and test. The maximum site for ven i p u n c t u r e. One person holds the bird in blood volume that can be safely collected is % of the the normal carrying position and applies pres s u r e to cr a n e ’s body weight ( cc /   g). Some laboratories the extended leg above the hock joint. This causes the req u i r e blood to be collected into heparinized capil- medial metatarsal vein to be prominent along the la r y tubes (see Appendix), others req u i r e heparin or inside of the hock and tarsometatarsus. A second ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to be used person cleans a small area with alcohol, grasps the leg in the test tube to prev ent coagulation of the blood. be l o w the ven i p u n c t u r e site with one hand, and with Blood from African Crowned Cranes will sometimes the other hand, draws the sample with the syringe. “sl u d g e ” or begin to clot even when EDTA is used as This technique works well in large cranes, but in an anticoagulant; theref o r e, heparin is pref e r r ed for smaller cranes, the vein is smaller and freq u e n t l y these species. collapses as blood is withdrawn. Only small amounts Th e r e are th r ee major ven i p u n c t u r e sites fo r of blood (up to  cc) can be withdrawn from this vei n , cranes. The pref e r r ed site, especially for large samples, and the vein will collapse if blood is drawn quickly. is the right jugular v ei n . The crane is held in a normal Other disadvantages of this site are the difficulties in ca r r ying position (Figs. . and .) while a second restraining the leg and the risk of injuring the leg if person, standing to the left of the head, holds the head the bird struggles. Adv antages are that hematomas are and neck outstretched and rotated so the right side of ra r e because minimal subcutaneous space is avai l a b l e the neck is up. With the second hand, this person for blood to pool between the bone, tendons, and applies firm pres s u r e at the base of the neck, causing scales. Also, if bleeding does occur, a pres s u r e bandage the right jugular vein to fill with blood. Wetting the can be easily and safely applied. feathers with alcohol makes the vein more visible. Th e The third site commonly used for ven i p u n c t u r e is person doing the ven i p u n c t u r e then moves in from the brachial vei n (cutaneous ulna vein) on the under- the right and collects the req u i r ed blood sample by side of the wing in the area of the elbow. This req u i re s in s e r ting the needle through the skin into the jugular that the bird be held supine (breast up) on a flat sur- vein (Fig. .). Pres s u r e should be applied to the jugu- face (ground, table, etc.) with one wing extended. A lar vein at the puncture site for a minimum of  mi n second person applies pres s u r e over the humerus to after the needle is withdrawn to prev ent the devel o p - help fill the brachial vein. Clean the site with alcohol ment of a hematoma. If the crane struggles or moves to separate the feathers and expose the vein. A third during the ven i p u n c t u r e, the needle may lacerate the person moves in from the caudal aspect of the wing to wall of the vein and produce a hematoma. On rare obtain the sample. Up to  cc can be collected from occasions, this has resulted in the death of a crane. If a this site. A disadvantage, though, is the difficulty of hematoma results, continue to apply pres s u r e over the safely restraining the bird in this position and the jugular vein at the hematoma site until the hematoma in c r eased risk of injury. Small hematomas often occur is no longer enlarging. Obs e r ve the crane for the next at this ven i p u n c t u r e site. This technique has been used  min after release for signs such as ruf fl ed neck to obtain blood samples from anesthetized cranes feathers, enlarged neck, lethargy, or collapse. wh e r e manipulation of the neck may interfe r e with de l i ve r y of the gaseous anesthetic agent. Making Blood Slides. The conven t i o n a l method of using two slides to make a smear will damage avian cells unless a beveled edge slide is used to make the smear. Another technique is to dilute the blood : with  % bovine albumin solution (Ols e n and Gaunt    ). A second method of making blood smears is to place a drop of blood on a glass cover s l i p , then place a second glass coverslip (or a slide) on the first, allowing the blood drop to spread between the co verslips. Th e re a f t e r , quickly slide the cover s l i p s ap a r t, leaving a smear of blood on each slip. St aining Smears. Smears can be stained with a Fig. 8.6. Ven i p u n c t u r e of jugular vein. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n Wright or Wri g h t - G iemsa stain, using Cameo Qui c k Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 4 7

Stain II or Dif f - Q uick (see Appendix). The three t oc e l ls i ze ,b l u et op u r p l ec o l o re d , ro u n d ,a n de c c e n t r i- solutions used in staining slides (Wri g h t - Gi e m s a c a l l yl o c a t e d .Ty p eI Il y m p h o c y t e sa re l a r g e rt h a nt y p e I technique) are methanol, phosphate buffered eosin, l y m p h o c y t e sa n dc a nb ec o n f u s e dw i t hm o n o c y t e s . and phosphate buffered thiazine. Slides are first fixed T h e yh a ve p a l eb l u ec y t o p l a s m , a b l u ei r re g u l a rs h a p e d in methanol for  - sec, then stained for  - sec in n u c l e u sa n dh i g h e rc y t o p l a s m - n u c l e u sr a t i o. each of the other two solutions, and finally rinsed in He m a toc ri t . The hematocrit (HCT) or distilled water. pa c k e d - c e l l - v olume (PCV) is measured by filling a Eva l uating Blood Smears. When reading blood mi c r ohematocrit tube and spinning the tube in a smears made by the two-slide method it is importa n t high speed centrifuge to obtain a centrifugal force to read all areas of the slide (both the edge and center of    G (ca    rpm for  min in a No.  of the smear) to get an accurate differential cell count. International Centrifuge [see Appendix] [Campbell When reading slides made by the cover glass method    :]). Read the results by measuring the height of read only the central portion of the smear. the RBC column over the height of the total column Crane red blood cells (RBCs) are oval or elliptical. (cells and serum) and express as a percentage. Light Each cell has a central nucleus, shaped similar to the yel l o w coloring of the serum or plasma can be due cell and consisting of dark purple clumps of chro- to carotenoid pigments (Dein    ) and does not matin. Cytoplasm is slightly orange-yel l o w to pink necessarily indicate icterus (abnormal yel l o wing of tinged. Imm a t u r e RBCs have blue-tinged cytoplasm, se r um and some tissues). Lipemia (elevated fat) may a lighter nucleus (less dense chromatin), and may be be present as a milky-white serum in obese birds, mo r e prev alent in cases of anemia. post-feeding birds, and laying females. Th ro m b o c y t e s ar e similar in function to mam- He m o g l obin. Hemoglobin (Hb) measurem e n t s malian platelets. Their cytoplasm is pale blue and may ar e important because they relate to the ability of the contain - small magenta granules which help to RBCs to transport oxygen. Hemoglobin measure- di f f e r entiate thrombocytes from immature RBCs or ments can be made using standard methods devel o p e d lymphocytes. The thrombocyte nucleus is dense and for mammals. da r k purple when stained. Th r ombocytes are often One of the oldest methods uses a hemoglobin scale. found in clumps. A drop of whole blood is placed on white filter paper, Het e ro p h i l s ar e round with clear to pink cytoplasm and the resulting red dot is matched for intensity with containing usually elongated, pink, red, or purple, the best choice on a red color chart. This method is granules. The nucleus is blue to purple and can have rapid, simple, inexpensive, and a good technique two or more lobes. The cytoplasm of heterophils is under field conditions, but the error is ± - % normally clear, but toxic heterophils have deep blue (Schalm et al.    : - ). vacuolated cytoplasm. Another simple method, but one requiring the Eos i n o p h i l s ar e round with pale blue cytoplasm pu r chase of equipment, is the oxy h e m o g l o b i n and bright red, round to oval, granules. The nucleus is method. In this proc e d u r e, a drop of blood is placed blue to purple with two or more lobes. The primary on a glass plate, and the cells are destroyed using a distinguishing characteristic between heterophils and hemolytic agent (usually saponin) dried on the end of eosinophils is the shape of the granules (elongated in a special applicator stick. Then a second glass plate is the heterophil, round in the eosinophil). placed over the first, and the two are pressed together. Bas o p h i l s ar e also round but have clear cytoplasm The glass plates are then placed in the Spencer hemo- with deep purple granules and a blue or purple globinometer (see Appendix). Fin a l l y , the green color nucleus. Basophils are extremely rare cells, about of the sample is matched against the standards rea d - cells per   white blood cells (WBCs) counted. th r ough the hemoglobinometer. Green is the color Mon o c y t e s ar e large and irregular in shape. Th e y used for matching because the maximum absorption ha v e a light blue cytoplasm that may be vac u o l a t e d . of hemoglobin under visible light occurs in the gree n The nucleus is often eccentrically located, round or band, and for the human eye, green is an easy shade to elongated, and bilobate. match accurately (Coles    : - ). Th e r e ar e t w ot y p e so f ly m p h o c y t e s s e e ni na v i a n An extremely accurate technique for hemoglobin bl o o d . Typ e I l y m p h o c y t e sa re s i m i l a ri ns h a p ea n d is the cyanmethemoglobin method. The first step is a p p e a r a n c et ot h ro m b o c y t e s .T h e yh a ve a s m a l la m o u n t to prep a r e a :  dilution of blood in . % ammo- o fd e e pb l u ec y t o p l a s m .T h en u c l e u si sl a r g e co m p a re d nium hydr oxide. Then the solution is placed in a 1 4 8 Chapter 8 sp e c t r ophotometer or a filter photometer and read . Dis c a r d the first  dr ops and then fill both sides at   mm. The percent transmission at   mmis of the hemacytometer. co m p a r ed to a standard solution of cyanmethemoglo- . Place the hemacytometer in a cover ed petri dish bin, conver ting percent transmission to grams of containing a small amount of moistened filt e r hemoglobin per dL of blood (Schalm et al.    : - ; paper (to prev ent loss of fluid due to evap o r a t i o n Coles    : - ). fr om the hemacytometer). Leave the hemacy- Red Blood Cell Count. The total RBC count tometer undisturbed for  min to allow the cells can be obtained using a Coulter counter or by the to settle. Read the sample within  min of Unopette system (see Appendix) using standard beginning the test, because RBCs will also techniques as in mammals (Dein    ). ev entually absorb the stain. Mean corpuscular volume (MCV):  . Count purple-stained cells in all  bold squares MCV = (HCT/RBC) ´   of both sides of the hemacytometer (Fig. .). Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC): Find the total heterophil-eosinophil count MCHC = (Hb/HCT) ´   (H/E) by multiplying the total number of cells Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH): counted by  .. An alternative method is to MCH = (Hb/RBC) ´   count  bold squares on both sides of the hemacytometer (Fig. .) and multiply by  . The above calculations are also used for other  . Evaluate the WBCs on a stained blood smear for species of birds and mammals, but the ref e r ence val u e s a differential count (Table .B: usually based on for normal individuals of most species of cranes need counting   -  WB C ) . to be established. Table .A contains some normal values for Whooping, Sandhill, Siberian, Red - cr owned, and Wattled Cra n e s . White Blood Cell (WBC) Count. Bec a u s e avian RBCs are nucleated, the techniques used to separate red and white blood cells in mammals will not work. Th e re f o r e, automated counters such as the Coulter unit cannot be used. Sim i l a r l y , hand-counting systems such as the Unopette WBC count will not wo r k with crane blood. The Eosinophil Uno p e t t e method is the most useful technique for estimating WBCs in cranes. Howeve r , the Eos i n o p h i l - Un o p e t t e method counts only heterophils and eosinophils. Mononuclear cells (monocytes and lymphocytes) are not counted, but the count is corrected to include these cells based on the differential count (ratio of various WBCs seen on the blood smear). The proc e - du r es to follow are: . Use the prot e c t i v e cap over the Unopette pipette tip to puncture the diaphragm on the small res e r voir containing the stain. Fig. 8.7. An Imp r oved Neubauer Hemacytometer grid. Eac h . Fill the pipette until blood reaches the neck. hemacytometer has two grids. Spe r m counts are determined by . Ca r efully wipe the tip of the pipette. counting  of the  sq u a r es on one grid within the -mm square. . Gently squeeze the res e r voir containing stain as A normal counting pattern is to count the contents of the followi n g the pipette is inserted securely into the res e r voi r . sq u a r es: upper left, upper right, lower left, lower right, and center. . Mix the blood and fluid in the res e r voir by For the white blood cell count, the same pattern can be used, but in ve r ting  - ti m e s . count  of the  sq u a r es within the -mm square and total the . Wait - min for staining. number of cells on this grid and the second grid. Red blood cell . Switch the pipette direction so it can now be counts are made by counting all cells within the -mm central used to fill a hemacytometer. Gently inver t sq u a r e. To avoid over counting cells that contact grid lines, include - times to uniformly resuspend cells. only cells that fall on the upper and left boundary lines of the square. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 4 9 1 5 0 Chapter 8

 . The total WBC is determined as: mm  for Whooping Cranes. Mean corpuscular Total WB C / m m  = (total heterophils + total hemoglobin is .-. mm g for Sandhill Cranes and eosinophils)/(% heterophils + % eosinophils). .-. mm g for Whooping Cranes. The mean corpus- cular hemoglobin concentration is  .- .% for In t e r p re t ation of the Hemogram. Tables .A Sandhill Cranes and  .- .% for Wh o o p i n g and B have blood parameter ref e r ence ranges for five Cranes. Table . pr ovides hematologic changes seen species of cranes. Similar values for other crane species in developing Sandhill Crane chicks. Ref e r ence val u e s ar e found in et al. (   ), Hawkey et al. for these chicks are not the same as for adults. (   ), Cook et al. (   ), and Pue r ta et al. (   ), and A crane’s blood cells generally respond to disease in the databases available through ISIS/Med A R K S as do blood cells of other birds (Hawkey et al.    ). (see Chapter  ). Some additional parameters are not For example, just as for other avian groups, anemia in the tables. Mean corpuscular volume is . -. ´ in cranes is associated with bleeding wounds, gas-  -mm  for Sandhill Cranes and . -. ´  - tr ointestinal foreign bodies, lead poisoning, blood

TABLE 8.3 Pediatric hematologic and serum chemistry values (mean; range) for captive Sandhill Crane chicks.1 Age in day s 0 - 2 6 - 8 1 3 - 1 5 2 0 - 2 5 2 7 - 2 9 3 4 - 3 6 Hematocrit (%)  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Red Blood Cell . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. Count ( /m m ) Mean corpuscular   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  volume (MCV) (Fl) White Blood Cell  .;  .- .  .; .- .  .; .- .  .; .- .  .; .- .  .; .- . Count ( /m m ) Het e r ophil (%)  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Lymphocyte (%)  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Monocyte (%) ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - Eosinophil (%) ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - Basophil (%) ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - ;  Total Prot e i n (g /   mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. Albumin (g/  mL ) <. <.-. <. <. <.-. <.-. Alkaline Phosphatase   ;  -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  (I U / L ) Lactic Deh yd ro g e n a s e (I U / L ) — — —   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  As p a r tate Amino-  ;  -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  transferase (IU/L) Glucose (mg/  mL ) — —   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  Uric Acid (mg/  mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. Gamma Glutamyl — — — ; - ; - ; - Transferase (IU/L) Creatinine (IU/L) — — —   ;  -    ;  -    ;   -  Calcium (mg/  mL ) .; .- . .; .-. .; .-. .; .- . .; .-. .; .-. Pho s p h o r us (m g /   mL ) — — .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 5 1 de s t r uction, or decreased blood cell production. High total WBC counts have been associated with An increase of basophilic appearing RBCs above ch r onic bacterial infections, avian tuberculosis, fungal % or a reticulocyte (a type of immature RBC) infections, and stress. Low WBC counts are rarel y count above  - % is indicative of a reg e n e r a t i v e seen, but have been documented in inclusion body anemia. Reg e n e r a t i v e anemia is usually associated disease of cranes, in over whelming bacterial infec- with blood loss or destruction from such causes as tions, and in immunologically depressed cranes. hemorrhage from wounds, blood parasites (causing RBC loss), gastrointestinal parasites, certa i n Serum Chemistry bacterial infections, lead, and other toxins. Non - re g e n e r a t i v e anemia is associated with In addition to the information gained from examin- de c r eased RBC production from such causes as ing the blood cells, there are many substances in the pesticide toxi c i t y , lead toxi c i t y , chloramphenicol se r um that can be analyzed to help assess the health tox i c i t y , or certain viral infections. of the crane patient. Ser um chemistry ref e re n c e

TABLE 8.3 CONTINUED Pediatric hematologic and serum chemistry values (mean; range) for captive Sandhill Crane chicks.

Age in Day s  -   -   -   -   -  Hematocrit (%)  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Red Blood Cell . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. . ; . -. Count ( /m m ) Mean corpuscular   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  volume (MCV) (Fl) White Blood Cell  .;  .- .  .;  .- .  .;  .- .  .; .- .  .; .- . Count ( /m m ) Per cent Het e ro p h i l  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Lymphocyte (%)  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  -  ;  - Monocyte (%) ; - ; - ; - ; - ; - Eosinophil (%) ; - ; - ;  ;  ;  Basophil (%) ;  ;  ;  ;  ;  Total Protein (g/  mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. Albumin (g/  mL ) <.-. <.-. <.-. <.-. <.-. Alkaline Phosphatase   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  (I U / L ) Lactic Deh yd r ogenase   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  (I U / L ) As p a r tate Amino-   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  transferase (IU/L) Glucose (mg/  mL )   ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -    ;   -  Uric Acid (mg/  mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. Gamma Glutamyl ;  ; - ; - ; - ; - Transferase (IU/L) Creatinine (IU/L)   ;   -    ;   -    ;  -    ;  -    ;  -  Calcium (mg/  mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .- . .; .- . .; .- . Pho s p h o r us (mg/  mL ) .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. .; .-. 1 Based on unpublished work from ICF 1 5 2 Chapter 8 ranges for cranes are given in Tables . and ., Lactic dehydr ogenase (LDH) levels in birds and in the same sources cited earlier for blood can be increased by liver disease, aminoglyco s i d e parameters plus Chappell and Brannian (   ). th e r a p y , intramuscular injections, cardiac or skeletal The serum chemistry tests described below can be muscle catabolism, or Ch l a m yd i a in f e c t i o n s . pe r formed on the automated analyzer used for Dec r eases do not suggest any specific condition. mammalian and human serum chemistry analysis in In addition, increased LDH values can result as an a medical laboratory. Alternately, many vet e r i n a r y ar tifact if the serum sample is hemolyzed. Hig h facilities have analyzers. The actual test proc e d u re s le v els of this enzyme are present in the liver , skeletal will var y with the analyzer used and should be muscle, and heart, while moderate amounts are handled by the technical staff familiar with the pr esent in kidney tissue and small amounts in intes- operations of the machine. tine based on studies in other avian species. Any Useful crane serum parameters include total pr ocess or disease affecting these tissues may res u l t pr otein, albumin, calcium, glucose, lactic in serum elevations of the enzyme. de h yd r ogenase, alkaline phosphatase, asparta t e As p a r tate aminotransferase (AST) can be increa s e d aminotransferase (glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase), in Ch l a m yd i a infections, liver disease, bacterial uric acid, creatinine kinase, creatinine, bile acids, septicemia, soft tissue trauma, starvation, toxi c i t y , sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus. Oth e r neoplasia, aminoglycoside therapy, or intramuscular se r um chemistries, important in human medicine, injections. Dec r eases have no clinical significance. Th e such as blood urea nitrogen and alanine aminotrans- enzyme is found in the liver , heart, brain, lung, bone, ferase (glutamic-pyruvic transaminase) are not as and muscle. Any process affecting one or more of useful for diagnosis of crane diseases. The alterations these tissues may cause the enzyme to be elevated. In in serum chemistry seen in sick cranes are not wel l cranes, elevations are common due to mild muscle documented in the literature, but are believed to be damage associated with normal handling. If the similar to what has been rec o r ded for other avian cr eatinine kinase (CK) is also mildly to moderately species (Hochleithner    ). el e v ated, then mild, rev ersible, muscle damage is Tot a l pro t e i n ( n o r m a l sf o r al l c h e m i s t r i e sa re pr obably the cause. Seve r e elevations of both (i.e., > li s t e d in Tab l e .A) val u e s c a nb e e l e va t e dw i t h times normal value) indicate a serious muscle disease de h yd r a t i o n , l i p e m i a ,o r hy p e r g l o b u l i n e m i a se c - such as exer tional (capture) myop a t h y . If the AST is on d a r y to ch ro n i c di s e a s e s (s u c h as as p e r g i l l o s i s , el e v ated and the CK is not, then liver disease is a av i a n tu b e rc u l o s i s , an d ch ro n i c ba c t e r i a l in f e c t i o n s po s s i b i l i t y . su c h as Sta p h y l o c o c c u s ). Tot a l pro t e i n va l u e sc a n Creatinine kinase will increase in muscle d e c re a s ei n ma l n u t r i t i o n , ac u t e in f e c t i o n s , ch ro n i c trauma (including intramuscular injections), central l i ve rd i s e a s e , o rm a l a b s o r p t i o n o fn u t r i e n t s ca u s e d ne r vous system disorders, cardiac disease, or lead by se ve r e in t e s t i n a l pa r a s i t i s m . poisoning. Dec r eases are not significant. Bec a u s e Calcium values increase with egg laying and can be CK increases in heart and muscle disease, but not in as high as  times normal. Dec r eased calcium val u e s li v er disease, it is important to test with AST and ar e seen with egg binding or nutritional imbalances. LDH. Ele v ations in AST and LDH, but not CK, Lo w calcium levels have been documented as leading suggest liver disease or Ch l a m yd i a in f e c t i o n s , to seizures in some avian species, howeve r , this has not wh e r eas elevations in all three generally indicate been rep o r ted in cranes. The calcium/phosphorus he a r t or muscle disease. ratio is important, especially in growing birds, and Uric acid is the primary excr etion product of the should be :. kidneys from nitrogen (protein) break down in cranes. Glucose increases with stress or diabetes mellitus Inc r eases are characteristic of renal disease (including (a disease rep o r ted in other avian species but not in gout and damage from aminoglycoside medications), cranes to date). Dec r eases in serum glucose are seen but may also occur in dehydration, starvat i o n , in starvation, septicemia, sever e liver disease, trauma, or neoplasia. Dec r eases are not considered endocrine disorders, or with improperly proc e s s e d si g n i fic a n t . samples. If the RBCs remain with the serum over Creatinine may increase with renal disease,  min at  o C ( o F) or higher, the cells con- septicemia, egg peritonitis, or high protein diets (the tinue to use glucose from the serum, lowering the latter occurs in some avian species, but has not been glucose rea d i n g . documented in cranes). Dec r eases are not considered Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 5 3 si g n i fi cant. The test is not ver y sensitive and some should make contact with the flotation medium. authors consider it of limited diagnostic value, but The mixture should be allowed to stand  mi n el e v ations have been seen in cranes with sever e be f o r e the coverslip is placed on a microscope slide renal disease. and read. To speed up the process, the strained Bile acids are only elevated by liver disease and are fe c a l / fl otation medium mixture can be placed in a co n s i d e r ed the best serum indicator of a liver disorde r .  mL centrifuge tube and spun at    rpm for Lo wer than normal levels of bile acids are not consid-  min. Then the top layer of medium is collected er ed significant. Bile acid levels tested in cranes at ICF and the drop placed on a microscope slide, covere d ha v e generally been lower than  mmo l / L . with a cover s l i p , and read. Parasites commonly Alterations in the electrolytes sodium (Na) , diagnosed from eggs seen on flotation include potassium (K), and chloride (Cl) indicate a serious Cap i l l a r i a sp ., Euc o l e u s sp ., ascarids, acanthocepha- change in the bird’s acid/base balance and metabolic lans (Mac ra c a n t h o rh y n c h u s sp .), and gapewo r m s state. In a crane, this is most likely due to renal disease (Syn g a m u s sp ., Cya t h o s t o m a sp .). Oocysts of Eim e r i a (i n c r eased K and decreased Na), diarrhea (decreased K ar e also seen. and Cl), or shock acidosis (increased K and decrea s e d Dir ect smears ar e useful for detecting Gia rd i a , Na). An elevated K level by itself is often due to coccidia, and other prot o z oan parasites such as hemolysis of the serum sample. Hex a m i t a . Samples must be fresh. A small amount of feces is mixed (:) with normal saline or lactated Ri n g e r ’s solution on a microscope slide. A coverslip is P a r a s i t o l o g y placed on top, and the slide is read under the Intestinal parasites can be diagnosed at necrop s y mi c ro s c o p e . and by sampling fresh fecal samples in living cranes. Sed i m e n t a t i o n is the only technique that will Th r ee types of fecal examination (direct smear, detect fluke eggs, but it can also detect nematode eggs. flotation, and sedimentation) are rou t i n e l y A sample of feces is mixed with % liquid soap in pe rf o r m e d . wa t e r . Rem o ve the supernatant after  min, refi ll the Flo t a t i o n is a practical technique because it helps to tube with soap and water, mix, and let stand another concentrate the eggs of the parasites and rem o ves  min. Again, rem o ve the supernatant, then spread other material in the sample. The eggs of nematodes, the sediment on a microscope slide, place a cover s l i p cestodes, and acanthocephalans float as do oocysts of on top, and rea d . coccidia, the cysts of Gia rd i a , and other prot o zo a . Gen e r a l l y , a low power objective ( x) is used for Examine an adequate amount (ca - g) of fresh feces. scanning the microscope slide. The higher power Nematode eggs will larvate and Gia rd i a may perish ob j e c t i v e ( x) can be used to examine individual in samples that have lain on the ground more than eggs or oocysts. The entire area of the sample on  min. Feces lying on the ground can also be invad e d the microscope slide should be scanned for each by free-living, non-parasitic, nematodes which can sample, because some parasites only produce small confuse res u l t s . numbers of eggs, and the presence of even one egg The diagnostic techniques are most valuable if is diagnostic. Th e r e is no direct rel a t i o n s h i p st a n d a rd i z ed proc e d u r es (described in Greiner and be t w een egg counts and number of adult parasites Ritchie    and various parasitology texts) are pr esent. Howeve r , if samples are taken before and used. The standard flotation medium is saturated after treatment, egg counts are useful in provi d i n g sodium nitrate (  g/L water). Howeve r , She a t h e r ’s information on the effectiveness of antiparasitic sugar solution (  g table sugar,   mL water, medications. The significance of intestinal para- . g phenol crystals) works best to detect coccidia sitism for cranes is discussed under Par a s i t i c oocysts. Saturated zinc sulfate (  g/L water) works Diseases later in this chapter. well for Gia rd i a concentration and detection Although hematozoa (blood parasites) are not (G reiner and Ritchie    ). The fecal specimen is common in captive cranes in Nor th America, all mi x ed with at least  times the volume of flot a t i o n blood smears should be scanned for these prot o zo a . medium. The mixture can then be strained and Thick smears are better than thin smears for this placed in a small cylindrical container. The flot a t i o n purpose. Routine hematology stains are sufficient for medium should fill the container. A micros c o p e sc r eening, but more specific techniques (Olsen and co verslip is placed on top of the container and Gaunt    ) are rec o m m e n d e d . 1 5 4 Chapter 8

nostic purposes. Higher kVP settings provide for a longer scale of contrast and more exposure latitude. Rad i o l o g y With lower kVP settings, more subtle changes in subject density can be seen on the radiograph. The radiographic examination is an additional Wh e n e v er possible, take two or more views diagnostic aid. All veterinarians working with (Fi g . .). Normally these are dorso-ventral and lateral cranes should have access to radiology equipment. radiographs, but oblique images are sometimes helpful Radiography techniques used for other avian species in enhancing the diagnostic value of the radiographs. or for extremities of mammals can be adapted for Howeve r , with some body parts such as the wing of a cranes. Techniques are available in vet e r i n a r y and crane, positioning can be ver y difficult, and the infor- radiology texts and are rev i e wed in McM illan    . mation gained from the second view may not always Radiographic manifestations, even under normal be worth the additional time and handling. conditions, var y with species of crane, age, sex, time in All but essential personnel should leave the roo m . ca p t i v i t y , and even method of flight restraint (i.e., An y one present in the room should wear a lead no n - fl ighted birds normally have atrophied pectoral ap r on, neck shield and gloves, and have an exposure and wing muscles). Traumatic injuries to the long monitoring badge. bones and skull are the most frequent injuries seen To obtain a good diagnostic radiograph, de ve l o p it in crane radiographs. Radiographs are also importa n t pro p e r l y . If an automatic film processor is used, feed for diagnosis of soft tissue diseases and ingested the film in the darkr oom and wait for the fini s h e d fo r eign bodies. film. To manually process a negative: . Extinguish all lights except a safe light (red ) when handling unprocessed film . Radiology Protocol . Touch the film only by the corners as it is taken Each institution will need to develop its own exposure fr om the cassette and attached to the approp r i - ch a r t based on its particular machine, screen, and ate size hanger. film. Sta r t with a general bird or cat technique chart, and use the appropriate body measurements taken fr om the crane being radiographed. From a log book that rec o r ds patient identification, species, date, body pa r t, positioning, measurement, exposure technique used, and comments on the technical quality of the film, you will be able to develop an exposure technique chart for cranes. It is often preferable to use general anesthesia (optimally isoflurane gas) for radiography of cranes. Having the crane anesthetized will decrease the stres s for the bird, decrease movement, and improve positioning resulting in a better quality radiograph. If anesthesia is not available or indicated, hooding the crane may be helpful. Physical restraint (without anesthesia) is routinely used for radiographs of some body areas such as legs or feet, or for quickly scan- ning the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., looking for ingested metal). For an unanesthetized crane, use the shortest expo- su r e time to minimize any problems with motion. Th e re f o r e, a high kilovolt potential (kVP) and the highest milliampere (mA) setting is used to compen- sate for a short exposure time. When radiographing an an e s t h e t i z ed crane, there is more leeway in adjusting Fig. 8.8. La t e r al and dorsal-ven t r al view (rad i o g r aph) of norma l settings to obtain the best quality radiograph for diag- Whooping Crane. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 5 5

. Refi ll the radiograph cassette with the approp r i - ate size of unexposed film. Make sure the unused film is returned to the stock box and Infectious Diseases resealed against light. . Take the hanger with the exposed film and place Bacterial Diseases it in the developing solution. Turn on the pre- s e t ti m e r . Periodically agitate the hanger gently Di s e a s e so fb a c t e r i a lo r i g i na re c o m m o n l ye n c o u n t e re d during devel o p i n g . i nc r a n e s . St re s sc a nc o n t r i b u t et ot h eo u t b re a ka n d . When the time has expired for devel o p i n g , s p re a do fb a c t e r i a ld i s e a s e s( C a r p e n t e r    ). Sal m o n e l l a rem o ve the hanger and film, and dip it sever a l s p p. ,i n c l u d i n g a va r i e t yo fs e ro t y p e s ,o n eb e i n g S. times in the wash solution (usually water). ty p h i m u r i u m , ha v e b e e ni s o l a t e df ro mt h ef e c e so f Then allow most of the wash to drain. cr a n e s (Wi n d i n g s t a de ta l .    ; L a n g e n b e r ga n d Dei n . Place the hanger in the fixer solution for twice    ) .T h eo r i g i na n ds i g n i fic a n c eo ff e c a l Sal m o n e l l a the length of time used for devel o p i n g . i s o l a t e df ro mc l i n i c a l l yh e a l t h yb i rd s i sn o tk n ow n . Occasionally agitate. Howeve r , Sal m o n e l l a c a nk i l lc h i c k s ,m a ya f f e c tf e rt i l i t y, . If it is necessary to view film before dryi n g , a n di s a c o n c e r ni nb i rd sf o r re l e a s ei n t ot h ew i l d . For rem o ve film from the fixer after the first minute th e s e re a s o n s ,a ne f f o rt i so f t e nm a d et os t o po rc o n t ro l and examine. sh e d d i n g by Sal m o n e l l a ca r r i e r s . Freq u e n t l y , t h e s ei n f e c- . Rem o ve the hanger and film from the fixer when t i o n sa re t r a n s i e n ta n ds e l f - l i m i t i n gw i t ht e m p o r a ry time has expired, and place it in the wash i s o l a t i o na n ds u rve i l l a n c ea l lt h a ti sn e c e s s a ry. Howeve r , (water) for twice as long as the time in the fixer . s o m ei n f e c t i o n sa re p e r s i s t e n ta n da n t i b i o t i ct h e r a p yi s Then allow the film to dry on the hanger. us e f u l . Bi rd st re a t e dw i t ha m p i c i l l i n ,t e t r a c yc l i n e , When storing radiographs, rem o ve the corners with t r i m e t h o p r i m - s u l f a ,o ro r m e t o p r i m - s u l f aa n t i b i o t i c s , scissors so that the small puncture holes created by the o rw i t ha ne x p e r i m e n t a l S. ty p h i m u r i u m b a c t e r i a ,( s e e hanger do not scratch other film in the envel o p e . Tab l e . f o rd o s a g e s )h a ve t e s t e dn e g a t i ve o ns e ve r a l s u b s e q u e n tc l o a c a lc u l t u re s .A n t i b i o t i ct h e r a p yi s co n t r ove r s i a lb e c a u s ei tm a y o n l yt e m p o r a r i l ys t o p Radiographic Interpretation s h e d d i n go re ve nc a u s e a p e r m a n e n tc a r r i e rs t a t e . Accurate interpretation of radiographs depends upon: Es c h e r i c h i ac o l i is ro u t i n e l yc u l t u re df ro mt h eg a s- () the case history of the crane, () findings from the t ro i n t e s t i n a lt r a c to fb o t h yo u n ga n da d u l tc r a n e si nl ow physical examination, () radiograph quality, () t om o d e r a t el e ve l sa n dc a nb ec o n s i d e re dn o r m a lflor a . density of the tissue or object being studied, and () Eve nc r a n ec h i c k sr a i s e di n d o o r so nc a r p e t i n gw i l lh a ve pr oper positioning of the patient (take at least two E. co l i a sp a rt o ft h e i rg a s t ro i n t e s t i n a l flor a by da y  po s t - vi e ws). Special techniques, such as the use of contrast ha t c h . Howeve r , E. co l i c a nb ep a t h o g e n i ca n dh a sb e e n media, can also help increase the diagnostic value of t h ec a u s eo fd i a r r h e aa n ds u b s e q u e n td e a t hi n you n g radiographs. Knowledge of normal anatomy is impor- c h i c k s( s e eC h a p t e r ,Vet e r i n a r yTe c h n i q u e ss e c t i o n ) . tant in diagnosing abnormalities; it is helpful to keep a Mycobacterium avium infections (avian tubercu l o - ref e r ence collection of radiographs of normal cranes of sis) are widely rep o r ted in captive cranes. In fact, some di f f e r ent species and ages for comparison. ICF has feel that cranes are more susceptible than many other pr oduced radiographic series on the developing legs of avian groups to this usually fatal infection found in th r ee species of crane chicks (Siberian, Wh o o p i n g , the gastrointestinal tract, liver , spleen, and other and Florida Sandhill Cranes). Copies of these films are internal organs. Clinical signs include weight loss, av ailable at cost from ICF. an o r exia, abdominal organ enlargement, the pres e n c e R a d i o g r a p h sc a ne ve nb eu s e df o rn o n - d e n s e ca rc i - of masses on radiographs, and an elevated WB C no m a s .Os t e o s a rc o m a so c c u rr a re l yi nc r a n e s .Typ i c a l count. Diagnosis can be difficult: the tuberculin skin r a d i o g r a p h i ce v i d e n c ei n c l u d e so s t e o s c l e ro t i ca re a s , test used in poultry does not work in cranes, so a o s t e o l y s i s ,o rp e r i o s t e a lb o n ef o r m a t i o nw i t hs o m eb o n e combination of laparos c o p y , liver biopsy, and fecal f o r m i n gw i t h i nt h es o f tt i s s u e .C h o n d ro m a - l i k el e s i o n s cu l t u r e are often used (Langenberg and Dein    ). ha v e b e e ns e e ni nw i l d Flo r i d a San d h i l l Cr a n e sa n do n e Treatment using ethambutol and rifampin have been Wh o o p i n g Cr a n e( M .G . Spa l d i n g , Un i ve r s i t yo f attempted in two cases (Sny der and Richard    ), Flo r i d a , Gai n e s v i l l e , Fl o r i d a ,p e r s o n a lc o m m u n i c a t i o n ) . but the success rate is not yet clear. 1 5 6 Chapter 8

Other bacteria isolated from cranes include Fungal infections are difficult to treat, and are often Pas t e u re l l a mu l t o c i d a , Ari zo n a sp p ., Cl o s t r i d i u m sp p. , diagnosed when a crane fails to respond to standard Erys i p e l o t h r i x sp p ., and various Ent e ro b a c t e r i a c e a e antibacterial therapy. Although buccal contamination such as Pse u d o m o n a s sp . and Klebsiella pneumoniae. of cultures is normal, the first step in the treatment of See Table . for suggested antibiotics and dosages a res p i r a t o r y disorder is culturing for bacteria and for trea t m e n t . fungi. Radiographs can also be helpful in diagnosis. Maintain the sick bird in a non-stressful, warm ( o- o F,  o- o C) environment. Hos p i t a l i z a t i o n Respiratory Diseases is recommended for the first - days. Sup p o rt i v e The bacterial agents most often associated with ca r e initially consists of systemic antibiotics. pneumonia in cranes include Pas t e u re l l a mu l t o c i d a , Gentamicin, trimethoprim/sulfadiazine, amikacin, Yer s i n i a ps e u d o t u b e rc u l o s i s , Esc h e r i c h i a co l i , Kl e b s i e l l a piperacillin sodium, or enrofl oxacin (see Table . fo r pn e u m o n i a e , Pse u d o m o n a s a e ru g i n o s a, Sal m o n e l l a dosages) are all recommended as initial choices until ty p h i m u r i u m , and Stre p t o c o c c u s sp p . Cul t u r es can be the results of sensitivity tests from bacterial cultures obtained from the trachea or choana, from sinus ar e rec e i v ed. Other possible treatments include intra- exudate or air sac wash, or by air sampling in fled g l i n g muscular (IM) injections of vitamins A, D, and E; cranes (Shane et al.    ). Even a positive bacterial in t r a v enous (IV) or subcutaneous (SQ) fluids; and cu l t u r e may not diagnose a cause; it is possible that supplemental feedings if weight falls. If aspergillosis is the bacteria are secondary to a viral infection or suspected or confirmed by culture, use antifungal associated with another res p i r a t o r y problem such as therapy such as fluc o n a z ole (oral), itraconazole aspiration or scoliosis. Viral diseases including (oral), amphotericin-B (intravenous or intratracheal), Newcastle disease (paramyxovi r us group ) are possi- or a combination of the latter with one of the ble. Fungal infections, especially with Asp e r g i l l u s fo r m e r . Tracheal flushes and nebulization are also fu m i g a t u s , are commonly seen in cranes although recommended (see Table . and .). Our best res u l t s usually as a secondary problem after treatment for in nebulizing chicks have come from clotrimazol e , bacterial pneumonia or in a generally debilitated bird. first used in    .

TABLE 8.4 Medications used for nebulization of cranes. Me d i c i n e In d i c at i o n s Do s ag e Enro fl oxa c i n An t i b a c t e r i a l  mg in  mL saline Gen t a m i c i n An t i b a c t e r i a l  mg in  - mL saline or distilled water Am i k a c i n An t i b a c t e r i a l  mg in  mL saline Tyl o s i n An t i b a c t e r i a l   mg in  mL saline Eryt h ro m yc i n An t i b a c t e r i a l   mg in  mL saline Polymyxin B An t i b a c t e r i a l   ,  U in  mL saline Sul f a d i m e t h ox i n e An t i b a c t e r i a l   mg in  mL saline Piperacillin sodium An t i b a c t e r i a l   mg in  mL saline Amphotericin B An t i f u n g a l - mg in  mL water1, 2 Cl o t r i m a zo l e An t i f u n g a l  mg, do not dilute2 Ace t y l c y s t e i n e 3 Muc o l y t i c . -. mL  - % solution in  - mL saline or distilled water

1 Can use distilled or sterile water for injection. 2 Use disposable pediatric nebulizer and O2 . 3 Can be mixed with other medicines. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 5 7

Ne b u l i z a t i o nt h e r a p y w i t ha n t i b i o t i c si sb e s ta c c o m- so u t h we s t Rus s i a . Howeve r , si m i l a r Her p e s v i ru s e sh a ve p l i s h e dw i t ha nu l t r a s o n i c ne b u l i ze r c o m m o n l yu s e di n b e e ni s o l a t e df ro mi l lc r a n e si n Aus t r i a , Fra n c e , Jap a n , hu m a n res p i r a t o r y t h e r a p y( s e e Ap p e n d i x ) .T h i su n i ti s C h i n a ,a n d Rus s i a (C a r p e n t e r    a n dI C Fu n p u b- u s e dw i t h a m o b i l eb a c t e r i a l fil t e rt o rem o ve ba c t e r i a l i s h e dd a t a ) .T h e I B D Cv i ru sm a yp e r s i s ti n a do r m a n t f ro mt h ea i rs u p p l y.Ide a l l y , t h eu n i ts h o u l dh a ve an s t a t ei na ni n f e c t e db i rd m a k i n gd e t e c t i o n by vi ru s a d j u s t a b l eo u t p u tc h a m b e rf ro m -. m La n dh a ve an is o l a t i o n di f fic u l t . Se ro l o g i c a lt e s t i n g f o rI B D Ca n t i- al e r t s i g n a lt oi n d i c a t ew h e nt h ec h a m b e ri se m p t y. Th e b o d y( av i ru s - n e u t r a l i z a t i o nt e s t )i sa va i l a b l eo n l ya t th e f a ns h o u l dh a ve va r i a b l es p e e dc o n t ro la n da e ro s o l Nat i o n a l Wil d l i f e He a l t hC e n t e r,Mad i s o n , Wis c o n s i n . o u t p u t .T h en e b u l i z a t i o nt h e r a p ys h o u l dt o t a l  ho u r Th e r e i sn os p e c i fic t re a t m e n tf o rt h i sd i s e a s e . Bec a u s e da i l y , d i v i d e di n t o - e q u a lt re a t m e n t s . A : or : o ft h ed a n g e rp o s e d by t h i sv i ru st oo t h e rc r a n e si n a mi x t u r e o fg e n t a m i c i n ( o ro t h e r w a t e rs o l u b l ea n t i b i- c o l l e c t i o no ri nt h ew i l da n dt h ep o t e n t i a lf o r a ca r r i e r o t i c )t os a l i n eo rt od i s t i l l e dw a t e ri su s e d( s e eTab l e s t a t e ,i ti s u s u a l l ya d v i s a b l et oe u t h a n i ze o rc o m p l e t e l y .) .T h ec r a n em u s tb eh o u s e di n a re l a t i ve l ya i r - t i g h t i s o l a t ei n f e c t e d cr a n e s . Tra n s - o va r i a nt r a n s m i s s i o no f ch a m b e r , s u c ha s a Snyd e r ox y g e nc a g e ,d u r i n gt h e r a p y. t h ev i ru sh a sn o tb e e ns e e nt od a t e ,s oe g g sm a yb e Ne b u l i z a t i o nt h e r a p yw i t ha n t i f u n g a la g e n t s( s e eTab l e s a f e l yt a k e nf ro m an t i b o d y - p o s i t i v e cr a n e s . .) us u a l l y req u i re s a p e d i a t r i cn e b u l i ze ra n df o rc e da i r The EEE virus, an arbovi r us (arth r opod borne su p p l i e d by a t a n k( O) o ra i rc o m p re s s o r. vi r us), is native to the eastern and north-central No rt h Nebulization therapy is effective because it brings America, parts of Central and South America, and the the antibiotic/antifungal directly to the affected res p i - Caribbean Islands. The virus is primarily carried by ra t o r y membrane. Because there is usually little or no the mosquito Cul i s e t a me l a n u r a, a species which uptake of drugs into the crane’s circu l a t o r y system br eeds primarily in hardwood swamps. Nearly all fr om this application, standard systemic antibiotic exposed native birds develop antibody titers with no therapy must still be used. The humidification of the morbidity or morta l i t y . Howeve r , some Wh o o p i n g res p i r a t o r y epithelium during nebulization is soothing Cranes and some species introduced into No rt h for the patient. In addition, a mucolytic agent such as America often develop clinical signs and many die. acetylcysteine (. -. cc) can be added to each  - In    , EEE virus killed  Whooping Cranes at  cc of nebulization fluid to help break up mucous in Pat u x ent (Dein et al.    ; Carpenter et al.    , the res p i r a t o r y tract.    ). Th r ee of the  bi r ds showed lethargy, ataxia, and neck and leg paresis, while  sh o wed no clinical signs. Of the  su r viving Whooping Cranes in this Viral Diseases ca p t i v e flock,  ( %) developed antibodies to EEE. Sev eral viral diseases have been identified in cranes Subsequent to the    ou t b r eak, an inactivated EEE including avian pox (Simpson et al.    ) and vaccine for humans was found to stimulate antibody Newcastle disease (Kaleta and Marschall    ). titers in both Sandhill and Whooping Cranes (Clark Inclusion body disease of cranes (IBDC, crane herpes et al.    ). Since    , all Whooping Cranes held in vi r us) and eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) have had ar eas where the disease is present have been a major impact on captive cranes (Carpenter et al. vaccinated. In addition, there is a screening prog r a m    ,    ; Dein et al.    ). The reov i r us seen in at Pat u x ent to detect EEE by examining mosquitos Grey Par r ots (Psittacus erithacus) (Graham    ) and by monitoring exposure in sentinel Bobwh i t e s is similar to a reov i r us that caused chick mortality ( virginianus) and Sandhill Cranes (Pagac et al. at Pat u xe n t .    ). This program documented an EEE incident in In    , I B D Cc a u s e dt h ed e a t ho f  c r a n e so f     wh e r e the virus was present in mosquitos and s p e c i e sa tI C F( Do c h e rt ya n d Hen n i n g    ). Sig n s sp r ead to the quail, but no losses wer e rec o rd e d wer e no n s p e c i fi c b u ti n c l u d e da n o re x i a ,l e t h a r g y, wea k - among  exposed but vaccinated Whooping Cra n e s , n e s s ,a n dd y s p n e a .T h ep a t h o l o g yw a st y p i c a l o fh e r p e s leading us to conclude that prot e c t i v e titers wer e v i ru si n f e c t i o n sw i t ha ni n c l u s i o n b o d yh e p a t i t i sa n d established by the vaccination program. A variety s p l e n i t i sp ro g re s s i n gr a p i d l yt od e a t h .L i ve ra n ds p l e e n of crane species at zoos have been vaccinated with ar e t h eb e s tt i s s u e sf o rv i ru s i s o l a t i o n .T h es t a t u so f co m m e r cial equine EEE vaccines with no rep o r ted I B D Ci nw i l dc r a n e si su n c e rt a i n .L i m i t e ds e ro t e s t i n g ill effects. Howeve r , Clark et al. (   ) rep o r ted that o ns i xc r a n es p e c i e sf ro m No rt hA m e r i c a , Eu r a s i a ,a n d two species of cranes had a poor antibody response A f r i c ah a sf o u n do n l yt w op o s i t i ve Eur a s i a n Cr a n e si n to equine EEE vac c i n e s . 1 5 8 Chapter 8

Parasitic Diseases n o d u l e si na n yo ft h e s eo r g a n s .T h ed i s e a s ec a nb e d e va s t a t i n gi nc r a n ec h i c k su n d e r  d a y so fa g e . It is a Parasites opportunistically infect stressed or crowde d s e r i o u sp ro b l e ma t Pa t u xe n t ,b u th a sn o tb e e nd o c u- cranes during migration or when in captivity. Clinical m e n t e da tI C Fw h e re wi n t e r s ar e m u c hc o l d e r. signs of parasitism are usually non-specific and may In ca p t i v i t y , co n c e n t r a t i o n s of Eim e r i a i nt h e s o i la re include weight loss, lethargy, diarrhea, or dyspnea. o f t e nm u c hh i g h e rt h a nw o u l db ef o u n di nt h e wi l d . Heavy parasitic infections can also cause malnutrition T h ep a r a s i t e sh a ve be e n d o c u m e n t e di nw i l dc r a n e s , and increase susceptibility to other diseases (Carpenter b u tt h e ro l eo f DVC i ns u rv i va l o fw i l dc r a n e sh a sn o t    ). be e n st u d i e d . In ca p t i v e c o l o n i e s ,s e ve r a l an t i - c o c c i d i a l A parasite monitoring and control program is me d i c a t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n ga m p ro l i u ma n dm o n e n s i n , critical to maintain and breed healthy cranes in se e Tab l e .) ha v e pr ove ne f f e c t i ve i nc o n t ro l l i n gt h e ca p t i v i t y . T h e r a p e u t i ca n d pro p h y l a c t i c ad m i n i s t r a t i o n i n c i d e n c eo f DVC w h e nt h e ya re c o n t i n u o u s l ym i xe d of parasiticides (Table .) is an important part of w i t ht h e f o o d( C a r p e n t e re t al .    ). Int e s t i n a l any medical program. In addition, reducing pen c o c c i d i ai n f e c t i o n si ni n d i v i d u a lb i rd sh a ve b e e ns u c- cr owding, practicing pen rotation, cleaning facilities, c e s s f u l l yt re a t e dw i t h a m p ro l i u m ,t r i m e t h o p r i m - s u l f a , quarantine and treatment of new birds, and separating o r m e t o p r i m - s u l f a ,a n ds u l f ad i m e t h ox i n e . bi r ds by age are important parts of a control prog r a m . Endoparasites, including acanthocephalans, Prophylactic administration of anti-parasite medica- cestodes, trematodes, and nematodes, have been tions is especially useful with young chicks (see found in cranes (Carpenter    ). The overall effect of Chapter ), cranes being prep a r ed for release or ship- such parasites on both wild and captive cranes is not ment to other collections, and when introd u c i n g well documented. Acanthocephalans (spiny headed cranes into new (parasite-free) facilities. worms; Fig. .b) occasionally cause perforation of the Cranes can be infected by a number of species intestines leading to peritonitis and subsequent death of prot o z oa including the blood-born parasites in captive crane chicks. This parasite’s significance in Hem o p ro t e u s and Le u c o c y t o zo o n , but the true signifi- older captive birds and in wild birds is unknown. No cance of these infections has not been documented. kn o wn treatment is available for this parasite. Bec a u s e Hex a m i t a has been implicated as the cause of enteritis the earthworm (Lum b r i c u s sp .) may be an intermedi- and death of captive Florida Sandhill Cranes (M. G. ate host, rearing chicks indoors may prev ent infection. Spalding, Uni v ersity of Florida, Gainesville, Flo r i d a , Gap e worms (Syn g a m u s sp . and Cya t h o s t o m a sp. ) personal communication). ha v e caused sever e tracheitis, bronchitis, and obstruc - T h em o s tc o m m o na n db e s t - d o c u m e n t e dp ro t o- tion of the trachea through irritation and formation of zo a np a r a s i t e so fc r a n e sa re t h ec o c c i d i a .B o t h Eim e r i a mucous plugs, leading to death. Signs include dyspnea g ru i s an d Eim e r i a rei c h e n ow i (Fi g . .a )a re co m m o n and open-mouth breathing (gaping). Sometimes p a r a s i t e so fW h o o p i n g , De m o i s e l l e ,a n d San d h i l l ga p e worms can be seen in the upper trachea of a Cr a n e s ,a n da re t h el i k e l y s p e c i e sf o u n di no t h e r cr a n e s . symptomatic bird. Add i t i o n a l l y , diagnosis is possible In ad d i t i o n , Ade l i n a sp . h a sb e e nf o u n di n San d h i l l by examining tracheal washes and occasionally by Cr a n e s( C o u rt n e ye ta l .    ). Iso s p o r a l a c a ze i h a sb e e n fecal flotation. Ivermectin or fenbendazole (see Tab l e f o u n di nt w oc a p t i ve Wh o o p i n g Cra n e s , b u tw a s . for dosages) have been effective in eliminating the t h o u g h tt oh a ve b e e nd u et oc o n t a m i n a t i o n o ff o o d by parasite. Pen rotation will help prev ent rei n f e c t i o n . f e c a lm a t t e rf ro mp a s s e r i n e s ( Fo r re s t e re ta l .    ). Ea r thworms carry gapeworm eggs, theref o r e decrea s - Cr a n e s ,l i k es e ve r a lo t h e rb i rd sg ro u p si n c l u d i n g ing a crane’s exposure to earthworms will help control g e e s ea n dt u rk e y s ,h a ve a ne x t r a - i n t e s t i n a l f o r mo f infection rates. pa r a s i t i s m by Eim e r i a i na d d i t i o nt ot h eg a s t ro i n t e s t i- Capillarids (Cap i l l a r i a sp . and Euc o l e u s sp .; Fig . n a li n f e c t i o n( C a r p e n t e r    ). In t h i se x t r a - i n t e s t i n a l .c) and Asc a r i d i a sp . (Fig. .d) can cause debilita- f o r m ,c a l l e dd i s s e m i n a t e dv i s c e r a lc o c c i d i o s i s( DVC) , tion and occasionally contribute to death. Both are e n d o g e n o u ss t a g e so ft h ep a r a s i t ed i s s e m i n a t ef ro mt h e readily diagnosed on fecal flotation. Treatment with al i m e n t a r y t r a c tt h ro u g h o u tt h eb o d yc a r r i e d by th e iv ermectin or fenbendazole (see Table . for dosages) b l o o do rp o s s i b l y l y m p h a t i cs y s t e m s .T h i s re s u l t si n is effective, but reinfection is frequently possible g e n e r a li n fla m m a t i o no fo r g a n s , s e e na sb ro n c h o - p n e u- unless birds are moved at least annually to a fallow m o n i a ,h e p a t i t i s , m yo c a rd i t i s ,s p l e n i t i s ,a n de n t e r i t i s , pen. Treatment success has been highest when both i na d d i t i o nt o t h ef o r m a t i o no fd i s c re t eg r a n u l o m a t o u s iv ermectin and fenbendazole are used concurren t l y . Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 5 9

TABLE 8.5 Antiparasitic medications used in cranes.1 Route of Tre atment Dru g In d i c at i o n s Ad m i n i s t r at i o n Do s ag e Schedule Per Day An t i co cc i d i a l s Am p ro l i u m An t i c o c c i d i a l Foo d .   mg / k g Continuous for (P rophylactic)  weeks, minimum .  mg / k g (Th e r a p e u t i c ) Am p ro l i u m Anticoccidial when other Drinking .  % Co n t i n u o u s forms of this drug are not wa t e r ap p ro p r i a t e Monensin sodium An t i c o c c i d i a l Mix ed in feed  pp m Continuous or seasonally Triple Sulfa Sol u a b l e Used when clinical evidence Drinking . ts p / g a l  days on;  days off; Powde r 2 of coccidiosis wa t e r  days on;  days off;  day on Trimethoprim sulfa Used when clinical evidence Ora l See Table . -/d a y of coccidiosis IM Ormethoprim Used when clinical evidence Foo d .  % continuous for  wee k s su l f a d i m e t h ox i n e of coccidiosis ormethoprim .  % sulfa Sulfa dimethoxi n e Used when clinical evidence Ora l  mg / k g /day for  wee k s of coccidiosis An t i n e m a tod a l s Fen b e n d a zo l e Capillariasis, other nematodes Ora l   mg / k g  days, then repeat in  - da y s Iver m e c t i n Broa d - s p e c t ru m IM . mg / k g  doses  - days ap a r t or as needed Le va m i s o l e Safe, efficacious broa d - s p e c t r um Ora l  mg/kg Bi- we e k l y an t h e l m i n t h i c ( mg/kg for chicks) or as needed Pip e r a z i n e Treating individuals or Drinking  - g/ g a l  days; rep e a t gr oups of cranes for ascarids wa t e r in  wee k s Pyrantel pamoate Intestinal nematodes Ora l . mg / k g  doses  - days apart Th i a b e n d a zo l e Wide range of antiparasitic Ora l   mg / k g Weekly or bi-weekly action with a high degree of as needed ef fi cacy and safety An t i c e s t odals and Antitrem a tod a l s Al b e n d a zo l e Eff e c t i v e in treating Ora l  mg / k g  doses  week apart some trem a t o d e s Pra z i q u a n t e l Eff e c t i v e in treating cestodes; Ora l  mg / k g Bi- w eekly or as needed potentially toxi c Ec to pa r a s i t i c a l s C a r b a ry l Co n t r ol of most ectoparasites Top i c a l % powde r Weekly or bi-weekly or as needed Pyre t h r i n s Co n t r ol of most ectoparasites Top i c a l . % powde r Weekly or bi-weekly or as needed

1 Based on Olsen and Carpenter    . 2 Act i v e drug ingredients: sulfamerazine sodium  . %, sulfamethazine sodium  . %, and sodium sulfathiazole sesquihydr ate  . %. 1 6 0 Chapter 8

Ect o p a r a s i t e s including  mite species (Orde r Acarina) and  biting lice species (Order Mal l o p h a g a ) (Fo r r ester et al.    ; Aty eo and Windingstad    ) ar e seen in cranes. No pathological significance, exce p t possibly in young or debilitated birds, has been noted in ectoparasite problems. A dusting with % carbaryl or . % pyrethrins (Table .) is ver y effective as a tr eatment. In addition, dusting can be done during an annual health check as a prophylactic measure. Problems with biting and stinging insects such as A black flies (Sim u l i u m sp .), bees (Api s sp .), and wasps (Ves p i s and others) sometimes cause minor skin irrita- tion, exce s s i v e preening, and behavioral signs of di s c o m f o r t and stress. At ICF, equine insect rep e l l e n t s containing pyrethrins or carbaryl have been somewh a t ef f e c t i v e (see also Chapter  F) .

Non - I nfectious Diseases

B T r a u m a The most frequent causes of trauma will var y betwee n institutions, but include collisions with pen struc t u re s and during capture, handling, and shipping. Even with good husbandry and excellent facilities, aggres - sion associated with establishing dominance hi e r a r chies, mate selection, and defense of territory, food, or water remains important (see Chapter ; Carpenter et al.    ; Carpenter and Der r i c k s o n    ). Dan g e r ous situations ar e: () pair formation, especially in a community (group) pen with  or more C bi r ds, () when introducing new cranes into an estab- lished social grou p , and () the escape of a crane into a ne i g h b o r ’s pen. Gen e r a l l y , the intruder will be the victim of the aggression. At Pat u x ent, .% of the Whooping Crane deaths occurring during the  yea r period from    to    wer e from aggres s i o n (Carpenter and Derrickson    ). Most aggres s i o n - r elated injuries are to the neck and head (Fig. . ). Depending on how soon the crane is found, the victim will often be in a deep state of shock. Sta n d a r d shock trea t m e n t is given: corti c o s - D te r oids, fluids (IV and SQ), and antibiotics (Table .) ar e administered. The wounds are cleaned, and fol- Fig. 8.9. Pho t o m i c ro g r aphs of parasites: A, ova of Eimeria grui s lo wing stabilization, the bird is radiographed to assess (py r i f o r m,  ´  m) and Eimeria rei c h e n o wi (round, skull damage. Sup p o rt i v e care, especially during the  ´  m); B, head of acanthocephalan (proboscis . mm ) ; first  hours, is critical. Patients that survi v e the ini- C, Capillaria egg ( ´  m); D, Ascaridia egg ( ´  m). tial trauma and the first  hours normally make a Ph otos Ha r ry Da n f o rth (A) and Glenn H. Olsen (B-D) complete rec o ver y, but many cranes carry scars for life. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 6 1

with aminoglycoside ophthalmic antibiotics is rec o m - mended to prev ent secondary infection. Beak fractures ar e ver y common in captive cranes though fortunately the majority are minor. Especially during cold winter weather when probing behavior is impeded by froz en soil, fractures of the tip (- cm) of either the upper or lower beak are seen. Tri m m i n g of over-long beak tips and providing safe substrates for probing help decrease this problem. Mor e sever e fr a c t u r es also occur with the most common site being immediately in front of the nares on the upper beak. It is unclear why breaks at this site are common. Initial treatment includes control of hemorrhage and therapy for shock. Options for surgical repair are described under Common Surgical Proc e d u r es, this Fig. 8.10. Head and neck injuries due to aggression. ch a p t e r . Reg r owth of the upper beak will be minimal Ph oto David H. El l i s when the fracture is more than - cm from the ti p . Howeve r , fractures of the lower beak £ cm (less in small-billed species) from the tip can reg r ow. Occ a s i o n a l l y , a parent will attack a chick (see Providing visual barriers between cranes and human Chapter ), but not normally without an underlying activity and between crane pairs will decrease the cause, such as chick lethargy, the parent reacting to behavior at fence lines that puts cranes at risk for some disturbance, or the parent not being prep a re d be a k da m a g e . for a chick. Normally such chicks are killed. An important source of trauma for captive cranes is Ruptured Air Sacs collisions with fences and buildings. Anatomically and be h a v i o r a l l y , cranes seem predisposed to damage their Rup t u r ed air sacs are infrequently seen in cranes. long legs, beaks, necks, and wings. Int e n s i v e manage- Adult cases are generally minor; chick cases can be ment of cranes for production can exacerbate this mo r e serious. In most cases, handling trauma was the pr oblem. Careful attention to pen and facilities design suspected cause. Some cases res o l v ed without medical (see Chapter  ) and capture, handling, and shipping in t e r vention; some invol v ed extensive subcutaneous techniques (see Chapter ) will significantly red u c e emphysema on the thorax, neck, and head (Fig. .). trauma cases. For these, air was withdrawn using a syringe and Trauma to the neck, head, or beak is second only to needle several times from several different locations leg and wing injuries. Neck injuries generally occur over the body, but each time the condition would when a crane runs or flies into a pen fence or building return within  hours. Fin a l l y , latex drains (- mm wall. The resulting damage to the cervical vert e b r a e diameter tubes) or setons (narrow gauze loops) wer e and spinal cord is often fatal, but if not, it often res u l t s surgically inserted through the skin and into the air in signs of ataxia, paresis, or abnormal neck position. spaces. These birds wer e given antibiotics and the Treat for shock using corti c o s t e r oids (dexamethasone drains or setons wer e cleaned with a % povi d o n e has been used successfully in several cases; see Table . iodine solution twice daily. Within  days, the birds for dosage). Methocarbamol (see Table . for dosage), returned to normal and the drains wer e rem o ved . a muscle relaxant, was useful in one successful case (D one et al.    ). O s t e o m y e l i t i s Ocular injurie s that have been seen in captive cranes include lacerations of the third eyelid and the Bone infections can occur secondarily in open pr i m a r y lids, and corneal lacerations, abrasions, and fr a c t u r es contaminated before or during surgical pu n c t u r es. These injuries can be rep a i r ed with stan- pro c e d u r es or in pododermatitis (bumblefoot). In da r d ophthalmic surgical proc e d u r es described for the early stages, osteomyelitis is not evident on radi- bi r ds and mammals (Magrane    ; Karpinski and ographs, but rather shows up some days later. Usu a l l y Clubb    ; Murphy    ). Prophylactic trea t m e n t the first evidence is a hazy appearance of the bone 1 6 2 Chapter 8

st ru c t u r e with some roughening of the trabecular Egg Binding outline. As the condition prog r esses, evidence of bone absorption and rea c t i o n a r y bone formation appear Egg retention or egg binding is a rare condition si m u l t a n e o u s l y . The periosteum may be elevated with usually associated with an abnormally formed egg some new bone formation occurring underneath (Fig . (soft-shelled, abnormally large, or abnormally small), . ). Osteolysis may occur, especially if the infection or a bird that has an abnormal pelvis or cloaca, is in is in conjunction with a foreign body such as a bone poor condition, is hypothermic, or has low blood sc r ew or intermedullary pin. Signs of possible sprea d - calcium. Occasionally an infection can lead to a ing of the infection include widening or increase in retained egg. Clinical signs of egg binding include si z e of osteolytic area, active periosteal response, loss straining, lethargy, or depression. The egg is usually of joint space, or soft tissue swelling. Avian tuber- readily palpable in the caudal abdomen. cu l o s i s is known to occur in several of the wild Initial therapy consists of providing a warm, quiet populations of Nor th American cranes, and any bird en v i r onment for the bird and lubricating the cloaca fr om these flocks showing limb problems should be with surgical lubricant (see Appendix) or petrol e u m radiographed to search for bone changes similar to je l l y . Medications should include fluid therapy, oxy - os t e o m y elitis or neoplasia. tocin, and intramuscular calcium (Calphosan, see Treat osteomyelitis with antibiotics or antifungals Appendix) (see Table . for dosages and routes of chosen by culture and sensitivity testing (Table .) administration). Occ a s i o n a l l y , sedation is useful to and with surgical debridement (rem o val of necrot i c rel i e v e oviduct spasms. Antibiotic therapy should be tissue). Radiographically, response to treatment is co n s i d e r ed in all cases where infection or contamina- indicated by cessation of osteolysis and gradual red e - tion of the oviduct is suspected. velopment of normal bone struc t u r e (Douglas and If the egg can be gently manipulated from the Williamson    : ). The most common complica- oviduct, this should be done. Breaking an egg is not tions are delayed union of fracture sites or bone recommended as the sharp fragments can lacerate sequestra. Sequestra are seen as areas of bone separated the oviduct. If the egg does break, as many pieces as fr om other nearby bone by a radiolucent (non-bony) possible should be rem o ved through the cloaca. If zone. Sequestra are necrotic pieces of bone and are the egg is retained high in the abdomen (i.e., palpa- best demonstrated by lack of any change in appear- ble for two days without movement), an exploratory ance on serial radiographs. la p a r otomy with surgical rem o val of the egg may Art h ri t i s , rep o r tedly uncommon in birds be necessary. (Mc M illan    ), when seen in cranes is secondary to trauma, infection, developmental limb problems, or Disorders of the Cloaca ar ticular gout. Iat r ogenic arthritis is one sequel to carpal tenotomy often used to limit flight capability in Straining from egg retention, constipation, ven t crane colonies. irritation, or diarrhea occasionally results in a pro- lapsed cloaca, oviduct, or part of the large intestine. Cloacal prolapses are seen in chicks with and without diarrhea. In some cases, stress is considered a factor. If possible, determine which organ is prolapsed and tr eat the cause before replacing the cloaca. Be sure to di f f e r entiate a prolapse from a prot r uding growth in the cloaca. With a mild prolapse, it may be possible to rep l a c e the prolapsed tissues after lubricating them with surgical jelly. Mor e sever e cases may req u i r e bathing the tissues with a hypertonic solution (such as  % de x t r ose) to reduce swelling prior to replacement. A gl o ved finger or smooth tube (syringe without needle) may help to reduce the prolapse. A purse-string suture may be req u i r ed for several days to keep the tissues Fig. 8.11. Ost e o m y elitis (rad i o g r aph). Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n fr om prolapsing again. Once the purse-string suture is Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 6 3 in place, the crane must be watched carefully to make and Reichel    ). Pesticide lev el s in fat from su r e it can defecate normally. In laying females, a Sandhill Cranes from Florida and Nebraska wer e low purse-string suture in the cloaca should be left in place (L e wis    ). Samples from the same study in Tex a s only until about one day prior to oviposition. Th e contained high levels of heptachlor epoxide and underlying cause of the prolapse should also be smaller amounts of DDT, DDE, and dieldrin. tr eated. In sever e cases, it may be necessary to rem o ve Oklahoma samples one year had elevated DDT, ne c r otic tissue or amputate part of the prol a p s e d DDE, dieldrin, and heptachlor epoxide level s . organ. Prognosis is guarded in these cases. Howeve r , the next yea r , samples from the same In some species, a tendency to prolapse appears to Oklahoma site showed only low levels of DDE, with be inherited (Mac w h i r ter    ) although this has not other pesticides not detected. Mullins et al. (   ) been documented in cranes. Other cloacal abnormali- found low levels of pesticides DDT, DDD, DDE and ties seen in cranes include a papilloma-like growth in a dieldrin, and low levels of heavy metals, lead and mer- Sar us Crane and seasonal inflammation and ven t cu r y, in Greater Sandhill Cranes and eggs from soiling in laying females, for which no causative agent Oregon and Ida h o . Merc u r y levels wer e significa n t l y has been found. higher in breeding age birds compared to eggs and young, indicating possible accumulation with age. In    and    ,  Sandhill Cranes collected in N e o p l a s i a Nebraska (as powerline mortalities) wer e analyzed Sev eral types of neoplasia have been rep o r ted in for organophosphate and carbamate compounds cranes including renal adenocarcinomas (Mon t a l i and inorganics (Fannin    ). Heptachlor epoxi d e ,    ; Decker and Hruska    ), renal carci n o m a oxyc h l o r dane, DDE, and hexachlorob e n z ene wer e (M ontali    ), lymphocytic leukemia (Mon t a l i found in liver tissues. From opportunistic sampling of    ), granulocytic leukemia (Wei et al.    ), and Whooping Crane carcasses and eggs since the    ’s, metastatic cholangiocarcinoma (Allen et al.    ). A Le wis et al. (   ) rep o r ted that while DDT and hematopoietic stem cell neoplasm occurred in one me rc u r y levels have declined following banning use Florida Sandhill Crane at Pat u xe n t . Th e r e is a higher of these substances as pesticides and fungicides, other incidence of adenocarcinomas in wild Mis s i s s i p p i compounds such as chlorinated hydr ocarbons persist Sandhill Cranes than in captive birds, but the cause at low levels. Trace elements including aluminum, of this situation is still under inves t i g a t i o n . arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, selenium, Ch o n d r oma-like lesions have been seen in wild and zinc wer e found at levels high enough to justify Florida Sandhill Cranes and one Whooping Cra n e fu r ther monitoring. (M. A. Spalding, Uni v ersity of Florida, Gai n e s v i l l e , Fam p h u r , an organophosphate (,-dimethyl -< p - Florida, personal communication). Generally the (d i m e t h y l s u l f a m o yal) phenyl>phosphorothioate), was incidence of neoplasia in both captive and wild found at  ppm in the digestive tracts of two dead cranes appears to be low. Sandhill Cranes in Gilmar County, Georgia (White et al.    ). The brains from these two birds showed a  % reduction in cholinesterase activity attributed to T o x i c o l o g y the effect of famphur. Org a n o p h o s p h o r us compounds Only a few cases of crane morbidity or mortality inhibit cholinesterase in the nervous system, disrup t - due to sp e c i fi c toxi n s ha v e been rep o r ted. A likely ing synaptic transmission of nerve impulses. Death is assumption is that most substances that are toxic to usually the result of asphyxiation associated with fail- bi r ds in general are also toxic to cranes. Cranes are ur e of the brain res p i r a t o r y center. Org a n o p h o s p h a t e s co n s i d e r ed to be low on the food chain, and are there- and carbamates are known to be extremely toxic to fo r e not as likely to be affected by toxic compounds wildlife, especially birds (Zinkal et al.    ; Hill and th r ough biomagnification (Mullins et al.    ). Fleming    ; Henny et al.    ). Howeve r , cranes are rel a t i v ely long-lived birds and Both wild and captive Sandhill Cranes have died th e re f o r e have the opportunity to slowly accumulate fr om lead poisoning when accidentally exposed. si g n i fi cant amounts of persistent chemicals. Mullins et al. (   ) found lead in samples of Grea t e r Examination of two Whooping Crane carca s s e s Sandhill Cranes and eggs from Oregon and Ida h o . and one embryo for DDT, DDD, DDE, and dieldrin Occasionally individual cranes, especially juven i l e s , demonstrated ver y low levels in all tissues (Lamont ha v e comparatively high levels (Franson and Here f o r d 1 6 4 Chapter 8

   ). The source of lead has varied, but includes also been seen in captive cranes after serious, trau- lead-based paints (Kennedy et al.    ) and lead matic injuries or after prolonged restraint in a sling. fishing weights and bullets (Windingstad et al.    ). Predisposing factors described for other species One wild Whooping Crane died after ingesting a (B o e v er    ) and most likely applicable to cranes small plastic encased battery or fish sinker (Sny der et include fear, anxiety, overe xe r tion, repeated handling, al.    ). tr a n s p o r tation of an exhausted animal, prol o n g e d Zinc toxi c o s i s has been seen in captive Wh o o p i n g tr a n s p o r tation, constant muscle tension, and res t r a i n - and Red - c r owned Cranes after ingestion of zinc- ing the bird with muscles cramped in unusual containing metal objects, principally wire clippings positions or for a prolonged time. In some species fr om fence construction and zinc alloy coins. Th e of mammals, metabolic acidosis may play an impor- clinical signs include depression, weakness, and tant role in capture myopathy (Har thoorn and le t h a r g y . Rec o ver y was rapid after surgical rem o val Young    ). of the metal. Clinical signs can range from peracute death due Myco t ox i n s pr oduced by Fus a r i u m sp . molds have to cardiac failure, to painful, stiff movement, and caused death in wild and captive cranes. Bet w een swollen, hard muscles that are warm to the touch,    and    , an estimated ,  Sandhill Cranes and secondarily, trauma to limbs as the animal in Texas and New Mexico died from an unspecified st r uggles. If the bird has survi v ed for some days, myc o t o xin found on unharvested peanuts (Arac h i s th e r e will be a reduction or loss of subcutaneous and hy p o g a e a ) (Windingstad et al.    ). Cranes wer e abdominal fat. Ser um chemistry levels, parti c u l a r l y ob s e r ved standing or flying but unable to hold their cr eatinine kinase, lactic dehydr ogenase, and aspar- necks straight or erect. Lesions observed at necrop s y tate aminotransferase, are often highly elevated and included multiple muscle hemorrhages and sub- ar e useful in assessing the severity of changes in mandibular edema. Peanut-associated myco t ox i c o s i s muscle tissue (Har thoorn and Young    ; Bra n n i a n has also been seen in Demoiselle and Eurasian Cra n e s et al.    ). Ele v ation in uric acid values associated in India (ICF unpublished data). In    , deoxy n i - with renal failure can result from increased lactic acid valenol toxi c i t y , a grain-based myco t o xin present in pr oduction, myoglobinuria, or impaired mobility pelleted feed, resulted in % ( cranes) mortality and subsequent dehydr a t i o n . and  % morbidity at Pat u x ent (Olsen et al.    ). Gross lesions consist of numerous pale, strea k e d Bioassays using quail or less valuable cranes are now ar eas in the skeletal muscle and heart. Renal lesions, in use with larger crane flocks to help detect unsuit- such as urate nephrop a t h y , are also common. Pal e able commercial feeds before they are fed. Caref u l l y mottled kidneys are described in one case involving a monitor food during long periods of warm, rainy Greater Sandhill Crane (Windingstad et al.    ), and wea t h e r . urate deposits wer e described on the kidneys of an Bo t u l i s m , a paralytic disease caused by ingestion of East African Crowned Crane (Brannian et al.    ). Clostridium botulinum to xin, has killed cranes in at Mic ro s c o p i c a l l y , lesions are characterized by extensive least one Nor th American zoo . The toxin is prod u c e d ar eas of myoc a r dial and skeletal muscle degeneration an a e r obically with the typical source being the decay and necrosis, and secondary inflam m a t i o n . of submerged carcasses of small animals. This kind of Prev ent capture myopathy by minimizing han- poisoning should be considered whenever cranes are dling, by properly handling and transporting cranes housed in naturalistic water exhibits. Pay caref u l (see Chapter ), and by maintaining adequate levels attention to water quality and the health of waterfow l of vitamin E and selenium in the diet. Treatment of using the exhibit. A commercial Clostridium botu - the condition is supporti v e and consists of intraven o u s li n u m Type C bacterin-toxoid has been used to prot e c t fluids, corti c o s t e r oids, antibiotics, vitamin E, sele- cranes (Cambre and Kenny    ). nium, and good nursing care. It may be necessary to keep the bird in a sling. Physical therapy is also im p o r tant for rec o ver y. If blood pH levels are below Capture Myopathy normal, the crane should be treated with intraven o u s Ca p t u r e (or exer tional) myop a t h y , rep o r ted sever a l sodium bicarbonate. If blood pH levels are unavai l - times in cranes (Brannian et al.    ; Har tman    ; able, but acidosis is suspected, sodium bicarbonate Windingstad et al.    ; Carpenter et al.    ), has may be administered IV at the rate of - mEq / k g been associated with trapping and restraint. It has body wei g h t . Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 6 5

bone fractures, stifle and tibial luxations, fractures and luxations of toes, spraddle legs, lateral rotation of the Ort h o p e d i c s tibiotarsus, crooked or curled toes, and perosis. In chicks, rapid weight gain has been implicated, as have Leg, Foot, and Toe Disorders hatching problems and trauma. Exer cise is a large factor in leg development. Crane chicks rea r ed by Fra c t u re s , and less frequently di s l o c a t i o n s , are pa r ent cranes suffer much fewer leg abnormalities common in cranes. Fra c t u r es are usually associated than do crane chicks raised by hand (see discussion with trauma. Pathological fractures associated with of crane chick leg disorders in Chapter ). Die t s nutritional imbalances are not generally seen in cap- containing low levels of methionine or sulfur amino ti v e cranes fed a formulated pelleted diet. Likewi s e , acids help reduce rapid growth and associated leg the occurrence of secondary nutritional fractures in abnormalities in crane chicks (Ser a fi n    ,    ). wild cranes has not been documented. Fra c t u re s Co r r ection of cr ooked or curled toes has been accom- should be evaluated for location, articular invol v e- plished with splints (see Figs. . and . ). ment, bone density, periosteal response, and soft tissue Prog re s s i v e osteoarthritis, especially in the in vo l v ement (McM illan    ,    ). Gen e r a l l y , mid- hock joint of the legs, is seen in older cranes often shaft long-bone fractures have better prognosis than after a long history of recurring mild lameness. fr a c t u r es close to the bone ends or involving arti c u l a r Mineralization of tendon sheaths around the hock is su r faces. Most long-bone fractures of cranes req u i r e a common radiographic finding. Medical therapy surgical fixation (Fig. . ). Some fractures of pneu- includes non-steroid anti-inflam m a t o r y drugs such as matic bones result in subcutaneous emphysema in ph e n y l b u t a z one and piroxicam to decrease the pain. and around the fracture site. Tendon and ligament Int r a - a r ticular and intramuscular injections of poly- injuries around the hock and foot are also seen. sulfated glyco s a m i n o g l y cans (Adequan) have been These are difficult to diagnose and req u i r e weeks or found ineffective in sever e cases. months to heal. The healing of crane bones is similar to the proc e s s Bumblefoot (Pododermatitis) seen in other birds and mammals (Bush et. al.    ). Healing in uncomplicated cases occurs in - wee k s Crane bumblefoot (pododermatitis) is an inflam m a - with pneumatic bones generally healing slower than tion of the foot often associated with a bacterial me d u l l a r y bones. Ost e o p o r osis associated with disuse infection (Fig. . ). Bumblefoot may start as pres s u r e is a possible complication. Often some form of physi- ne c r osis of the footpad, in many cases due to unequal cal therapy is req u i r ed for a crane to begin using a weight bearing on the foot due to a lameness of the limb after a fracture has healed. other leg. Gen e r a l l y , bacteria enter the foot by two Leg injurie s ar e common in cranes (Carpenter routes, the first being an acute wound or laceration of    ; Cur r o et al.    ; Olsen    ), and include long the integument of the foot; the second route is

Fig. 8.12. Long-bone frac t u r e (rad i o g r aph) showing interna l Fig. 8.13. Bumblefoot, IV–V. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n fixation. Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n 1 6 6 Chapter 8 th r ough the cracking or sloughing of dead (devital- - or - nylon, simple interrupted suture pattern iz ed) skin or scales that expose the underlying tissues. or use ver tical or horizontal mattress sutures to The disease is prog re s s i v e. Infection can spread into rel i e v e tension. the tendons and bones of the foot and can be debili- After surgery, the foot is kept bandaged until the tating. Rarel y , infections spread elsewh e r e in the body. wound is healed. If the surgical wound is on the A classification system developed for use in rap- plantar (bottom) surface of the foot, the bandage tors (Remple    ) is also applicable to crane should be designed to reduce pres s u r e on the surgery bumblefoot. Fiv e classes are used to describe the site and surrounding inflamed tissues. In raptors, a pro g re s s i v e course of the disease and to grade prog - pr eformed styrene cast or ball bandage is used to nosis. Class I rep r esents the early inflam m a t o r y accomplish this (Remple    ). Variations on these response to a lesion and is characterized by tissue techniques, modified for the anatomy of the crane br uising or callus (hyperkeratotic reaction) with an foot, have been used with var ying success. Kee p i n g ex cellent prognosis for rec o ver y. In Class II, there is the bandage and surgical site dry can be a prob l e m infection in the underlying tissues, localized loss of with cranes, especially those housed outdoors. A top blood supply and death of tissue (ischemia and la y er of waterproof tape helps. Antibiotic therapy ne c r osis). With modern developments in trea t m e n t , should begin before surgery or, if not before, imme- pr ognosis is now good. Class III is characterized by diately after surgery. A broa d - s p e c t r um penicillin, ex t e n s i v e infection and gross inflam m a t o r y swel l i n g such as piperacillin, is recommended, often in com- ch a r a c t e r i z ed by serous, fibr otic, or caseous tissue bination with an aminoglycoside such as amikacin reaction; prognosis is good to guarded. Class IV (see Table . for dosages). Antibiotic therapy should rep r esents lesions with infection and swelling of be modified based on the culture and sensitivity underlying tissues resulting in inflammation of the results, and should continue for a minimum of ligaments or tendons (tenosynovitis), joints (arth r i -  - days post surgery. The crane should be kept on tis; Fig. . ), or bone (osteomyelitis; Fig. . ); a soft surface such as grass, padded indoor-outdoor pr ognosis is guarded to poor. In Class V, the lesions carpeting, or deep bedding. of Class IV have worsened resulting in deformity, crippling of the limb, and loss of normal function; Bandaging and Splinting pr ognosis is grave. Treatment should start with correcting any Bandaging or splinting is frequently used in the trea t - management problem or concurrent leg injuries ment of orthopedic problems. To minimize stress, a contributing to the bumblefoot. Abr a s i v e surfa c e s , bandage or splint should be completed as quickly as such as concrete, can lead to foot injury. Med i c a l possible and should be as unobtrus i v e and light- ca r e includes ensuring good nutrition throu g h weight as possible but still be adequate to protect and adequate diet plus vitamin and mineral supplemen- st a b i l i z e the body part. If the crane becomes agitated tation. Vitamin A injections are given ( ,  during the bandaging/splinting process, use sedation IU/kg body weight or . mL/kg of Aquasol A intra- or a general anesthetic. muscularly once weekly). Sur g e r y under general To av oid damaging feathers , especially rem i g e s anesthetic is recommended in sever e cases. Th e and rectrices, use Vetwrap (see Appendix, but avoi d goals of surgery are to debride (cut away) necrot i c red or other brightly colored Vetwrap) or other self- and infected tissues to reduce antigen load. Ski n ad h e s i v e tapes that do not adhere to the feathers. edges should be brought together to enable firs t Masking tape or autoclave tape can be used, but they intention healing to occur (Riddle    ). Prior to tend not to hold well to feathers, especially when su r g e r y, the site is thoroughly scrubbed with a stiff wet. Adh e s i v e tape should only be used if the feath- br ush. After incising the skin, a culture for bacterial ers are first wrapped with gauze. On the scaled and fungal identification is taken from the deep po r tions of the leg, adhesive tape is acceptable. In tissues. If surgical debridement is not done, a some situations, a layer of waterproof tape over the sample for culture can be collected by fine - n e e d l e bandage is helpful to keep the underlying bandage aspiration. Rem o ve fibr otic and infected exudate dr y. Check bandages and splints frequently to detect and irrigate the wound with chymotrypsin and a sw elling, irritation, slippage, or rem o val by the crane. bro a d - s p e c t r um penicillin product such as Bandages in young, growing birds should be piperacillin (Riddle    ). Close the wound with a changed ever y  ho u r s . Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 6 7

The Fig u re -  ba n d a g e (F ig. . ) is useful for fractures of the radius, ulna, and hand, or to support the wing during rec o ver y from soft tissue injuries or developmental abnormali- ties. This bandage can be used alone, or if the bone ends are severe l y malaligned, in conjunction with inter- nal fixation. The immobilization pr ovided by the Fig u re -  bandage can result in a temporary or permanent stiffening of wing joints preve n t i n g normal flight. For release birds , surgical fixation techniques are rec o m - mended to increase the chance of A B normal flight. Hum e r us fractures usually req u i r e internal fixation, and a Fig. 8.15. Two types of splints: A, Type II Kirschner Ehmer splintage for frac t u r e of te m p o r a r y Fig u re -  bandage and body tibiotarsus in  -day-old crane chick; B, Thomas splint (note wire makes a complete wrap to limit wing movem e n t . loop around thigh). Ph otos Glenn H. Olsen (A) and David H. Ellis (B) In cranes, broken legs often res u l t in death. Leg splints may be useful in simple and open (compound) fractures of the tibio- should be immobilized during the healing proc e s s , tarsus and tarsometatarsus (Olsen    ). Leg splints the crane should not be allowed to move about ar e used alone or in conjunction with internal fixa - no r m a l l y . tion. External fixators (Fig. . a) have been used Leg pros t h e s e s ha v e been successfully used in four with both tarsometatarsal and tibiotarsal fractures cases of amputation below the hock for irrep a r a b l e with some success. Femur fractures, rare in cranes, tarsometatarsal fractures. In one case, a custom- generally req u i r e internal fixation (Howa r d    ), designed “human” orthotic was used; in the others, although a Type I Kirschner Ehmer apparatus has a section of PVC pipe was attached to the stump. also worked. Custom fitted wood and bamboo protheses have Some other leg splinting techniques (Figs. . b also been used. and . ) are hinge splints and Schroe d e r - T h o m a s splints for both tibiotarsal and tarsometatarsal frac- tu r es. Spoon splints (usually with the spoon-end rem o ved), fiberglass, and plaster splints are also used. Because the joints above and below a fracture site

Fig. 8.16. Hinge splint: The use of a hinge brace to provi d e me d i a l - l a t e r al support to joints with soft tissue injuries such as ligament tears has proven successful in the medical management of this type of injury in cranes (P. Klein, Humane Society, Fig. 8.14. Fig u re -  bandage. Ph oto David H. El l i s Washington, D.C., personal communication). A rt Kate Spe n c e r 1 6 8 Chapter 8

Be c a u s eo fc r a n ea n a t o m y, a fla to r “sh o e ” t y p eo f mi d a z olam or tiletamine-zol e zapam (Table .) can be s p l i n ti s re q u i re dt oc o r re c t p h a l a n g e a lf r a c t u re s (Fi g . used, cranes are generally induced by mask and then . ) ,l u x a t i o n s ,o rt o c o n t ro lk n u c k l i n g du r i n g rec o v- intubated (.-. uncuffed endotracheal tubes). er y f ro mt e n d o no rn e rve in j u r i e s . Sat i s f a c t o r y to e Injectable anesthetics such as tiletamine-zol e zapam or sp l i n t s ar e m a d eo fb e n ta l u m i n u m ro da n do f reh e a t - ketamine combined with diazepam, midazolam, or a b l ep l a s t i c s p l i n tm a t e r i a l( He xc e l i t e , Ort h o p l a s t ,o r xylazine (Table .) can be used, but res p i r a t o r y and Po l y fle xI I ) . Of t e nt h ew h o l ef o o ti se n c a s e di nt h e ca r diac complication rates are higher and the crane s p l i n t ,w i t h a s p i n eo fs p l i n t m a t e r i a le x t e n d i n gu pt h e must be monitored carefully and preferably held in a ta r s o m e t a t a r s u s t oh e l ps t a b i l i ze t h ef o o t . Sp l i n t sf o r small padded room during rec o ver y. Yohimbine has c u r l e dd i g i t si nc r a n ec h i c k sa re d i s c u s s e di nC h a p t e r . been used on several occasions to speed rec o ver y when Wh e n a s e r i o u sl e go rs p i n a l in j u r y o c c u r s ,s u p p l e- xylazine has been used. Local anesthesia in cranes is m e n t a ls u p p o rt fo r t h ec r a n em a yb e pr ovi d e d by a possible using small amounts of lidocaine (. -. r i g i df r a m ew o rk wi t h a cl o t h sl i n g (Fi g . . ). Som e mL in adult cranes) or another local anesthetic. in s t i t u t i o n s us e a c l o t hs l i n gs u s p e n d e d by rop e s fro m t h ec e i l i n g . Cra n e s c o n fin e dt o s l i n g so f t e n re f u s et oe a t o rd r i n k ,n e c e s s i t a t i n g n u t r i t i o n a ls u p p o rt by tu b e fe e d i n g . So m ec o n t i n u a l l y s t ru g g l ew i t h t h ec o n s t r a i n- Common Surgical Proc e d u re s in g su p p o r t s y s t e ma n d req u i r e l i g h ts e d a t i o n ( m i d a zo l a m ,d i a ze p a m )t o p re ve n ts e l f - i n j u ry. Af t e r Laceration Repair rem o val o ft h es p l i n to rc a s t ,a n o t h e rp e r i o do fi n t e n- si v e m a n a g e m e n ta n dt h e r a p yi s re q u i re d( Ol s e n    ), Lacerations are common in cranes. Cranes occasion- a n ds u rv i va l / s u c c e s sr a t e sf o rc r a n e si n s l i n g sa re lo w. ally cut themselves (especially in the neck) with their sharp toenails (especially the inner nail) when they st r uggle during capture. This injury occurs - ti m e s each year among the   + crane chicks raised at Pat u x ent. Lacerations also occur from sharp objects in the pen and from aggres s i v e pen-mates. Common sites for lacerations include the head, dorsal neck, carpal area, and the legs. Local or general anesthesia is used during repair of lacerations. First, control hemorrhaging with compression on the wound site. For small wounds, ferric chloride hemostatic powder (Mac w h i r ter    ), ferric subsul- fate, or Mon s e l l ’s solution will stop bleeding. After the hemorrhage is controlled, gently pluck body feathers (not remiges or rectrices) around the wound site if Fig. 8.17. Lorie Shaull attends a Sandhill Crane suspended in a needed, but avoid res t a r ting the hemorrhage. Clean sling. Ph oto David H. El l i s the wound with a dilute solution of antiseptic such as po vidone iodine (%), warm saline solution, or chlorhexidine. If the wound edges are not fresh, they should be debrided (cut back to fresh tissue). Sui t a b l e su t u r e material can include - or - nylon or similar Ane s t h e s i a si z ed polyglycolic acid absorbable thread. Sut u r e pat- terns generally refl ect the nature and extent of the Gas anesthesia, using isoflurane, is the best technique laceration with simple continuous, simple for sedation or surgical anesthesia in cranes (Lud d e r s in t e r r upted, and horizontal mattress patterns (Fig . et al.    ). Induction and rec o ver y are rapid and . ) being the most common used in cranes. Cra n e s smooth which is critical for the safety of the crane and sometimes try to rem o ve bandages with their bills, so ha n d l e r . Halothane can also be used, but has been rei n f o r ce accordi n g l y . Non-absorbable sutures can be associated with a higher incidence of cardiac and res - rem o ved after  to  days; absorbable sutures are pi r a t o r y problems. Although pre-anesthetics such as normally left in place. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 6 9

A B C

A

D

Fig. 8.18. Sut u r es: A, simple continuous; B, simple interrup t e d ; C, horizontal mattress; D, purse string. A rt Kate Spe n c e r

Repair of Fractured Beaks B

Minor fractures of the tip of a beak can be managed Fig. 8.19. Crane beak repairs: A, frac t u r ed lower mandible before without anesthesia in two ways. The beak can be repair; B, frac t u r ed maxillary after repair with dental acrylic. trimmed at the point of fracture. Trimming works Ph otos Glenn H. Ol s e n well for fractures occurring on the distal - cm of the beak, but may result in profuse bleeding. Alternately, the fracture can be stabilized with cyanoacrylate glue with Kirschner wires or stainless steel plates. These are (surgical glue, “super glue”) while the blood ves s e l s applied longitudinally along the sides, top, or bottom constrict. After - days, the fracture fragment is of the beak, over the first layer of dental acrylic, and trimmed off. Cya n o a c r ylate glue or dental acrylics held in place with another layer of acrylic. For added can also be used to provide homeostasis and prot e c t st a b i l i t y , one or more Kirschner wires are implanted the stump of a fractured beak. If only the upper or at right angles through the acrylic splint and beak. lo wer beak is fractured, the prot r uding section of the The final step in the process is to rem o ve sharp edges un f r a c t u r ed beak is gradually trimmed back using a by smoothing and shaping the outside surface of the hand-held grinding tool (Dremel tool; see App e n d i x ) ac r ylic with a high-speed, hand-held grinder (Drem e l or surgically rem o ved using radio-cautery for hemo- tool). Acr ylic splints are generally left on the beak stasis (Ellman radio surgery unit; see App e n d i x ) . for - wee k s . Mor e serious fractures req u i r e surgical management Other techniques that have been used for beak under general anesthesia. One method of repair uses repair include bone plating, Kirschner-Ehm e r - t y p e self-curing dental acrylics or hoof acrylics (Fagan    ; external fixation, and intramedullary pinning Altman    ; Frye    ; Wolf    ; see App e n d i x ) . (H owa r d    ). Freq u e n t l y , cranes will not eat for the The fracture site is cleaned, and any open wound is first day or two after surgical rep a i r . Feeding through a tr eated. The fracture is then manually aligned, and the ph a r yngostomy or esophagostomy tube may be less beak cover ed with a layer of acrylic (Fig. . ). Bec a u s e st r essful for these patients than repeated oral tube ac r ylics generate heat when curing, we sometimes feeding and handling of the beak. Rates of successful su r r ound the acrylic with cold packs to minimize repair with sever ely displaced fractures have been low, damage to soft tissues. Unless the fracture site is ver y especially in species such as the Siberian Crane which stable, the acrylic material will req u i r e rei n f o rc i n g does not stop using its beak for probing after surgery. 1 7 0 Chapter 8

In cases where the fractured beak fragment has After soaking, the endoscope is rinsed with sterile, been lost, beak prostheses have been designed using distilled water prior to use. Two separate rinses of moldable acrylics and attached with intramedullary - min each are recommended. Basic endoscopy is pins, wire, or acrylics (Gree n w ell et al.    ). In described in Taylor (   ). cranes, a beak prosthesis generally needs to be rep l a c e d The site is prep a r ed for the surgical proc e d u r e eve r y - months due to the wear associated with the after the patient is anesthetized (isoflurane and cr a n e ’s probing activities. For these reasons, a beak ketamine have been successfully used for endoscopic pr osthesis is probably more appropriate for an exhibit examinations). We strongly advise against perfo r m i n g crane, not a breeding crane. Sev eral captive cranes endoscopic examinations on physically restrained, ha v e fed normally and have survi v ed for years in cap- but non-anesthetized cranes. tivity with beaks shortened unilaterally or bilaterally Th e r e are at least six commonly used en d o s c o p i c by as much as half the length of the normal beak en t r y sites on each side. Choice depends on the (H owa r d    ). organ system to be view. The sites are: () the ven t r a l midline or just lateral to the midline at the posterior margin of the sternum for examination and biopsy Endoscopic Examinations of the liver , () one side of the ventral midline near The first avian endoscopic examinations (using the pelvis for examination of the gastroi n t e s t i n a l rod-lens systems) wer e in the early    ’s (McDo n a l d and urogenital tracts, () lateral to the cloaca also    ) for determining sex in monomorphic for the gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts, () the psittacines. The technique is useful in cranes both flank behind the last rib for the genital organs and for determining sex and for diagnosing a variety of posterior lungs, () the flank in front of the last rib abdominal and res p i r a t o r y disorders. A rigid endo- also for the genital organs and posterior lungs, and scope (.-. mm outside diameter,  o vi e w,  - () dorsally between the second- and third- t o - l a s t cm length; see Appendix for source) is most useful. ribs, slightly below the ver tebral column (and just A   -watt light source is attached via a flex i b l e anterior to the leg) for examination of the lungs, fibe r optic cord. A system using a handle-mounted, genital organs, and heart. In Siberian Cra n e s , ba t t e r y pack (ophthalmoscope/otoscope handle) hemorrhage has frequently occurred when the entry with a focusing ocular piece on a rigid tube (Med i c a l site is behind the last rib. Th e re f o r e, an entry site Diagnostic Systems, see Appendix) has proven useful be t w een the last two ribs is pref e r r ed for this species. in some field situations and is about one sixth the Rigid and flexible endoscopes have also been used price of the rod-lens endoscopes. The disadvan t a g e s to visualize lesions in the trachea, esophagus, of this more portable system are reduced light trans- and cloaca. mission and poorer optics. Flexible endoscopes have Contraindications for endoscopic examination also been used for gastrointestinal and tracheal include sever e disease conditions that would preve n t examinations and for foreign body ret r i e v al from the general anesthesia, obesity, fluid in the abdomen upper gastrointestinal tract and trachea (Howa r d (ascites), and the presence of a large developing egg. et al.    ). A human bronchoscope with extra Possible complications include trauma to organs; channels (i.e., for insertion of other instruments) is laceration of a blood vessel, liver , or spleen res u l t i n g recommended. We have used such units coupled in serious hemorrhage and occasionally death; sub- with laser cautery to rem o ve tumors from the cutaneous emphysema from air leaking from an air accessible portions of the gastrointestinal tract sac through the hole made in the body wall; and the and the trachea. possibility of sepsis at the surgery site. The risk of The endoscope is ster il i ze d be f o r e use. One subcutaneous emphysema can be lessened by placing method is to expose it to ethylene oxide gas. After an absorbable suture in the body wall and another in ex p o s u r e to the gas, the instrument needs to be aired the skin upon exiting an endoscopic site, or by using for - hours before use. Ethylene oxide also poses tissue glue (cyanoacrylic glue) to seal the surgery site. a human health hazard and manufacturer ’s safety Trauma to organs, hemorrhage, and sepsis are all recommendations should be followed. A second, safer co n t r olled best by using proper techniques. We and easier, method is to soak the endoscope for  - recommend prior training to avoid mistakes and min in % glutaraldehyde (Glu t a r ex, see App e n d i x ) . to enable proper interpretation of tissues viewed Soaking for more than  hours may damage optics. th r ough the endoscope. Medicine and Su rg e ry 1 7 1

Ventriculotomy/Foreign Body Removal - absorbable suture material in a -l a y er closure. First, close the mucosa/submucosa with simple Cranes frequently pick up bright or novel objects and in t e r r upted sutures. Second, close the ven t r i c u l u s occasionally swallow them. These objects freq u e n t l y muscle wall with both horizontal and vert i c a l lodge in the ventriculus. Clinical signs rep o r ted in ma t t r ess sutures. Th i r d, close the adventia with Sar us Cranes include lethargy, labored standing, hock interlocking continuous sutures. The abdominal sitting, and diarrhea (Bush and Kennedy    ). muscle wall and skin are closed with - ab s o r b a b l e Gas t r ointestinal bleeding and signs of heavy metal su t u r es. Reduce food intake for  days post surgery to xicosis (lead, zinc, etc.; see Poisoning) have been and treat the crane with antibiotics (Table .). seen. One Whooping Crane in Mar yland died from Feces will return to normal within  days after ingesting a nail that punctured the ventriculus. In su r g e r y (Bush and Kennedy    ). Only rec e n t l y another case, a Florida Sandhill Crane that ingested has endoscopy proven useful for ret r i e v al of stomach a gold earring suffered sever e clinical signs. Two fo r eign bodies in adult cranes. Whooping Cranes that swallowed wire survi v ed. In one case, the wire penetrated the gizzard and became walled off in a necrotic mass in the abdomen. In the second case, the wire penetrated the gizzard Preve n t i v e Med i c i n e mucosa and was found in the gizzard muscle layer s . Operations to rem o ve the wire wer e successful in Preve n t i v e medicine should include annual health both cases. checks. Each bird needs a physical exam, a blood If clinical signs appear, take radiographs to count and blood chemistry profi le, a screening for co n fi rm the presence of a metallic foreign body likely or common infections (e.g., Salmonella, EEE, (F ig. . ). Unf o rt u n a t e l y , not all foreign bodies are IBDC, TB), and a fecal parasite analysis. For cranes evident on radiographs. Sur g e r y can be perfo r m e d entering or leaving the colony, impose a  - da y to rem o ve the object (if it is likely to poison the quarantine with disease screening. Prop h y l a c t i c crane or pierce the gastrointestinal tract). Sur g e r y tr eatment (for parasites, etc.) and vaccination (EEE, (a ventriculotomy or proventriculotomy) is per- botulism) schedules should be developed to meet the formed under general anesthesia using isoflurane. needs of the flock. The Whooping Crane Hea l t h If possible, fast the crane  - hours to reduce gut Adv i s o r y Team has published detailed preve n t i v e contents. Place the crane in right lateral rec u m b e n c y medicine protocols (Langenberg and Dein    ) and incise the skin and muscle parallel to the last that are useful for other species. ri b . The ventriculus is exteriorized, packed off, and incised through the mu s c u l u s in t e rm e d i n at the posterior end of the ventriculus (or through the less muscular proventriculus). The foreign object is Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d rem o ved and then the ventriculus is closed with Allen, J. L., H. D. Mar tin, and A. M. Crowl e y .    . Metastatic cholangiocarcinoma in a Florida Sandhill Cra n e . Journal of the American Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association   :   . Altman, R. B.    . Use of temp-plus dental product for beak repair and prosthesis. Association of Avian Vet e r i n a r i a n s Newsletter ():   . Aty eo, W. T., and R. M. Windingstad.    . Feather mites of the Greater Sandhill Crane. Journal of Par a s i t o l o g y  :  -  . Bo e ve r , W. J.    . Noninfectious diseases. Pages   -  in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal medicine. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. Brannian, R. E., D. L. Graham, and J. Cres w ell.    . Restraint associated myopathy in East African Crown e d Cranes. Pages  - in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Fig. 8.20. Ingested object (rad i o g ra p h ) . Ph oto Glenn H. Ol s e n Seattle, Was h . 1 7 2 Chapter 8

Bush, M., and S. Ken n e d y .    . Ventriculostomy for rem o val monensin and clazuril in Sandhill Cranes (Grus ca n a d e n s i s ). of foreign bodies from Sar us Cranes. Journal of the Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  :  -  . American Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association   :   -   . Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., N. J. Thomas, and S. Ree v es.    . Capture Bush, M., D. Locke, L. A. Neal, and J. W. Carpenter.    a. my opathy in an endangered Sandhill Crane (Grus canaden - Pharmacokinetics of cephalothin and cephalexin in selected sis pulla). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  :  -  . avian species. American Journal of Ve rt i n a ry Res e a rc h Chappell, S. A., and R. E. Brannian.    . Ser um chemistry in  :   -   . East African Crowned Cranes. Journal of Zoo Animal Bush, M., D. Locke, L. A. Neal, and J. W. Carpenter.    b. Medicine  : - . Gentamicin tissue concentrations in various avian species C l a rk ,G .G . , F. J. De i n ,C .L . Cr a b b s ,J . W. Ca r p e n t e r , a n dD . fo l l o wing recommended dosage therapy. American Jou r n a l M. Wat t s .    . An t i b o d y re s p o n s eo f Sa n d h i l la n d of Vet e r i n a r y Res e a r ch  :   -   . Wh o o p i n g Cr a n e sc a u s e d by e a s t e r ne q u i n ee n c e p h a l i t i s Bush, M., R. J. Montali, G. R. Novak, and A. E. James.    . ( E E E )v i ru s vac c i n e . Jo u r n a lo f Wil d l i f e Dis e a s e s  :  -  . The healing of avian fractures: a histological Coles, E. H.    . Vet e r i n a r y clinical pathology. W. B. xer oradiographic study. Journal of the American Animal Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa.   pp . Hospital Association  :  -  . Connetta, J., E. Gar n e r , E. Dolensek, H. Kobrin, and R. Bush, M., L. A. Neal, and R. S. Cus t e r .    . Prel i m i n a r y Str ebel.    . Hematologic and biochemical profi les in pharmacokinetics studies of selected antibiotics in birds . normal Demoiselle Cranes (Ant h r opoides virgo). Laboratory Page  in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Animal Science  :  -  . Vet e r i n a r i a n s . Cook, R. A., R. A. Mor etti, and J. A. Duf f e l m e ye r .    . Ca m b r e, R. C., and D. Ken n y .    . Vaccination of zoo birds Hematology of the White Naped Crane (Grus vipio) against avian botulism with mink botulism vaccine. Pag e (abstract). Page   -  in Proceedings First Int e r n a t i o n a l   in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Co n f e r ence on Zoological and Avian Medicine, Sep t e m b e r Veterinarians, St. Louis, Mo. - ,    , Oahu, Haw a i i . Campbell, T. W.    . Avian hematology and cytology. Iowa Co u rt n e y , C. H., D. J. For re s t e r , J. V. Ernst, and S. A. Nes b i t t . State Uni v ersity Press, Ames.   pp .    . Coccidia of Sandhill Cranes, Grus canadensis. Jou r n a l Campbell, T. W.    . Chapter , Hem a t o l o g y . Pages   -  of Parasitology  :  -  . in B. W. Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and L. R. Harrison, edi- Cur r o, T. G., J. Langenberg, and J. Pau l - Mu r p h y .    . A tors. Avian medicine: principles and applications. Win g e r s rev i e w of lameness in long-legged birds. Pages   -  in Publishing, Lake Wor th, Fla . Proceedings of the Association of Avian Veterinarians, New Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . An outline of the treatment and control Orleans, La. of crane parasites. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Cus t e r , R. S., M. Bush, and J. W. Carpenter.    . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Colorado Sta t e Pharmacokinetics of gentamicin in blood plasma of quail, Uni v ersity Press, For t Collins. pheasants, and cranes. American Journal of Vet e r i n a r y Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . Cranes (order Gruiformes). Pages   - Res e a r ch  :  -  .   in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal medicine. Dec k e r , R. A., and J. C. Hruska.    . Renal adenocarci n o m a W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. in a Sar us Crane (Grus an t i g o n e ). Journal of Zoo Animal Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    .In f e c t i o n sa n dp a r a s i t i cd i s e a s e si nc r a n e s . Medicine ():  - . Pag e s   -  in M .E .Fowl e r , ed i t o r .Zo oa n dw i l da n i m a l Dein, F. J.    . Laboratory manual of avian hematology. m e d i c i n ec u r re n tt h e r a p y. W. B. Sau n d e r s , Phi l a d e l p h i a , Pa. Association of Avian Veterinarians, East Nort h p o r t, N.Y. Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., G. G. Clark, and D. M. Watts.    . Th e  pp . impact of eastern equine encephalitis virus on efforts to Dein, F. J., J. W. Carpenter, G. G. Clark, R. J. Montali, C. L. rec o ver the endangered Whooping Crane. Pages   -  in Crabbs, T. F. Tsai, and D. E. Doc h e rt y .    . Mor tality of J. E. Cooper, editor. Disease and threatened birds. ICBP ca p t i v e Whooping Cranes caused by eastern equine Technical Publication  . encephalitis virus. Journal of the American Med i c a l Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., F. J. Dein, and G. Clark.    . An outbrea k Association   :   -   . of eastern equine encephalitis virus in captive Wh o o p i n g Doc h e rt y , D. E., and D. J. Henning.    . The isolation of a Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s he r p e s v i r us from captive cranes with an inclusion body    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Whooping Cra n e disease. Avian Diseases  :  -  . Habitat Maintenance Trust, Grande Island, Neb r . Done, L. B., D. M. Ialeggio, and M. Cra n fi eld.    . Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., and S. R. Derrickson.    . Whooping Therapeutic use of methocarbamol in a Demoiselle Cra n e Crane mortality at the Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center, (Ant h r opoides virgo) with sever e ataxia and laterofl exion of    -   . Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s the neck. Page   in Proceedings of the American    Crane Work s h o p . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Association of Zoo Veterinarians, St. Louis, Mo. Tave r n i e r , Fla . Douglas, S. W., and H. D. Williamson.    . Vet e r i n a r y Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., L. N. Locke, and J. C. Mil l e r .    . Mort a l i t y radiological interpretation. Lea and Feb i g e r , Phi l a d e l p h i a , in captive Sandhill Cranes at Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a rc h Pa.   pp . Ce n t e r ,    -   . Pages   -  in Proceedings of    Fagan, D.    . Beak repair in a South American Black Eagle. Crane Work s h o p . 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For re s t e r , D. J., J. W. Carpenter, and D. R. Bla n k i n s h i p .    . Howa r d, P. E., F. J. Dein, J. A. Langenberg, K. J. Fri s c h m e ye r , Coccidia of Whooping Cranes. Journal of Wildlife Dis e a s e s and D. B. Brunson.    . Surgical rem o val of a tracheal  : - . fo r eign body from a Whooping Crane (Grus americana). For re s t e r , D. J., F. H. White, and C. F. Simpson.    . Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  :  -  . Parasites and diseases of Sandhill Cranes in Florida. Pag e s Kaleta, E. F., and H. J. Marschall.    . Newcastle disease in a   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings of the zoo affecting Demoiselle Cranes (Ant h r opoides virgo), International Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y , Greater Flamingos (Pho e n i c a p t e r us rub e r ) and a Pie d Sti l l w a t e r . Imperial Pigeon (Ducula bicolor). Avian Pathology  :  - Franson, J. C., and S. G. Here f o r d.    . Lead poisoning in a   . Mississippi Sandhill Crane. Wilson Bulletin   :  -  . Karpinski, L. G., and S. L. Clubb.    . Clinical aspects of Frye, F. L.    . Prosthesis enhance quality of life. Vet e r i n a r y ophthalmology in caged birds. Pages   -  in R. W. Kirk, Medicine :  -  . ed i t o r . Cur r ent vet e r i n a r y therapy IX, small animal prac- Gee, G. F., J. W. Carpenter, and G. L. Hen s l e r .    . Spe c i e s tice. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. di f f e r ences in hematological values of captive cranes, geese, Ken n e d y , S., J. P. Cri s l e r , E. Smith, and M. Bush.    . Lead raptors, and quail. Journal of Wildlife Management  :  - poisoning in Sandhill Cranes. Journal of the American   . Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association   :  -  . Graham, D. L.    . Characterization of a reo-like virus and its Klein, P., K. Charmatz, and J. Langenberg.    . The effect of isolation from and pathogenicity for parrots. 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Trends and response during spontaneous and controlled bleeding. effects of organochlorine residues on Oregon and Neva d a Anesthesia and Analgesia  :  -  . wading birds,    - . Colonial Wat e r b i r ds ():   -  . Mac w h i rt e r , P.    . Rep ro d u c t i v e and genetic disorders. Pag e s Hill, E. F., and W. J. Fleming.    . Anticholinesterase poison-   -  in P. Ma c W h i rt e r, editor. Every b i r d, a guide to bird ing of birds: field monitoring and diagnosis of acute health. Inkata Press, Melbourne, Aus t r a l i a . poisoning. Env i r onmental Toxicology and Chemistry : - Magrane, W. G.    . Canine ophthalmology. Lea & Feb i g e r ,  . Philadelphia, Pa.   pp . Hoc h l e i t h n e r , M.    . Biochemistries. Pages   -  in B. W. McD onald, S. E.    . Surgical sexing of birds by laparos c o p y . Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and L. R. Harrison, editors. Avi a n California Veterinarian : - . medicine: principles and applications. Wingers Pub l i s h i n g , McM illan, M. C.    . Avian radiographic diagnosis. Pag e s Lake Wor th, Fla .   -  in    Proceedings of the Association of Avi a n Howa r d, P.    . Management of beak fractures in cranes. Pag e Veterinarians, Houston, Tex .  in Proceedings of the    Exotic Animal Den t i s t r y McM illan, M. C.    . Imaging techniques. Pages   -  in Co n f e r ence, Philadelphia, Pa. B. W. Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and L. R. Harrison, editors. Howa r d, P. E.    . The use of bone plates in the repair of Avian medicine: principles and applications. Win g e r s avian fractures. Journal of the American Animal Hos p i t a l Publishing, Lake Wor th, Fla . Association  :  -  . 1 7 4 Chapter 8

Montali, R. J.    . An ove rv i ew of tumors in zoo animals. Ser a fi n, J. A.    . The influence of diet composition upon Journal of the American Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association gr owth and development of Sandhill Cranes. Condor   :  .  :  -  . Mullins, W. H., E. G. Biz eau, and W. W. Benson.    . Shane, S. M., G. H. Olsen, G. D. Smith, and W. S. Biv i n . Pesticide and heavy metal residues in Greater San d h i l l    . The use of a particle sampler to diagnose lower res p i - Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s ra t o r y tract infection in companion birds. Avi a n / E xot i c    Crane Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Pres s , Practice (&): -. For t Collins. Simpson, C. F., O. J. For re s t e r , and S. A. Nesbitt.    . Avi a n Mur p h y , C. J.    . Raptor ophthalmology. Compendium of po x in Florida Sandhill Cranes. Journal of Wildlife Dis e a s e s Small Animal Medicine :  -  .  :  -  . Olsen, G. H.    . Orthopedics in cranes: pediatrics and Snyd e r , S. B., and M. J. Richard.    . Treatment of avian adults. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Med i c i n e tu b e r culosis in a Whooping Crane (Grus americana). Pag e ():  - .   -  in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Olsen, G. H. and J. W. Carpenter.    . Chapter . Cranes. Veterinarians, Pittsburgh, Pa. In R. Altman, K. Que s e n b e r r y, and S. Clubb, editors. Avi a n Snyd e r , S. B., M. J. Richard, J. P. Thilsted, R. C. Drewien, and Medicine and Sur g e r y. W. B. Saunders Co., Phi l a d e l p h i a , J. C. Lewis.    . Lead poisoning in a Whooping Cra n e . Pa. In pres s . Pages   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Olsen, G. H., J. W. Carpenter, G. F. Gee, N. J. Thomas, Nor th American Crane Work s h o p . Florida Non g a m e and F. J. Dein.    . Myco t o xin caused disease in captive Wildlife Program Technical Rep o r t  , Gai n e s v i l l e . Whooping Cranes (Grus am e r i c a n a ) and Sandhill Cra n e s Tay l o r , M.    . Endoscopic examination and biopsy tech- (Grus ca n a d e n s i s ). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. niques. Pages   -  in B. W. Ritchie, G. J. Harrison, and In pres s . L. R. Harrison, editors. Avian medicine: principles and Olsen, G. H., and S. D. Gaunt.    . Effect of hemoprot o zo a l applications. Wingers Publishing, Lake Wor th, Fla . infections on rehabilitation of wild raptors. Journal of the Wei, Y. C., et al. (Copy unavailable).    . Th r ee cases of American Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association   :   -   . granulocytic leukemia in the Red Crowned Crane. Chinese Pagac, B. B., M. J. Tur ell, and G. H. Olsen.    . Eastern Journal of Zoology  ():  - . equine encephalomyelitis virus and Cu l i s e t am e l a n u ra White, D. H., L. E. Hay es, and P. B. Bush.    . Case histories activity at the Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center,    - . of wild birds killed intentionally with famphur in Geo r g i a Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association and West Virginia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases  :  -  . ():   -  . Windingstad, R. M., R. J. Cole, P. E. Nelson, T. J. Roffe, R. R. Pue r ta, M. L., J. C. Alonso, V. Huecas, J. A. Alonso, M. George, and J. W. Dor n e r .    . Fus a r i u m myc o t o xins from Abelenda, and R. Mun o z - Pu l i d o .    . Hematology and peanuts suspected as a cause of Sandhill Crane morta l i t y . blood chemistry of wintering Common Cranes. Condor Journal of Wildlife Diseases  ():  - .  :  -  . Windingstad, R. M., S. M. Ker r , and L. N. Locke.    . Lead Que s e n b e r r y, K. E., G. Mauldin, and E. Hil l ye r .    . poisoning of Sandhill Cranes. Prairie Naturalist  : - . Nutritional support of the avian patient. Pages  - in Windingstad, R. M., S. S. Hur l e y , and L. Sil e o .    . Capture Proceedings of the    Annual Meeting of the Association my opathy in a free - fl ying greater Sandhill Crane (Grus of Avian Veterinarians, Seattle, Was h . c a n a d e n s i st a b i d a) from Wisconsin. Journal of Wil d l i f e Redig, P. T.    . Fluid therapy and acid base balance in the Diseases  ():   -  . critically ill avian patient. Pages  - in Proc e e d i n g s Windingstad, R. M., D. O. Tra i n e r , and R. Duncan.    . Annual Meeting of the Association of Avian Vet e r i n a r i a n s , Salmonella enteritidis and Ari z ona hinshawii isolated from Tor onto, Canada. wild Sandhill Cranes. Avian Diseases  :  -  . Remple, J. D.    . Raptor bumblefoot: a new trea t m e n t Wol f , L.    . Prosthetic bill technique in a Canada Goo s e . technique. Pages   -  in P. T. Redig, J. E. Cooper, J. D. Pages   -  in    Proceedings of the Association of Remple, and D. B. Hun t e r , editors. Raptor biomedicine. Avian Veterinarians, Boulder, Colo. Uni v ersity of Minnesota Press, Min n e a p o l i s . Zinkal, J. G., J. Rathert, and R. R. Hudson.    . Dia z i n o n Riddle, K. E.    . Surgical treatment of bumblefoot in rap- poisoning in wild Canada geese. Journal of Wil d l i f e tors. Pages  - in J. E. Cooper and A. G. Gree n w o o d , Management  :  -  . editors. Recent advances in the study of raptor diseases. Ch i r on Publications, Kei g h l e y , West York s h i r e, Eng l a n d . Ritchie, B. W., C. M. Otto, K. S. Latimer, and D. T. Crowe.    . A technique of intraosseous cannulation for intra- venous therapy in birds. The Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian  : - . Schalm, O. W., N. C. Jain, and E. J. Carroll.    . Vet e r i n a r y he m a t o l o g y . Lea and Feb i g e r , Philadelphia, Pa.   pp . Ser a fi n, J. A.    . Infl uence of dietary energy and sulfur amino acid levels upon growth and development of you n g Sandhill Cranes. Page  in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Washington, D.C. CHAPTER 9 Genetic Man a g e m e n t

C la i re M. Mirande, Ge o rge F. Gee, S cott R. Swengel, and Christine Sh e p pa rd

ue to the trends towa r d extinction of po p u l a t i o n ’s members; other alleles will be rare, found many crane species in the wild, the in only a few animals. The object of captive manage- continued development of cooperative ment is to pres e r ve, so far as is possible, the genetic management programs for captive cranes description of the wild population—to pres e r ve the Dis a critical component of rec o ver y strategies. highest diversity possible. Achieving this goal req u i re s Sig n i fi cant prog r ess has been made in the last ten yea r s co n t r olled prop a g a t i o n . tow a r d the improvement of techniques for pre s e rv i n g An y si n g l e no n - i n b re d in d i v i d u a l rep re s e n t s  % of genetic diver s i t y . Successful regional programs are th e to t a l g e n e t i cd i ve r s i t y in a po p u l a t i o n (De n n i s t o n under development and cooperation within regions is    ). Howeve r , th e al l e l e s in o n ea n i m a l do no t rep r e- in c r easing. It is now important to develop mecha- se n t th e di s t r i b u t i o n of al l e l e s in th e po p u l a t i o n , un l e s s nisms for coordination between these regions towa r d th a t po p u l a t i o n co n t a i n s es s e n t i a l l y no var i a b i l i t y .A world conservation strategies. New res e a r ch is needed ca p t i v e po p u l a t i o n fo u n d e d by on l y a fe w in d i v i d u a l s to evaluate and refi ne management prog r a m s . m a yl a c k ra r e al l e l e s or over rep re s e n t t h e m .T h e la r g e r Eff o r ts to pres e r ve endangered species should pro- th e nu m b e r of in d i v i d u a l s co n t r i b u t i n g to a ca p t i v e mote self-sustaining wild populations. Th e po p u l a t i o n , th e mo r e ac c u r a t e l y to t a l ge n e t i c di ve r s i t y establishment of captive “species banks” can be critical of th e sp e c i e s wi l l be re p re s e n t e d .T h e ge n e t i c di ve r s i t y to ensure the survi v al of some species, and to prom o t e rep re s e n t e d , ho weve r , do e s no t i n c re a s el i n e a r l y wi t h the pres e r vation of genetic diversity so populations are t h en u m b e r of co n t r i b u t i n g in d i v i d u a l s . In th e o r y, th e able to respond to change (Mettler and Gregg    ; l a r g e rt h e nu m b e r of w i l di n d i v i d u a l s us e d to st a r t th e Wil c o x et al.    ). Lack of diversity often red u c e s ca p t i v e po p u l a t i o n , th e be t t e r . In pr a c t i c e , ca p t i v e resistance to disease, decreases ferti l i t y , increa s e s m a n a g e r sa re co n s t r a i n e d by th e la c k o fi n d i v i d u a l s of em b r yo morta l i t y , and reduces growth rates (Fra n k e l ra r e sp e c i e s , a la c k of s p a c e ,a n d fre q u e n t l y by th e and Soule    ). ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ex i s t i n g ca p t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s .T h e s e This chapter discusses the management of genetic p o p u l a t i o n sm a y co n t a i n an i m a l s of un k n ow n or i g i n s di v ersity in captive populations of cranes. We pres e n t or in b re d i n d i v i d u a l sa n d ha v e su b o p t i m a l di s t r i b u - the basic principles and tools of genetic and demo- ti o n s of ag e , s e x ,a n d pa re n t a g e . graphic management of small captive populations, A population’s genetic diversity is only partl y and rev i e w cooperative management programs and dependent upon its actual size, N. The effective useful contacts. Fin a l l y , we summarize genetic res e a rc h genetic size of a population is estimated by its ef f e c t i v e needs and projects underwa y . po p u l a t i o n nu m b e r , Ne (C row and Kimura    ). Ne me a s u r es the way in which the population rep r o- duces, transmitting its genes to the next generation (F oose and Ballou    ). Spe c i fic a l l y , Ne is the num- Genetic and Dem o g r a p h i c ber of individuals that would be req u i r ed in a hypothetical, random breeding population of constant Man a g e m e n t si z e, equal sex ratio, and with non-overlapping genera- tions to retain the same amount of genetic diversity as Ever y individual in a population rep r esents a unique was retained in the original population. combination of alleles (alternative forms of a gene). Ne in c r eases when: () the number of bree d e r s The population itself, howeve r , can be described by in c r eases, () the number of offspring per bree d e r measuring the fre q u e n c y of ea c h al l e l e at each locus. in c r eases, () the number of offspring per bree d e r Some alleles will be common, shared by most of the becomes more equal (the variance in the number of 1 7 6 Chapter 9 offspring per breeder decreases [Frankel and Sou l e The genetic diversity of a population is grea t e s t    ]), and () the sex ratio is even (at least in most when each founder has the same number of offspring. species). Populations with larger Ne values loose When each pair has the same number of chicks, Ne is genetic diversity and rare alleles more slowly than twice that of a random breeding population (Crow populations with smaller Ne values (Denniston    ). and Kimura    ; Frankel and Soule    ). Captive When Ne reaches a certain size, somewh e r e arou n d crane pairs generally have ver y unequal numbers of   animals, the population may gain genetic var i a - chicks (Swengel    ; She p p a r d    ) (Ne

TABLE 9.2. Recommended procedures for selecting mates and targeting number of offspring per pair.2 Coo p e r a t i v e Cap t i v e . Assign genetic values to birds. (GENES software Management Prog r a m s pr ovides an orde r ed list of mean kinship by sex and a Considerable effort has been focused, both reg i o n a l l y me a s u r e of rare alleles in the “pro p o r tion of genome un i q u e ” rep o rt . ) and internationally, on co o rd i n a t i n g ca p t i v e ma n a g e - me n t ef f o rt s to pres e r ve genetic diver s i t y . For these . First, breed birds with highest genetic value (lowes t pr ograms to succeed, individual animals must be mean kinship). These birds should produce the largest number offspring. pa i r ed and bred (or not bred) according to genetic and demographic management strategies. To a degree , . Second, breed birds with lower genetic value, but whose alleles may be lost soon. (Knowledge of managers and pa r ticipating institutions have less autonomy in deter- kinship value in the SPARKS masterplan rep o r t are mining the fate of individual cranes, but are so u r ces of this information.) committed to a larger goal (long term pres e r vation of . Pair individuals according to the following criteria: the gene pool). In    , global priorities for captive propagation of a. Mate individuals with similar genetic value (e.g., mean kinship) to avoid combining rare all cranes wer e established as part of a Co n s e r vat i o n and common alleles. As s e s s m e n t an d Man a g e m e n t Pla n (CAMP) which su m m a r i z ed management in the wild, rec o very / m a n - b. Mate individuals whose offspring will have low in b r eeding coeffici e n t s . agement plans, res e a r ch, and the size and type of ca p t i v e programs needed to support field efforts . c. Max i m i z e pairing success based on age, behavior, and physical condition. At a Glo b a l Cap t i v e Act i o n Pla n (GCAP) work- shop for cranes in    , the status of captive d. Adjust for logistical considerations such as transfers, populations was examined including estimates of quarantine, and cost. global and regional population sizes, degree of diffi- e. Adjust, if needed, based on wishes of individuals or culty in breeding, existence of international or in s t i t u t i o n s . regional studbooks or management programs, and 2 Adapted from Wiese and Willis (   ). release programs. Topics examined included manage- ment of founders, res e a r ch needs, studbook and management program needs, and methods for coordi - nating global and regional programs. Tar g e t held. It also includes mates, inbreeding coeffici e n t s , populations wer e established for the world. living offspring and siblings, and summary tables of Regional crane Taxo n Adv i s o r y Grou p s (TAGs) are holdings by institution, births, deaths, and transfers. being formed to determine regional roles in captive Some detail may also be given on status in the wild management, coordinate allocation of limited space and captive management efforts . and res o u r ces between taxa, and coordinate prog r a m s A studbook-like rep o r t for species which do not with other regions. Crane TAGs have been established ha v e an official studbook can now be provided by for global populations in Nor th America, Euro p e , the International Species Information System (ISIS) Africa, and Australia (see Table .). Chinese and (see Chapter  ). ISIS has developed a valuable Japanese TAGs are being devel o p e d . ne w software program entitled Single Pop u l a t i o n Global cooperation for individual species is orga- Analysis and Rec o r d Keeping System (SPAR K S ) . ni z ed under Glo b a l An i m a l Surv i va l Pla n s (G A S Ps ) . This software is designed for the production of Some species, such as the Red - c r owned Crane, can be studbooks and to conduct basic genetic and demo- ef f e c t i v ely managed as regional metapopulations with graphic analysis on population data. Sup p o rt i n g periodic exchange of bloodlines. Other species, such so f t w a r e (GENES, DEMOG, and CAPACI T Y) as the Siberian Crane, have a lower number of pr ovides for most of the analysis described in this founders and must be managed globally to insure section. Individuals and institutions with captive genetic health. GASP workshops have been held for cranes are encouraged to join ISIS. Fur ther informa- the Red - c r owned and Siberian Cranes and are rec o m - tion can be obtained by contacting ISIS (address in mended for the Black-necked, Hooded, Wh i t e - n a p e d , Appendix) or ICF. and Wattled Cra n e s . Genetic Ma n ag e m e n t 1 7 9

TABLE 9.3. Summary of studbooks and management programs for cranes.

Regional Tax on Adv i s o r y Group (TAG) Sib e r ian Cra n e Co o r dinators for C ra n e s International Studbook Keeper and International Glo b a l Co n s e r vation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) Animal Surv i v al Plan (GASP) Coordi n a t o r : Ca p t i v e Crane Wor king Grou p : Vladimir Panchenko, Oka State Nat u r e Res e r ve, Lakash Cl a i r e Mirande, International Crane Fou n d a t i o n Chinese Studbook Kee p e r : Nor th America: Zhao Qingguo, Chinese Association of Cl a i r e Mirande, International Crane Fou n d a t i o n Zoological Gard e n s Euro p e : Red - c r owned Cra n e Gunter Schleussner, Wilhelna Zoological Gard e n s Global Animal Su rv i val Pla n : U.K. and Irel a n d : no coordinator designated Nick Lindsay, Whipsnade Zoo, and Dav e Coles, Child Beale Trus t International Studbook Keeper and SSCJ Coordi n a t o r : Ter uyuki Komiya, Tok y o Ueno Zoo Af r i c a : Alan Abre y , Umgemi Bir d Par k Nor th American Studbook Kee p e r : Scott Swengel, International Crane Fou n d a t i o n Ch i n a : To be determined SSP Coordi n a t o r : Cl a i r e Mirande, International Crane Fou n d a t i o n Jap a n : Kazuaki Nippashi, Saitama Children ’s Zoo Chinese Studbook Keeper and Regional Coordi n a t o r : Liu Dajun, Shenyang Zoo White-naped Cra n e EEP Coordinator and Regional Studbook Kee p e r : International Studbook Keeper and SSP Rob Belterman, Rot t e r dam Zoo (No r th America) Coordi n a t o r : JMSC Studbook Keeper and JMSP Coordi n a t o r : Christine She p p a r d, Wildlife Conservation Soc i e t y Nick Lindsay, Whipsnade Zoo EEP (Eur ope) Coordi n a t o r : Peter Muhling, Nur emberg Zoo Blue Cra n e JMSC (U.K.) Studbook Kee p e r : International Studbook Kee p e r : Nick Lindsay, Whipsnade Zoo Fer di Schoeman, National Zoological Gar dens of South Africa SSCJ (Japan) Coordi n a t o r , Studbook Keeper and Regional Coordi n a t o r : Nor th American Studbook Kee p e r : Kazuaki Nippashi, Saitama Children ’s Zoo Susan Scott, Nor th Carolina Zoological Par k JMSC Studbook Keeper and JMSP Coordi n a t o r : Wattled Cra n e Whipsnade Zoo International Studbook Keeper and SSP Coordi n a t o r : Fred Beall, Franklin Zoological Par k West African Crowned C ra n e Global Animal Surv i v al Plan (GASP) Coordi n a t o r s : Nor th American Studbook Kee p e r : Fred Beall, Franklin Zoological Par k Susan Hae f f n e r , Den v er Zoo Linda Rod w ell, The Highlands Crane Grou p JMSC Studbook Kee p e r : JMSC Studbook Keeper and JMSP Coordi n a t o r : Roger Wilkinson, Nick Lindsay, Whipsnade Zoo Black-necked Cra n e SSCJ Studbook Keeper and Coordi n a t o r : Chinese Studbook Kee p e r : Masanori Kob yashi, Chiba Zoo Zhao Qingguo, Chinese Association of Hooded Cra n e Zoological Gard e n s International Studbook Keeper and SSP Coordi n a t o r : Bruce Bohmke, Phoenix Zoo JMSC Studbook Keeper and JMSP Coordi n a t o r : Nick Lindsay, Whipsnade Zoo SSCJ Studbook Keeper & Regional Coordi n a t o r : Takeshi Sakoh, Hira Kawa Zoo 1 8 0 Chapter 9 Genetic Ma n ag e m e n t 1 8 1

Spe c i e s ma n a g e m e n t pro g r a m s ha v e been formed semen from more than one donor has been used to for regional coordination of captive management inseminate a female or because more than one female including recommendations for transfers, pairings, occupies the pen where an egg is found). Som e t i m e s and pair-by-pair prod u c t i v i t y . Table . su m m a r i ze s poor rec o r d keeping clouds parentage information. management programs for cranes. The Pop u l a t i o n an d Hab i t a t Vi a b i l i t y An a l y s i s Ongoing Genetic Research (PH V A) process uses computer simulation modelling (VOR TEX software) to predict the probability of Res e a r ch on diversity and relatedness in cranes su rv i v al or extinction of wild and captive populations encompasses many techniques including protein elec- under current and potential conditions. PHV As are a tro p h o r esis, restriction fragment length valuable tool in the development of rec o ver y plans. polymorphisms (RFLP), competitive binding Wor kshops have been held for Whooping, Red - immunoassays, and blood typing. Details on these cr owned, Siberian, Mississippi Sandhill, and Wat t l e d techniques are presented by Gee et al. (   ). Cranes. For information contact: Conservat i o n Prot e i n el e c t ro p h o re s i s rev eals a small part of the Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) (address in en t i r e genome by examining blood or tissue Appendix) or Claire Mirande at ICF. homogenates for banding patterns associated with sp e c i fi c enzymes. These bands rep r esent phenotypes at the enzyme locus. This gives information on the num- ber of alleles segregating at the locus in a population and the genotypes of the individuals tested (Gee et al.    ). Early work with electrop h o r esis on cranes by Morgan, at the Uni v ersity of Mar yland in    , indi- cated a limited amount of var i a t i o n . A recent technique in DNA analysis or ge n e t i c fing e r p ri n t i n g examines variations in DNA struc t u r e (Jeffries et al.    ; Vas s a r t et al.    ). Enz y m e s (r estriction endonucleases) are used to cleave DNA. The resulting fragments contain tandemly rep e a t e d sequences that are highly polymorphic (RF L P ). Radiolabelled complementary probes have been devel - oped to identify these fragments, provi d i n g Genetic Res e a rc h fingerprints that are unique to each individual tested. These fingerprints provide an excellent means for S i g n i f i c a n c e identifying relatedness between individuals and to estimate population diversity (Jeffries et al.    ; Studies of genetic diversity and relatedness ar e Gey er et al.    ). pa r ticularly rel e v ant to management of species such as Sev eral RFLP studies wer e conducted on cranes. the Whooping Crane where the captive flock was Lo n g m i r e et al. (   ) used a species-specific prob e established from a ver y small wild population (i.e., de v eloped from Whooping Crane red blood cell DNA fo l l o wing a genetic bottleneck). Although eggs from to examine relatedness and diversity in this species. this population wer e collected from known nest sites, Lo ve and Dessauer used a species-specific probe to the relatedness of wild pairs and the continuity of nest examine differences between Whooping Cranes and site use are unknown (Gee et al.    ). Div ersity can other closely related species (Love    ). RFLP tech- also be used to evaluate di ve r g e n c e be t w een popula- niques have also provided a new technique for se x i n g tions important for setting management goals. For cranes by developing a probe to identify rep e a t example, we need to know how much the Mis s i s s i p p i sequences characteristic to the W chromosome (see Sandhill Crane differs from the other Sandhill sub- Chapter  C) . species to evaluate our investment in its pres e r vat i o n . Co m p e t i t i v e bi n d i n g im m u n o a s s a y s use a labelled Accurate pedigree information is essential for antibody or antigen to detect immune reactions char- genetic management. Unf o rt u n a t e l y , pa re n t a g e is acteristic of individuals or groups of animals. un k n o wn in some captive cranes (either because Although this technique has been successfully used in 1 8 2 Chapter 9 other species, attempts on cranes have proven unsuc- La s t l y , genetic res e a r ch can rev eal ta x onomic rel a - cessful to date (Gee et al.    ). ti o n s h i p s . DNA-DNA hybridization (Sibley and Blo o d ty p i n g of the Maj o r His t o c o m p a t i b i l i t y Ahlquist    ) and allozyme (Ingold    ) studies Co m p l e x (MHC) is being used to determine rel a t e d - su p p o r ted the morphological and behavioral classifica - ness and diversity in cranes. In this technique, tion of  crane species. Allozyme analysis allowed antibodies are used to identify antigens which are genetic diversity estimates for Sandhill, Saru s , co n t r olled by individual gene loci. These loci segreg a t e Siberian, and Whooping Cranes (Dessauer et al. independently and can be used to estimate heteroz y -    ). Krajewski (   ), using DNA-DNA hybridiza- gosity and rel a t e d n e s s . tion, found one group of five species so closely rel a t e d Wor k is being conducted by W. E. Briles of that they could not be differentiated. In a later study, Nor thern Illinois Uni ve r s i t y , M. M. Miller at the he separated the group into  distinct species using a Beckman Res e a r ch Institute, and S. I. Jar vi at the highly polymorphic region of mtDNA (Krajewski and Smithsonian Institution on the MHC in cranes (Ja rv i Fetzner    ). Krajewski is also using mtDNA to et al.    ). By absorbing (treating) known chicken ev aluate the relationship of crane subspecies. She r i sp e c i fi c reagents with the blood of a crane, it is now Sno wbank at Southern Illinois Uni v ersity is using possible to prep a r e reagents capable of detecting indi- mtDNA to determine maternal linages of Wh o o p i n g vidual forms of the MHC in a species of interes t . Cranes which survi v ed the    population bottle- Pat u x ent is collaborating to develop crane specific neck. Also, Travis Glenn at the Smi t h s o n i a n reagents using Sandhill Cranes. This study has been Institution is using microsatellite DNA fing e r p r i n t i n g able to help elucidate the paternity of individual (RFLP) in museum specimens to estimate Wh o o p i n g cranes. M. M. Miller is conducting molecular analysis Crane genetic diversity before the    bo t t l e n e c k . of the MHC utilizing chicken MHC chrom o s o m a l Fut u r e res e a r ch needs include continued examina- DNA probes and developing additional species-spe- tion of relatedness of wild caught birds, completion of ci fi c probes through polymerase chain reaction and paternity analysis, and refi nement and application of cloning techniques. MHC studies. Information is also being collected on the rel a t i o n - ship between MHC diversity and di s e a s e res i s t a n c e (Allan and Gilmour    ; Benacerraf    ; Briles et al.    ). MHC molecules bind antigens and activate the Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d T cell response to foreign pathogens (Kurlander et al.    ) playing an important role in the immune Allan, C. P., and D. G. Gil m o u r .    . The B blood grou p response. Maintaining MHC diversity may play a system of chickens. III. The effects of two heteroz y g o u s genotypes on the survi v al and egg production on multiple si g n i fi cant role in the survi v al of some endangered cr osses. Genetics  :   -   . cranes. Breeding objectives based on MHC should be Ben a c e r r a f , B.    . Roles of MHC gene products in immune ca r efully integrated into strategies for maintaining regulation. Science   :   -   . genetic diversity across the entire genome (see Tab l e s Briles, W. E., R. W. Briles, R. E. Taffs, and H. A. Stone.    . . and .; Hughes    ). Resistance to a malignant lymphoma in chickens is mapped to subregion of major histocompatibility (B) complex. Science   :  -  . Crow, J. F., and M. Kimura.    . An introduction to popula- tion genetics theory. Harper and Row, New Yor k.   pp . DeB o e r , L. E. M.    . Founder rep r esentation: how to deal with it. In EEP Coordi n a t o r ’s Manual. Nat i o n a l Foundation for Res e a r ch in Zoological Gar dens and EEP Exec u t i v e Offi ce, Amsterdam Zoo . Denniston, C.    . Small population size and genetic diver - sity: implications for endangered species. Pages   -  in S. A. Temple, editor. End a n g e r ed birds: management tech- niques for pres e r ving threatened species. Uni v ersity of Wisconsin Press, Mad i s o n . Des s a u e r , H. C., G. F. Gee, and J. S. Rogers.    . Allozyme evidence for crane systematics and polymorphisms within populations of Sandhill, Sar us, Siberian, and Wh o o p i n g Cranes. and Evolution :  -  . Genetic Ma n ag e m e n t 1 8 3

Flesness, N. R.    . Gene pool conservation and computer Ralls, K., J. Ballou, and A. Templeton.    . Estimates of lethal analysis. International Zoo Yearbook  : - . eq u i v alents and the cost of inbreeding in mammals. Foose, T. J., and J. D. Ballou.    . Population management: Co n s e r vation Biology :  -  . th e o r y and practice. International Zoo Yearbook  : - . Sib l e y , C. G., and J. E. Ahlquist.    . Phylogeny and classifi- Frankel, O. H., and M. E. Soule.    . Population genetics and cation of birds based on the data of DNA-DNA ev olution. Pages  - in O. H. Frankel and M. E. Sou l e , hybridization. Cur r ent Ornithology :  -  . editors. Conservation and evolution. Cambridge Uni ve r s i t y She p p a r d, C.    . White-naped Crane masterplan, Press, Cambridge, U.K. Sep t e m b e r ,    . New Yor k Zoological Soc i e t y .  pp . Frankham, R., H. Hem m e r , O. A. Ryde r , E. G. Cothran, M. Soule, M.    . What do we really know about extinctions? E. Soule, N. D. Mur r a y , and M. Snyd e r .    . Selection in Pages   -  in C. M. Schonewa l d - C o x, S. M. Chambers, ca p t i v e populations. Zoo Biology ():   -  . B. Mac B ryde, and L. Thomas, editors. Genetics and con- Gee, G. F., H. C. Des s a u e r , J. Longmire, W. E. Briles, and R. se r vation: a ref e r ence for managing wild animal and plant C. Simon.    . The study of relatedness and genetic diver - populations. Ben j a m i n / C ummings Publishing Company, sity in cranes. Pages   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. Inc., Menlo Par k, Calif. Proceedings    Nor th American crane works h o p . Flo r i d a Swengel, S. R.    . Genetic and demographic management of Nongame Program Technical Rep o r t # . ca p t i v e Red - c r owned Cranes Grus ja p o n e n s i s . Avi c u l t u r a l Geye r , C. J., O. A. Ryde r , L. G. Chemnick, and E. A. Magazine  (-):  - . Thompson.    . 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Establishing paternity in Whooping Cranes (Grus am e r i c a n a ) by DNA analysis. Auk   :  -  . Lo ve, J.    . Avian rep e t i t i v e DNA. Ph.D. disserta t i o n , Louisiana State Uni ve r s i t y , New Orleans.   pp . Met t l e r , L. E., and T. G. Gregg.    . Population genetics and evolution. Pren t i c e - H all, Inc., Eng l e wood Cliffs, N.J.   pp . Mil l e r , P. S., and P. W. Hedrick.    . MHC polymorphism and the design of captive breeding programs: simple solu- tions are not the answer . Conservation Biology ():   -  . Odum, R. A.    . Assimilation of new founders into existing ca p t i v e populations. Zoo Biology  :  -  . 1 8 4 Chapter 9 CHAPTER 10 Rec o r ds

David H. Ellis, Joanna A. Tay lo r, Cla i re M. Mirande, Julia A. Langenberg, Marianne We l l i n g ton, B. H. Powell, and Janet L. Mc Mi l l e n

undamental to good management of a captive is the computerized International Species Inf o r m a t i o n flock is keeping detailed rec o r ds of importa n t System (ISIS) designed to promote uniform re p o rt i n g life history events and genealogy. The knowl - of basic demographic information for individual edge of family relationships is essential to specimens throughout the network of subscribing Fgenetic management in long-term captive bree d i n g institutions (Seal et al.    ,    ). With over   pr ograms. Rec o r d keeping systems should organize institutions participating (   ), ISIS is rapidly and store this information in an easily accessible becoming the most common animal rec o r d keeping f o r m a t .T h i s al l ow s eva l u a t i o n of cu r re n t a n dh i s t o r i c a l system worldwide. management practices. Sta n d a r dization of data An i m a l Rec o r d Kee p i n g Sy s t e mI I I( A R K SI I I )i s collection and rep o r ting between centers can increa s e th e c o m p u t e rs o f t w a repr ov i d e dt oI S I Sp a rt i c i p a n t s ef f e c t i v e sample size and simplify data analysis. ( u t i l i z i n ga nI B Mc o m p a t i b l em i c ro c o m p u t e rw i t ha t Crane rec o r d keeping systems have been evolving at le a s t   K R A Ma n d a ha r dd i s kw i t h a m i n i m u mo f  Pat u x ent since    and at ICF since    (E llis et al. m e g a by t e s ) .A R K SI I Ie n a b l e sm a i n t e n a n c eo fa c c u r a t e    ). A detailed description of Pat u xe n t ’s manual up - t o - d a t e rec o rd s . It i sa l s ou s e rf r i e n d l y.T h eA R K SI I I (n o n - c o m p u t e r i z ed) system is available in published s y s t e mp rov i d e su s e f u ls u m m a ry re p o rt sa n ds t a t i s t i c so n form (Ellis et al.    ) and examples of the most rec e n t c u r re n ti n ve n t o ry, b i rt h s ,d e a t h s ,a n dt r a n s f e r s .Det a i l s data forms are available from the authors. Her ein we o fe ve n t sf o ri n d i v i d u a la n i m a l sa re n o ti n c l u d e d ,s oi ti s outline the information that we consider essential for o f t e nd e s i r a b l et oa u g m e n tt h es y s t e mw i t hm o re the long-term management of a captive crane colony. de t a i l e d re c o rd so n re p ro d u c t i o n ,b e h a v i o r, et c . We also include information that will be helpful for Th e in ve n t o r y of a zo o l o g i c a lf a c i l i t y i se a s i l y ed i t e d some collections invol v ed with more specialized uses. an d c h e c k e du s i n gt h eA R K S II I pro g r a m . By me re l y Our presentation is of a manual system (Fig.  .) se l e c t i n g t h eI S I S rep o r t f u n c t i o na n di n s e rt i n g a di s k , or g a n i z ed to allow for limited redundancy while pro- t h ed a t a c a nb e tr a n s c r i b e d o n t ot h ed i s k an d ma d e moting ready access to each form. We have included re a d yf o rm a i l i n g t oI S I So r ot h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s .T h i s Pat u xe n t ’s form sheets (Figs.  .- . ) and informa- pro c e d u r e a l l ow sf o r a re g u l a r l yu p d a t e d in t e r n a t i o n a l tion cells (IC’s) to provide useful information from in ve n t o r y o fa l l i n d i v i d u a l so fa n y s p e c i e s( o ro t h e r other systems (cited later) and our own observat i o n s . t a xo n )f o r al l me m b e r in s t i t u t i o n s . Fro mt h i s in f o r - m a t i o n ,I S I S pro d u c e s val u a b l e ta xo n rep o rt s s u m m a r i z i n gb a s i c ge n e t i c a n dd e m o g r a p h i c in f o r m a - ti o n . Ins t i t u t i o n s c a na l s oe a s i l y pr ov i d ed i s k e t t e co p i e s ARKS and Oth e r o fa n i n d i v i d u a la n i m a l’s re c o rd ,a l l ow i n ge f fic i e n t t r a n s f e ro fi n f o r m a t i o n w h e na n a n i m a li ss h i p p e d . Com p u t e r i z ed Rec o r ds Sys t e m s Information entered for each specimen is coded for easy ret r i e v al of various rep o r ts. ARKS III is cur- The need for a complex computerized rec o r ds system rently able to provide  rep o r ts which are useful for for general use by many institutions was identified by in-house management. They are as follows: Collection the Committee on Laboratory Animal Rec o r ds (   ). in ve n t o r y; Specimen rep o r t; Tax on rep o r t; Tra n s a c t i o n To facilitate the keeping of good rec o r ds on animal rep o r ts; Enc l o s u r e log; Rep ro d u c t i v e history; Sib l i n g colonies, several systems for efficiently maintaining tables; Ped i g r ee (for animals within the institution); specimen inven t o r y, health, prod u c t i v i t y , and vital Inb r eeding (local); Age pyramid; Fecundity and rec o r ds have appeared (Brown    ; Seal and Mak e y Mor tality rep o r t; and International Zoo Yea r b o o k    ). Most widely used in the avicultural community (I Z Y ) re p o rt . 1 8 6 Chapter 10

ISIS has produced three other programs which avian species. We provide details on the use of the aid in rec o r d keeping and data ret r i e v al. Med A R K S system including filing instructions and a table of so f t w a r e provides medical rec o r ds and rep o r ts for ap p r opriate responses for a sample of life history anesthesia, parasitology, clinical pathology, serum and ev ents. We indicate, for example, which rec o r ds are tissue banking, text for clinical notes, and medication cr eated or modified when an egg is laid, a chick and vaccination rec o r ds. Th e r e is flexibility in design- hatches, etc. The system is designed to allow for ing additional in-house modules. A pathology module limited red u n d a n c y , for ease in manual filing and is under development. MedARKS is a suffici e n t l y ret r i e v al, and for ease in conversion to automated complete system for medical rec o r ds for a crane pr ocessing. Por tions of the manual system have been collection and is presently used that way at ICF. automated in DOS and req u i r e an IBM compatible SP ARKS software enables coordinators of bree d i n g computer (minimum capacity   ) with   K RAM. pr ograms to develop individual species studbooks The automation process is continuing. and facilitates the management of breeding prog r a m s In designing the rec o r ds listed on Fig.  ., we fol- th r ough genetic and demographic analyses and lo wed several conventions. First, to limit red u n d a n c y rep o rt s . and for ease in rec o r d ret r i e v al, whenever possible, use EGGS software, an egg log database, is curren t l y the individual identification number (ID, which also under development. It will enable the complex rep o r t- codes the leg band number in the Pat u x ent collection) ing req u i r ed for the management of a colony of as an index to all rec o r ds where the specimen appears br eeding cranes. Cur r ently functioning as rel a t i o n a l as an individual. In Pat u xe n t ’s system, the ID also databases, both MedARKS and EGGS cannot indicates the hatch yea r , so rec o r ds filed by ID are also pe r form without up-to-date rec o r ds in ARKS III. in chronological orde r . We recommend placing the Other computerized rec o r ds systems are also avai l - yea r , taxon, and ID along the top or in the upper right able which can accommodate detailed information corner of each form sheet. To avoid confusion in on prod u c t i v i t y , health, and many life history even t s rep o r ting rep ro d u c t i v e success, we count all chicks (e.g., Sciabbarrasi and London    ) and can be used reaching  days of age (hatch day is day ) as fled g e d . for management of vet e r i n a r y data (e.g., Castleberry Fin a l l y , we res e r ve a column on many forms for the et al.    ; SNOMED    ,    ). initials (or name) of the person rec o r ding each entry. In some countries, this last provision is req u i r ed by law for medical rec o rd s . In Fig.  ., the rec o r ds are arranged from left to The Pat u x ent Rec o r ds Sys t e m right chronologically by life history events. Ind i v i d u a l and pair rec o r ds are near the top followed by daily The Pat u x ent rec o r ds system is presented schemati- wo r king rec o r ds, summary rec o r ds, planning rec o rd s , cally in Fig.  .. In designing rec o r ds, each form is and visual aids. Most of the rec o r ds contain informa- gi v en a descriptive title and is assigned a letter which is tion about individual birds. Some, howeve r , give ref e r r ed to in the text. Using the alphabetical designa- readings from machines, and one, the Annual Tim e tors, that figu r e serves as an index to the text. Line, provides a visual display of all regularly sched- The crane colonies at Pat u x ent and ICF are uled husbandry activities and the general phenology ch a r a c t e r i z ed by few species and many bree d i n g of the breeding season. Most of the rec o r ds follow a adults. The breeding birds in our collections are often highly struc t u r ed format; an exception is the Dai l y en d a n g e r ed species or subspecies. Because of the need Log. In all,  to  rec o r ds and aids are treated in to closely monitor all pertinent aspects of growth and the narrative. pr oductivity for each individual, other computerized rec o r ds systems presently available do not fulfill all Individual and Pair Records of these needs. Bel o w, we describe a manual system designed at In d i v i d u al File. A file, maintained for each adult Pat u x ent to rec o r d the detailed information we req u i r e crane, is created at fledging ( days) when a Rea r i n g for each bird. We will also provide some details of the Rec o r d (B, C) is closed and an Individual Log (R) is ICF system where it differs significantly from the cr eated. The file serves as a folder for all perti n e n t Pat u x ent system. The system can also be modified for rec o r ds on an individual. Rec o r ds included in the file use with smaller collections and for colonies of other ar e the Individual Rec o r d (L), the Individual Log (R), Re co rd s 1 8 7

Fig. 10.1. Schematic of rec o r ds system. 1 8 8 Chapter 10 the Rearing Rec o r ds (B, C), and the Gen e a l o g i c a l B. Hand-Reared Chick: Dai l y Log. Han d - Sum m a r y (Y). At Pat u x ent when an individual dies, rea r ed chicks are weighed and inspected reg u l a r l y . all Medical Rec o r ds (the Medical Rec o r d [J], the This rec o r d (Fig.  .), a running log on the prog re s s Physical Examination Rec o r d [K], and the Nec ro p s y of each chick through fledging, is posted on the door Rec o r d [I]) are transferred to the Individual File of the chick’s pen. Weight gain is emphasized in this which is then transferred to the Mor tality File. If an rec o r d because toe and leg deformities freq u e n t l y individual is transferred to another institution, all of result when growth is too rapid (Carpenter    , the above rec o r ds including breeding rec o r ds are    ). Data on physical condition, medical copied and transferred with the crane. The original tr eatments, behavior, food consumption, hydr a t i o n , file is then filed by taxon and ID, with files of other socialization with other birds, and weight are dispersed birds . rec o r ded. Weight is also plotted against a normal A. Egg Car d. An Egg Card (Fig.  .) rec o r ds weight change curve for the species and is used to all events from laying to hatching. The Egg Card is decide if food withholding is necessary to decrease also used to rec o r d weight changes and to plot these the likelihood of deformities. Once a chick has against a normal weight loss curve so adjustments fledged, this rec o r d is transferred to the Ind i v i d u a l can be made in the incubation conditions. Hat c h i n g File. Duplicate rec o r ds may also be grouped by ev ents are rec o r ded on a separate Chick Hat c h i n g ta x on and filed by yea r . Rec o r d. Information rec o r ded includes strength of C. Par ent Reared Chick: Dai l y Log. For many calls and movements, and times of pip, rotation, and chicks rea r ed by their own or foster parents, this emergence. Abnormalities in position, egg waste, or rec o r d (Fig.  .) provides a running list of examina- the hatched chick are also noted. It is important to tions, medical treatments, and behavioral observat i o n s rec o r d the chick’s ID number, tattoo, or name for th r ough fledging. X’s in the rows and columns of ref e r ence on the Egg Card. Egg Cards are filed by the form indicate the normal schedule for exams, yea r , taxon, and dam ID. tr eatments, and medications. Once the chick has fledged, this rec o r d is transferred to the Individual File which is filed by taxon and ID. These rec o r ds may also be gr ouped and filed by yea r . D. Pair Histor y: Behavi o r . For some pairs, especially those of endan- ge r ed species, detailed behavioral notes ar e made throughout the bree d i n g season. As a minimum, a running log should be kept indicating the degree to which a pair behaves as a social unit. Included are annual notes on the general frequency of unison calling (Arch i b a l d    ), the distance rou - tinely maintained betwee n bi r ds, the presence or absence of key social and agonistic displays (Ellis et al.    ) that indicate compatibility of mates, an d peculiarities useful in signalling change in co m p a t i b i l i t y . Oth e r behavior patterns useful in evaluating a pair are Fig. 10.2. Two sides of the Egg Car d, For m A. discussed in Chapter . Re co rd s 1 8 9

Fig. 10.3. Chick rearing rec o r ds, For ms B and C.

This form should include details of pair formation. E and F. Pair Histor y: Incubation and For example, the rec o r d should indicate whether the Re a r ing. These forms (Fig.  .) provide a yea r - by - bi r ds wer e rem o ved from a flock as a result of naturally year evaluation of a pair’s performance in incubation choosing each other as mates, or whether the pair and chick rearing for the duration of the pair’s resulted from penning a male and female side by side existence. File by taxon and male ID. until favorable behavior was observed. Details of pen G. Sire/ D am Arti fi cial Insemination Record . numbers and duration of stay should be indicated A detailed rec o r d (Fig.  .) is made for each bird he r e. This form is filed by taxon and male ID. Pai r in vo l v ed in the AI program. This form is used to histories of extant pairs are filed separately from ev aluate responses to AI and to provide the raw data rec o r ds of former pairs. for investigating topics such as timing of semen 1 9 0 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.4. Some breeding rec o r ds, For ms E-G. pr oduction, synchrony of mates, and suitability ta x on, and ID. The original copies of these forms, of AI techniques and paternity. Data is rec o r ded for arranged by pen number, are included in a loose-leaf responses to AI, semen quality and quantity, and notebook that serves as an annual field log for AI. seasonal changes in the distance between pubic bones H. Sire/ D am Reprod u c t i v e Recor d. Th e and condition of cloaca, both of which are indicators Sire / D am Rep ro d u c t i v e Rec o r d (Fig.  .) provides a of the approach of egg laying (see Gee    an d cu m u l a t i v e list, egg by egg, of the rep ro d u c t i v e perfo r - Chapter llA). Sire / D am AI Rec o r ds are filed by yea r , mance of each breeding pair. Not only can ferti l i t y Re co rd s 1 9 1

Fig. 10.5. Some breeding and medical rec o r ds, For ms H, J, and K. 1 9 2 Chapter 10 and hatchability be evaluated from this form, but any medical rec o r d. For a fledged bird, a separate Med i c a l aberrance in progeny survi v al is also apparent. Th i s Rec o r d (Fig.  .) is created when the bird first shows form is prep a r ed throughout the breeding season in clinical signs requiring veterinarian care. Med i c a l conjunction with the Egg Cards (A), Egg Logs (HH), Rec o r ds include treatment instructions, a summary of and Sire / D am AI Rec o r ds (G), and is filed by yea r , tr eatments, and personnel invol v ed in patient care as ta x on, and ID. well as a description of the injury or disease. File by I. Necropsy Recor d. On this form, rec o r d details ta x on and ID, with live bird rec o r ds filed separately of the post-mortem examination and histopathologi- fr om dead. Copies of the Medical Rec o r d of dead cal tests. IC’s provide: location and time of death, bi r ds are included in the Mor tality File, which weight, general body condition, a brief medical becomes part of the Individual File, and also with hi s t o r y, anatomical abnormalities, and name of other medical rec o rd s . pe r forming pathologist. The form lists tissues and K. Physical Examination Recor d. In the fall other materials retained, carcass deposition, informa- of the yea r , each bird is given a physical examination tion on diagnosis, and, where possible, cause of death. (annual health check). This rec o r d (Fig.  .) is file d We recommend the tabular separation of the most by taxon and ID for living birds, and like other fr equent causes of death for ease in data extraction. medical rec o r ds of dead birds, it is placed in the This form is filed by taxon and ID. A copy may also Mor tality File in the Individual Fil e . be placed in the Mor tality File in the Individual Fil e . L. Individual Recor d. The Individual Rec o r d J. Medical Recor d. For chicks, the Han d - re a re d (F ig.  .) provides an overv i e w of the life of an (B) or Pare n t - re a r ed Chick: Daily Log (C) serves as a individual crane as well as an index to all other

Fig. 10.6. Individual Rec o r d, For m L. Re co rd s 1 9 3 rec o r ds where this bird appears as an individual. Q. Breeding Pairs: Dai l y Check Sheet Details of various phases of the crane’s life are kept (Wa l k Thr ough Sheet). This check sheet (Fig . on more specific rec o r ds (discussed later). This and  .) is prep a r ed daily for the caretaker to use while se v eral other rec o r ds are filed by taxon and ID in the walking through the crane colony to inspect each Individual File. Separate files are maintained for pa i r , rec o r d nest condition, determine the number dead or dispersed birds . of eggs or chicks, and to evaluate nest attendance and other adult behavior. One copy of the form is su f fi cient for  pairs. At the end of the day, infor- Daily Working Records mation on egg and chick numbers is transferred to Daily logs or rep o r ts are useful for immediate com- the form for the following day. This form is used munication between staff and to temporarily rec o r d in planning egg moves and in rating each pair’s information while working at sites remote from the incubation and rearing performance at the end rec o r ds room. At ICF, a daily log is used year rou n d of the breeding season. and supplemented with a chick rep o r t during the R. Individual Log. A running log of even t s , br eeding season. At Pat u x ent, the following daily work fr om fledging to death, pertaining to the individual rec o r ds are used. is kept on this form (Fig.  .). The information is M. Dai l y Log. Animal caretakers make a prel i m i - later transferred to more specific rec o r ds such as na r y rec o r d of husbandry activities in the Daily Log. Individual Rec o r d (L), Pair His t o r y: Behavior (D), Th e re a f t e r , many details (such as pen-to-pen moves , and Medical Rec o r d (J). This log is filed in the unusual behavioral observations, and injuries or Individual Fil e . illnesses) are transferred to the Individual Log (R) or S. Vet e ri n a r y Logs. Th r ee log books provide sp e c i fi c rec o r d sheets, but the Daily Log from each a chronological rec o r d of vet e r i n a r y activities. Fir s t , year is retained and filed chron o l o g i c a l l y . This is the for each morta l i t y , the Nec r opsy Log includes only rec o r d of many routine activities. po s t m o r tem findings, samples (cultures and other N. Incubator / H a tcher Dai l y Recor d. Th i s materials), fate of carcass, and diagnosis. Second, form (Fig.  .) provides a log of mechanical incuba- the Radiology Log indexes the radiograph files, tor and hatcher temperature and humidity conditions. and third, the Laboratory Log rep o r ts detailed Typ i c a l l y , readings are taken - times per day. Th e s e results of microbial cultures, fecal examinations, rep o r ts are filed chronologically and by machine blood tests, etc. Filing is chronological by year nu m b e r . for each log. O. Natal i t y Sheet. This form (Fig.  .), a T. Accession Book. The Accession Book ch r onological list of all natalities, is used to assign ID (F ig.  .) is the most fundamental rec o r d kept for an numbers to chicks at hatching time. Entries are made animal colony. Akin to the specimen catalog for a manually as each chick hatches and the form can be museum, it is a cumulative log of all cranes that have generated by computer from Sire / D am Rep ro d u c t i v e been or are a part of the collection. Various taxa can Rec o r ds. Filing is by year with the Egg Cards (A) or be logged in different books, or more commonly, chick hatching rec o rd s . all are logged in the same book, chron o l o g i c a l l y , P. Pare n t - R e a r ed Chicks: Dai l y Check Sheet. ac c o r ding to arrival date or hatching or fledging date One copy of this form (Fig.  .) is used each day as (for chicks originating at the facility). All birds that the chick care teams travel through the colony to reach fledging age are included, but chicks that examine and/or provide medical treatments to all die before fledging may or may not be included. chicks being rea r ed by crane pairs. After the tour Bir ds that are owned by the institution but housed th r ough the collection, the information for each chick el s ew h e r e are also included. Accession book rec o rd s is transferred to the appropriate Pare n t - Re a r ed Chick: can be easily maintained on ARKS III. Daily Log (C). Th e re a f t e r , a Daily Check Sheet is pre p a r ed for the next day by transferring information fr om the previous day’s Daily Check Sheet and the examination/medication schedule on the Pare n t - Rea r ed Chick: Daily Log (C). These forms are file d ch r onologically by yea r . 1 9 4 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.7. Some daily working rec o r ds, For ms N-P. Re co rd s 1 9 5

Fig. 10.8. Additional daily working rec o r ds, For ms Q, R, and T.

Summary Records U. Specimen/Pen Inven to r y (Monthly Re p o r t). For each taxon, an automated Spe c i m e n These rec o r ds provide an overv i e w of the colony and Inve n t o r y (Fig.  .) is updated and prep a re d facilitate long-term management of a crane flock. mo n t h l y . Individual birds of a taxon are listed by All collections should have a system that, at least ID number, except for paired females who are listed an n u a l l y , summarizes flock size, acquisitions (birth s immediately after their mates. A copy of this inven - and transfers in), and dispositions (or depositions, to r y is carried by caretakers when returning birds to i.e., deaths and transfers out). Pat u x ent uses the pens and when locating an individual in the colony. fo l l o wing rec o rd s . A second automated version of this data, the Pen 1 9 6 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.9. Two summary rec o r ds, For ms U and V.

Inve n t o r y, is indexed by pen complex and pen W. Prop aga tion, Immigration, Emigrati o n nu m b e r , with individuals in the same pen listed and Pop u l ation Tabu l ation (Giant Table). numerically by ID, or with paired females listed The demography of a taxon within the colony is immediately after their mates. This is the version used su m m a r i z ed for its entire history in the Giant Tab l e each day while the caretaker walks through the colony (F ig.  . ). Row headings are years. In our ver s i o n , to check that each bird is in the appropriate pen. nearly  columns are divided into  major column A copy of each monthly update is placed gr oups. This table is updated at the end of each ch r onologically in the arch i v es to act as a historical br eeding season and is our most useful document description of the colony. ARKS III provides its own fo r quickly summarizing demographic trends for Specimen Inve n t o r y as a rep o rt . ea c h ta x on within the colony. V. Flock Totals and Production Update X. Annual Production Summary. This rep o r t (We e k l y Report). A weekly summary of flock size (F ig.  . ), prep a r ed at the end of the bree d i n g is prep a r ed by balancing natality and acquisitions season, provides an annual summary of egg and with mortality and departu r es. This rep o r t (Fig.  .) ch i c k pr oduction for each dam, whereas colony pr ovides a summary for internal rev i e w and for summaries are provided in W, above. This rep o r t informing cooperators of recent changes in captive combines all of the information from the individual colonies. The Weekly Rep o r t is our most useful Dam Rep r oduction Rec o r ds (H) and Egg Cards (A). document for rev i e wing egg production and chick Filing is by taxon and year with the Sire / Da m s u rv i val during the breeding season. Weekly re p o rt s Rep ro d u c t i v e Rec o r ds (H). ar e filed chron o l o g i c a l l y . Re co rd s 1 9 7 1 9 8 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.11. Two summary rec o r ds, For ms X and AA. Re co rd s 1 9 9

Y. Genealogical Summary. The genealogical DD. Vet e ri n a r y Car e Summary. From the rec o r ds for each crane taxon are derived from rec o r ds listed in the “me d i c a l ” and “mo rt a l i t y ” Sire / D am Rep ro d u c t i v e Rec o r ds and AI Rec o r ds. An columns in Fig.  ., a Vet e r i n a r y Care Sum m a r y can ancestral chart, similar to that used for humans and be prep a r ed annually. Included are totals by sex and av ailable from regional genealogical societies, is useful age class for surgical, diagnostic, and radiographic as a visual aid. This and other genealogical rec o r ds for pro c e d u r es, and for medications used. This provi d e s each individual bird are filed within the Ind i v i d u a l an overv i e w of significant medical activities for the File. Genealogical summaries can be produced by year and can be used to identify trends and make SP ARKS software. Genealogical rec o r ds, kept for all recommendations for improved collection manage- kn o wn captive individuals of a species in a studbook ment. The MedARKS system also creates summary (e.g., She p p a r d    and Chapter ), freq u e n t l y rec o r ds sorted by time period, taxon, proc e d u r e, or include inbreeding coeffici e n t s . pr oblem, and is ret r i e v ed by key words . Z. Semen Bank Inven to r y. This inven t o r y sys- tem consists of a running log of samples entering the Planning Records and Visual Aids semen bank and a semen inven t o r y file wherein all samples from an individual male are listed as they Wall-mounted charts or diagrams are useful in work enter the bank. Detailed rec o r ds on the handling of ar eas to provide current information for management each sample (see Chapter  B) are also made, but the decisions. Pat u x ent has found the following visual essential details of semen quality, volume, cane num- aids useful. In addition to Pat u xe n t ’s forms, ICF uses be r , location, and source are rec o r ded on the erasable boards or bulletin boards to display maps in ve n t o r y sheet for each donor. A separate rec o r d is (of bird, pen, and egg locations), examination and also maintained for each cryop re s e r vation tank. tr eatment schedules for chicks, and a list of ongoing Column headings are taxon, ID, pen, date the sample medical cases. was froz en, volume, location in tank, and comments. EE. Annual Time Line. This display board Mo r tal i t y File. Wh e n e v er a mortality occurs, (F ig. .) is a valuable aid in planning activities that the Mor tality Sum m a r y (AA) is updated, and the occur for only a portion of the calendar yea r . By using Nec r opsy Rec o r d (I), Medical Rec o r d (J), Phy s i c a l di f f e r ent colors for the horizontal bars for each taxon , Examination Rec o r ds (K), and all rec o r ds in the it is possible to display scheduled events for sever a l Individual File are transferred to a Mor tality Fil e . taxa on one time line. Mor tality Files are filed by yea r . FF . Egg Laying Interval Recor d. The dura- AA. Mortal i t y Summary. Crane mortality is tion and timing of the egg laying period for each tabulated chronologically from the Nec r opsy Rec o rd s year and the intervals between eggs are summarized and the Nec r opsy Log (one of the Vet e r i n a r y Logs). for each female in this rep o r t (Fig.  . ). The timing At the beginning of each yea r , a new rec o r d is begun of egg rem o val, important in assessing maximum (F ig  . ). Filing is by yea r . ARKS III can generate an pro d u c t i v i t y , should be indicated for each egg on the in ve n t o r y of all deceased birds . form (see Chapter ). This form is filed by taxon, ID, BB. Car cass Inven to r y. A running list is kept of and yea r . all carcasses by taxon. In addition, a tag, including GG. Egg Car d Boar d. On this display board, death date, ID, and cause of death, is attached to each each pen containing a pair of cranes, and each single ca r cass. The Carcass Inve n t o r y includes data from the but potentially prod u c t i v e female, is given a label. specimen tag, plus storage site, final deposition site, Th e r e are also separate labels on the board for each and necropsy number. This rep o r t is kept in the mechanical incubator. As eggs are laid, introd u c e d , permanent files, howeve r , for ease in data entry, a or rem o ved, the Egg Cards (A) are affixed beneath copy can be kept at the carcass storage site. the appropriate labels on the Egg Card Board. Th i s CC. Shipment Report. This is a running list of bo a r d provides a quick update on the location of bi r ds sent to or rec e i v ed from other institutions. each egg in the breeding colony and each incubator. Because it duplicates entries in the Accession Book In conjunction with the Egg and Chick Board (T), it may be unnecessary to keep this rec o r d (espe- (MM), this board serves as one of the most useful cially if the Accession Book is automated in ARKS III visual aids in planning egg moves and other aspects or otherwise). Column headings indicate date sent, of incubation. ta x on, ID’s, recipient, and purpose of transfer. 2 0 0 Chapter 10

JJ. Hatcher Board . When late-term eggs are mo ved from nests or arti fic i a l incubators to the hatcher, the Egg Cards (A) are affixed beneath the label for the ap p r opriate hatcher on this display board. KK. Arti fic i a l In s e m i n a tion (AI) Pl anning Scheme. A detailed breeding strategy for each individual in the colony is condensed into this form (F ig.  . ). Copies are included for easy ref e r ence in the annual field log for AI. This rec o r d provides a useful, brief description of the pair hi s t o r y and AI rec o m m e n d a - tions. This form is filed by ta x on and year with the Sire / D am AI Rec o r ds (G). LL. Oviposition and In c u b a tion Chron o lo g y (Giant Check Sheet). This large display form depicts the chronology of egg laying and egg moves for a breeding season. Column headings are days Fig. 10.12. Egg Laying Int e r val Rec o r d, For m FF. beginning with the date of the first egg of the season. Rows are either dam ID or pen numbers. All females of one taxa are grouped together with the first female HH. Egg Log. This rec o r d (Fig.  . ) provides a to lay occupying the most elevated row. Data is ch r onological list of all eggs laid for each taxon. It is transcribed to this check sheet directly from the useful as a visual aid in the management of egg moves Breeding Pairs: Daily Check Sheet (Q). An under- and in updating the Weekly Rep o r t (V). Data from lined check mark indicates the day ovi p o s i t i o n these forms are used for productivity summaries. oc c u r r ed. A check mark indicates the pair is incubat- II. Egg Chron o lo g y Boar d. This aid can be ing. Eggs rem o ved or added are indicated by plus or used to follow the prog r ess of a selection of the most minus signs and numbers. For example, a two egg valuable eggs (usually the eggs of endangered taxa). clutch rem o ved to encourage a pair to lay again Column headings are dates. Rows are individual eggs. would be indicated by a “–” in lieu of the check for Each egg is rep r esented by a  -day-long adhesive strip that day. This form simplifies predicting when a pair af fi xed to the board. General events in the incubation is due to rec y cle (re-lay). The form is also useful in of all eggs (e.g., timing of earliest vocalizations, entry planning egg moves and in rec y cling pairs so that the into the air cell, pipping, hatch date, and chick ID) best foster parents are in the proper rep ro d u c t i v e ar e printed on each strip. Egg locations are written state to rec e i v e eggs or chicks of endangered taxa. It on the strip following each egg move. Using the Egg is helpful to have each pair’s incubation perfo r m a n c e Ch r onology Board, a caretaker can quickly determine rating next to the dam ID or pen number. Hat c h location and stage in development of each egg. date and chick ID numbers are placed at the end of Re co rd s 2 0 1

Fig. 10.13. Some planning rec o r ds and visual aids, For ms HH and KK. the row when the pair is no longer incubating. NN. Patient Boar d. This display board is One form is generated each year and then file d maintained at the hospital with a copy in the caret a k e r ch ro n o l o g i c a l l y . wo r k area. It serves as a visual aid for use in caring for MM. Egg and Chick Boar d. Using a ferric ho s p i t a l i z ed cranes. On it, treatment instructions and bo a r d and magnetic labels, this visual aid displays the other rec o r ds pertinent to patient care are posted. number and taxon of eggs or chicks each pair is incubating or rearing. As for the Egg Card Board, each breeding pen is listed. Beneath each pen label, co l o r ed circles (eggs) and squares (chicks) indicate System Use the appropriate number and taxa for eggs and chicks attended by each pair of foster parents. This visual aid The  or so forms, files, notebooks, and display is especially useful in planning egg and chick care bo a r ds that comprise the Pat u x ent system provide a during the period when many pairs of foster paren t s br oad, detailed framewo r k for the management of ar e in transition from incubation to chick rearing. the most important data for a crane colony. Not all By contrast, during incubation, the Oviposition and rec o r ds need to be used by ever y institution. For Incubation Chronology (LL) and the Egg Card example, if, at one institution, all eggs are mechani- Bo a r d (GG) are most useful. cally incubated and all chicks are hand-rea r ed, then 2 0 2 Chapter 10 those rec o r ds dealing with foster parent incubation “S pecial Dat a ” with the result that no rel a t i o n a l (E , Q, LL, and MM), and foster parent rearing (C, F, manipulation was possible. Fort u n a t e l y , home grown P, and MM) are not used. If all propagation is throu g h pr ograms can be incorporated with ARKS III to naturally fertile pairs, then all rec o r ds dealing with pe r form this function (L. Bingaman Lackey, art i fi cial insemination (G, Z, and KK) can be Hendersonville, Nor th Carolina, personal el i m i n a t e d . co m m u n i c a t i o n ) . The system can also be streamlined for use in ver y One final drawback of ARKS was that Pat u xe n t ’s small crane colonies. Wh e r e few breeding pairs pro- ID numbers wer e incompatible to use as accession duce few eggs, many of the visual aids and prod u c t i o n numbers, so separate accession numbers had to be rec o r ds become unnecessary. The most fundamental assigned. ICF and most institutions have been able rec o r ds are H, R, T, U, W, and AA. Little can be omit- to use their ID numbers as the ARKS accession num- ted from this nucleus of rec o r ds without sacrifici n g bers. Because of the early inflexibility and limitations the future usefulness of the colony. Because of the of the ISIS/ARKS system (now somewhat alleviated value of the rec o r ds, we recommend that a duplicate by the availability of MedARKS, SPARKS, and copy be stored in a separate building. EGGS), Pat u x ent redesigned the manual system Without actually using the system for a bree d i n g (E llis et al.    ) and began automation. Today about season, it is difficult to understand the flow of infor- on e - t h i r d of the IC’s in the Pat u x ent system have mation. Table  ., howeve r , provides an ove rv i ew of been automated. Th e r e is no need to automate visual system use. Her e, appropriate system responses are aids and many rec o r ds in Fig u r e  .. The rec o r ds po rt r a y ed for some life history events of a foster par- that should be automated are: Egg Card (A), Pai r en t - re a r ed crane. When an egg hatches, for example, it His t o r y: Incubation and Rearing (E,F), Sire / Da m is first rec o r ded on the Breeding Pairs: Daily Check Rep ro d u c t i v e Rec o r d (H), Individual Rec o r d (L), Sheet, then the Egg Card (A) is rem o ved from the Egg Individual Log (R), Natality Sheet (O), Acc e s s i o n Ca r d Board (GG), and the hatching date and ID are Book (T), Spe c i m e n / P en Inve n t o r y (U), Wee k l y placed on the Natality Sheet (O), Egg Card (A), Egg Rep o r t (V), Annual Production Sum m a r y (X), Ch r onology Board (II), Oviposition and Inc u b a t i o n Genealogical Sum m a r y (Y) Mor tality Sum m a r y (AA), Ch r onology (LL), Egg and Chick Board (MM), Dam Shipment Rep o r t (CC), Egg Laying Int e r val Rec o r d Rep ro d u c t i v e Rec o r d (H), and Egg Log (HH). A (FF), and Egg Log (HH). The following rep o r ts can change is made on the chalk board, precursor of the be generated from retrieving data from other rec o rd s Weekly Rep o r t (V), an entry is made in the Acc e s s i o n and without additional data entry: Natality Sheet (O), Book (T), and a Rearing Rec o r d (C) is crea t e d . Accession Book (T), Spe c i e s / P en Inve n t o r y (U), Ultimately the Pair His t o r y Rec o r ds (E and F), Weekly Rep o r t (V), Giant Table (W), Annual Spe c i m e n / P en Inve n t o r y (U), Giant Table (W) and Production Sum m a r y (X), Shipment Rep o r t (CC), the Genealogical Sum m a r y (Y) must also be modified . Egg Laying Int e r val Rec o r d (FF), Pair Hi s t o ry : All of these changes must be made by hand in a Incubation (E), Pair His t o r y: Rearing (G), Ind i v i d u a l manual system. In a computer managed rel a t i o n a l Rec o r d (L), Genealogical Sum m a r y (V), Mort a l i t y database, howeve r , entry of the hatching event at one Sum m a r y (AA), and Egg Log (HH). le v el will yield appropriate responses for all other rec o r ds linked in the software matrix.

Patuxent’s Automated Records System Rec o r d Kee p i n g At Pat u x ent, we have automated much of the rec o rd s The Pat u x ent system consists of a complex array of system presented here. We first experimented with rec o r ds linked through limited redundancy to provi d e the ISIS/ARKS program, but noted that at that for the systematic retention and collation of the data time ARKS was unable to deal with the complex of interest in managing a large crane collection. Th e management of eggs. EGGS software, adapted from manual and automated systems are so closely linked Pat u xe n t ’s complex manual system, is being devel o p e d that it is possible to use all or part of either without to operate with ARKS III. Another limitation of in o r dinate duplication of effort. The automation ARKS was that the details of life history events of the pr ocess is continuing. Har d copies of the individual individual went into a general database named form sheets are available from Pat u xe n t . Re co rd s 2 0 3 2 0 4 Chapter 10

IC F ’ s system is designed for rel a t i v e simplicity and Ellis, D. H., S. R. Swengel, G. W. Archibald, and C. B. Kep l e r . ability to integrate information with other institutions    . A sociogram for the cranes of the world. Und e r th r ough ISIS/ARKS. Centralized individual file s rev i e w . Ellis, D. H., L. Har tman, S. G. Here f o r d, and J. L. McMi l l e n . contain essentially all of an individual’s rec o r ds. ICF    . A rec o r ds system for a captive crane flock. Pages   - has developed a simple, computerized-text system for   in J. Harris, editor. Proceedings    Int e r n a t i o n a l rec o r ding behavioral events. Imp o r tant behavioral and Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , rep ro d u c t i v e milestones for the individual are also Baraboo, Wis . rec o r ded in ARKS III. MedARKS is used for medical Gee, G. F.    . Avian arti fi cial insemination and semen pre s e r vation. Pages   -  in A. C. Risser, Jr. and F. S. rec o r ds, and copies are placed in the individual Todd, editors. Proceedings of the    Jean Del a c o u r / I F C B files. Annual summaries are produced and used for Symposium on Breeding Bir ds in Captivity, Los Angeles, br eeding objectives and rep o rt s . California. International Foundation for the Conservat i o n Either system can be pared down for use with of Bir ds, Nor th Hollywood, Calif. smaller collections or can be modified for use with Har tman, L., S. Duncan, and G. Archibald.    . The hatch- other taxa. The use of such systems is essential to the ing process in cranes with recommendations for assisting abnormal chicks. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. long-term management of any crane colony intended Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g for propagation or scientific res e a rc h . Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and One final recommendation is of great importa n c e . Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Although all animal care staff take and rec o r d infor- Sciabbarrasi, S. A., and W. T. London.    . A computerized mation, each institution should designate one or two primate information ret r i e v al system (PIRS). Laboratory Animal Science  :  -  . Rec o r d Keepers (or Registrars) who closely manage Seal, U. S., and D. G. Mak e y .    . Computer usage for total the entry of data into the automated system. At ICF, animal and endangered species inven t o r y systems: a specific separate individuals handle ARKS and Med A R K S pr oposal. Pages   -  in Res e a r ch in zoos and aquariums. rec o r ds. Each Rec o r d Keeper should be fully familiar National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. with the system, participate regularly in data entry, Seal, U. S., D. G. Mak e y , and L. E. Mur tfeldt.    . ISIS: and serve as backup replacement in the event of loss of an animal census system. International Zoo Yea r b o o k  :  -  . the other Rec o r d Kee p e r . Howeve r , a chief Rec o r d Seal, U. S., D. G. Mak e y , D. Bri d g w a t e r , L. Simmons, and L. Keeper should oversee and control data entry to Mur tfeldt.    . ISIS: a computerized rec o r d system for the mi n i m i z e errors in the data entry. management of wild animals in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook  : - . She p p a r d, C.    . Genealogy of the white-naped crane (Grus vi p i o ). New Yor k Zoological Soc i e t y .  pp . Sys t e m a t i z ed Nom e n c l a t u r e of Medicine (SNOMED).    , Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d    . Int r oduction,  pp .,    ; Disease,   pp .,    ; Eti o l o g y ,   pp .,    ; Function,   pp .,    ; Ar chibald, G. W.    . The unison call of cranes as a useful Mor p h o l o g y ,   pp .,    ; Proc e d u r e,   pp .,    ; ta x onomic tool. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Uni ve r s i t y , Top o g r a p h y ,   pp .,    . College of American Ithaca, N. Y.   pp . Pathologists, Chicago, Ill . Brown, R. A.    . A new rec o r ds system for the New Yor k Zoological Par k. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . Propagation and management of endan- ge r ed species at the Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center. Pages  - in American Association of Zoo Vet e r i n a r i a n s Annual Proceedings, Honolulu, Haw . Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . Cranes (Order Gruiformes). Pages   -   in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal medicine. W. B. Saunders Company, Phi l a d e l p h i a . Ca s t l e b e r r y, M. W., E. D. Jenkins, and S. W. Thompson.    . Use of the electronic computer in ret r i e v al of vet e r i n a r y pathological data. American Journal of Vet e r i n a r y Res e a rc h  (  ):   -  . Committee on Laboratory Animal Rec o r ds.    . Laboratory animal rec o r ds. National Institutes of Hea l t h Adm i n i s t r a t i v e Document, Contract No. N -R R - -   , Washington, D.C.  pp . CHAPTER 11A Special Techniques, Par t A: Crane Arti fi cial Ins e m i n a t i o n

Ge o rge F. Gee and Cla i re M. Mi r a n d e

ap t i v e breeding of nondomestic birds has determined more quickly through AI than with in c r eased dramatically since    , and cap- natural matings. The collection of semen provi d e s ti v e crane production often exceeds that of for other uses including laboratory studies eval u a t - wild birds in their native habitat. Arti fic i a l ing rep ro d u c t i v e potential (Sharlin et al.    ), Cinsemination (AI) is one propagation technique (Gee ev aluating semen diluents (Sexton    ), detecting and Temple    ; Gee    ) used extensively with disease (Thurston et al.    ; Sti p k o vits et al.    ; cranes. With proper conditioning and management of Ferrier et al.    ), and separating species and the cranes, AI often produces fertility better than that subspecies through hybridization and sperm ac h i e v ed through natural matings. morphology (Sharlin et al.    ; Russman and The most obvious need for an AI program is to Harrison    ). reduce in f e rt i l i t y (A r chibald    ; Gee and Tem p l e    ; Lake    ; Sexton    ). In some mated pairs natural copulation can be difficult because of injury (including wing impairment to deter flight), defor- Male Rep ro d u c t i o n mi t y , differences in body size, or behavioral di f fi culties. Sometimes females are kept in separate Reproductive Anatomy pens because of mate aggression, pair incompatibil- it y , or the lack of a mate. Occ a s i o n a l l y , a prod u c t i v e Crane anatomy (Fig. .) is ver y different from mam- female may be in a distant location separate from the mal rep ro d u c t i v e systems. For greater detail, also rea d male, where transfer of semen is the only way to Chapter . The paired testes lie deep in the body cav- av oid inferti l i t y . Fer tility in a mated pair can be ity of the crane, above the abdominal air sacs and im p r oved by AI using the same or a different male. be l o w the anterior lobe of the kidneys. The vas defer- AI is useful in carrying out the goals of sp e c i a l ens conduct the sperm from the testis to the cloaca. bre e d i n g pr ograms for captive propagation. Th e The vas deferens end in erectile papillae in the genetic influence of one male in a population can be ur odeum, the central chamber of the cloaca. Sem e n in c r eased by using his semen to sire young from sev- contains: () fluids secreted from the seminiferou s eral females each season. Conver s e l y , semen from tubules, () epithelial cells of the rep ro d u c t i v e tract, se v eral males can be used to increase female ferti l i t y . () lymph from the lymph folds and erectile tissues in (S uch practices can, of course, lead to questions of the cloaca, and () sperm (Mann    ; Lake    ; paternity; techniques for resolving paternity are still Buxton and Orcutt    ; Nishiyama et al.    ; ex p e n s i v e and results are dependent upon the avai l - Ser vouse et al.    ; Bur t and Chalovich    ; ability of suitable genetic markers.) Hyb ri d i z a t i o n Gasparska et al.    ). be t w een behaviorally incompatible species is possible with AI, and although it should be avoided for prop a - Semen Collection gation purposes, some res e a r ch questions req u i r e hybridization. Pat u x ent used Whooping Crane semen Physiologists classify semen collection techniques to produce four Wh o o p e r - S andhill Cranes to study ac c o r ding to levels of cooperation: co o p e r a t i v e, hybrid characteristics. ma s s a g e , and el e c t ro e j a c u l a t i o n . Massage AI is more AI has other special uses. For example, a male’s successful with cooperation, although stressed or potential for producing progeny with specific traits ag g re s s i v e cranes have also been stimulated to (chicks that grow more rapidly or possess superior respond. Ele c t r oejaculation is successful with or disease resistance) or his potential fertility can be without active cooperation from the bird. 2 0 6 Chapter 11A

Co o p e r a t i v e semen collection and insemination, rhythmically massages the bird’s legs by grasping the pi o n e e r ed with sexually imprinted bir ds of prey shanks and stroking gently several times in a circu l a r , (Ha m e r s t r om    ; Temple    ; Ber r y    ; Gri e r in w a r d and down w a r d direction. The speed and pres -    ), req u i r es careful timing to get an adequate num- su r e should be varied to coordinate with the calling ber of samples and to get fertile eggs. Methods that and other responses from the bird. in t e r cept semen during natural copulation with other The second person, the op e r a t o r , kneeling behind bi r ds or dummy mounting devices are variations of the bird and facing the massage person, st ro k e s th e the cooperative collection technique (Smyth    ; bi r d’s back with the heel of the open hand towa r d the Tan    ). head and fingers directed towa r d the vent. Seve r a l The ma s s a g e collection technique (Quinn and st r okes are given; each passes along the lower back to Bur r ows    ) has been used for decades with domes- the base of the tail. With the other hand, another tic poultry and more recently with cranes (Arch i b a l d series of strokes passes from mid abdomen to ven t .    ; Gee and Temple    ; Gee    ). For this tech- Both hands reach the tail region at the same time. Th e nique, the bird is restrained by an assistant while an bi r d may respond to this stimulation by pushing for- operator collects the semen. This technique was firs t wa r d against the assistant’s thighs, emitting a low voc a l applied to cranes in    . The basic technique wa s gr owl or purr, and raising its tail. The operator then al t e r ed to allow for the crane’s long legs, sharp talons, pushes upon the tail with the heel of the left hand (if and long beaks. The process generally takes  to  se c . right handed) and strokes the abdominal region with The following description will serve as a guide, but the right hand. Many birds respond to this stimula- must be tailored to the unique behavioral and physical tion by opening or even ever ting their cloacas. Nex t , characteristics of each bird. It is important to red u c e the cloaca is grasped dorsally by the thumb and index st r ess on the individual bird by capturing the desired finger and the semen is expres s e d . bi r d quickly. It is also important for the AI team to The operator or a third person holds a small glass attempt to stimulate cooperation when strok i n g . collection device (- cm in diameter) in the right An as s i s t a n t , with help from two other members of hand (if the person is right handed) for semen collec- the team, ca p t u re s the male (if necessary guides him tion (Fig.  A. ). Often, a spontaneous ejaculation into the nearest corner) and holds him. Team capture occurs expelling the first drop of semen onto the lip of reduces chase time and its resultant risk of injury. the glass (a sealed funnel or “shot glass”). Occ a s i o n a l l y , Adults which come to the gate and attack can often be the bird lifts its legs off the ground when it ejaculates safely and quickly captured by one person with less and must be supported by the assistant’s forearms. If st r ess than if the bird flees. The assistant cradles the the semen sample was small, sometimes the dorsal bi r d be t w een the legs (Fig.  A. ) with the bird’s head wall of the vent is again massaged to gently express the pro t r uding behind the assistant’s back. The assistant

Fig. 11A.1. Whooping Crane AI: Brian Clauss injects sample as Fig. 11A.2. Collecting semen in a funnel. (Note prot ru d i n g Jane Nicolich massages. Ph oto David H. El l i s ur odeum.) Ph oto David H. El l i s A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 0 7 remainder of the semen which is then scooped onto Fecal contamination of semen is common, but can the lip of the glass. The entire process is normally often be reduced by conditioning the birds to a sched- finished in - sec. Howeve r , some Siberian Cra n e s ule. Although contaminated semen is normally req u i r e stroking for - min before obtaining a sam- di s c a r ded, egg fertilization is still possible if the semen ple, and some individuals of each species req u i r e is cleaned of the coarse contaminants and used for similarly long massage periods. insemination immediately. To clean a sample, let the contaminants settle, then draw the semen from the top or side of the sample with the syringe. Wh e n Special Semen Collection Tips using contaminated semen, deposit the sample in the Semen collection is something of an art. To avoi d cloaca not the vagina to avoid infections of the exc e s s i v e stress, perform the task quickly, be rel a xe d , oviduct (Per ek et al.    ). and talk only to facilitate successful coordination and collection. Semen collection techniques must be mod- ifi ed to each crane’s unique anatomical, physiological, or behavioral characteristics. Bir ds respond differen t l y Female Rep ro d u c t i o n to individual people. Note responses to the assistant and operator and assign people accordi n g l y . Reproductive Anatomy Semen volume and sperm concentration var y gr eatly between birds (see Chapter ), and some cranes The one functional ovar y lies deep in the body cavity pr oduce samples too small for insemination. Howeve r , ab o ve the abdominal air sacs and below the anterior with special care in collection, as little as . cc of lobe of the left kidney. The oviduct carries the ovu m semen can be diluted, drawn up into a -cc (TB ) th r ough the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, syringe and inseminated directly into the female. At ut e r us, and vagina (see Fig. .) to the vent in  to ICF and Pat u x ent, significant numbers of eggs have  days (M. Putnam, Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n , been ferti l i z ed by . -. cc of semen. When semen Madison, personal communication). The infundibu- samples are this small, it is helpful to extend the sam- lar region rec e i v es the egg from the ovar y and is the ple such that the total volume at insemination is site of fertilization (Olsen    ). The vagina is the ap p r oximately . cc. About  million sperm should pa s s a g e way for the egg from the uterus to the cloaca be provided for an effective insemination (Gee and and for the semen into the oviduct (Stu r kie    ). Sexton    ). Sperm storage sites (sperm host glands) are pres e n t Small samples can be aspirated into a microl i t e r in the infundibulum and the uterovaginal (UV) pipette or collected on the edge of a slide (Howell and ju n c t u r e (Bobr et al.    ). The UV-sperm host Bart h o l o m e w    ; Smyth    ; Lake    ; Gee and glands enable birds to lay several fertile eggs follow- Sexton    ). Because small samples dehydr a t e ing a single copulation (Smyth    ). ra p i d l y , protect them immediately by adding a drop of Inv estigators have identified sp e r m host glands in diluent. Although ejaculates produced by some males domestic and nondomestic birds including cranes (B. contain insufficient sperm to ferti l i z e an egg, a pooled C. Wen t w o r th, Uni v ersity of Wisconsin, Mad i s o n , sample from several small collections have been used personal communication). They may be common to successfully (McD aniel and Sexton    ; Gee and all birds. The host glands are thought to release sperm Temple    ). Pat u x ent has collected semen from on a continuous basis (Compton et al.    ,    ; Sandhill Cranes daily, Monday through Fri d a y , for Compton and Van Krey    a,    b; Bakst    , extended periods, but we now try to res t r ict collec-    ). Howeve r , some believe the release of spermato- tions to two to three times per w ee k . Ext e n d e d zoa is greatest at ovulation or oviposition. Bakst (   ) periods of daily collections or rough treatment may rep o r ted fewer sperm in the oviduct following the lead to cloacal tissue damage, stress, and red u c e d passage of an egg suggesting that sperm are co o p e r a t i o n . se q u e s t e r ed or rem o ved during egg formation. Blood in a semen sample may indicate cloacal Near laying time, the ends of the pubic bones in j u r y. Occ a s i o n a l l y , the damage is only a superfici a l become more pliable and spread apart, and the cloacal scratch on the vent. Avoid collecting semen from tissues enlarge and soften. The dorsal lip of the ven t a bi r d with an injury for - days while the expands more than the ventral lip and creates the ven t he a l s . appearance of an inver ted smile. It is possible to 2 0 8 Chapter 11A pre d i c t wh e n th e bi r d wi l l la y by th e si z e of th e en l a r g - on the left side of the urodeum. Next, allow the in g ven t an d sp re a d of th e pu b i c bo n e s . A hi s t o r y fo r in s e r ted syringe to drop to a rel a x ed position. Wh e n ea c h bi r d fro m pre v i o u s yea r s he l p s be c a u s e so m e the cloaca contracts around the syringe, stop strok i n g bi rd s ex p a n d mo r e th a n ot h e r s . We me a s u r e th e sp re a d and gently push the plunger to deposit the semen. at th e en d s of th e pu b i c bo n e s by pa s s i n g th e fing e r s Although the female is still being supported, she will be t we e n th e pu b i c bo n e s wh i l e st ro k i n g th e ab d o m e n . fr equently relax when stroking stops. Resume strok i n g Hol d th e pa l m of th e ha n d ag a i n s t th e ab d o m e n an d gently if she starts to strug g l e . st ro k e fro m th e ab d o m e n to th e ba s e of t h et a i l . In In properly trained cranes, much of the manipula- mo s t cr a n e s in wi n t e r , th e di s t a n c e be t we e n th e en d s tion of the cloaca can be avoided. At ICF,  species of of th e pu b i c bo n e s i sl e s s th a n on e fing e r w i d t h .T h i s cranes have been successfully inseminated after they di s t a n c e is tw o or mo r e fing e r s wi d e ju s t pr i o r to la y - assumed copulation posture and ever ted their ovi d u c t s in g . By pa l p a t i n g pu b i c sp re a d you ca n fo re c a s t eg g in response to massage stimulation and handling. It is la y i n g an d ch o o s e th e be s t ti m e to in s e m i n a t e . ev en possible to deposit semen in the oviduct of unco- op e r a t i v e cranes. If you are unable to locate the oviduct by palpation, the distal end of the oviduct can I n s e m i n a t i o n often be ever ted by placing firm pres s u r e on the At Pat u x ent, female cranes are massaged just as for the fe m a l e ’s abdomen and the walls of the cloaca. We do males. In the ICF method, the female’s back and sides not recommend that an inexperienced person ever t (posterior to the wings) are stroked to simulate the the cloaca because force can cause injury and undue ma l e ’s abdomen on the female’s back during copula- st r ess to the bird. tion. Semen can be deposited into the cloaca or Placing semen directly in the o vi d u c t has been the vag i n a . pre f e r r ed insemination technique with most nondo- With effective stimulation, the crane opens the mestic birds (Smyth    ; Bir d et al.    ; Boyd et al. cloaca. The vagina, the distal end of the ovi d u c t ,    ), although satisfactory results derive from simply appears as a red rosette on the left wall of the depositing semen in the cloaca (Gee    un p u b l . ; ur odeum. To expose the vagina, push aside the dorsal Temple    ; Ber r y    ; Grier    ; Archibald    ). wall of the vent separating the urodeum from the In the Sandhill Crane, fertility rates above  % wer e pr octodeum with the syringe or other device. To avoi d ac h i e v ed with cloacal insemination. In this prog r a m , in j u r y to the soft cloacal and oviductal tissues, the insemination was begun two to three weeks before the pr obing or inseminating device should be smooth, first egg was laid and continued throughout the season without abrasive edges. With practice the inseminat- with at least two inseminations (each containing ing device can be inserted into the vagina (Fig.  A. ) about  x   sperm) each week and within a few during the few seconds it is visible. If the vagina can- hours after each oviposition (Gee and Sexton    ; not be seen, gently probe with the end of the syringe Gee et al.    ). Howeve r , with the same insemination schedule, we ac h i e v ed better ferti l i t y when semen was placed in the vagina. Deep vaginal insemination is pref e r r ed for other species (Lorenz    ; Ogasawara and Fuq u a    ) because the storage site (sperm host glands) is in the utero- v aginal juncture (Bobr et al.    ). Moderate depth vaginal inseminations also give satis- fa c t o r y results (Smyth    ; Wen t w o r th et al.    ; Bir d et al.    ; Boyd et al.    ) and reduce the pos- sibility of injury (Ogasawara and Fuqua    ; Wen t w o r th et al.    ) that can result from forcing the inseminating device to the utero- v aginal juncture. When semen is deposited in the cloaca instead of the oviduct, inseminations should be more frequent and timed to follow oviposition (Gee    un p u b l . ; Fig. 11A.3. Injecting semen into female with syringe. Temple    ; Ber r y    ; Grier    ; Archibald    ; Ph oto David H. El l i s Gee and Temple    ). A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 0 9

The cloaca should not contain fe c e s when insemi- housed in large, net-cover ed pens (Ellis et al.    ). nating. When the cloaca is full, the bird will defecate For flight restricted birds, the number of males suc- soon after insemination and fecal bacteria can kill cessfully copulating and the fertility rate are lower large numbers of sperm and reduce ferti l i t y . For some than for full-winged birds (Swengel and Arch i b a l d females, it may be necessary to withhold feed and    ; Ellis et al.    ; Belterman and King    ). water for  to  hours before AI (Smyth    ), but Other conditions that promote rep r oduction are no r m a l l y , herding the bird (male or female) arou n d tr eated in Chapters  and . Of the environ m e n t a l the pen for a few seconds before capture will induce conditions, light, temperature, and humidity are the de f e c a t i o n . th r ee most important. In most cranes, semen prod u c - The volume of semen that is req u i r ed to produce a tion begins before, and continues until after, the end fe r tile egg depends upon the sperm concentration and of egg production (see Chapter ). Howeve r , the asyn- the capacity of the rep ro d u c t i v e tract to retain the ch r onous production of semen and eggs does occur in semen. Often, a single semen sample is adequate to cr a n e s . inseminate two or more females with the result that a sample may be diluted. Howeve r , if the volume of diluted semen exceeds the capacity of the bird’s vagina, fertility rates can be reduced because some AI Tra i n i n g sperm are, as a result, expelled from the lumen of the vagina. Mor e frequent inseminations are advisable When circumstances recommend AI, the cr a n e s when the number of sperm per insemination is low should be trained to accept the technique. Beh a v i o r a l (Me y er et al.    ). For example, a single San d h i l l accommodations are of great importance in arti fic i a l Crane ejaculate (  -  million sperm/mL, . insemination of cranes, especially those taken from mL/ejaculate; Gee and Temple    ) may not contain the wild. Stre s s is difficult to control in crane AI, but enough sperm to produce a satisfactory fertility rate. can be reduced by using the same team, training birds Based on more than  years of experience with to accept the proc e d u r es, and avoiding injury. cranes, we recommend repeated insemination eve r y Occ a s i o n a l l y , the training pr oc e s s upsets rather than other day for two weeks before the crane lays her firs t calms the bird and if continued, may interfe r e with egg, - times each week after that, and within - h the onset of egg production. In these cases, stop the after ever y oviposition to get the best ferti l i t y . training. Reinstate insemination only after the firs t To get the highest fertility rates, we generally egg is laid whereupon the bird may be more rec e p t i ve . inseminate the entire ejaculate after diluting it : wi t h Another manipulation that may improve AI res p o n s e a poultry semen extender or an extender modified for is to place the bird or pair near other rep ro d u c t i ve l y use in cranes (Gee et al.    ). The dilution provi d e s ac t i v e birds. Visual and auditory displays by neighbor- gr eater volume, thereb y reducing the loss of sperm on ing cranes sometimes stimulates rep ro d u c t i v e activity the sides of collection, handling, and inseminating (e v en in single birds ) . devices. Most inseminations contain . to . mL of good quality semen (see the Semen Protection and Evaluation section that follows). If we determine that a poor semen sample was used, we often return with Semen Protection and another sample later in the same day. Eval u a t i o n Fertility Management The following steps can be taken to pr otect the semen AI is only one of several methods used to correct infer- and to use it most effectivel y . Semen should not be ti l i t y . AI of cranes is labor-intensive. Because natural exposed to direct sunlight. Sto r e samples until use in a copulation in properly mated cranes generally res u l t s water bath or insulated container (ca ° C) to red u c e in fertility equal to that in arti fi cially inseminated te m p e r a t u r e fluctuations. A closed tube reduces dehy- bi r ds (Gee    unpubl.), a change of mates ma y dration and contamination. A diluent increases semen pr ove sufficient to raise fertility and may be more cost volume, reduces the risk of dehydration, and if sperm ef f e c t i v e than AI. Most flighted birds will breed natu- concentration is adequate, makes it possible to insemi- rally if properly rea r ed with their own species and nate several birds from each ejaculate. A di l u e n t wa s 2 1 0 Chapter 11A de v eloped especially for cranes (Gee et al.    ), but most commercial poultry semen extenders (see Appendix) are adequate. Diluent reduces sperm con- centration, bacterial contamination, provides energy, and controls pH and osmolality. All the tubes and inseminating devices that contact the semen should be clean and free of detergents. All equipment and supplies should be thoroughly rinsed with clean water be f o r e use. For rev i e ws of factors harmful to sperm s u rv i val, see Mann (   ), Lake and Stew a r d (   ), Lake (   ), and Smyth (   ). Although the most reliable semen test is the pro- duction of fe r tile eggs, semen for use in AI can be ev aluated immediately upon collection and later in the laboratory (see below). The co l o r of good crane semen ranges from clear to milky white. Fecal conta- mi n a t i o n discolors the semen to shades of brown or gr een. Occ a s i o n a l l y , flecks of blood may be pres e n t resulting from exce s s i v e force during collection or in j u r y (Smyth    ). Samples consistently contami- nated with feces may need to be diluted with antibiotics to reduce the loss of sperm. The antibiotic, to b r a m y cin, may even increase fertility when used as a diluent in “cl e a n ” semen (Sexton et al.    ). Goo d crane semen is only slightly thicker than water . Samples that appear to be sticky or stringy are often contaminated with urates. Sometimes semen samples begin as a clear fluid in the collecting device and turn Fig. 11A.4. Sp e rm a t o zoa morphology, Greater Sandhill Cran e : white as the urates precipitate out. Wat e r y semen ma y N, Nor mal; B, bent; S, swollen; G, giant; DL, droplet; D, dead. result from collecting too much lymph in the sample After Gee and Temple    . because exce s s i v e force was used on the cloaca during collection. These watery fluids, like fecal and urate tocrit, a simple measure of sperm concentration, is contaminants, adversely affect spermatozoa, especially useful in characterizing semen produced in quantity if you hold the semen for some time before insemina- (> . mL) and containing many sperm per mL tion (Smyth    ; Lake    ; Fujihara and Nis h i y a m a (> x 9) (Arscott and Kuhns    ). The semen sample    ). is loaded into the standard microhematocrit capillary In the laboratory, samples of a crane’s semen are and centrifuged. To count sperm, the semen is diluted examined for sperm number, motility, and morphol- (if necessary), fixed, and the sperm counted in a ogy (Fig.  A. ). A more extensive examination (i.e., hemocytometer or in an automated counter (Jon e s an evaluation of metabolic rate and semen chemical and Wilson    ). Optical density of a diluted semen composition) may be needed in special cases. Th e sample can also be measured and sperm number simplest me a s u r es of semen quality ar e sperm num- determined from an established standard curve (Kos i n ber and motility. Gross testing of semen quality is and Wheeler    ; Carson et al.    ). discussed later in this chapter. Sperm pro g re s s i v e motility, discussed in grea t e r Spe r m number can be estimated from a semen detail later, is an estimate of the percent of spermato- sc o r e for density, a spermatocrit, or by counting in a zoa moving forwa r d. Because some live cells are hemocytometer or in an automated counter. Spe r m in a c t i v e, this measure is not an estimate of the per- concentration can be evaluated on a hanging drop centage of live cells. slide, under a cover slip on a slide, or in a capillary Spe r m morphology can also provide information tube (Putnam    ). The scores can be calibrated by about the percentage of live cells in the semen as wel l comparing them to actual sperm counts. The sperma- as the frequency abnormalities and the size of cells. A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 1 1

One of the easiest determinations is a li v e-dead count Any of the semen extenders used for domestic fr om an eosin-nigrosin stained slide (Gee and Sex t o n po u l t r y are adequate for short-term storage (Lake    ). Although this proc e d u r e is more time-consum- and St ew a rd    , Ogasawara and Ernst    , ing than prog re s s i v e motility, it can be performed long Sexton    ,    ). The Beltsville Pou l t r y Sem e n after the insemination, usually without a loss in accu- Extender has been adapted for dilution of San d h i l l ra c y . Howeve r , exce s s i v e moisture in the atmosphere and Whooping Crane semen (Gee et al.    , see can make staining less defini t i v e (Ogasawara et al. Table  A. ) by raising the pH to .. You can use    ). this extender for fresh storage and for free zing (see Determine ab n o rm a l i t i e s fr om a variety of prep a r a - Chapter  B). Semen from each crane species has a tions including the eosin-nigrosin stained slide. Goo d characteristic pH and osmolality (Gale    ). slide staining techniques aid in delineating parts of the Extender pH and osmolality should be tailored to sp e r m a t o z oa such as the head from the acrosomal cap the species for long term storage (fresh or froz en). By and mid-piece (Sharlin et al.    ; Russman and adapting sp e r m pres e r vat i o n techniques to a species, Harrison    ). Abnormalities in sperm help in eval u - semen can be kept in the froz en state indefini t e l y ating semen from the males and in determining effects (S exton and Gee    ; Watanabe and Terada    ; of diluents and storage. Sperm head size as determined Watanabe et al.    ). fr om properly stained slides can also help distinguish subspecies (Sharlin et al.    ; Russman and Har r i s o n    ) and predict fecundity (Sharlin et al.    ). T A B L E 11A.1 Ele c t r on microscopy can also be useful in detecting Crane Semen Extender membrane and fine struc t u r e abnormalities in    mL distilled water sp e r m a t o zo a . .  g D-fructose (MW =   .   ) Although laboratory tests are useful in eval u a t i n g .   g magnesium chloride (MgCl ) (FW =   .   ) semen, satisfactory fertility rates have come from 2 semen that scored poorly in the laboratory, especially .   g potassium phosphate (monobasic) (FW =   .  ) fro ze n - t h a w ed semen (Sexton    ). Cryop ro t e c t a n t s  .  g potassium phosphate (dibasic) (FW =   .  ) and free zing can affect sperm motility and .   g citric acid (MW =   .  ) morphology without destroying the ability of the .   g N-[- h yd roxy l - ,-b i s ( h yd r oxy-methyl)ethyl] taurine fro ze n - t h a w ed semen to produce fertile eggs. (MW =   .   ) .   g L-glutamic acid (anhydr ous) (MW =   .  ) .   g sodium acetate (MW =   .    ) Adjust pH to .  with sodium hydr oxide. Adjust to Sho rt - t e r m Semen Sto r a g e   mosM with distilled water. Although the best fertility rates come from using semen immediately following collection, crane semen can be stored for several hours without significa n t l y reducing ferti l i t y . Semen storage for an hour or more Equipment, Facilities, and calls for temperature control and protection from contamination and drying. Sperm of most species Sup p l i e s s u rv i ve best at near free zing temperatures (Gee and Temple    ; Sexton    ). We use a wide-mouth The basic equipment used in AI is simple and thermos, ice water, and a submerged dry container for in e x p e n s i v e (Corten    , see Appendix). The rec o r d samples. Because bacterial contamination can rapidly book is most important (see Chapter  ) and must be de s t r oy sperm cells, avoid contamination or use dilu- kept for comparisons during the year and from year to ents to introduce antibacterial agents, stabilize pH and yea r . Devices used to collect semen include glass or os m o l a l i t y , and in other ways extend the life of a plastic cups, “shot glasses,” sealed funnels, syringes, semen sample (Smyth    ; Gee and Temple    ; test tubes, capillary tubes, and pipettes (Smyth    ). Sexton et al.    ). Semen pH and osmolality var y A thermometer is needed for the semen storage case. fr om species to species. Semen pH ranges from . fo r Inseminating equipment includes syringes, needleless a duck to . for a crane. syringe caps, pipettes, straws, or eye droppers and 2 1 2 Chapter 11A devices to hold or add diluents. Chaps should be worn by the massage person to help prev ent injury from the cr a n e ’s bill and talons. Goggles should be worn by all AI Program: Preparations for members of the AI team. In the AI kit (see Tab l e  A. ), put the AI supplies on one side of the kit and the AI Sea s o n pr ovide a separate area for first aid supplies to trea t AI is labor intensive and calls for planned and coordi - minor abrasions. nated activities . Form your AI crew a few wee k s Crane facilities should be free from obstructions to be f o r e the AI season to establish work schedules and reduce the chances of injury and to facilitate a quick, to train personnel. Because birds respond to differen t less stressful capture. A cloth or tennis netted corner people in different ways, choose people based on the (c a p t u r e corner) in the pen reduces abrasion to the bi r d’s response to them. To avoid disturbance, main- cr a n e ’s wings during handling for AI. Also, clean facil- tain an established routine (same sequence each day, ities reduce the risk of semen contamination and same time, with the same people) and move quietly soiling of the bird during capture. with the least disturbance to the birds . La b o r a t o r y equipment, including a microscope, Write a short rep ro d u c t i v e history for each bird is needed for the routine examination of semen. that includes typical behavior, health, lay dates, semen Prog re s s i v e motility estimates req u i r e only a clean characteristics, and fertility with AI. Also, prep a r e the slide and cover slip, but a hanging drop slide is useful pr oper rec o rd s (AI book, species egg logs, dam rep r o- for lengthy microscopic studies of living samples. It is du c t i v e rec o r ds, and egg cards) before the season starts desirable, but not necessary, to do additional eval u a - (see Chapter  ). tions of semen. A variety of stains are req u i r ed if you ar e to do live-dead counts or special morphological The AI Routine studies. A balance with . g accuracy is needed to weigh out chemicals and to prep a r e stains and other Gradually introduce each pair to the collection and supplies. Other supporting pieces of equipment and insemination routine. For the first two days (i.e., supplies include cell counters, slide trays, and photo- Monday and Wednesday), acclimate the birds to the graphic attachments. Also needed are pH paper or a cr ew by merely capturing, handling, and rel e a s i n g pH meter, and to determine osmolality from small them. On the third day (Friday), start stimulation and samples, a vapor point osmometer. Res p i r ometers tr y to collect semen samples on ever y AI day there- or spectrophotometers are needed to test semen af t e r . Begin insemination when the female is rea d y metabolic activity. (i.e., res p o n s i v e to handling, shows a widening in the distance between pubic bones, exhibits cloacal expan- TABLE 11A.2 sion, begins nest building, performs certain social AI Kit displays such as Bil l - d o wn and Bil l - d ow n - g r owl, and becomes more aggres s i v e). In a few birds the proc e s s AI funnels may take longer. Do not proceed if the bird does not  cc syringes respond to stimulation. Use the crane’s rep ro d u c t i v e semen extender hi s t o r y as a guide and try to complete three insemina- sq u a r e gauze pads tions before the first egg. roll gauze Males should be ra t e d on a scale of  to  for their response to AI. We use the following score: ad h e s i v e tape  = No positive response to AI. Bir d struggles and shows vet wrap no sign of stimulation. cr i t o s e a l  = Bir d rel a x es briefly but struggles most of the time. small labels  = Neutral to slightly positive response. Doe s n ’t st r uggle. Raises tail. ca p i l l a r y tubes  = Bir d is rel a x ed. Raises tail. Ever ts cloaca. rul e r  = Responds strongly by raising tail, ever ting cloaca, pe n c i l s voc a l i z es during massage. May climax. “sh a r p i e ” (indelible) marke r A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 1 3

The fe m a l e ’s response to massage is sc o re d as for the male. It is ver y important to measure the pu b i c sp re a d prior to massage and insemination; otherwi s e semen could be expelled from the cloaca while taking the measurements. To measure the pubic sprea d , st r oke the base of the tail with one hand, and with the other hand massage the lower abdomen below the vent in an upwa r d motion. The spread of the pubic bones and the size of the cloaca is measured by fing e r widths. A pubic score of  means two fingers can fit be t w een the pubic bones. Conver t finger widths to mm after leaving the pen. A few days before laying, the pubic bones spread significantly (e.g., a female may change from  to . fingers) and the lips of the vent enlarge. Use the bird’s previous rec o r ds as a guide to condition and to help forecast egg laying. E a c hA Id a y fill a na d e q u a t en u m b e r of sy ri n g e s be f o r e s t a rt i n gA Iw i t h. m Le x t e n d e r ( o rt h ea ve r- a g es e m e n vo l u m ec o l l e c t e df ro m yo u rb i rd s ) . Fil l a fe w sy r i n g e s wi t h . m Le x t e n d e r t ob e re a d yf o rt h ef ew s m a l le j a c u l a t e sc o l l e c t e d . In a na l t e r n a t i ve me t h o d , c o l l e c tt h es e m e n , a d da ne q u a la m o u n t( ad ro po rt w o ) o fe x t e n d e r, d r a wt h ed i l u t e ds e m e ni n t ot h ei n s e m i n a t- i n gs y r i n g e ,a n dt h e np ro c e e dw i t ht h ei n s e m i n a t i o n . To eva l u a t e a sample of se m e n , draw a small part of the semen (about  uL) from the collecting funnel into a microc a p i l l a r y tube (tube). Move the sample away fr om the tip of the tube by gently tapping the far end, Fig. 11A.5. Semen is drawn from the collecting funnel into a then seal both ends with a putty (“Cri t o s e a l ” or equiv- syringe. Ph oto David H. El l i s . alent). Label the sample with pen number and place it in a small thermos (filled with ice and maintained be t w een ° and ° C). Draw the rest of the semen into Once you collect a female’s first egg of the season, a  cc tuberculin syringe (Fig.  A. ) already loaded visually check for eggs at least twice daily,    an d with an equal volume of semen extender for intravag i -    h. During the laying season, check for eggs at nal insemination. If the sample is ver y small, add    ,    , and    h, and during peak season, add enough extender to bring the volume up to . -. another check later in the evening. When you expect a cc. An alternate method used by ICF is to use a micro- crane to lay an egg (calculated or felt in abdomen), scope slide to examine the sample remaining in the make checks of that pen ever y few hours, so you can syringe after insemination. inseminate immediately after laying. Ins e m i n a t i o n When semen is too contaminated to use, or the soon after oviposition produces higher fertility of the sample is too small, inseminate the female later in the next eggs. Schedule an AI team on holidays and odd day or the next day with the same donor. If paternity hours to enable timely response. If the birds are multi- is of concern, it is better not to inseminate than to use ple clutched (see Chapter ), the interval between eggs another donor. in c r eases, and checks twice each day are generally If a contaminated semen sample is to be used, ad e q u a t e . draw the clean portion into the syringe, but use it only Rep r oduction stresses birds, and AI compounds the for cloacal, not vaginal, insemination. Large semen pr oblem. Some medical practices can help. Keep you r samples (. mL and above) with good sperm br eeding birds healthy. Put padded prot e c t o r s on the concentration can be split and used to inseminate leading edge of the wrist (see Chapter ) for birds that tw o females. Do not inseminate when a hard shelled ha v e a tendency to scrape their wrists on the fence egg is present in the ovi d u c t . during capture. Rep o r t sick or injured birds to the 2 1 4 Chapter 11A vet e r i n a r y staff for evaluation and treatment. Dur i n g handling for AI, inspect the cloaca for soren e s s , A in fl ammation, and infection. Stop AI for a week or mo r e when such conditions appear. When a sick bird has been handled, avoid spreading the infection to other birds .

Details of Semen Evaluation At the lab, examine the small semen samples collected in capillary tubes or from the tips of the labeled TB syringes used for insemination earlier in the day. Rem o ve the tube or syringe from the thermos and sc o r e the sample within two minutes after placing it B under the  x objective of the microscope. For a more detailed view, the contents from the tip of the syringe can be plunged onto a slide with a coverslip and vi e wed in the microscope field at   ´ . Focus up and do wn at a point near the meniscus to find the sperm. First, estimate pro g re s s i v e motility (p e r cent of sp e r m a t o z oa moving forwa r d) and rec o r d in AI book. Sc o r e as follows :  = no motile sperm  = less than  % motile  =  % to  % motile  =  % to  % motile C  = mo r e than  % motile

Second, estimate sp e r m concentration (F ig.  A. ) on a score of  to  and rec o r d in AI book. Score as fo l l ow s :  = no sperm  = fe w sperm with large empty spaces  = many sperm with moderate spacing between them  = sperm numerous with little space between them  = packed sperm, hard to detect single sperm

Use the photographs of typical concentration D sc o r es (Fig.  A. ) and display them above the micro- scope for comparison to help standardi z e scores be t w een individuals and across years. In ICF’s method, remember to mu l t i p l y the sperm concentra- tion seen in your field of view by your dilution factor. For example, if you extended the sperm sample :, thus creating twice as much volume, you would mul- tiply the sperm concentration by . For males producing semen for the first time, in addition to the routine semen scores, make three com- plete la b o r a t o r y examinations (e a r l y , mid, and late in the season) from an eosin-nigrosin stained slide. To Fig. 11A.6. Crane sperm concentration scores: A ( x) = , pre p a r e an eo s i n - n i g r osin (live-dead) slide , place one B ( x) = , C ( x) = , D (x) = . A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 1 5 dr op of % eosin (by weight) on the upper right hand corner of the slide. Place - dr ops of  % nigros i n (b y weight) directly below the eosin. Break off each Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d end of the capillary tube and place one drop of semen Ar chibald, G. S.    . Methods for breeding and rea r i n g fr om the tube on the slide close to but to the left of cranes in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . the eosin. Using a small glass rod, mix the eosin and Arscott, G. H., and R. V. Kuhns.    . Packed sperm vol u m e semen, and then after  seconds, mix both with the versus optical density as a measure of semen concentra- ni g ro s i n . tions. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Bakst, M. R.    . Sperm transport in the turke y . Pou l t r y Place the end of another slide over the eosin- Science  :   . ni g r osin stained semen sample at a  ° angle to the Bakst, M. R.    . Sperm rec o ver y from oviducts of turkeys at sample slide. Draw the upper slide towa r d the sample kn o wn intervals after insemination and oviposition. Jou r n a l until the sample spreads along the underside of the of Rep r oduction and Fer tility  :  -  . upper slide. Next, push the upper slide away from the Ber r y, R. B.    . Rep r oduction by arti fi cial insemination in ca p t i v e American goshawks. Journal of Wil d l i f e sample, along the surface of the lower slide, dragging Management  :   -   . out a thin uniform smear on the surface of the lower Bir d, D. M., P. C. Lague, and R. B. Buckland.    . Arti fic i a l slide. Dry the slide quickly by waving in the air or, in insemination vs. natural mating in captive American damp wea t h e r , by exposing it to a warm air curren t . ke s t r els. Canadian Journal of Zoology  :   -   . For a permanent specimen, apply mounting Belterman, R., and C. E. King.    . Captive management and medium when dry and mount a cover slip. You can hu s b a n d r y of Red - c r owned Cranes in Euro p e . International Zoo News  (): - . vi e w the slide under the microscope then or later Bo b r , L. W., F. W. Lorenz, and F. X. Ogasawara.    . The rol e when the mounting medium has dried. Count cl e a r of the uterovaginal junction in storage of cock spermatozoa . cells as live and red or purple cells as dead . Also, sepa- Pou l t r y Science  :   . rate the live cells into five other categories: normal, Bo yd, L. L., N. S. Boyd, and F. C. Dol b e r .    . Rep ro d u c t i o n bent, swollen, giant and droplet and compare them to of prairie falcons by arti fi cial insemination. Journal of Wildlife Management  :  -  . normals (Fig.  A. ) for other birds in your collection Bur t, C. T., and J. M. Chalovich.    . Serine ethanolamine (S harlin    ; Gee and Temple    ; Russman    ; phosphodiester a major component in chicken semen. Sharlin et al.    ). Biochimica et Biophysica ACT A   :  -  . Buxton, J. R., and F. S. Orcutt, Jr.    . Enzymes and elec- tr olytes in the semen of Japanese Quail. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Carson, J. E., F. W. Lorenz, and V. S. Asmundson.    . Sem e n AI As a Too l pr oduction in the turkey male. . Seasonal var i a t i o n . Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . First used in cranes in    , AI is now a practical Compton, M. M., and H. P. Van Krey .    a. Emptying of the pr opagation tool. The technique combines coopera- ut e r ovaginal sperm storage glands in the absence of ovu l a - ti v e and massage methods to increase semen yield and tion and oviposition in the domestic hen. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . egg ferti l i t y . Although semen charaacteristics are Compton, M. M., and H. P. Van Krey .    b. A histological useful indicators of semen quality, the most rel i a b l e examination of the uterovaginal sperm storage glands in the test is fertility rate. domestic hen following an insemination with var i a b l e semen dosages. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . Compton, M. M., H. P. Van Krey , and P. B. Siegel.    . Th e filling and emptying of uterovaginal sperm host glands in the domestic hen. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Compton, M. M., H. P. Van Krey , and P. B. Siegel.    . Th e filling and emptying of uterovaginal sperm host glands in the domestic hen. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Co r ten, P. J. M.    . Arti fi cial insemination methods and equipment. Captive Breed. Diurnal Bir ds of Prey (): -. Ellis, D. H., G. F. Gee, and K. O’Mal l e y .    . First successful natural mating by captive- re a r ed Whooping Cra n e . Res e a r ch Information Bulletin, U.S. Fish and Wil d l i f e Ser vice.  - .  pp . 2 1 6 Chapter 11A

Fer r i e r , W. T., H. B. Ortm a ye r , F. X. Ogasawara, and R. Lake, P. E.    . The principles and practice of semen collec- Zam a n o t o .    . The survi v ability of mycoplasma melea- tion and pres e r vation in birds. Symposia of the Zoo l o g i c a l gridis in froze n - t h a w ed turkey semen. Pou l t r y Science Society of London  : - . :  -  . Lake, P.E. and J. M. Stew a r d.    . Arti fi cial insemination in Fujihara, N., and H. Nishiyama.    . Studies on the acces- po u l t r y. Min i s t r y of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food [Grea t so r y rep ro d u c t i v e organs in the drake. Par t . Effects of the Britain], Bulletin No.   . fluid from the ejaculatory grove region on the spermatozoa Lo r enz, F. W.    . Rep r oduction in domestic fowl. Pages   - of the drake. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   .   in H. H. Cole and P. T. Cupps, editors. Rep ro d u c t i o n Gale, J. A.    . Cryop re s e r vation of semen from endangered in domestic animals. nd ed. Academic Press, New York . crane species. Uni v ersity of Wisconsin, Madison.  pp . Mann, T.    . The biochemistry of semen and of the male Gasparska, J., L. Erm e n k o va, Z. Jas t r zerbski, and G. Isa e v . rep ro d u c t i v e tract. Methuen and Co., Ltd, London.   pp .    . Act i v i t y , electrop h o r etic forms and morphologic McD aniel, G. R., and T. J. Sexton.    . Frequency of semen characteristics of some enzymes in the blood and seminal collection in relation to semen volume, sperm concentra- plasma of cocks. Prace i Materialy Zoo t e c h n i c z n e tion, and fertility in the chicken. Pou l t r y Science ( ): - .  :   -   . Gee, G. F.    unpubl. Rep ro d u c t i v e physiology of the Meye r , G. B., C. F. Props, A. T. Leighton, Jr., H. P. Van Krey , Greater Sandhill Crane. Pages   -  in Annual Prog re s s and L. M. Pot t e r .    . Infl uence of dietary protein during Rep o r t Adm i n i s t r a t i v e Rep o r t, Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a rc h the preb r eeder period on subsequent rep ro d u c t i v e perfo r - Ce n t e r . mance of large white turkeys. . The effects of semen Gee, G. F.    . Avian arti fi cial insemination and semen volume and frequency of insemination on fertility and pre s e r vation. Pages   -  in Jean Del a c o u r / I F C B ha t c h a b i l i t y . Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . Symposium on Breeding Bir ds in Captivity. Hol l y w o o d , Nishiyama, H., N. Nakashima, and N. Fujihara.    . Stu d i e s Ca l i f . on the accessory rep ro d u c t i v e organs in the drake. Par t I. Gee, G. F., and T. J. Sexton.    . Arti fi cial insemination of Addition to semen of the fluid from the ejaculatory groo ve cranes with froz en semen. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, edi- region. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . to r . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . National Aud u b o n Ogasawara, F. X., and R. A. Ernst.    . Effects of three semen Society and Colorado State Printing Se rv i c e . extenders on rep r oduction in turkeys. California Gee, G. F., and T. J. Sexton.    . Cryogenic pres e r vation of Ag r i c u l t u r e, August    : - . semen from the Aleutian Canada Goose (Branta canadensis Ogasawara, F. X., and C. L. Fuqua.    . The vital importa n c e le u c o p a re i a ). Zoo Biology :  -  . of the uterovaginal sperm-host glands for the turkey hen. Gee, G. F., and S. A. Temple.    . Arti fi cial insemination for Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . br eeding non-domestic birds. Symposia of the Zoo l o g i c a l Ogasawara, F. X., C. L. Fuqua, and K. C. Tripathi.    . Society of London  : - . Recommendations for using the live-dead stain with turke y Gee, G. F., M. R. Bakst, and T. J. Sexton.    . Cryog e n i c sp e r m a t o z oa. Pou l t r y Science  :   . pre s e r vation of semen from the Greater Sandhill Cra n e . Olsen, M. W.    . Maturation, fertilization, and early cleav- Journal of Wildlife Management  ():   -  . age in the hen’s egg. Journal of Morphology  :  . Gri e r , J. W.    . Techniques and results of arti fi cial insemina- Per ek, M., M. Elian, and E. D. Hel l e r .    . Bacterial flora of tion with Golden Eagles. Raptor Res e a r ch :-. semen and contamination of the rep ro d u c t i v e organs of the Ham e r s t r om, F.    . An eagle to the sky. Iowa Uni ve r s i t y hen following arti fi cial insemination. Res e a r ch in Press, Ames.   pp . Vet e r i n a r y Science  :  -  . Howell, T. R., and G. A. Ba rt h o l o m ew, Jr.    . Exp e r i m e n t s Putnam, M. S.    . Refi ned techniques in crane prop a g a t i o n on the mating behavior of the Brewer Bla c k b i r d. Condor at the International Crane Foundation. Pages   -  in J.  :  -  . C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Jones, J. E., and H. R. Wilson.    . Use of an electron i c National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . counter for sperm concentration determinations in chicken Quinn, J. P., and W. H. Bur r ows.    . Arti fi cial insemination semen. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . of . Journal of Her edity  : - . Kosin, I. L., and A. Wh e e l e r .    . Methods for estimating Russman, S. E.    . Sperm morphology in the crane. M.S. sp e r m a t o z oa numbers in turkey semen. Nort h w est Science thesis, Uni v ersity of Illinois, Urbana.  pp .  : - . Russman, S. E., and P. C. Harrison.    . Sperm morphology Lake, P. E.    . Physiology and biochemistry of poultry in the crane. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. semen. Pages  -  in A. McL a r en, editor. Adv ances in Proceedings    Crane Wo rk s h o p. National Aud u b o n Rep ro d u c t i v e Phy s i o l o g y . Logos Press, Ltd., London. Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . Lake, P. E.    . Factors affecting ferti l i t y . Pages - in T. C. Ser vouse, M., M. J. Petitjean, and A. J. Rosenberg.    . A Ca r ter and B. M. Freeman, editors. Fer tility and hatchabil- study of some seminal plasma enzymes of the cockerel . ity of the hen’s egg. British Egg Mar ket Board Sym p o s i u m Annales de Biologie Animale Biochimie Bio p h y s i q u e No. . Oli v er and Boyd, Edi n b u r g h .  :  -  . Lake, P. E.    . The male in rep r oduction. Pages    -   Sexton, T. J.    . Studies on the fertility of froz en fowl semen. in D. J. Ball and B. M. Freeman, editors. Physiology Page   in Proceedings of the VI I I th Int e r n a t i o n a l and biochemistry of the domestic fowl . Academic Pres s , Co n g r ess on Animal Rep r oduction and Arti fic i a l New York . Insemination, Krakow, Pol a n d . A rtificial In s e m i n at i o n 2 1 7

Sexton, T. J.    . A new poultry semen extender. Par t . Eff e c t Swengel, S. R., and G. W. Archibald.    . The status of cranes of extension on the fertility of chicken semen. Pou l t r y br eeding in    . Pages   -  in th World Conference on Science  :   -   . Breeding End a n g e r ed Species in Captivity, Cincinnati, Sexton, T. J.    . A new poultry semen extender. . Effect of Ohi o . storage conditions on the fertilizing capacity of chicken Tan, N. S.    . The frequency of collection and semen pro- semen stored at o C. Pou l t r y Science  :   -  . duction in Mus c o vy Ducks. British Pou l t r y Science Sexton, T. J.    . Pres e r vation of poultry semen: a rev i e w.  :  -  . Pages   -  in H. W. Hawk, editor. Animal rep ro d u c t i o n . Temple, S. A.    . Arti fi cial insemination with imprinted Beltsville Agriculture Res e a r ch Center Symposium . bi r ds of prey . Nat u r e (London)   :  -  . Sexton, T. J., and G. F. Gee.    . A comparative study on the Thurston, R.J., R. A. Hess, H. V. Bie l l i e r , H. K. Aldinger, and cr yogenic pres e r vation of semen from the Sandhill Cra n e R. F. Sol o rz a n o .    . Ult r a s t r uctural studies of semen and the domestic fowls. Symposia of the Zoological Soc i e t y abnormalities and herpesvirus associated with cultured of London  : - . testicular cells from domestic turkeys. Journal of Sexton, T. J., L. A. Jacobs, and G. R. McD aniel.    . A new Rep r oduction and Fer tility  :  -  . po u l t r y semen extender. . Effect of antibacterials in con- Watanabe, M., and T. Terada.    . A new diluent for deep tr ol of bacterial contamination in chicken semen. Pou l t r y fre e zing pres e r vation of fowl spermatozoa. Proceedings of Science  :  -  . the VI I I th International Congress of Animal Rep ro d u c t i o n Sharlin, J. S.    . Sperm head length as a predictor of fecun- and Arti fi cial Insemination   . dity in the Sandhill Crane. M.S. thesis, Uni v ersity of Watanabe, M., and T. Terada.    . Fer tility of froz en fowl Mar yland, College Par k.  pp . semen stored for long-term, nine years. Journal of the Sharlin, J. S., C. S. Sha f f n e r , and G. F. Gee.    . Sperm head Faculty of Applied Biological Science Hir oshima Uni ve r s i t y length as a predictor of fecundity in the Sandhill Cra n e ,  :  -  . Grus ca n a d e n s i s . Journal of Rep r oduction and Fert i l i t y Watanabe, M., Y. Matsumoto, N. Takeshita, and T. Ter a d a .  :  -  .    . Fer tility of muscovy semen froz en for about three Smyth, J. R., Jr.    . Pou l t r y. Pages   -  in E. J. Per r y, years. Journal of the Faculty of Applied Biological Science ed i t o r . The arti fi cial insemination of farm animals. Rut g e r s Hir oshima Uni v ersity  : - . Uni v ersity Press, New Brunswick, N.J. Wen t w o r th, B. C., M. J. Wineland, and G. D. Paton.    . Sti p k o vits, L., A. Rashwan, and M. Z. Sab r y.    . Studies on Fer tility of turkey hens correlated with depth of insemina- pathogenicity of turkey ureaplasma. Avian Pat h o l o g y tion. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . :  -  . Stu r kie, P. D.    . Avian physiology. Comstock/Cornell Uni v ersity Press, Ithaca, N.Y.   pp . 2 1 8 Chapter 11A CHAPTER 11B Special Techniques, Par t B: Cryop r es e r vat i o n

Ti m othy L. Ha rg rove and Ge o rge F. Ge e

hicken semen was first froz en in    the small end. (S haffner et al.    ). Since that time, Determine the vol u m e fro z en semen has produced fertile eggs with an open-ended fr om various species of raptors (Brock    ; tom cat catheter ( CPar ks et al.    ; Gee et al.    ), cranes (Gee et al. cm) attached to a -c c    ; Gale    ; Har g r ove et al.    unpubl.), geese syringe. Dilute the (G ee and Sexton    ), and psittacines (Har g r ove ejaculate with one part    ; Samour et al.    ). crane semen extender Max i m i z i n g fe rt i l i t y an d g e n e t i cd i ve r s i t y ar e (:), which is a modi- im p o rt a n t f o rb re e d i n ge n d a n g e re ds p e c i e s i nc a p t i v i t y, fied version of the a n dc ryog e n i c pre s e r va t i o no f se m e n c a na c c o m p l i s h Beltsville Pou l t r y bo t h . If ga m e t e p ro d u c t i o ni s a s y n c h ro n o u s ,t h e Semen Ext e n d e r fe m a l e ma y b ea rt i fic i a l l y i n s e m i n a t e dw i t h fro ze n - (BPSE; Sexton    ; t h a we ds e m e n s a m p l e s( Fi g .  b.). Furt h e r m o re , Fig. 11b.1 Bruce Williams holding Gee et al.    ). Label fro ze n se m e n b a n k sc a n pro t e c t th e f o u n d e rg e n ep o o l the first crane chick, a Grea t e r the Pasteur pipet for f o rg e n e r a t i o n s . Sandhill Crane, ever produced id e n t i fi cation and cover fr om froz en semen,    . it with parafilm to pre- Ph oto Ge o rge F. Ge e vent evaporation and contamination. Th e s e Collection and Dilution pro c e d u r es are pe r formed at ambient temperature. Avian semen was first collected by the massage tech- Place the Pasteur pipet inside a larger test tube and nique in chickens (Bur r ows and Quinn    ). Th i s transfer the two into an insulated ice bath (-° C). same technique has been applied to semen collection The water level in the ice bath should be suffici e n t l y in other avian species including cranes (Arch i b a l d high to cover at least the lower portion of the tube    ; Gee and Temple    ; Chapter  A). Som e containing the diluted ejaculate. The tube-within-a- res e a r ch projects may req u i r e collecting semen by tube arrangement slows the rate at which the ejaculate na r r ow-mouthed devices (e.g., a . -mL caraway or a cools, thereb y promoting survi v al of the spermatozoa . . -mL natelson capillary tube), but normally, sam- The top of the insulated container is closed betwee n ples are collected in wide-mouthed devices such as a samples to maintain the desired temperature and to close-ended funnel ( -mm diameter cup with  -m m de c r ease the effects of airborne contamination and stem; Fig.  a.) or some other similar glass container. sunlight. Uncontaminated semen may be held in this Any surface which comes into contact with the semen manner up to  hours prior to free zing (Gee    ). should be clean, dry, sterile, and never contain soap residue. Immediately after collection, draw a tiny (ca . mL) sample into a capillary tube (as described in Chapter  A). This tube is later examined for sperm Sample Prep a r a t i o n concentration, motility, and for live-dead counts. Few cells in the tube die in the hour or less needed to Upon arrival at the lab, the . -mL sample in the return to the laboratory if the weather is cool or if the ca p i l l a r y tube is examined for motility, concentration, tube is stored in a cool container (ice bath or ther- and urate contamination. Samples showing good mos). Transfer the ejaculate to a Pasteur pipet sealed at concentration with little or no urate contamination, 2 2 0 Chapter 11B

and bottom and are constructed of alu- minum). A temperature probe is placed in the ethanol bath on a semen cane. Th e pr obe consists of a Type T bimetal ther- mocouple in a semen straw containing % DMSO in crane extender and is sealed on top with vinyl plastic putty (e.g., Critoseal, see Appendix). The ther- mocouple is attached to a te m p e r a t u re - re c o r ding unit (Ho n e y we l l Ele c t r onik III, Type T; see Appendix), a single pen strip chart rec o r der with a te m p e r a t u r e range of ° to –  ° C. Near the end of the equilibration period, heat-seal the straws on one end. These straws are either .- or .-m L and are labeled by male ID and colony. First, res e r ve a small residual semen sam- ple (. mL) for density and live- d e a d counts (these counts are performed after the samples are froz en). Then, transfer the remaining semen sample to the straws Fig. 11b.2 Semen freezing proc e s s . (using a tom cat catheter and a -c c syringe) and heat-seal the other end. The sealed straws ar e transferred to a consecutively labeled cane (e.g., ir re s p e c t i v e of the degree of motility, are prep a r ed for cane  - is the  th sample froz en in    ) and fre ez i n g . placed in the ethanol bath. As mentioned earlier, semen is diluted when col- The first step of the free zing process (Fig.  b.) is lected with an equal volume of crane extender. cooling the samples in the ethanol bath from +° to Samples that will be froz en are diluted by one-half the – ° C at a rate of –° C/min. Second, cool the sam- volume of the diluted ejaculate with  % dimethylsul- ples from – ° to – ° C at a rate of – ° C/min by fo xide (DMSO) in crane extender to get a final % placing them in liquid nitrogen vap o r . This may be DMSO concentration (one part semen, one part accomplished by holding the samples in the neck of ex t e n d e r , and one part DMSO extender). Wh e n the storage tank or by placing them in a vapor tank adding the DMSO, the  % DMSO in crane exten- filled with  cm of liquid nitrogen. Th i r d, plunge the der and diluted ejaculate should be at the same samples into liquid nitrogen (–  ° C; a free zing rate te m p e r a t u r e (-° C). DMSO helps protect the sperm of –  ° C/min; Gee et al.    ). If a vapor tank is fr om damage during free zing and thawing. For the used in steps two and three, the samples should maximum cryop r otectant effect with the least amount remain in the vapor tank for  min before transferring of cell toxi c i t y , the ejaculate should equilibrate with to the liquid nitrogen storage tank. DMSO for  minutes in the ice bath (Gee    ). Determine sperm density using a hemacytometer. While the semen sample is equilibrating, the First, draw up a . -mL subsample of ejaculate you ethanol bath (in which the straws containing the pre p a r ed for free zing. Then dilute this  : by adding semen are placed for free zing) is cooled to ° C. For . mL neutral formalin. You can purchase neutral the ethanol bath, we use a Neslab Agitanor (an insu- formalin or prep a r e your own by adding  g sodium lated multipurpose bath with stirrer; see App e n d i x ) bicarbonate and  mL commercial formalin to   mL which is cooled by a Neslab Cryocool Imm e r s i o n distilled water. Th o r oughly mix the semen and forma- Cooler CC-  (a refrigeration compressor immersion lin and allow to sit for  min. Mix the sample and pr obe; see Appendix). The stirrer in the ethanol bath place a small portion of this solution on a hemacy- maintains a constant temperature around each cane. tometer (Fig. .). Wait  - min for the sperm cells (Canes are  . cm long, semicircular with a flat top to settle into one focal plane (if more time is allowed Cryo p re s e rvat i o n 2 2 1 the sample may dehydrate). At   x magnifica t i o n , count the sperm cells within  of the  small squares in the l-mm square. Then calculate density with the Use of Froz en Sem e n fo l l o wing formula: (N o. Sperm Cells ´ Dilution ´    )/ N o. Squ a re s To thaw froz en samples for insemination, transfer the Counted = No. Sperm Cells/.  mL Eja c u l a t e . canes from the storage tank to an ice bath (crushed ice The number of smallest squares counted is  saturated with water, .° C) for - min. Rem o ve the ( ´  ) if only one grid of the hemacytometer is straw containing the thawed semen, dry the surfa c e , counted and   if both sides are counted. To get the and cut off one end. Transfer the thawed semen with a number of sperm cells/mL, multiply the calculated tom cat catheter attached to a -cc syringe from the value by    . straw to a closed end Pasteur pipet in an ice bath or For example, if both sides of the hemacytometer keep in the syringe for insemination. Examine the add up to   sperm cells and the dilution is   x, samples for motility and live cells as described earlier. then the results are as follows : Use the equivalent of two to four ejaculates for (  ´   ´    )/   =   ,  sp e r m / .  mL = each insemination to compensate for the loss of cells   mi l l i o n / m L . during free zing ( - %) and on the sides of tubes, Kn o wing the original undiluted froz en volume, the straws, and transfer devices. To achieve good ferti l i t y , pe r cent live, and the density, one can calculate the use  - million live cells per insemination (Gee et al. number of live sperm cells in the freshly froz en sam-    ). Samples should be inseminated immediately ple. For example, if after thawing and in the same manner as fresh semen. . mL = original ejaculate vol u m e ,   million/mL = density, and  % of the sperm cells wer e alive, then . ´   ,  ,  ´ .  =  ,  ,  li v e sperm Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d cells in the original sample. Li v e-dead counts are made with % eosin and  % Ar chibald, G. S.    . Methods for breeding and rea r i n g ni g r osin stain (Bur r ows and Quinn    ; Hackett and cranes in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . Brock, M. K.    . Cryop re s e r vation of semen of the Macpherson    ). Place one drop of semen on a American Kes t r el (Fal c o sp a r ver i u s ). M.S. thesis, clean dry glass slide, one drop of % eosin next to the Mac D onald College of McG ill Uni ve r s i t y , Mon t re a l , dr op of semen, and  dr ops of  % nigrosin next to Canada.  pp . the eosin. Mix the eosin and sperm and let sit for - Bur r ows, W. H., and J. P. Quinn.    . Arti fi cial insemination seconds. Then mix with the  dr ops of  % nigros i n , of chickens and turkeys. U.S. Dep a r tment of Agriculture Ci r cular No.   :- . sp r ead the sample like a blood smear, and air dry it Gale, J. R.    . Cryop re s e r vation of semen from endangered qu i c k l y . Do no t dr y over a flame, but a flow of warm crane species. M.S. thesis, Uni v ersity of Wis c o n s i n , air (e.g., from a hair dryer) may be used. Glue a  ´ Madison.  pp .  mm coverslip to the slide with Permount (see Gee, G. F.    . Cryop re s e r vation of crane semen. Pages   - Appendix), balsam, or other mounting medium. Th e   in J. Harris, editor. Proceedings    Int e r n a t i o n a l slide can be examined now or later for live and dead Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Baraboo, Wis . sperm. Live sperm appear white against the blue Gee, G. F., M. R. Bakst, and T. J. Sexton.    . (n i g r osin) background; dead sperm appear red (eosin) Cryop re s e r vation of semen from the Greater San d h i l l or pink against the blue background. Determine per- Crane. Journal of Wildlife Management  :  -  . centage live by counting   sperm on each of three Gee, G. F., C. A. Mor r ell, J. C. Franson, and O. H. Pat t e e . slides or   on each of two slides.    . Cryop re s e r vation of American Kes t r el semen with di m e t h y l s u l f o xide. Journal of Raptor Res e a r ch  : - . Gee, G. F., and T. J. Sexton.    . Arti fi cial insemination of cranes with froz en semen. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, edi- to r . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . National Aud u b o n Society and Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Serv i c e . Gee, G. F., and T. J. Sexton.    . Cryogenic pres e r vation of semen from the Aleutian Canada Goose. Zoo Bio l o g y :  -  . 2 2 2 Chapter 11B

Gee, G. F., and S. A. Temple.    . Arti fi cial insemination for br eeding non-domestic birds. Symposia of the Zoo l o g i c a l Society of London  : - . Hackett, A. J., and J. W. Macpherson.    . Some staining pro c e d u r es for spermatozoa. A rev i e w. Canadian Vet e r i n a r y Journal : - . Har g r ove, T. L.    . Cryogenic pres e r vation of Bud g e r i g a r (Mel o p s i t t a c u s un d u l a t a s ) semen. M.S. thesis, Flo r i d a Atlantic Un i ve r s i t y, Boca Raton.  pp . Har g r ove, T. L., G. F. Gee, and C. Mirande.    un p u b l . Comparison of two DMSO levels on the fertilizing ability of semen in three species of cranes. Par ks, J. E., W. R. Heck, and V. Har daswick.    . Cryop re s e r vation of Per egrine Falcon semen and post-thaw dialysis to rem o ve glyce r ol. Raptor Res e a r ch  : - . Sam o u r , J. H., J. A. Mar kham, and H. D. M. Moo r e.    . Semen cryop re s e r vation and arti fi cial insemination in Budgerigars (Mel o p s i t t a c u s un d u l a t u s ). Journal of Zoo l o g y (London)   :  -  . Sexton, T. J.    . A new poultry semen extender. I. Effect of extension on the fertility of chicken semen. Pou l t r y Science  :   -   . Sha f f n e r , C. S., E. W. Henderson, and C. G. Card.    . Viability of spermatozoa of the chicken under var i o u s en v i r onmental conditions. Pou l t r y Science  :  -  . CHAPTER 11C Special Techniques, C: Sex Det e rm i n a t i o n

S cott R. Swe n g e l

ranes are considered mo n o m o r p h i c . U n i s o n - c a l l Although males average slightly larger, size is not always reliable as an indicator of sex. Ar chibald (   a,    b) studied the Uni s o n - c a l l Subadult and adult cranes can normally be display in detail and found ways to differentiate the Cse x ed by vocalizations, and there is potential for sexing se x es of all but the African Crowned Cranes. In most chicks by sonagram analysis (Carlson    ). Gen e r a l species, sexes have different st a n c e s (F ig.  C. ), behavior can also indicate, but not diagnose, sex. Fec a l and/or different number of notes gi v en, during the st e r oid analysis can be used to sex nearly all subadults, Unison-call. The principal differences in Uni s o n - c a l l s adults, and many young birds, and cranes of all ages that indicate sex fall into five groups: () in some can be genetically sexed by DNA probe, by micro- species, the male raises his elbow and/or lowers his scopic examination of their chrom o s o m e s primaries during the display, while the female does (k a r yotyping), or by total DNA me a s u re m e n t s . not; () in some species, the female usually, or always, Cranes that are  months old or older can be begins the display; () in some species, the female gonadally sexed via la p a ro s c o p y . gi v es two to three notes for each male note of the display; () in some species, the male holds his bill mo r e vert i c a l l y , or further over his back beyond the ver tical, than the female; and () in most species, the Voc a l i z a t i o n s fe m a l e ’s voice is higher pitched than the male’s. Bl ack Crowned and Gray Crowned Cranes. Cranes approach “vocal maturity” when they are  to Crowned Cranes usually incorporate a series of ka -  months old (Walkinshaw    ; Nesbitt    ; per- wo n k like Gua r d-calls into their Unison-calls. Th e sonal observation). Vocally mature cranes have slight differences in pitch between the sexes are not se x - s p e c i fi c differences in their Uni s o n - c a l l s and, in su f fi cient to diagnose a crane’s sex by ear. The Bla c k many species, their Gua rd - c a l l s (A r chibald    a, Crowned Crane usually uses Gua r d-calls excl u s i ve l y .    b; Carlson and Trost    ). Sonagram analysis of The only sexual difference in this species is the vocalizations is an accurate way to sex adult and fe m a l e ’s higher pitched ka-wonk calls. Gray Crown e d subadult cranes (Archibald    a,    b; Carlson Cranes, on the other hand, use low-pitched bo o m s as    ; Carlson and Trost    ), and perhaps most their Unison-calls, and employ ka-wonks as their Whooping Crane chicks (G. Carlson, Idaho Sta t e Gua r d-calls. The female’s ka-wonk calls aver a g e Uni ve r s i t y , Pocatello, Idaho, personal slightly longer than the male’s in this species. co m m u n i c a t i o n ) . Although both sexes have similarly pitched ka-wonk calls, the female’s booming calls are lower pitched than the male’s. G u a r d - c a l l Demoiselle Crane. The female usually begins Cranes Gua r d-call by giving one loud burst, pausing the Unison-call by throwing her head back beyond the one or more seconds, giving another call, and so on. ver tical, while the male follows her first note by giving Mates often give synchronous Gua r d-calls. Mal e lo wer pitched, longer, and more broken notes. He cranes have lower pitched voices than females in all holds his neck ver tical with the bill elevated  o ab o ve species except the African Crowned Cranes. Th e s e the horizontal. The female either holds her initial di f f e r ences are most obvious when cranes of both sexes position or gradually returns her head to a horizon t a l ar e calling, but experienced persons can sex birds position. The female’s voice is higher pitched than without ref e r ence to another crane. the male’s. 2 2 4 Chapter 11C

Fig. 11C.1. Male and female Unison-call postures for the following crane species: (A) Blue, (B) Demoiselle, (C) Wattled, (D) Siberian, (E) Brolga, (F) Sar us, (G) White-naped, (H) Sandhill, (I) Whooping, (J) Red - c r owned, (K) Hooded, and (L) Eur asian. Durations of voc a l - izations are indicated by shaded bars (male) and black bars (female). “Bal l o o n s ” indicate typical number of female calls per male call. Based on Archibald (   b). A rt Paul A. Jo h n s g a rd. Used by permission from Jo h n s g a rd (   ) . Sex De t e r m i n at i o n 2 2 5

Bl ue Crane. The female usually throws her neck In the Co m m o n , Hoo d e d , Wh o o p i n g , Bla c k - back  o be y ond the ver tical at the start of the call. ne c k e d , and Red - c r owned Cra n e s , the male usually The male throws his head and neck back even furth e r , raises his humeri during the display, often raising and about  o be y ond the ver tical. The male raises his lo wering them with each note. The female does not humeri above the back during the display, while the raise her humeri, except occasionally in the Wh o o p i n g female does not. Crane and rarely in the . In these two Wattled Crane. The female begins the call by species, the male raises his humeri more often than the rapidly lowering her head to shoulder level, then female and extends his head far over his body, while rapidly raising her neck with the head about  o in the female has a more ver tical stance. In each of these fr ont of the ver tical. She maintains this posture five species the female gives two or three notes for th r oughout the call. The male quickly follows the each male note of the Unison-call, and her voice is fe m a l e ’s introduction with a long and partly brok e n higher pitched. call, then gives longer, fewer , and lower pitched notes than the female as in the Indian Sar us Crane. With his last note, which is long and broken like the first, he raises his humeri  o ab o ve the back. The female does not elevate her wings. Si b e r ian Crane. The female’s voice is higher pitched than the male’s, but because some males are higher pitched than others, this male-female differ- ence is sometimes apparent only when the two sexes can be compared. Either sex may lower its primaries or walk during the display. One sex-specific differen c e is that when the male begins the call, he swings his head up quickly and then throws it down near his General Differences in chest with a long prel i m i n a r y note. Sometimes, how- Behavior Between the Sexes eve r , the female begins the call. Other Grus Cranes. In most of the rem a i n i n g In wild cranes, the male nearly always leads the female Grus cranes the female gives two to three notes for when a pair moves from place to place (Tacha    ). each male note of the Unison-call. Th e r e are sexual The male is the principal defender of the pair and di f f e r ences in the stance during the display in all of tends to adopt more erect and aggres s i v e postures with these species. his head held higher than the female’s. The male often In the Sandhill Cra n e , the female usually initiates spends more time watching for intruders than the the call with an explosion of rapid notes. The male female. The female more often shows neck-ret r a c t e d sometimes begins the call. The female gives two or su b m i s s i v e postures when an intruder approaches. By th r ee notes for ever y male note. The male holds his contrast, the female in captivity ver y often, and per- head further back and with the bill more ver tical than haps most of the time, initiates dance and calling the female. The female holds her bill nearly level, but ac t i v i t i e s . quickly flips her bill up with each note. The female’s Ca p t i v e, hand-rea r ed males often attack people and voice is higher pitched than the male’s in both the may become more aggres s i v e after being paired . Unison- and Gua r d-calls. The female’s Gua rd - c a l l Han d - re a r ed females may also approach people but notes are more broken than the male’s. ar e usually more submissive than males. Once paired , In the Sa ru s, Brol g a , and White-naped Cra n e s , the the female may become aggres s i v e like the male. Th e male raises his humeri high above the back and com- male of a pair usually displays more intensely, and pletely lowers his primaries during the Uni s o n - c a l l , ap p r oaches an intruder closer, than the female. cr eating an impres s i v e visual display (Fig. . ). Th e Bare - s k i n - or Wat t l e - e x p a n s i o n refl ects increa s e d female does not move her wings during the display, ag g r ession in cranes. Males usually expand their and her voice is higher pitched. The female usually cr owns or wattles more than females. In the Wat t l e d begins the Unison-call in two of these species, and Crane, an aggres s i v e male may have larger wattles than always does so in the White-naped Cra n e . his mate during conflic t s . 2 2 6 Chapter 11C

Siz e Genetic Sexi n g

Male cranes are usually heavier and taller than K a r y o t y p i n g females, but there is considerable overlap between the se x es (Walkinshaw    ; Joh n s g a r d    ). It is possible Male cranes have two Z sex chromosomes, while to sex larger-than-average males and smaller-than- females have one Z and one W chromosome (Fig . av erage females by this method. Captive males of six  C. ). A crane’s sex can be determined by the number species averaged  .- .% heavier, had .- .% of large chromosomes (ma c ro c h ro m o s o m e s ) (Rasch longer culmens, and .- .% longer tarsi than con- and Kur tin    ; Sasaki and Takagi    ; Goo d p a s t u r e sp e c i fi c females (Swengel    ). Because cranes are et al.    ); cranes have four to five pairs of usually heavier in captivity, their weights cannot be ma c ro c h r omosomes besides the sex chrom o s o m e s . co m p a r ed with wild birds . The Z chromosome is about as large as the fourth or Th e r e is also considerable seasonal var iation in fifth largest pair of chromosomes, while the W chro- wei g h t . Winter weights may be greater than summer mosome is much smaller. In the female, dividing body weights by  % or more. For temperate and mitotic cells in metaphase (chromosome spread) con- ar ctic-nesting cranes, weight is much more var i a b l e , tain four or five paired and one unpaired hence much less useful as an indicator of sex (Son g ma c ro c h ro m o s o m e .    ; Swengel    ). Ch ro m o s o m e s c a nb e o b t a i n e de i t h e rf ro m a bl o o d Mul t i - p a r a m e t e r di s c r iminant functions ar e now sa m p l e o rf ro mt h ep u l po f a gr ow i n gf e a t h e r.Som e av ailable to sex adults of two species. Murata et al. i n ve s t i g a t o r sk a ryot y p e d i v i d i n gw h i t e b l o o dc e l l s (   ) found that a discriminant function combining (Ta k a g ie ta l .    ;Bi e d e r m a na n dL i n    ) o rf e a t h e r tail, wing chord, tarsus, and culmen measurem e n t s p u l pc e l l s( Sa s a k i e ta l .    ;Goo d p a s t u r e e ta l .    ). could safely sex captive Red - c r owned Cranes. Mark i n In bi rd s , t h ef e a t h e rp u l pc u l t u re me t h o d i su s u a l l y and Krev er (   ) developed a similar function using mo r e s u c c e s s f u li n c re a t i n gg o o dc h ro m o s o m es p re a d s . culmen, tarsus, and middle toe to sex wild Common Cranes. They have also created discriminant functions for sexing Demoiselle, Siberian, Sandhill, Wh i t e - naped, and Red - c r owned Cranes (V. Kreve r , Central La b o r a t o r y of Game Management, Mos c o w, Rus s i a , unpublished data [on file at ICF]). Because of feather wea r , wing chord and tail measurements are not ver y useful for sexing cranes. In  wild Brolga pairs, Blackman (   ) found that males wer e always heavier and had longer heads, tarsi, and bodies than their mates. This suggests that female Brolgas, and possibly other cranes, choose mates larger than themselves .

Fig. 11C.2. Ch r omosome spread of a female Whooping Cran e , with the Z chromosome identified. The W chromosome is one of the ver y small chromosomes located through a process of elimina - tion. Males have two W chromosomes. Ph oto Ge o rge F. Ge e Sex De t e r m i n at i o n 2 2 7

Fea ther Pulp Sexing. For this method, a la r g e (Takagi and Sasaki    ; Biederman et al.    ; emerging feather is pulled from the wing or tail. Th e Kumamoto    ; see App e n d i x ) . feather can be obtained from a chick or an activel y molting crane. If the bird to be sexed has no growi n g DNA Probe feathers, one or two large feathers can be pulled three to four weeks prior to the sampling date to stimulate Zoogen, Inc. (see Appendix) has developed a commer- reg r owth. We pull two feathers to be sure at least one cially available DNA probe technique (RFLP, is growing (in the event one does not immediately Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) to dif- gr ow back). fe r entiate male and female chromosomes. A . -m L Gee (   ) found that pulling fully grown sample of a bird’s blood (Hal v erson    ), mixed with primaries from immature Sandhill Cranes often  % ethanol, is sent by regular mail. This method has resulted in replacements that wer e deformed, wer e co r r ectly sexed over   cranes at ICF and can be used incapable of supporting flight, and wer e rep l a c e d on chicks. se v eral times in a yea r . To avoid this problem, we recommend using tail feathers or tertiaries. Pul l i n g Genome Size gr owing feathers seems to cause less harm to the feather follicle than pulling a fully grown feather. A rarely used cytological sexing method is a measure- When pulling growing feathers, be certain to ment of the total DNA content of crane eryt h ro c y t e s . rem o ve the entire quill from the feather follicle. Because the Z chromosome is larger than the W, A large pair of pliers or hemostats provides a good males have larger genomes than females. Rasch (   , pu r chase. Attach them as close to the base of the    ) found that males had -% larger DNA Feu l g e n feather as possible, and always pull straight out. staining levels than females in their eryt h r ocyte nuclei If a portion of the broken shaft is left in the follicle, as determined by cytophotometry. This method bleeding may be prolonged. Although the condition req u i r es only a few drops of blood. is ver y rare, cranes have died from exce s s i v e blood loss through a broken blood quill of a large feather (G. F. Gee, Pat u x ent, personal communication). Most replacement secondaries are morphologically normal (personal observation), although their fu t u r e loss and replacement rates have not been st u d i e d . Pull the growing feather, wipe the shaft with alco- hol, and cut it - cm from its insertion with sterile scissors. Immediately place the basal part of the feather in media provided by a cytological sexing lab. Contact the lab in advance to obtain shipping media and instructions for shipment. Samples should be shipped as soon as possible and should be ref r i g e r a t e d Surgical Sexi n g until shipping. Commercial feather pulp sexing labs in the United States include Avian Genetics Sexing Lab This method uses a laparoscope or otoscope (fibe ro p - and Avigen (see App e n d i x ) . tic or otherwise) to view the sex organs through a Bl ood Cultu r e. Rem o ve the crane’s food five small incision in the crane’s left side (McD onald    ; hours before drawing blood. Place . mL of sodium see description in Chapter ). Cranes should be an e s - heparin ( ,  units/mL) into a sterile -cc syringe th e t i ze d be f o r e surgery to decrease both stress and the and work the plunger to coat the barrel of the syringe. risk of accidental injury to vital organs if the bird Draw - cc of blood from the jugular or brachial st r uggles during laparos c o p y . Because of the risk of vein, and inver t the syringe several times to mix the in j u r y, a veterinarian or trained technician should blood with the heparin. Keep the blood ref r i g e r a t e d , pe r form this operation. For birds in general, about  and send it to a lab as soon as possible. In the Uni t e d bi r d in   dies during laparoscopy (McD onald    ). States and Canada, some res e a r ch labs at major uni- On inspection, the te s t e s ar e white to tan, rather versities and zoos karyotype birds using blood cells cylindrical, and smooth on the surface. In you n g 2 2 8 Chapter 11C cranes, they are small (.-. mm by .-. mm ) female, reg a r dless of the E/T ratio. Fecal samples and usually avas c u l a r , while in mature cranes they should be analyzed immediately or froz en and stored ha v e vas c u l a r i z ed surfaces, are much larger (- cm by at temperatures below – o C. - cm), and var y in size seasonally. The ovar y is often Adult birds during the breeding season give the not found in laparoscopy of young females. Wh e n best results. Howeve r , waste material left in the egg visible, it may be flat, is pink to tan, and looks like when a bird hatches has been used for sexing hatch- “pe b b l e d ” fat. In subadult females, the ovar y acquires lings. The technique works even for tiny chicks a fine granular surface, and when the bird is mature, because sex hormones are important in the sexual the follicles appear like a cluster of grapes. Nearly all di f f e r entiation of bird embryos (T. Gros s , female birds have only one functioning ovar y (the Biotechnologies for the Ecological, Evol u t i o n a r y, and le f t ) . Co n s e r vation Sciences, Gainesville, Florida, and A. Berc o vitz, San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California, personal communications) and egg wastes sample a rel a t i v ely large time period. Vent Sexi n g Most adult cranes, and some subadults or even yea r - lings, can be ven t - s e x ed by methods described by Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Blackman (   ) and Tacha and Lewis (   ). Wh i l e one person uses the massage technique to relax the Ar chibald, G. W.    a. Crane taxonomy as rev ealed by the bi r d as in arti fi cial insemination (see Chapter  A), a unison call. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s of the International Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma Sta t e second person examines the cloaca, using the fing e r s Uni v ersity Publishing and Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . to get a better view of critical features. Male cranes Ar chibald, G. W.    b. The unison call of cranes as a useful ha v e two raised papillae side by side in the middle of ta x onomic tool. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Uni ve r s i t y , the unmanipulated cloaca; these average  mm acros s Ithaca, N.Y.   pp . and are usually lighter in color than the surrou n d i n g Berc o vitz, A.    . Applications for fecal steroid analysis (waste not want not). Pages   -  in Proceedings IFCB/Jea n tissue. The presence of cloacal papillae in cranes older Delacour Symposium on Breeding Bir ds in Captivity. than one year is indicative of a male; their absence International Foundation for the Conservation of Bird s , indicates a female. Most females greater than a yea r Nor th Hollywood, Calif. old have one or more corrob o r a t i v e cloacal features : Biederman, B. M., and C. C. Lin.    . A leukocyte culture an oviduct opening on the lower left of the cloaca and chromosome preparation technique for avian species. when viewed from behind, and a small spot near the In Vit r o  :  -  . Biederman, B. M., C. C. Lin, E. Kuyt, and R. C. Drewi e n . top of the oviduct, the bursa of Fabricius. Both are    . Genome of the Whooping Crane. Journal of He re d i t y easiest to see during the breeding season and in rep r o-  :  -  . du c t i v e females. Blackman (   ) illustrates these Blackman, J. G.    . Sex determination of Australian Cra n e s fe a t u r es, but the photos are upside down with res p e c t (G ruidae). Queensland Journal of Agriciculture and to the view described above. Animal Science  :  -  . Carlson, G.    . The feasibility of individual identifica t i o n and sex determination of Whooping Cranes (Grus ameri - ca n a ) by analysis of vocalizations. M.S. thesis, Idaho Sta t e Uni ve r s i t y , Poc a t e l l o .  pp . Carlson, G., and C. H. Trost.    . Sex determination of the Fecal Ste r oid Sexi n g Whooping Crane by analysis of vocalizations. Condor The feces of female birds have higher immunorea c t i v e  :  -  . Czekala, N. M., and B. L. Lasley.    . A technical note on sex es t ro g e n / t e s t o s t e r one (E/T) ratios than males (Czek a l a determination in monomorphic birds. International Zoo and Lasley    ). One fresh fecal sample is enough to Yearbook  :  -  . determine sex. This method is about  % accurate Gee, G. F.    . Hormonal treatment and flight feather molt (S tavy et al.    ), but seasonal and age variation can in immature Sandhill Cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewi s , cause occasional overlap in the hormone ratios of the ed i t o r . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Nat i o n a l Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . two sexes, especially during the nonbreeding season (Be rc o vitz    ). Stavy et al. (   ) found that low te s t o s t e r one values in adult birds was indicative of a Sex De t e r m i n at i o n 2 2 9

Goo d p a s t u r e, C., G. Seluja, and G. Gee.    . Karyotype and Tacha, T. C.    . Foraging and maintenance behaviors of id e n t i fi cation of sex in two endangered cranes species. Pag e s Sandhill Cranes. Pages  -  in J. C. Lewis, editor.   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Nort h Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g American Crane Work s h o p . Florida Nongame Wil d l i f e Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust and U.S. Fish and Program Technical Rep o r t # . Wildlife Ser vice, Grand Island, Neb r . Hal v erson, J.    . Avian sex identification by rec o m b i n a n t Tacha, T. C., and J. C. Lewis.    . Sex determination of DNA technology. Pages   -  in    Proceedings of the Sandhill Cranes by cloacal examination. Pages  - in J. C. Association of Avian Vet e r i n a r i a n s . Le wis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Nat i o n a l Joh n s g a r d, P. A.    . Cranes of the world. Indiana Uni ve r s i t y Audubon Soc i e t y . Colorado State Uni v ersity Pri n t i n g Press, Bloomington.   pp . Ser vice, For t Collins. Kumamoto, A.    . Avian lymphocyte culture protocol. San Takagi, N., M. Itoh, and M. Sasaki.    . Chromosome stud- Diego Zoo Res e a r ch Dep a r tment.  pp . ies in four species of Ratitae (Aves). Chromosoma (Ber l i n ) Mar kin, Y., and V. Kreve r .    . On morphometric parameters  :  -  . of Common Crane sexual dimegaly. Paper presented at Takagi, N., and M. Sasaki.    . A phylogenetic study of bird Eur opean Crane Wor king Group Meeting, Tallinn, Rus s i a . ka r yotypes. Chromosoma  : -  .  pp . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r McD onald, S.    . Surgical sexing of birds by laparos c o p y . Press, New Yor k.   pp . California Veterinarian /   : - . McD onald, S.    . Surgical sexing. Bir d Talk, Jul y :  - . Murata, K., T. Suzuki, M. Yosufuku, and W. Yoshitake.    . Sex determination in Manchurian Crane Grus ja p o n e n s i s using discriminant analysis. Journal of the Yam a s h i n a Institute of Ornithology  :  -  . Nesbitt, S. A.    . Voice maturity in Florida Sandhill Cra n e s . Florida Field Naturalist : . Rasch, E. M.    . Use of deoxyribonucleic acid-Feu l g e n cy t o p h o t o m e t r y for sex identification in juvenile cranes (A ves: Gruidae). Journal of His t o c h e m i s t r y and Cyt o c h e m i s t r y  :  . Rasch, E. M.    . Fur ther studies of genome size and sex id e n t i fi cation in endangered species of cranes (Aves : Gruidae). Journal of His t o c h e m i s t r y and Cyt o c h e m i s t r y  :  . Rasch, E. M., and P. J. Kur tin.    . Sex identification of Sandhill Cranes from karyotype analysis. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings International Cra n e Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni v ersity Publishing and Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . Sasaki, M., T. Ikeuchi, and S. Mak i n o .    . A feather pulp cu l t u r e technique for avian chromosomes, with notes on the chromosomes of the Pea f o wl and the Ost r i c h . Experientia  :   -   . Sasaki, M., and N. Takagi.    . Chromosomes in Grui f o r m e s , with notes on the chromosomal diagnosis of avian sex. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis and H. Masatomi, editors. Cra n e res e a r ch around the world. International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Song, J.    . A study on the amount of food intake and its main nutritional components for the White-naped Cra n e . Pages   -  in J. T. Harris, editor. Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Sta v y , M., D. Gil b e r t, and R. D. Mar tin.    . Routine deter- mination of sex in monomorphic bird species using faecal st e r oid analysis. International Zoo Yearbook  :  -  . Swengel, S.    . Sexual size dimorphism and size indices of six species of captive cranes at the International Cra n e Foundation. Proceedings Nor th American Cra n e Wor kshop :  -  . 2 3 0 Chapter 11C CHAPTER 11D Special Techniques, Par t D: Rei n t r oduction Tec h n i q u e s

Meenakshi Nagendran, Richard P. Urbanek and David H. El l i s

he rei n t r oduction of animals to augment remnant populations or establish new popu- lations is sometimes essential to the Release Met h o d s pre s e r vation of threatened or endangered Abrupt Releases Tspecies. Release stock may be translocated (wild) adults or young, animals rea r ed in captivity, or eggs Release of captive- re a r ed cranes without acclimating fr om wild or captive flocks. Rei n t ro d u c t i o n them to the release site (herein termed abrupt rel e a s e s ; techniques for fledged cranes wer e described by Table  D. ) has consistently resulted in high morta l - Konrad (   ), Derrickson and Carpenter (   ), it y . The first release of sizable numbers of Hor wich (   ,    ), Biz eau et al. (   ), Ellis et al. ca p t i ve - re a r ed cranes occurred in    , when  ha n d - (   a), Urbanek and Bookhout (   ), and Ho rw i c h rea r ed Florida Sandhill Cranes wer e released in et al. (   ). The only sizable use of eggs to start a wild south-central Florida without acclimation (Nes b i t t crane population invol v ed placing Whooping Cra n e    ). None of the  integrated into the wild floc k , eggs in Sandhill Crane nests at Grays Lake Nat i o n a l and within a few months all had died of exposure, Wildlife Refuge (NWR) (Drewien et al.    un p u b l ) . st a r vation, or accident. A single paren t - re a r ed crane Ca p t i ve - re a r ed cranes must be conditioned for released in northern Florida, howeve r , survi v ed  s u rv i val in the wild. Her ein, we discuss variations of years. Fol l o wing the experiment with hand-rea re d two basic rea r ing methods that have been used to rea r cranes in Florida, abrupt releases of paren t - re a re d cranes in captivity for rei n t r oduction. In pa re n t - re a r - Greater Sandhill Cranes wer e attempted at Grays Lake in g , or surrogate paren t - r earing, an egg or chick is NWR in    (n = ) and    (n =  ) (Drewien et al. placed in a pen with a pair of cranes. Han d - re a ri n g    ). Of seven young that survi v ed to migrate south in vo l v es either costumed humans aided by mounted in    , none rea p p e a r ed at Grays Lake the followi n g crane heads or puppets, crane vocalizations, and other spring. In    ,  Greater Sandhill Cranes wer e imprinting aids, or uncostumed humans using some released at Grays Lake after being held in a small pen imprinting aids. on site for - days; only  ( %) survi v ed to migrate Hus b a n d r y aspects of both hand-rearing and par- (Bi z eau et al.    ). en t - r earing are detailed in Chapter . Adaptations of these techniques to rear birds for release are discussed Gentle Releases he r e. A summary of previous release attempts is tabu- lated in Table  D. . In a gentle release, the cranes are held at the rel e a s e site for two or more weeks, fed at the release site fol- lo wing release, and allowed to slowly acclimate to the release environment. Since    , more than a dozen gentle releases have been made using paren t - re a re d cranes from Pat u x ent. In a nonmigratory situation,  of  ( %) Florida Sandhill Cranes survi v ed their first winter (Nesbitt    ). Annual survi v al rates ar ound  % have been achieved in Pat u xe n t ’s exten- si v e release program with Mississippi Sandhill Cra n e s (E llis et al.    a) . 2 3 2 Chapter 11D

TABLE 11D.1 A comparison of survival of captive-reared Sandhill Cranes after release to the wild. Re a r i n g Re l e a s e Su rv i va l Re f e re n c e Me t h o d L o c at i o n No. L o c at i o n Ye a r Me t h o d No. % Pare n t Pat u xe n t   Ida h o    ,    Abru p t   Drewien et al.    Pare n t Pat u xe n t  Flo r i d a    Abru p t    Nesbitt    Pare n t Pat u xe n t   Ida h o    Ab ru p t   Biz eau et al.    Pare n t Pat u xe n t   Flo r i d a    ,    Gen t l e   Nesbitt    Pare n t Pat u xe n t  Flo r i d a    Gen t l e   Nes b i t t  Pare n t Pat u xe n t    Mis s i s s i p p i    -   Gen t l e   Ellis et al.    a Han d Pat u xe n t   Flo r i d a    -   Ab ru p t   Nesbitt    Han d - On site  Oreg o n n. d .  Acc l i m a t i o n    Hyde is o l a t i o n    :  -  Han d - On site  British    Acc l i m a t i o n -  Leach    is o l a t i o n Co l u m b i a Han d - On site  Mic h i g a n    Acc l i m a t i o n    Ish a m  is o l a t i o n Han d - Release Sit e  Wis c o n s i n    Gentle or   Ar chibald and is o l a t i o n Acc l i m a t i o n Ar chibald    Co s t u m e ICF or  Wis c o n s i n    Gen t l e   Hor wich    On site Co s t u m e On site  Tex a s    Gentle or   Nagendran Acc l i m a t i o n    a Co s t u m e On site  Mic h i g a n    Acc l i m a t i o n   Urbanek and Bookhout    Co s t u m e Pat u xe n t  Mis s i s s i p p i    -   Gen t l e   Ellis et al.    a Co s t u m e On site  Mic h i g a n    Acc l i m a t i o n   Urbanek and Bookhout    Co s t u m e On site  Mic h i g a n    Acc l i m a t i o n   Urbanek and Bookhout    1 Su rv i val is credited if alive and free after migrating south (British Columbia, Oregon, Idaho) or after one year (all other studies). 2 Hand refers to conventional hand-rearing with little effort to control exposure to humans. Hand-isolation refers to controlled exposure to humans, but no use of a costume and some exposure to puppets or other crane imprinting birds or models. Costume refers to rearing by costumed ca r etakers with puppets, tape rec o r ded brood calls, live crane imprinting models, etc. 3 All cranes released wer e juveniles (less than  year old) except as indicated in footnotes. 4 Abr upt releases invol v e rearing elsewhere and releasing the birds less than two weeks after arrival at the release site. Gentle releases invol v e rea r i n g at a propagation site, but holding the birds at the release site two or more weeks and providing food for them after release. Acclimated rel e a s e s in vo l v e rearing colts all, or in part, at the release site. 5 One yea r ling released abruptly in August    ; five yea r lings, two -y ear-olds, and four -y ear-olds released abruptly  June    . 6 Nineteen yea r lings and two -y ear-olds held on site in small, roofed pen for - days before release,  June to  July    . 7 Ele v en juveniles and  yea r lings released  April    and  ju v eniles released  Jan u a r y    after being brailed and held for - weeks in large, open release pen. 8 Shipped to Gainesville Fe b ru a ry    . Held there until  October when moved to release pen at Th r ee Lakes Wildlife Management Area. Brai l l s rem o ved  November    (S. A. Nesbitt, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Gainesville, Florida, personal communication). 9 Included one yea r ling released winter    -   . 10 In addition to the  ju v eniles released in    ,  older cranes (some as old as  years) wer e released    -   . 11 Probably    ’s. Hyde does not give a date. 12 M. Isham, Bellevue, Michigan, personal communication. Re i n t ro duction Te c h n i qu e s 2 3 3

two hand-rea r ed females (one each in    and    ) wer e sent from Pat u x ent and introduced to the adult Cap t i v e Rearing by males. Both females wer e courted and while it ap p e a r ed that bonds wer e forming, neither attempt Cra n e Pai r s resulted in eggs or in pairs that migrated together Chicks rea r ed by their own parents, or by surrog a t e s (D errickson and Carpenter    ; Drewien et al.    of the same species, show proper sexual imprinting. un p u b l . ) . Pare n t - re a r ed cranes learn some foraging skills from Another variation of pairing captive- re a r ed and their parents. If their parents are shy, the chicks are wild cranes occurred in northern China: Wh i t e - n a p e d also naturally wary of humans and do not need and Red - c r owned Crane chicks wer e hand-rea r ed and human avoidance conditioning during rea r i n g . gently released in the marshes at Zhalong (Jie et al. Because some pairs of captive cranes prove unsuitable    unpubl.). The birds wer e then returned to captiv- for both incubating eggs and rearing chicks, approxi - ity to prev ent their loss in the coming winter. In mately two pairs are needed for each endangered subsequent years, these semi-domestic birds paired ch i c k . with each other or with wild mates and nested in the Pare n t - re a r ed chicks are formed into cohorts within marshes near their natal area. Young wer e generally a few days of fledging. This socialization process is kept in captivity with their parents the first winter. best done in large flight netted pens ( - to  -m These birds joined the wild birds during the followi n g long). After - weeks in these pens, colts are moved yea r . Offspring resulting from these tame-wild mat- to their release site. Release pens are unnetted and ings wer e rep o r tedly much more tolerant of human usually at least a hectare in size so the cranes rem a i n ap p r oach and consequently better able to live in a wing brailed during the month-long acclimation human-dominated environ m e n t . period. This lengthy process has been ver y successful A similar experiment is being conducted with Red - in nonmigratory situations, but is too protracted to be cr owned and White-naped Cranes at the Khinganski used with migratory birds . Nat u r e Res e r ve in northeastern Russia (Y. Andron o v, Two - t h i r ds ( of  ) of the paren t - re a r ed birds Ar khara      , Amurfkaja Region, Russia, personal released at the Mississippi Sandhill Crane NWR from communication). The purpose of this experiment is to    th r ough    s u rv i ved for at least one yea r modify the behavior of the wild population to make (Mc M illen et al.    ; Zwank and Wilson    ; Ell i s them more tolerant of the rapidly increasing human et al.    a). All Mississippi birds surviving more than population. Suitable nesting and rearing habitat is still a few months have successfully integrated into the av ailable, but the wild populations are avoiding area s wild flock. Pare n t - re a r ed cranes have bred after rel e a s e with human activity. To date, semi-wild birds from with conspecific wild cranes and raised chicks success- captivity have successfully attracted wild mates, and fully (Zwank and Wilson    ; Ellis et al.    a) . wild pairs are also increasing their usage of disturbed ar eas in response to the presence of semi-wild birds . Rearing by Wild and Tame Crane Parents Release of Cross-fostered Cranes In Hokkaido, Japan, flightless male Red - c r own e d Cranes have lured wild females into their enclosures Bet w een    and    , an experiment was conducted (K onrad    ). The resulting pairs produced chicks to create a migratory flock of Whooping Cranes at that fledged into the wild flock. Occ a s i o n a l l y , captive Grays Lake NWR. Sandhill Crane eggs wer e Sandhill Cranes have lured in wild mates (Hyde    ; ex changed for Whooping Crane eggs (  ) from G. W. Archibald, ICF, personal communication). Pat u x ent and Wood Buffalo National Par k in Canada. A variation of this technique was tried twice with Because of high mortality and because none of these cro s s - f o s t e r ed Whooping Cranes at Grays Lake cro s s - f o s t e r ed Whooping Cranes (rea r ed by San d h i l l (D rewien et al.    unpubl.). Because adult male Cranes) paired and bred successfully, the experiment Whooping Cranes in this experimental flock failed to was discontinued. return to the marsh with female mates, sever a l Adv antages of this technique are that chicks rea re d attempts wer e made to capture and translocate adult by wild cranes are imprinted on cranes, fear humans, females that had dispersed in the surrounding states. and display near normal crane behavior. Likewi s e , When these attempts failed to produce viable pairs, these chicks learn survi v al skills from their paren t s . 2 3 4 Chapter 11D

The primary disadvantage is that cros s - f o s t e re d young appear to be sexually imprinted on their foster species. A cross-fostering study conducted in Jap a n Han d - r earing with Cos t u m e s (N akayama    ) and a more recent pilot study at ICF (Mahan and Simmers    ) indicate that cros s - Advantages and Disadvantages fo s t e r ed chicks prefer their cros s - f o s t e r ed paren t species socially and sexually. Although cros s - f o s t e re d Using costume-rearing, it is possible to hand rear a young have been bred through intensive management crane chick yet imprint it on its own species. Th i s in captivity, this appears to be impractical in the wild. technique increases the number of young cranes avai l - able for release each season, whereas with pa re n t - r earing, each pair of cranes can only success- fully rear one or rarely two young each season. Han d - r earing by Unc o s t u m e d Furt h e r m o r e, costume-rearing can be accomplished at the release site thus promoting imprinting of chicks Hum a n s on their natal area, a process that is probably essential for migratory floc k s . Han d - r earing is a more efficient way to rear large Co s t u m e - re a r ed cranes have experienced high post- numbers of crane chicks for captivity (see Chapter ). release survi v al both in migratory and nonmigratory Su rv i val rates are generally high for hand-rea r i n g situations (Hor wich    ,    ; Ellis et al.    a; because disease can be more closely managed than for Urbanek and Bookhout    ; Archibald and pa re n t - r earing. Han d - re a r ed chicks are usually more Ar chibald    ; Hor wich et al.    ; Table  D. ). co m f o r table in captivity and will breed wel l . Early in the development of this rearing and rel e a s e Co n v entional hand-rearing has not, howeve r , proven method, some of the cranes req u i r ed assistance (they successful for rei n t r oduction purposes. Crane chicks wer e moved to staging areas) to initiate proper migra- rea r ed in close contact with humans lack fear of tion. This problem was important when the cohort humans, some prefer humans to cranes when under si z e was large, but by reducing the release cohort size st r ess, and they adapt poorly in the wild (Nesbitt    ; to - bi r ds, this problem has been solved. Over a l l , Table  D. ). A modification of human-contact hand- mo r e than  % of costume-rea r ed cranes that wer e rearing can be called sc re e n - re a ri n g . In this method released using the gentle release technique successfully the chicks are fed by humans who hide behind a migrated and returned to the general release area. In a sc r een so as to not be visible to the chick. Howeve r , no n m i g r a t o r y situation, costume-rea r ed Mis s i s s i p p i the chicks have frequent exposure to humans during Sandhill Cranes have experienced ca  % survi v al to weighing, pen cleaning, and when medication is one yea r . ad m i n i s t e r ed. Although these chicks are somewh a t Co s t u m e - r earing req u i r es a greater time inves t m e n t mo r e wary of humans than chicks rea r ed without the than standard hand-rearing. Routine chores proc e e d sc r een, they should probably not be considered rel e a s e mo r e slowly and in less comfort. Exer cising chicks candidates. Like conventional hand-rearing, scree n - while in costume demands more caution. The discom- rearing is suitable for birds to be retained in captivity. fo r t of the costume increases on hot summer days. The caretaker must also exer cise greater care when tending chicks because the costume restricts vision.

T e c h n i q u e s In the costume-rearing technique, the caretakers dres s in an amorphus, hooded costume. The main purpose of the costume (Fig.  D. ) is to conceal the human form so the chick will not become habituated to humans and seek human company after release. Th e costume covers a person from head to knee. The hood hides the human face behind a mask of cheese cloth, nylon window screen, or dark camouflage netting. Re i n t roductio n Te c h n i qu e s 2 3 5

Fig. 11D.1. Costumed caretaker with Siberian Crane chicks, no rt h we s t e r n Siberia,    . Ph oto David H. El l i s

Hands are hidden within the arm pieces of the cos- tume. The color of the costume should be the color of the adult crane. Hor wich (   ) attached crane feath- ers to the arm pieces, although in later studies no feathers wer e used. Although the crane costume bears little resemblance to a crane, the crane puppet head , which Fig. 11D.2. Rob Hor wich, who developed costume rearing as an is manipulated by hand, should be realistic (Fig. .). op e r ational technique, demonstrates the puppet head. Adva n t a g e s The puppet head and neck can be made from soft of this design are the ability to grasp with the bill and to wash the cloth (e.g., terry cloth or “fake fur”). Glass or plastic te r r y cloth cape. Ph oto David H. El l i s ey es can be obtained from a taxidermy supply house or craft store. Metal or wooden mandibles glued to a spring-loaded clothespin or a scissor base form a func- tional beak (Fig.  D. ). The costumed parent feeds chicks insects as would an adult crane. The puppet can also be used to dig up worms, roots, and tubers. Al t e r n a t e l y , ta x i d e r mic crane heads (F ig.  D. ) or cast plastic heads may be used. These heads are more realistic and may help with imprinting cues. Bec a u s e we have never made the beak on these heads to open and close, food items must be pierced, scooped up, or ot h e r wise secured to the bill and offered to the chick. Chicks are ver y interactive with the head, be it pup- pet, mount, or casting. Because parents brood call to their eggs during incubation, to promote imprinting, we play tape- rec o r ded vocalizations of conspecific cranes to each Fig. 11D.3. Tax i d e r mic heads made from Sandhill Cranes. Th e egg for - min periods about  times per day begin- upper head is cast in plastic and will be fitted with a “fake fur” ning around  weeks, but at least as soon as the chick co vering. The lower head has been altered (i.e., facial stripe area br eaks into the air cell (ca day  of incubation). plucked and dyed, and elsewhere gray feathers have been bleached During the latter part of incubation, the brood call with human hair dye [Ellis and Ellis    ]) to resemble a stimulates chick vocalization and movement, and may Whooping Crane. Ph oto David H. El l i s 2 3 6 Chapter 11D encourage the chick through the hatching proc e s s . The costumed parent can also use a portable audio tape rec o r der (suspended beneath the costume) to simulate the crane brood call. At Pat u x ent, the costumed caretaker vocally mimics the cranes’ broo d call so the tape rec o r ders are used only before ha t c h i n g . The tape rec o r der can be used to produce not only the easily imitated Brood-call, but also Uni s o n - c a l l s , Gua r d-calls, and Alarm-calls for use in each approp r i - ate context. For example, an Alarm-call can be played when a raptor flies overhead or when a chick is “at t a c k e d ” by a non-costumed human. By far the most im p o r tant call for rearing purposes is the Broo d - c a l l . Crane parents Brood-call to the eggs, and once the chick hatches its response to this call is rem a rk a b l e . Fig. 11D.4. Tax i d e r mic brooder model with heat lamp overh e a d The Brood-call encourages the chick to approach its used for costume rearing Mississippi Sandhill Cranes. pa r ent or the costumed human and feed, drink, or Ph oto David H. El l i s fo l l o w as indicated by the behavior of the paren t . Han d - r earing, especially costume-rearing, req u i re s strict adherence to a rearing protocol. When the To make good release candidates, hand-rea re d chicks hatch, the costumed parent feeds them with chicks must fear and avoid humans. Chicks rea r ed for the puppet and teaches them how to feed on prep a re d release should be handled as little as possible. food from a bowl. Teaching them to feed normally Handling is a uniquely human-like rather than crane- req u i r es  to  min hourly for the first  to  da y s , like activity, and exce s s i v e handling, especially of older but sessions may req u i r e up to  min and may con- chicks, may result in a bird that is less wary of tinue for  weeks before the chicks are feeding humans. As a chick grows older, the necessity for han- in d e p e n d e n t l y . dling decreases, and handling becomes an increa s i n g l y Exposing chicks to an adult, conspecific crane used st r essful experience. as an imprinting model promotes proper sexual Because the costume impairs vision, chicks must be imprinting (see Chapter ) and may teach other handled with extreme caution and in a wel l - i l l u m i - behavior patterns. Imprinting probably invol v es sev- nated area. Routine health checks such as daily general eral stages in cranes. The presence of a conspecific, live physical examination, including eyes, nares, ven t , adult during these critical times increases the chances weights, and preve n t i v e medication, should be done of proper imprinting. When possible, we also provi d e in costume, but health checks involving more negative a taxidermic crane in brooding posture to each chick experiences, such as drawing blood, should be done at hatching. The brooder model can contain a heat without a costume. At Pat u x ent, chicks are sometimes pad or be positioned beneath the heat lamp to provi d e hooded during physical examination so that costumed warmth (Fig.  D. ). ca r etakers or veterinarians may rem o ve their own Because the chick’s interactions with its live hoods and perform the examination without visual imprinting model are limited by the barrier, it may be ob s t ru c t i o n . im p o r tant for chicks to interact with other members Chicks instinctively feed on insects and other small of their release cohort. Exer cising chicks together from mo ving organisms soon after hatching. By  mo n t h s an early age under careful supervision may re i n f o rc e of age, they also probe and feed on roots and tubers. imprinting on their own species and it does allow Using the costume and head to introduce them to formation of a release cohort in time for migration. In foods naturally occurring in the wild should help mi g r a t o r y situations, we also recommend that rel e a s e them find natural foods after release. If more than  co h o r ts contain no more than - bi r ds (Urbanek and young chicks (< weeks old) are taken afield at any Bookhout    ). Release cohorts larger than  colts are gi v en time, a second costumed parent will be neces- less prone to integrate into the wild flock. Cohorts can sa r y to prev ent aggression related injuries. Most cranes ex ceed  colts in nonmigratory situations. adapt well to new food crops. Corn and sorghum can Re i n t roduction Te c h n i qu e s 2 3 7

be added to the pelleted diet when the chick is about F a c i l i t i e s  months old. Chicks trained to eat food grains and other foods found in their environment may adapt For costume-rearing, the rearing site must be tempo- mo r e quickly to release conditions. rally or geographically isolated from human activity. Daily cleaning and feeding chores should be done Rearing crane chicks under field conditions near their in costume and in silence unless the rearing facility fu t u r e release site may help imprint the chicks on their al l o ws for chicks to be locked outside. If adequate natal area and enables the chicks to learn foraging and costumed parents are available to lead and walk the s u rv i val skills. Males tend to be more philopatric than chicks away from the facility, indoor chores may also females, returning to their natal area after the firs t be performed without a costume. Cleaning activities winter (Drewien et al.    unpubl.). If frequent con- go much faster without a costume. tact is maintained with the release birds, the costumed Human and predator avoidance conditioning is human can approach the birds several months after used to teach costume-rea r ed chicks to develop an integration into the wild and can readily rec a p t u r e av ersion to humans and mammalian predators. At cranes if it is necessary to transfer them to another IC F , chicks are at least  days old before they are ar ea, to replace a transmitter, or for some other subjected to their first “mo c k ” attack by non-cos- pu r p o s e . tumed humans. Younger chicks might injure Cranes raised at the release site are returned to th e m s e l v es during such an “attack.” Under fiel d pre d a t o r - p r oof pens at night. Solar power ed electric rearing conditions (i.e., where chicks are rea r ed and fences can be used, and the constant presence of the released in the same remote area), it may be advis- costumed parent also provides good prot e c t i o n . able to wait until the chicks can fly before they are Cranes rea r ed in the field have demonstrated high intentionally frightened. Flighted chicks fly away s u rv i val rates after release into a migratory situation after being frightened, but return a short time later (A r chibald and Archibald    ; Urbanek and to search for the costumed parent. Prefle d g e d Bookhout    ; Table  D. ). With care, high chick chicks, howeve r , run and hide where the costumed s u rv i val rates can be achieved even in a wilderness pa r ents might not be able to readily find and en v i ro n m e n t . pro t e c t th e m . In the absence of parents to brood chicks, shelters At Pat u x ent, chicks are subjected to human avoi d - must protect chicks from predators and inclement ance conditioning beginning at about  days of age. wea t h e r . Urbanek (   unpubl.) described an eco- Chicks and imprinting model adults are locked out- nomical design for a costume-rearing facility in the doors while an uncostumed human runs through the field (Fig.  D. ). Heat lamps provide heat for chicks alley next to the chick pens and produces loud noises until they are feathered (see Chapter ). Hot water (e.g., raking a stick along the chain link pen wall, bottles can be used in locations lacking power supply banging pots, and yelling). A hidden human simulta- (N agendran    unpubl.,    b unpubl.). neously plays a tape rec o r ding of a crane Gua rd - c a l l . Imprinting models (adults) often Gua r d-call. Chicks that show little or no reaction are physically jostled, then rel e a s e d . This training is scheduled at -w eek intervals, but only certain “no n - w a r y” chicks are repeatedly exposed. After the chicks are pooled in flight pens, mock attacks are staged wherein one or two humans chase after the chicks in their pen. Attack bouts cease after all chicks are wary. Crane chicks sometimes appear to be instinctivel y wa r y of avian predators, but it may be helpful to use tape rec o r ded adult Gua r d- (or Alarm-) Calls to instill or rei n f o r ce this fear. Under some conditions, it may be advisable to teach a fear of canids by using a trained dog to chase fledged birds. After release, young cranes Fig. 11D.5. The costume rearing facility at Seney Nat i o n a l quickly learn from wild cranes to avoid pred a t o r s . Wildlife Refuge, Michigan. Ph oto Richard P. Ur b a n e k 2 3 8 Chapter 11D

Release Site Selections Release Proc e d u re s When chicks are ready for release to the wild they are mo ved to a release pen. The release pens at Mis s i s s i p p i Cohort Formation Sandhill Crane NWR are . to . ha in size with a fence . m in height. Fences are buried . m below When costume-rea r ed birds are not rea r ed at the gr ound and an electrical wire placed near the top to release site and are introduced in a nonmigratory sa f e g u a r d against predators. Feeders provide supple- situation as in Pat u xe n t ’s program for the Mis s i s s i p p i mental food within the pens. Natural foraging habitat Sandhill Crane, the chicks are kept at the chick rea r - in the immediate area further encourages the wild ing facility until they are  - days old. Tem p o r a r y cranes to remain in the release area and encourages the ju v enile cohorts are then formed in netted community chicks to feed on natural foods during release. Rel e a s e pens. Slo wer maturing cranes may req u i r e  -  da y s bi r ds typically learn wariness of predators from wild be f o r e being formed into release cohorts. Onc e cranes. Providing a pool in the release pen encourages formed, each cohort should be penned adjacent to a the chicks to roost in water and reduces their risk of small group of paren t - re a r ed (i.e., wild-acting), con- pr edation. When possible, roosting and foraging habi- sp e c i fi c, adult “socialization models” to encourage fear tat should be provided within the release pen. Cra n e s and avoidance of humans. need to remain protected in the pen until they accli- Pare n t - re a r ed chicks remain with their foster par- mate to the area, associate with wild cranes, and ents somewhat longer. If the paren t - r earing pens are establish site tenacity. without nets, the flight capability of paren t - re a re d Wh e n e v er possible, the release site should be in an chicks should be closely monitored after about  ar ea occupied by wild cranes. Su rv i val of rel e a s e d days. When capable of flight, the chicks should be chicks improves when they feed and roost with wild brailed (Ellis and Dein    ; see Chapter  E) until cranes. In a migratory situation, the released chicks about   days of age. When the colts are rem o ved must learn the migration route through their associa- fr om their foster paren t ’s pen, they are assigned to a tion with these wild birds. Baiting wild cranes into the release cohort, and released in a flight netted commu- release area will encourage mingling. When the objec- nity pen. ti v e is to augment or establish a migratory population, When costume-rea r ed chicks will be released into a studies so far suggest that release should occur on the mi g r a t o r y flock, cohort members may be assigned no r thern breeding grounds (Urbanek and Bookhout early in rearing, and rea r ed together. By contrast, at    ; Hor wich et al.    ) rather than on the winter- Seney NWR, where the entire rearing and rel e a s e ing grounds (Nagendran    a) . pr ocess takes place on site, the cohorts are intention- ally broken up and rearranged at the time of release to Pre-release Procedures de c r ease familiarity among cohort members and to encourage association with wild birds. When rea r i n g Bir ds should be transported during cool weather and is carried out at an established rearing center, but as quickly and efficiently as possible. We use ven t i - wh e r e chicks must migrate, they are moved to the lated boxes with a floor cover ed with wood shavings release area two or more weeks prior to migration to underlaid with carpet to absorb wastes and preve n t pr omote imprinting on the release site. These chicks slipping. To transport a Sandhill Crane, we use a box ar e not brailed.  x  cm and   cm high. Box size should be adjusted for each species. The chick should be able to turn around and stand upright. Commercial airline carriers may req u i r e boxes constructed of wood, but ca rd b o a r d wardr obe boxes are exce l l e n t . Bef o r e release, chicks should be co l o r - b a n d e d an d may be equipped with radio transmitters (F ig.  D. ). Radio transmitters less than  g can be mounted on leg bands and fitted above the hock. Those grea t e r than  g are mounted as a backpack. A good material for the backpack harness is Tefl on ribbon (Ellis et al. Re i n t roduction Te c h n i qu e s 2 3 9

During    - ,  Sandhill Crane chicks wer e rea r ed and released on Seney NWR. All survi v ed the  to  days intervening between release and depar- tu r e on their first migration (Urbanek and Bookhout    ). The major problem at Seney NWR appears when too many costume-rea r ed chicks are released in one area with too few wild cranes. Chicks in a rel e a s e co h o r t prefer to remain in the company of each other after release. They create their own flock identity and ar e less likely to follow wild birds. This problem can be solved by dividing the release cohort into groups of no more than four or five birds and then rel e a s i n g each group at a different site. Ide a l l y , a release pen Fig. 11D.6. Radio transmitter on leg band. should be available at each site. Howeve r , success is Ph oto St e phen A. Ne s b i tt possible by first releasing all the subgroups in a single pen and then translocating the small subgroups to other sites after these birds have completed their accli-    b; Olsen et al.    ). Plastic color bands should be mation to wild conditions. This proc e d u r e was used to placed above the hock (Fig. . ) and can range from induce all members of a cohort of nine Sandhill Cra n e .-. cm in height. A monel or aluminum band may chicks to begin migration correctly from Seney NWR be placed above the hock or just above the foot. in    (U rbanek and Bookhout    ). Th r ough the years, a few birds failed to leave the release areas in Wisconsin and Michigan with the wild cranes. Th e s e Release Techniques bi r ds wer e ret r i e v ed by the costumed parent, boxed , Non m i g r a t o r y cranes at the Mississippi San d h i l l and transported to another crane stopover area for re- Crane NWR are brailed on one wing (Ellis and Dei n release (Urbanek and Bookhout    ).    ) for  weeks. Within a few days of rem o ving the For releases that must occur in the subarctic, the brails, the cranes begin to fly in and out of their pen. earliest captive- p r oduced eggs of the season should be Chicks normally roost in the pen ever y evening for the used. The chicks that result will be older than the wild first  days. This practice decreases their risk of pre- chicks, so the released chicks have an extra week or dation. Within - months, the released cranes wea n two to integrate with wild cranes before departu re . th e m s e l v es from the food provided in the release pens. Mig r a t o r y cranes must be ready to leave a few weeks after fledging. Brailing, which sometimes res u l t s in temporary wrist stiffness and a degree of flig h t impairment, should not be used for migrants. At Seney NWR and in Siberia, we trained our chicks to return to a scarec r ow-like costumed dummy (Fig .  D. ). The costumed dummy was then used to intro- duce our chicks to wild cranes. At Sen e y , wild cranes, pr eviously baited into the pen, quickly acclimated to the costumed dummy, and the dummy attracted the release cranes to the pen until they began followi n g , feeding with, and roosting with wild birds outside the pen, after which time the dummy was rem o ved . Providing corn, an important food of migrating cranes, attracts large numbers of wild cranes into the Fig. 11D.7. A scarec r ow-like costumed dummy is used to lure pen, facilitating integration into the wild. Bec a u s e co s t u m e - re a r ed chicks (here a Sandhill Crane) into a feeding area Seney cranes have been rea r ed on-site, they adapt wh e r e they may be rec a p t u r ed or encouraged to mix with wild quickly to wild conditions and integrate with wild cr anes, Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Michigan. bi r ds within a few weeks of rel e a s e . Ph oto Ted and Jean Re u t h e r 2 4 0 Chapter 11D

Jie, X., L. Su, and X. Jiang.    unpubl. A way of expediting the rec o ver y of the population of the Red - c r owned Cra n e . Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Rep o r t, Zhalong Nat u r e Res e r ve, Qiqihar, China.  pp . Konrad, P. M.    . Potential for rei n t r oduction of cranes into Ar chibald, K., and G. Archibald.    . Releasing puppet- ar eas of former habitation. Pages   -  in Proc e e d i n g s rea r ed Sandhill Cranes into the wild: a prog r ess rep o rt . International Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni ve r s i t y , Pages   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Sti l l w a t e r . Nor th American Crane Work s h o p . Florida Non g a m e Leach, B.    . The Sandhill Crane rec o ver y project in the Wildlife Program Technical Rep o r t # . Lo wer Fraser Val l e y , British Columbia. Pages   -  in G. Biz eau, E. G., T. V. Schumacher, R. C. Drewien, and W. M. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the Brown.    . An experimental release of captive- re a re d    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Greater Sandhill Cranes. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, editor. Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g Mahan, T. A., and B. S. Simmers.    . Social pref e r ence of Crane Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, Neb r . four cross-foster rea r ed Sandhill Cranes. Proceedings Nort h Derrickson, S. R., and J. W. Carpenter.    . Behavioral man- American Crane Wor kshop : - . agement of captive cranes—factors influencing prop a g a t i o n McM illen, J. L., D. H. Ellis, and D. G. Smith.    . The rol e and rei n t r oduction. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and of captive propagation in the rec o ver y of the Mis s i s s i p p i R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l Sandhill Crane. End a n g e r ed Species Technical Bul l e t i n Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n ,  (-): -. Baraboo, Wis . Nagendran, M.    unpubl. Iso l a t i o n - r earing and release of Drewien, R. C., W. M. Brown, and E. G. Biz eau.    un p u b l . Siberian Cranes. WWF Project:    -USSR Sib e r i a n Whooping Crane cross-fostering experiment. Rep o r t to Cranes. Final Project Rep o r t.  pp . Whooping Crane Rec o ver y Team by Wildlife Res e a rc h Nagendran, M.    a. Winter release of isolation-rea re d Institute, Uni v ersity of Idaho, Mos c o w.  pp . gr eater Sandhill Cranes in south Texas. Proceedings Nort h Drewien, R. C., S. R. Derrickson, and E. G. Biz eau.    . American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . Experimental release of captive paren t - re a r ed Grea t e r Nagendran, M.    b unpubl. Iso l a t i o n - r earing and release of Sandhill Cranes at Grays Lake Refuge, Ida h o . Pages  -  Siberian Cranes. Project Rep o r t.  pp . in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Nakayama, T.    . Japonensis raised by foster paren t s . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . Animals and Zoos  ():  - . Ellis, D. H., and F. J. Dein.    . Flight restraint techniques for Nesbitt, S. A.    . Notes on the suitability of captive- re a re d ca p t i v e cranes. Pages   -  in J. Harris, editor. Sandhill Cranes for release into the wild. Pages  - in J. Proceedings    International Crane Work s h o p . C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Ser vice, For t Collins. Ellis, D. H., and C. H. Ellis.    . Color marking Gol d e n Nesbitt, S. A.    . An evaluation of the Florida San d h i l l Eagles with human hair dyes. Journal of Wil d l i f e Crane population of peninsular Florida and its potential to Management  :  -  . su p p o r t a population of non-migratory Whooping Cra n e s . Ellis, D. H., G. H. Olsen, G. F. Gee, J. M. Nicolich, K. E. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, O’ Ma l l e y , M. Nagendran, S. G. Here f o r d, P. Range, W. T. Gainesville.   pp . Har p e r , R. P. Ingram, and D. G. Smith.    a. Tec h n i q u e s Olsen, G. H., D. H. Ellis, S. E. Landfried, L. J. Mil l e r , S. S. for rearing and releasing nonmigratory cranes: lessons from Klugman, M. R. Ful l e r , and C. H. Vermillion.    . the Mississippi Sandhill Crane program. Proceedings Nort h Behavior of Sandhill Cranes harnessed with different satel- American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . lite transmitters. Proceedings Nor th American Cra n e Ellis, D. H., D. G. Smith, G. H. Olsen, M. R. Ful l e r , S. E. Wor kshop : - . Landfried, H. Higuchi, and C. H. Vermillion.    b. Urbanek, R. P.    unpubl. Behavior and survi v al of captive- Prog r ess in satellite tracking cranes. Proceedings Nort h rea r ed juvenile Sandhill Cranes introduced by gentle rel e a s e American Crane Wor kshop : - . into a migratory flock of Sandhill Cranes. Final Rep o rt . , Hor wich, R. H.    . Rei n t r oduction of Sandhill Cranes to Ohio Cooperative Fish Wildlife Res e a r ch Unit, Columbus. the wild. ICF Bugle  :, -.  pp . Hor wich, R. H.    . Use of surrogate parental models and Urbanek, R. P., and T. A. Bookhout.    . Dev elopment of an age periods in a successful release of hand-rea r ed San d h i l l is o l a t i o n - r earing/gentle release proc e d u r e for rei n t ro d u c i n g Cranes. Zoo Biology :  -  . mi g r a t o r y cranes. Proceedings Nor th American Cra n e Hor wich, R.H., J. Wood, and R. Anderson.    . Release of Wor kshop :  -  . Sandhill Crane chicks hand-rea r ed with arti fi cial stimuli. Zwank, P. J. and C. D. Wilson.    . Su rv i val of captive, Pages in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Nort h pa re n t - re a r ed Mississippi Sandhill Cranes released on a American Crane Work s h o p . Florida Nongame Wil d l i f e refuge. Conservation Biology :  -  . Program Technical Rep o r t # . Hyde, D. O.    . Crane notes. Blue Jay  : - . Hyde, D. O.    . San d y . Dial Press, New Yor k.   pp . CHAPTER 11E Special Techniques, Par t E: Flight Res t r ai n t

David H. Ellis and F. Jo s h ua De i n

any techniques are available for preve n t - pi n i o n i n g (re m o val of all or a portion of the hand, ing escape of captive cranes. Th e s e wing below the wrists) of neonatal chicks, is rou t i n e l y include tenotomy, tenectomy, wing pe r formed at the New Yor k Zoological Soc i e t y clipping, confinement under nets, (Sh e p p a r d and Bruning    ). Mamputation, brailing, and vane trimming (Ellis and Dein    ). The advantages and limitations of each technique are pres e n t e d . Recommended Met h o d s Pat u x ent and ICF do not use or recommend radical Flight Restraint Met h o d s amputation, tenectomy, patagiectomy, or ankylosis. We use each of the techniques discussed below. Te c h n i q u e sf o rb i rd si n c l u d e : () li m i t e da m p u t a t i o n (re m o va lo f a p o rt i o no ft h ew i n g :t h em o s tc o m m o n Netted Pens f o r mi sp i n i o n i n gw h i c hi n vo l ve s rem o va lo ft h eh a n d ) (You n g    ; Sc h w a rt e    ;Sed g ew i c k    ; Nets are used for birds that are designated for rel e a s e Wi l l i a m s o na n d Rus s e l l    ;Ro b i n s o na n d Buz i k ow s k i or for full-winged captive breeders. We rec o m m e n d    ;Os i n s k i ja n d Tar a n    ;Mad i l l    ;Wa l l a c ha n d using nylon coverings for chain link pens. These pens Bo e ve r    ; Am a n d    ); () te n o t o m y ( s e ve r i n gt h e ar e constructed typically of .-m (-ft) tall chain link. e x t e n s o r so ft h eh a n d )( S c h ro e d e ra n d Koc h    ; Nets are supported by -cm (.  -in) plastic-coated Mil l e r    ); () te n e c t o m y (re m o va lo f a p o rt i o no ft h e steel cables crossing the pens at approximately .-m e x t e n s o r so ft h eh a n d )( S c h w a rt e    ;Sed g ew i c k    ; ( -ft) intervals. In some pens, interior poles are used Mil l e r    ; Am a n d    ); () pa t a g i e c t o m y (re m o val to support netting. o ft h ep a t a g i a lm e m b r a n ea n da p p o s i t i o no ft h er a d i u s We use .-cm (-in) mesh woven-nylon nets, and a n dh u m e ru s )( Se d g ew i c k    ;Man g i l i    ; recommend this me s h si z e as a maximum. Bir ds held Rob i n s o n    ;Mad i l l    ); () fu n c t i o n a la n k y l o s i s experimentally under nets with larger mesh have been ( fix i n gt h eu l n a ,c a r p a l ,a n dm e t a c a r p a lb o n e sw i t h occasionally snared in the net and held suspended by s t a i n l e s ss t e e lw i re )( Se d g ew i c k    ); () w i n g( f e a t h e r ) one or both wrists (G. W. Archibald and S. R. cl i p p i n g ( c u t t i n gt h ed i s t a lp o rt i o n so ft h ep r i m a ry an d Swengel, ICF, personal communication). With .-c m se c o n d a r y fe a t h e r s ) (You n g    ; Sc h w a rt e    ; (-in) mesh, birds which spring up against the nets Sed g ew i c k    ;Ga n d a la n dA m a n d    ; Am a n d occasionally pass their heads through the mesh and are    ;Ha r r i s o na n d Har r i s o n    ); () br a i l i n g (b i n d - momentarily held suspended. Sandhill Cranes pull i n go n ew i n g )( S c h w a rt e    ;Zw a n ka n d Der r i c k s o n fr ee under their own weight as do most Wh o o p i n g    ; Am a n d    ); () va n et ri m m i n g , wh i c h ren d e r s Cranes. Rarel y , howeve r , a Whooping Crane is held yo u n gc r a n e s fli g h t l e s sf ro m fle d g i n gu n t i lt h e yc a nb e suspended until pulled free by a caret a k e r . We have s a f e l yw i n gc l i p p e d( w h e nt h e i rq u i l l sa re f u l l yg rown ) ; in c u r r ed no known injuries from these incidents, but an d () c o n fin e m e n tu n d e rne t s . be l i e v e that this problem can be avoided using a Radical amputation of the wing also renders birds slightly smaller mesh for large cranes. flightless, but is seldom used because captive birds are Netted pens allow birds to be full-winged and usually confined for propagation or display purposes, th e re f o r e presumably better able to balance during uses which presumably would be impaired by exten- copulation. Chances of rep r oducing naturally (with- si v e mutilation. One less radical form of amputation, out arti fi cial insemination) are thereb y increa s e d . 2 4 2 Chapter 11E

In cooler environments where snow or ice storms ar e likely, netted pens, unless heavily braced, can col- lapse. We recommend either permanent interior su p p o r t posts or a sufficiently large work force with su f fi cient temporary ver tical support posts to maintain netted pens during snow or ice.

T e n o t o m y A veterinarian or other trained person uses a thermo- ca u t e r y instrument (Fig.  E. ) to sever the tendo longa and destroy the synovial capsule of the wrist (ju n c t u r a ca r p i ). The operation should be performed with a local anesthetic. We infiltrate the site with - mL of % lidocaine HCl, wait  min, and free ze the skin su r face with an ethyl chloride spray immediately be f o r e surgery. Young birds are typically tenotomized in the fall of their first yea r . After tenotomy, the wing is taped tightly folded for six weeks to promote anky- losis. A successful tenotomy allows for only limited wing extension capability (Fig.  E. ). Some tenotomized cranes are, in a strong wind, still Fig. 11E.2. Wing extension capability in a prop e r ly tenotomized capable of limited flight. To prev ent the escape of such bi r d (Jane Nicolich with Greater Sandhill Crane). bi r ds, we clip the primaries of the tenotomized wing See also Fig. .. Ph oto David H. El l i s after each molt.

most distal and all of the secondaries are cut. Bird s Wing Clipping with exceptional escape capabilities are wing clipped Wing clipping is used for birds that will be held flig h t - mo r e extensivel y . Typ i c a l l y , each rachis is cut about . less for at least three years (the normal maximum cm ( in) from its point of emergence from the amount of time req u i r ed between molts), but may be in t e g u m e n t . designated for flight therea f t e r . Two variations of clip- When clipping, sp e c i a l ca r e is taken to avoid cut- ping are available. Either all  primaries and most or ting any feather that is still growing. Profuse and all of the distal secondaries from one wing are cut with pr olonged bleeding from the quill occurs if this pre- scissors (Fig.  E. ) or all primaries except the three caution is not taken. To stop bleeding, the feather should be pulled from the follicle. To prev ent cutting the rachis too soon, the wing is spread and the under- side of the wing is inspected to identify blood quills. Feathers that are still growing are temporarily van e trimmed, as described below, and later clipped when feathers are hard-penned (i.e., fully grown and free of blood in the calamus).

Vane Trimming Vane trimming temporarily grounds birds while their flight feathers (primaries and secondaries) are grow- ing. Once the flight feathers are hard-penned, the rachises are clipped (Fig.  E. ). Fig. 11E.1. A tenotomy is perfo r med on the folded wing with a In this process (Fig.  E. ), a portion of the vanes of th e rm o - c a u t e r y instrument. Ph oto David H. El l i s the primaries and the distal three to six secondaries of Flight Re s t r a i n t 2 4 3

is pre-drilled with holes about  cm apart. We use a co m m e r cially available rivet gun to secure the brail. Leather straps and other riveting or sewing devices can be readily substituted as long as the conditions for pr oper fit, described next, are met. When brailing a crane, one caretaker holds the bird immobile while a second inspects the wing to be cer- tain that less than  cm of the rachis of each primary is still filled with blood. If the blood-filled zone in some of the quills is more extensive than  cm, brailing is Fig. 11E.3. A wing-clipped wing. Ph oto David H. El l i s postponed to avoid damage to growing feathers. If the bi r d is ready to be brailed, the brail is inserted betwee n the bases of the third and fourth most distal primaries (numbers  and ), and the strap is formed into a loose loop over the patagium. With the wing folded, the rivet, with one washer on the shaft, is placed th r ough two of the pre-drilled holes in the brail. By pr obing upwa r d with the free hand, a path is opened for the rivet to pass between the feathers and throu g h a third hole in the brail on the underside of the wing. The loops above and below the rivet should be about equal size. The washer is placed on the rivet and fas- tened. The trailing end of the brail should point dow n w a r d and be trimmed to within  cm of the Fig. 11E.4. A vane-trimmed wing (see also Fig. . ). ri v et. To rem o ve a brail, cut the upper loop (Fig.  E. ) Ph oto David H. El l i s and slide the brail off the primaries. The final posi- tions of the brail, rivet, and body parts are illustrated in Fig.  E. . one wing are trimmed with scissors. The rachis and the feather tip is left untrimmed to prev ent birds in social groups from striking pen mates with sharp rachis tips. As illustrated, the outer vane of the five most distal primaries is left intact to prev ent brea k a g e of the rachises. Vanes are usually trimmed when birds ar e  - days old.

B r a i l i n g T h i st e c h n i q u ei su s e df o rt e m p o r a r i l y res t r a i n i n g fled g - li n g s , fli g h t e da d u l t s ,a n db i rd sd u r i n g sh i p m e n t . Sh i p p e db i rd sa re u s u a l l yb r a i l e do no n ew i n g . Fo rb i rd s b r a i l e dl o n gt e r m ,b r a i l sa re c h a n g e dt ot h eo p p o s i t e w i n ga t re g u l a ri n t e rva l s( u s u a l l ye ve ry tw o we e k s )t o p re ve n ts t i f f e n i n go ft h ei m m o b i l i ze dw i n g . Epp e r s o n (   un p u b l . )f o u n ds i g n i fic a n tb u t re ve r s i b l ei m p a i r- m e n ti nw i n ge x t e n s i o nc a p a b i l i t yi nb i rd sb r a i l e do n l y tw o wee k s . Bi rd st y p i c a l l y re g a i n e df u l l fli g h tc a p a b i l i t y wi t h i n  to  we e k so fb r a i l rem o val . The pro c e d u r e req u i r es a brail and a rivet i n g device. The brail is a narrow band of flexible plastic  cm x  . cm (. in x  in) and about  mm thick. It Fig. 11E.5. Rem o ving a prop e r ly fitting brail. Ph oto David H. El l i s 2 4 4 Chapter 11E

Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Epperson, R. G., Jr.    unpubl. Evaluation of the effects of restraining flight in young cranes using wing brails. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice, Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a rc h Ce n t e r .  pp . Gandal, L. P., and W. B. Amand.    . Anesthetic and surgical techniques. Pages   -  in M. L. Petrak, editor. Dis e a s e s of cage and aviary birds. nd ed. Lea and Feb i g e r , Philadelphia, Pa. Harrison, G. J., and L. R. Harrison.    . Management proc e - du r es. Pages  -  in G. L. Harrison and L. R. Har r i s o n , editors. Clinical avian medicine and surgery. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. Fig. 11E.6. Rad i o g r aph of a brailed wing. Ph oto F. Jo s h ua De i n Madill, D. N.    . Surgical proc e d u r es. Pages   -  in T. G. Hu n g e rf o rd, editor. Ref r esher course on aviary and caged bi r ds. Proceedings No.  , Uni v ersity of Sydn e y , Pos t Graduate Committee in Vet e r i n a r y Science, Sydn e y , Prop e r fit is important. If the brail is too loose, it N. S . W ., Aus t r a l i a . will slide towa r d the humerus until the primaries are Mangili, G.    . Unilateral patagiectomy: a new method of fr ee; if too tight, it may restrict circulation in the wrist pre v enting flight in captive birds. International Zoo and hand or cut into the skin. The fit is checked by Yearbook  :  -  . Mil l e r , J. C.    . The importance of immobilizing wings after placing two fingers in the upper loop on the dorsal tenectomy and tenotomy. Vet e r i n a r y Medicine and Sma l l su r face of the wing. If the fingers slide under easily but Animal Clinician  : - . sn u g l y , the fit is good. If the fingers do not slide easily Osinskij, L. P., and V. S. Taran.    . On methods of parti a l under the upper loop, the brail should be rem o ved . amputation of hand in birds. [In Russian.] Vestnik Zoo l o g i i Upon release, brailed birds (especially those brailed    ():  - . for the first time) will stumble or even fall when they Robinson, P. T.    . Unilateral patagiectomy: a technique for de fl ighting large birds. Vet e r i n a r y Medicine and Sma l l fail to spread the now brailed wing for balance. Also, Animal Clinician  :  -  . during the first  minutes or so after release, birds Robinson, P. T., and R. B. Buz i k o wski.    . Pinioning you n g strain at the brail and preen vigorously at the site of bi r ds with hemostatic clips. Vet e r i n a r y Medicine and Sma l l the brail. After a few hours, howeve r , the birds typi- Animal Clinician  :   -   . cally pay little attention to the brail. Sc h ro e d e r , C. R., and K. Koch.    . Prev enting flight in birds by tenotomy. Journal of the American Vet e r i n a r y Med i c a l Ov er   pr eviously brailed cranes have been Association  :  -  . released to the wild (see Chapter  D). Many of these Sc h w a r te, L. H.    . Pou l t r y surgery. Pages    -   in H. E. ha v e survi v ed several years after release. Occ a s i o n a l l y , Biester and L. H. Schwarte, editors. Diseases of poultry. th a bird shows slight (but long-term) im p a i rm e n t in its ed. Iowa State Uni v ersity Press, Ames. ability to extend the hand of one wing following a Sed g e wick, C. J.    . Defl ighting pet birds. Mod e r n lengthy brailing period. Such individuals do well in Vet e r i n a r y Practice  ():  - . She p p a r d, C. and D. Bruning.    . Dev elopment of tech- no n - m i g r a t o r y flocks, but we suspect that they would niques to aid the long-term survi v al of White-naped and be significantly impaired if migratory. Som e t i m e s other rare crane species. Pages   -  in Proceedings of during brailing, the patagium or the integument the Annual Conference of the American Association of be t w een the primaries is damaged by a brail. Suc h Zoological Par ks and Aqu a r i u m s . wounds are rare: only once has a bird been so incapac- Wallach, J. D., and W. Boever .    . Diseases of exotic animals: medical and surgical management. W. B. Sau n d e r s , itated by this kind of injury that it was not rel e a s e d . Philadelphia, Pa. ,  pp . Williamson, W. M., and W. C. Russell.    . Prev ention of flight in older captive birds. Journal of the American Vet e r i n a r y Medical Association   :  -  . Young, W. A.    . Wing amputation of birds in lieu of pin- Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d ioning. Journal of the American Vet e r i n a r y Med i c a l Amand, W. B.    . Surgical problems (Galliformes). Pag e s Association   :  -  .   -  in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal Zwank, P. J., and S. R. Derrickson.    . Gentle release of medicine. nd ed. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. ca p t i v e, paren t - re a r ed Sandhill Cranes into the wild. Pag e s Ellis, D. H., and F. J. Dein.    . Flight restraint techniques for   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Cra n e ca p t i v e cranes. Pages   -  in J. Harris, editor. Work s h o p . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Tave r n i e r , Fla . CHAPTER 11F Special Techniques, Par t F: Predator and Pest Man a g e m e n t

Thomas E. Lew i s

pest is any unwanted organism that di r ectly interfe r es with human activity (M iller    ). Insect pests can transmit diseases to captive cranes (Carpenter et al. A   ). Mammal and bird pests consume and contaminate food and can also transmit diseases and  (Mi g r a t o r y Bir d Treaty Act), Par t  (E a g l e and parasites (Carpenter and Derrickson    ). Protection Act), and Par ts  and  (En d a n g e re d Plant pests may injure cranes, cause illness, or Species Act) (Millsap    ). A person operating a hamper normal husbandry practices. The Uni ve r s i t y pr edator or pest management program must comply of Mar yland (   - ) publication on pest manage- with all local and federal laws and regulations, ment is a primary source for this chapter, and and often must be certi fi ed. Contact local or state ref e r ences to it have been abbreviated UM. go vernments to determine applicable reg u l a t i o n s . Dep r edation by birds and mammals accounted Fai l u r e to comply could result in a fine and/or for the loss of  % of   wild Sandhill Crane nests imprisonment (UM). in Oregon (Littlefield    ). Har tman (   ) rep o r ted that both raptors and mammals kill captive cranes. Eggs and chicks are, of course, the most vu l n e r a b l e . Training and Saf e t y An effective predator and pest management pr ogram should: () minimize the negative impacts At least one employee in a crane husbandry prog r a m of predators and pests; () provide for the safety of should be trained and certi fi ed in predator and pest personnel, captive cranes, and the environment; management. Once certi fi ed, a person can often train () operate in accordance with appropriate laws and other personnel. regulations; and () provide training to personnel The most important safety rule is to follow in vo l v ed in predator and pest management. pesticide labels and instructions for operating equipment. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) should be obtained from the manufacturer and retained. Because many pesticides can be absorbed Laws and Reg u l a t i o n s th r ough the skin, inhaled, swallowed, or enter the body through the eyes and ears, use prot e c t i v e In the United States, the Env i r onmental Prot e c t i o n clothing and equipment and follow proper cleanup Agency (EPA) regulates pesticides. The Fed e r a l pro c e d u r es to reduce exposure (UM). Prot e c t i v e Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), clothing and equipment should be washed after enacted in    and amended in    and    , has eve r y use. Pesticide contaminated clothing should established req u i r ements for the registration, manu- be laundered separately from other clothing fa c t u r e, transportation, and use of pesticides (UM; (Un i v ersity of Mar yland    ). Persons rou t i n e l y Miller    ). State and local governments reg u l a t e using pesticides should have regular medical pr edator control unless the target species is migratory, checkups and should inform their physician so th r eatened, or endangered. In these cases, the follow- he can watch for symptoms of overe x p o s u r e and ing federal regulations must also be met: the Code check medications for adverse interactions with of Federal Regulations Title  ( C. F .R.) Par ts  pesticides (UM). 2 4 6 Chapter 11F

Ch e m i c a l co n t ro l agents kill, repel, attract, Integrated Pest Man a g e m e n t st e r i l i z e, or otherwi s e i n t e rf e re with the nor- (I P M ) mal behavior of The IPM approach invol v es many tactics to keep pr edators or pests (UM). pr edators and pests below acceptable levels while min- These include pesticides, imizing harmful effects to the environment (UM; herbicides, avicides, and Miller    ). Each program should include () cultural frightening agents. co n t r ol, () sanitation, () mechanical and physical Choose the agent that is co n t r ol, and () chemical control . least disrup t i v e to the Cul t u r a l co n t ro l includes planting, harvesting, and crane colony and to the tillage practices that are unfavorable to predators and en v i r onment and least Fig. 11F.2 . Electric fence and pests (UM). For example, mowing regularly red u c e s to xic to the pest’s natural solar charge units. undesirable woody vegetation in and around crane en e m i e s . Ph oto David H. El l i s pens and facilities, and planting densely branched shade trees, such as the Bra d f o r d pear (Pyru s ca l l e ry a n a ), discourages raptors from perch i n g (Fi g .  F.). Spe c i fi c Man a g e m e n t San i t a t i o n reduces food, water, or shelter for pests (UM). Keep food preparation and food storage area s Tec h n i q u e s fr ee of spilled food. Providing cranes with the prop e r amount of food reduces spillage, and rem o val of Mammalian Predators spilled food helps prev ent disease (Larue    ; Carpenter and Derrickson    ,    ; Carpenter Mor tality of captive cranes has been caused by rac-    ). coons (Proc yo n lo t o r ) (Har tman    ; Doughty    ) Mec h a n i c a l an d ph y s i c a l co n t ro l devices separate and probably foxes (Vul p e s sp . or Uroc yo n sp. ) cranes from predators and pests. Electric fences (Fig . (Carpenter and Derrickson    ). Feral cats (Fel i s  F.) exclude mammals (Putnam and Arch i b a l d ca t u s ) and dogs (Can i s fa m i l i a r i s ), opossums    ), and spikes or pointed wires on top of utility (Di d e l p h i s ma r s u p i a l i s ), and mustelids (Mus t e l i d a e ) poles or other likely raptor perches discourage avian ar e also potential crane predators. Even rod e n t s pr edation. Trapping and rem o val should be employed (R odentia) may prey upon crane eggs. At Pat u xe n t , when other methods have failed. rats (Rat t u s sp .) wer e once (   - ) an importa n t mo r tality factor for eggs (B. I. Williams, Pat u xe n t , personal communication). Physical barriers (e.g., fences) limit access and pre- vent losses to mammalian predators. Bur ying the perimeter fence and extending the wire fabric outward in the trench (Fig.  F.) discourages mammalian pr edators from digging under fences (see Chapter  ; Putnam and Archibald    ). Archibald and Vie s s (   ) recommend burying fencing . m ( ft) in gr a v el. Nylon flight netting (Fig.  .) discourages avian and to a degree mammalian predators, but both Har tman (   ) and Doughty (   ) rep o r ted that raccoons killed cranes despite flight netting. Ele c t r i c fencing (Figs.  F. and  F.) also discourages mam- malian predators (see Chapter  ; Putnam and Fig. 11F.1 . The densely branched Brad f o r d pear tree provi d e s Ar chibald    ). We recommend a single, electrical shade but does not provide good perches for raptors. bottom wire (. m [½ ft] above ground level on Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e brackets holding it  cm from the fence) and double Pre d ator and Pest Ma n ag e m e n t 2 4 7 electrical top wires (at least  m above ground level wi d e r . Visual barriers (e.g., tennis netting, Fig.  . ) and on brackets holding the inner wire  cm from the attached to a perimeter fence or the pen wall also help fence and the outer wire  cm from the fence). Wir e reduce disturbance. mesh (. cm,  in) should extend into the ground and Problem predators can be trapped and translocated, extend above the ground at least to the height of the or killed. We recommend using live traps when practi- lo wer electrical wire. Fence lines and netting should be cal; humane treatment should be provided reg a rd l e s s checked wee k l y , and the electric current should be of which rem o val technique is used. Trapping success tested daily. will be greatest when the trap is brought to the animal Even when outside the pen, mammalian pred a t o r s rather than trying to lure the animal to a new can also cause crane injuries or morta l i t y . Wh e n lo c a t i o n . frightened, cranes collide with fences or other obsta- Li v e traps (Fig.  F.) are effective for raccoons, cles. To avoid this problem, crane holding facilities (Mustelidae), opossums, and domestic dogs should be surrounded by a perimeter fence (see and cats (Boggess et al.    ). At Pat u x ent, we have Chapter  ) providing a “buffer zon e ”  m wide or used Tomahawk Model   for raccoons and opos- sums and model   A, B, or C for medium-sized canids (see Appendix). Man u f a c t u r ers can suggest the best trap for specific needs. These traps must be baited. Canned sardines or cat food attract raccoons and opossums while meat baits work well for canids. A variety of commercial steel traps are available to ca p t u r e animals (Day et al.    ). Conibear traps (Fig .  F.) (see Appendix) are effective over burrows and wh e r e predators are travelling through narrow corri- dors, while foot-hold traps (Fig.  F.) are more ef f e c t i v e on raccoons (Boggess et al.    ). Haw t h o r n e (   ) recommends No. -½ foot-hold traps for rac- coons. Day et al. (   ) states that No.  and No.  steel traps are effective on foxes, and No.  and No.  steel traps are effective on larger canids. Hen d e r s o n (   ) recommends using two Victor No. N coyot e traps per set for coyotes (Canis latran s ). Foo t - h o l d traps with offset and padded jaws are used to capture ca r n i vo r es more humanely (Day et al.    ). Red wo l v es (Canis ruf u s ) are captured with Woo d s t re a m

Fig. 11F.3 . Crane breeding pen showing predator exclusion modi - fications. Inset shows two types of chain link ends. Barbed ends are used only on perimeter fences. Knuckled ends are used on cran e pens. Knuckles at the base protect chicks. Those at the top facilitate net attachment or, if the pen is unnetted, prev ent injuries if cran e s contact the fence top in high winds. Many configu r ations are Fig. 11F.4 . Th r ee kinds of traps: live (top), Conibear (left), and possible for electrical wires. In extreme cases, alternate electrical foot-hold (right; note padded, rubber jaws). and ground wires for up to  cm from the fence. A rt Kate Spe n c e r Ph oto Thomas E. Lew i s 2 4 8 Chapter 11F

“S oft Catch” No.  traps (see Appendix) without seri- the active ingred i e n t ous harm to the animals (personal observat i o n ) . ch o l e c a l c i f e r ol poses low The most popular ways to set foot-hold traps are risk to non-target ani- scent posts, dirt holes, and trail sets. Scent post sets mals. Place these baits in use a natural scent such as urine or feces as an attrac- ta m p e r p r oof boxes (Fig . tant. Dir t hole sets use a pungent meat-based  F.) that facilitate use attractant in a hole that is  - cm behind the trap. by rodents but excl u d e Sets should be placed so that prev ailing winds carry non-target animals. the odor across the path of the pred a t o r . Trail sets are Place bait stations along placed along travel routes where natural features fun- walls and in known nel predator movements. All sets should be placed on rodent runways, but far le v el ground when possible. enough from pens so Ca r efully bury foot-hold traps  cm below the sur- that cranes cannot rea c h face and chain them to a drag or stake. Place a canvas , them and within Fig. 11F.5 . An over head rod e n t plastic, cloth, wire mesh, or wax paper cover over the perimeter fences so shield protects the crane food. bait pan and under the jaws, then sift dry fine soil over contact with children Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e the trap, chain, and drag or stake. The sets should be is unlikely. At Pat u xe n t , ca m o u fl aged to blend into the surrounding area. Tra p s we place a bait station in must be checked daily and be set only in areas inacces- fr ont of ever y second occupied crane pen (i.e., at ca sible to cranes.  m intervals). Bait stations should be checked wee k l y . Bait consumption rates indicate the level of in f e s t a t i o n . Mammalian Pests Problem rodents can be captured individually in Carpenter and Derrickson (   ) rep o r t rod e n t s li v e traps. At Pat u x ent, we bait marmots into a large sp r eading disease and parasites between areas. Rod e n t s li v e trap using apple slices. can also consume feed, contaminate feed with their feces and urine, and damage facilities by gnawing and Avian Predators bu r r owing. Raccoons, opossums, skunks, and mar- mots (Ma rm o t a sp .) can consume large quantities of Raptors, both diurnal and nocturnal, may kill adult crane feed in a rel a t i v ely short time. When marmots cranes or chicks. Great-horned Owls (Bubo virgini - dig under fences, they provide access for other mam- an u s ) have killed captive cranes (Archibald and Vie s s mals. Cranes and caretakers can also be injured in    ; Har tman    ). At Pat u x ent, Grea t - h o r n e d marmot burrows . Owls have killed both adult and juvenile cranes. In Fumigants are effective toxicants against burrowi n g addition, crows (C o rv u s sp .) at Pat u x ent have harassed mammals. At Pat u x ent, we use Giant Des t r oyer car- incubating cranes until the cranes left their nest long tridges (see Appendix) with active ingredients of enough for the crows to break or steal the eggs (B. I. sodium nitrate ( .%), sulfur ( .%), and charco a l Williams, Pat u x ent, personal communication). (.%). Place the cartridges directly into the burrow and cover all openings with soil. Filling the holes also eliminates the possibility of cranes succumbing to the fumigant or injuring themselves in the burrow. For excluding small rodents, crane feed sheds at Pat u x ent have metal shields (Fig.  F.) above the fe e d e r . Good sanitation in feed storage and feeding ar eas also reduces rodent activity. Rodenticides are also effective in control l i n g rodents. Most are stomach poisons. Unless you use two or more different baits in rotation, rodents may de v elop resistance to or learn to avoid the baits. Man y modern baits pose a ver y low risk of secondary poi- soning. For example, Qui n t o x (see Appendix), with Fig. 11F.6 . Rodent bait stations. Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e Pre d ator and Pest Ma n ag e m e n t 2 4 9

In the United States, the capture, possession, or tr a n s p o r t of raptors for depredation control req u i r es a de p r edation permit (Millsap    ). The most effective technique to reduce avian predation is to use netted pens (Fig.  .). Another effective method is to rel e a s e target species (such as the domestic Pekin duck, Ana s pl a t y rh y n c h o s ) and allow them to roam free in the co l o n y . When a duck is killed, the carcass is therea f t e r used to trap the raptor. Sev eral methods are available to capture raptorial bi r ds while prev enting injury to the raptor. Pad d e d foot-hold traps have been useful for owls and eagles el s ew h e r e (Bloom    ) and at Pat u x ent. Padded foot- hold traps are most effective when at least four traps ar e placed around a bait. Use  -cm chains to attach each trap to a wooden drag (ca  cm x  cm x  cm). The drag prev ents escape and absorbs the shock as the bird attempts to flee. Par tially cover the traps and chains with soil, grass, leaves, etc. Too much Fig. 11F.7 . Padded foot-hold pole trap (note jaw with rubber to debris over the trap will reduce holding effici e n c y . pr otect the legs of a bird). After a raptor kills a crane, it will often return on Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e subsequent days to feed on the carcass. For example, at Pat u x ent, one Great-horned Owl returned to the same carcass on three consecutive nights allowing us quantities of feed and contaminate food with feces. to capture it. Raptors can either be baited to the kill Other pest birds, such as House Spa r r ows (Pas s e r site with the carcass of the crane they killed or another do m e s t i c u s ), may nest in crane shelter areas and could large bird carcass can be substituted. The trap site can th e re b y create parasite and disease prob l e m s . also be somewhat rem o ved from the kill site if the pen Al t e r n a t i v es to killing pest birds are avai l a b l e . is still occupied by cranes. Although flight netting (Fig.  .; mesh size . cm [ A verbail trap (Bloom    ) or padded foot-hold in]) will discourage predators, many species of small trap (Fig.  F.) set atop a nearby pole is effective alone bi r ds can pass through this barrier. Providing food or in conjunction with traps around a carcass. If nec- indoors can reduce the attraction to certain pest bird es s a r y, a temporary perch pole can be installed near species. A pest guard (Fig.  F.) has been designed the kill to support the trap. The verbail consists of one and tested at Pat u x ent to protect crane feeders. It large ( -cm diameter or larger) nylon noose and trig- ger mounted atop a post. A spring closes the noose ar ound the bird’s leg or legs when it lands on the trig- ge r . The spring is tied to the perch with a nylon line that allows the bird to flutter safely to the grou n d . Once a bird is captured, it should be examined for injuries, and then released at least  km away from the trap site. At Pat u x ent, we commonly transport owls at least   km from the kill site.

Avian Pests Avian and mammalian pests pose similar prob l e m s . Wild birds, especially other cranes, should be Fig. 11F.8 . Pest guard on crane feeder at right allows the cran e ’s ex cluded from a crane colony to avoid introd u c i n g bill to pass, but excludes even ver y small pest birds and mammals. parasites and diseases (Carpenter and Der r i c k s o n Nor mally feeders are suspended . m from the ground.    ). Flocks of small birds sometimes consume large Ph oto David H. El l i s 2 5 0 Chapter 11F consists of parallel bars  mm apart. This design Avicides can be placed on elevated boxes ( - al l o ws the bill of the crane access to food but excl u d e s cm) in the area where pest birds are feeding or, dur- small birds and mammals. To discourage Hou s e ing periods of snow cover , placed on a plastic sheet Spa r r ows, rem o ve their nests, and, when possible, on the snow. Cover avicides overnight to preve n t co ver the opening to the nest site with . cm (. in ) them from becoming wet from dew or prec i p i t a t i o n wi r e hardw a r e cloth to prev ent ree n t r y and subsequent or from being eaten by non-target species. Unu s e d nesting attempts. If the nest sites cannot be covere d , avicide should be destroyed by incineration or, if in nests should be rem o ved bi-wee k l y . good condition, placed back in the original If pest birds cannot be excluded from crane holding co n t a i n e r . facilities, trapping and chemical control may be neces- sa r y. Although Starlings (Stu rn u s vu l g a r i s ), Hou s e Reptilian Predators and Pests Spa r r ows, and feral Pigeons (Columba livia) do not ha v e protection under federal law in some countries, To reduce the threat large may pose to chicks, they may have local protection (MDA    ). Nat i v e use one of the two types of proo fi ng discussed bi r ds may also be affected by trapping proc e d u r es so by Hawthorne (   ): () a . cm (. in) heavy federal and local permits are req u i r ed. The U.S. Fis h ga l va n i z ed mesh screen  cm wide which is buried a and Wildlife Ser vice (   ), Hawthorne (   ), and fe w cm in the ground and slanted  de g r ees outward Bub (   ) discuss methods of trapping pest birds . fr om bottom to top, or () a  to  cm wide and Mist nets can be used (Day et al.    ), but birds must  cm deep strip of concrete around the perimeter with then be released far (at least  km) from the crane an electric wire  cm above the concrete. Mowi n g co l o n y . close to the ground eliminates food and cover for When trapping is ineffective, toxic or aver s i v e reptiles. Moats may be used, and reptile traps are also chemicals may be req u i r ed. Emp l o y caution to avoi d av ailable (Day et al.    ). contact with the cranes. Avi t r ol (see Appendix) is a frightening agent with an active ingredient of - Arthropod Pests aminopyridine. When ingested, it causes the bird to emit distress cries while flying erratically. This behav- Problems from arth r opods include: () ectoparasites, ior frightens the rest of the flock. The product is () irritations or mortality caused by insect bites rel a t i v ely safe, affects only % of the target species, and stings, and () mortality caused by insect-borne and has no secondary hazards (Hawthorne    ). diseases. In    , the eastern equine encephalitis Avi t r ol is reg i s t e r ed for control of feral Pigeons, gulls vi r us killed  of  Whooping Cranes at Pat u xe n t (L a ru s sp .), House Spa r r ows, Starlings, and blackbirds (D errickson    ; Carpenter et al.    ). The principle (Ic t e r i n a e ) . vector was the mosquito Cul i s e t a me l a n u r a. Oth e r Starlicide Complete (DRC-    , -c h l o ro - - art h r opod-borne diseases are listed in Chapter . me t h y l b e n z enamine HCl; see Appendix) is a chemical Some of these (e.g., Lyme disease) also threa t e n to xin used to control birds. At Pat u x ent, we control ca re t a k e r s . Starlings, crows, and Grackles (Qui s c a l u s sp .) with Spot application of insecticides or repellents is Starlicide in crane feeders in unoccupied pens. Dur i n g the most common method of insect control. Bee s ex t r eme infestations, we briefly (no longer than  (A pidae) and wasps (Vespidae) in crane holding facili- hours) rem o ve the feeders from occupied pens during ties must be controlled to avoid potentially dangerou s application so that the offending birds will concen- stings to cranes and caretakers. At Pat u x ent, small trate on the Starlicide. After use, contaminated feeders chicks have developed swollen areas from suspected ar e thoroughly cleaned. Any spilled Starlicide must be stings. When wasp nests are found, spray them imme- rem o ved before cranes are introduced into these pens. di a t e l y . Wasp spray (Wasp Free ze; see App e n d i x ) , Cranes that have accidentally ingested Starlicide pel- when applied to the corners of feed sheds and other lets at Pat u x ent have been treated with activat e d shelters, appears to repel for about  days. Ins e c t ch a r coal and have rec o ver ed with no permanent attacks are also dangerous to humans especially when effects (G. F. Gee, Pat u x ent, personal communica- operating machinery. To avoid injury, destroy grou n d tion). Starlicide is highly toxic to most pest birds, but nests by first flagging them upon discover y, and then less toxic to pred a t o r y birds and mammals (DeCino et spraying them during the evening or early morning al.    ; Schafer    ). when the insects are inactive. Pre d ator and Pest Ma n ag e m e n t 2 5 1

When flies (Order Diptera) threaten chicks or mo wed to keep the vegetation short. A veg e t a t i o n - f re e in j u r ed birds, bait with attractants and fly paper (but ar ea around water sources is maintained by placing a keep these out of reach of cranes), or treat afflic t e d  cm deep bed of gravel on top of a  m diameter bi r ds with insect repellent. Fir e ants (So l e n o p s i s sp. ) sheet of plastic (Fig.  . ). The interior of feed sheds th r eaten ground nesting birds in some areas (Vin s o n can be kept vegetation free with a  cm deep layer of and Sor enson    ). If ants are a problem, seek help sand that also facilitates rem o val of spilled food (Fig . fr om governmental agencies and private exterminators  F.). Using non-selective herbicides and ren ew i n g that control insects. Many tick-borne (Ixodidae) dis- gr a v el or sand beds when needed will maintain these eases threaten humans and wildlife (Davidson and ar eas vegetation free but should be coordinated with Nettles    ). Personnel should wear repellent, tuck mo wing to reduce disturbance. Avoid using herbicides pant legs into socks, and examine themselves for ticks wh e r e they are accessible to cranes. after each visit to infested areas. Permanone (active Combine var i o u s in g r edient .% Permethrin; see Appendix) rep e l s methods of veg e t a t i o n ticks, but should only be applied to clothing. Reg u l a r co n t r ol to maximize pen mowing also reduces contact with ticks. their effectiveness. For example, if mowing is scheduled a few days Plant Pests after herbicide use, Pest plants can cause illness and injury to cranes, dam- reg r owth is reduced age facilities, and interfe r e with normal husbandry (i.e., weakened by the practices. In general, cranes do not eat noxious plants; he r b i c i d e s ) . ho weve r , if a problem is suspected, obtain information If pest plant prob l e m s th r ough local agricultural extension agents. Pla n t s arise during the bree d i n g with thorns or sharp projections can cut or puncture season, postpone control cranes (especially chicks) and cause secondary me a s u r es unless there is in f e c t i o n s . an immediate threat to Except for shade trees, grasses should pred o m i n a t e the cranes. For example, Fig. 11F.9 . Sand floor in the in outdoor crane holding facilities. Vines and woody it may be advisable to feed shed facilitates rem o val of vegetation can cause injuries to cranes, damage fences rem o ve thistles from a spilled food and other debris. and facilities, interfe r e with the proper functioning of pen with a small chick. Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e electric fences, interfe r e with mowing, and damage equipment. Large plants can also hamper visual inspection of cranes and facilities. Mowing reduces woody vegetation and makes Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d conditions less suitable for hosts of diseases (Carpenter and Derrickson    ). To reduce distur- Ar chibald, G. W., and D. L. Viess.    . Captive prop a g a - bance to the cranes, vegetation control can be tion at the International Crane Foundation,    - . Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings    Cra n e co o r dinated around the pen rotation schedule (see Work s h o p . Colorado State Uni v ersity Printing Serv i c e , Chapter ). At Pat u x ent, we mow empty pens firs t , Ft. Collins. then move birds into the empty pens, and then mow Bloom, P. H.    . Capturing and handling raptors. Pages the formerly occupied pens. At Pat u x ent, we mow  -  in B. A. Gir on, B. A. Mil l s a p , K. W. Kline, and about three times each season. The pens in the bree d - D. W. Bir d, editors. Raptor management techniques man- ual. National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D.C. ing colonies are not mowed until egg production is Boggess, E. K., et al.    . Traps, trapping, and furbearer completed and there are no chicks under  days of management: a rev i e w. Wildlife Society Technical Rev i e w age in the immediate area. We mow these pens again  -.  pp . in late summer, - weeks after the first mowi n g . Bub , H.    . Bir d trapping and bird banding: a handbook for A plant-free zone should extend . m from each trapping methods all over the world. [English translation: side of perimeter fences and can be maintained with F. Ham e r s t r om and K. Wue rt z - S c h a e f e r .] Cornell Uni v ersity Press, Ithaca, N.Y.   pp . no n - s e l e c t i v e herbicides like Roundup (N-phospho- Ca r p e n t e r , J. W.    . Cranes (Order Gruiformes). Pages   - no m e t h y l - g l y cine  %; see Appendix). An additional   in M. E. Fowl e r , editor. Zoo and wild animal medicine.  m strip on either side of perimeter fence should be W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. 2 5 2 Chapter 11F

Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., F. J. Dein, and G. W. Clark.    . An out- Mil l e r , G. T., Jr., editor.    . Living in the environment: an br eak of Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus in captive in t r oduction to environmental science. th ed. Wad s w o rt h whooping cranes. Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Publishing, Belmont, Calif.   pp . Proceedings    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Wh o o p i n g Mil l s a p , B. A.    . Int r oduction to federal laws and raptor Crane Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, Neb r . management. Pages  - in B. A. Gir on, B. A. Mil l s a p , Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., and S. R. Derrickson.    . Whooping K. W. Kline, and D. W. Bir d, editors. Raptor management Crane mortality at the Pat u x ent Wildlife Res e a r ch Center, techniques manual. National Wildlife Fed e r a t i o n ,    -   . Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proc e e d i n g s Washington, D.C.    Crane Work s h o p . National Audubon Soc i e t y , Putnam, M. S., and G. W. Archibald.    . The Sib e r i a n Tave r n i e r , Fla . Crane: its history and biology in captivity. Pages   -  Ca r p e n t e r , J. W., and S. R. Derrickson.    . Infections and in Proceedings of the    International Crane Wo rk s h o p. parasitic diseases of cranes: principles of treatment and G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Int e r n a t i o n a l pre v ention. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l Sc h a f e r , E. W., Jr.    . Bir d control chemicals—na t u r e, modes Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , of action, and toxi c i t y . Pages   -  in A. A. Han s o n , Baraboo, Wis . ed i t o r . Handbook of pest management in agriculture. Davidson, W. R., and V. F. Nettles.    . Field manual of Vol. III. CRC Press, West Palm Beach, Fla . wildlife diseases in the Southeastern United Sta t e s . Uni v ersity of Mar yland.    . Laundering pesticide contami- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Stu d y , College nated clothing. Uni v ersity of Mar yland Cooperative of Vet e r i n a r y Medicine, Uni v ersity of Georgia, Athens. Extension Ser vice, College Par k.  pp .   pp . Uni v ersity of Mar yland (UM).    - . Mar yland pesticide Day , G. I., S. D. Schemnitz, and R. D. Tab e r .    . Capturing applicator training series: core manual. Uni v ersity of and marking wild animals. Pages  - in S. D. Schemnitz, Mar yland, Cooperative Extension Ser vice, College Par k. ed i t o r . Wildlife management techniques manual. th ed.  pp . The Wildlife Soc i e t y , Bethesda, Md. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice.    . Nor th American bird DeCino, T. J., D. J. Cunningham, and E. W. Schafer.    . banding manual. Vol. . Bir d banding techniques. Toxicity of DRC-    to Starlings. Journal of Wil d l i f e Washington, D.C. Management  :  -  . Vinson, S. B., and A. A. Sor enson.    . Imp o r ted fire ants: Derrickson, S. R.    . Captive propagation of Wh o o p i n g life history and impact. Dep a r tment of Ent o m o l o g y , Tex a s Cranes,    -   . Pages   -  in J. C. Lewis, editor. A&M Uni ve r s i t y , College Station, TX and Agriculture and Proceedings of the    Crane Work s h o p . Platte River Env i r onmental Ser vices, Texas Dep a r tment of Agriculture, Whooping Crane Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, Neb r . Austin.  pp . Dou g h t y , R. W.    . Return of the Whooping Cra n e . Uni v ersity of Texas Press, Austin.   pp . Har tman, L. M.    . Sum m a r y of mortality of  species of cranes at The International Crane Foundation,    -   . Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    International Cra n e Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Hawthorne, D. W.    . Wildlife damage and control tech- niques. Pages   -  in S. D. Schemnitz, editor. Wil d l i f e management techniques manual. th ed. The Wil d l i f e Soc i e t y , Bethesda, Md. Henderson, R. F.    . How to trap a coyote. KSU Ext e n s i o n Bulletin C-  , Kansas State Uni v ersity Cooperative Extension Ser vice, Manhattan, Kansas.  pp . La r ue, C.    . Techniques for breeding cranes in captivity. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis and H. Masatomi, editors. Crane res e a r ch around the world. International Cra n e Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Li t t l e fi eld, C. D.    . Productivity of Greater Sandhill Cra n e s on Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis, editor. Proceedings of the Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Work s h o p . Oklahoma State Uni v ersity Pub l i s h i n g and Printing, Sti l l w a t e r . Mar yland Dep a r tment of Agriculture (MDA). [   ]. Pes t i c i d e training manual on bird control. MDA   - , Mary l a n d Dep a r tment of Agriculture, Annapolis.  pp . CHAPTER 12 Fac i l i t i e s

S cott R. Swengel and Richard W. Be s s e r

The service room should also include sh e l v es and ca b i n e t s (for storing equipment and medical supplies) Incubation and Hat c h i n g and a small ref ri g e r a t o r / f re e ze r (for storing vitamins Fac i l i t i e s and medicine). Another nearby room should house a one-month food supply (less in warm, humid Incubation and hatching areas should be in differen t weather) in paper bags on wooden pallets. Ope n e d rooms with separate air supplies . Pos i t i v e air pres s u r e food bags may be emptied into a sealable steel or plas- in both rooms is important to insure that air flows out tic container. In some areas, air conditioning will be of the room, rather than in, when a door is opened. req u i r ed to keep food dry. Air conditioning helps control rel a t i v e humidity, Br ooder Room. The brooder room, like the th e re b y allowing the incubators and hatchers to main- se r vice room, should be insulated, heated, and easily tain a more constant environment. Air conditioning disinfected. The floors should be tile or sealed con- becomes especially important on hot summer days. cr ete. The walls should be painted with enamel or These rooms should also have surfaces that are easy ep o xy-based paint, or otherwise sealed. Ele c t r i c a l to disinfect (e.g., formica counters and smooth walls) outlets and light fixt u r es should be able to withstand and a central floor drain. Emergency power so u rc e s periodic hosings. Counter space should be provi d e d ar e imperative. Gasoline or propane generators may for rec o r d keeping, preparation of medicines, and se r ve this purpose. weighing chicks. Brooder boxes , if portable, should be elevated to av oid the cold floo r . Floor brooders should have insu- lated substrates. Electrical outlets should be placed Chick Rearing Fac i l i t i e s wh e r e they cannot be contacted by the chicks. Brooder boxes (Fig.  .) should be at least . to  m Hand-rearing Facilities and have fine mesh screen or plexiglass sides to enable chicks to see their neighbors but to prev ent them from Se r vice Area. The service room for the chick-rea r i n g fighting and injuring one another. The inside com- facilities should be an insulated and heated room with hot and cold running water. In torrid environ m e n t s , air conditioning is advisable. The walls and floo r s should also be readily cleaned, and a floor drain in the center of a tiled or concrete floor is important. An exhaust fan may be used to reduce humidity in the room after cleaning. Two si n k s ar e recommended: one should be mounted on a counter, and a second one should be a  m floor basin with  -cm high sides. The small sink is used for washing food and water containers, while the floor basin is used for washing large items such as br ooder box carpets. Splash zones on walls near the floor basin should be sealed to prev ent water damage and to avoid septic conditions. Fig. 12.1. Brooder box with a hatchling chick. Ph oto ICF 2 5 4 Chapter 12 pa r tment should be at least  -cm high for small especially important if wafer thermostats are used. chicks and  -cm high for larger ones. The heating coil should be at least  cm ab o ve the Avoid using rough or ab r a s i v e surfa c e s for walls bo x floor to prev ent chicks from touching the coil inside the brooders to minimize chick injuries. with their heads as they grow taller. A th e rm o m e t e r Provide opaque dividers if neighboring chicks are should be mounted on one side of each box to allow incompatible and install a wall mi r ro r to prom o t e fr equent temperature checks. If the brooders are pr oper sexual imprinting of isolated chicks. If one end placed near windows where they rec e i v e sunlight, of the box has a hinged door, design it to swing up or install adjustable shades (v enetian blinds work best) to the side (but no t do wn, because gravity could cause over the windows to prev ent the boxes from poorly-latched doors to fall and injure a chick). It is over h e a t i n g . also advisable to place a chick guard that provides a  - Non - t o xic ca r p e t s , cut to size, cover the floor of the cm high rim in front of the door so that chicks cannot bo xes. Carpets should have rel a t i v ely short fibers that fall out when the box is opened. The top and/or sides do not abrade chicks. Rubber-backed carpeting is of the box should be well ven t i l a t e d to prev ent over - pr eferable, because it will not slide on the smooth heating, to promote air circulation, and to hasten the br ooder box floo r . Two carpets are needed for each dr ying of wet surfa c e s . bo x to allow for replacement during daily cleaning. Any reliable heating system may be used, but we These carpets can be readily cleaned by hosing them suggest el e c t r ic coil heaters suspended in the sheet on an inclined surfa c e . metal roof and controlled by solid-state or wafer- Chick Pens (F igs.  . and  .). When chicks are op e r a t e d switches. A back-up thermo s t a t set a few - days old, they may be allowed access to ou t d o o r de g r ees above the desired temperature prev ents over - pe n s (see Chapter ). A door separates the inside and heating in case the main thermostat fails. This is outside runs so chicks can be locked inside at night or

Fig. 12.2. Di a g r am of chick-rearing building at ICF; runs are termed pens in Fig.  .. Fac i l i t i e s 2 5 5

pr edators such as wea s e l s (Mus t e l a sp .) or the paws of some larger mammals can pass through  cm gaps. Vinyl-coated welded wire or chain link can be used for the outside run, while finer mesh vinyl fencing is better for inside run s , wh e r e small, nervous chicks often pace the fence and would damage their bills on rougher fencing. If existing pens are constructed with uncoated chain link, hard- wa r e cloth, or chicken wire, attach smaller mesh (-. cm) vinyl fencing material or sheets of plexiglass to the lo west . m of fencing using stainless steel hog rings or plastic ties. Th e s e me a s u r es prev ent injury fr om either aggres s i v e chicks or imprinting models (adults) in neigh- boring pens. Chick pens should not Fig. 12.3. Di a g r am of chick-rearing building at Pat u xe n t . ha v e sharp proj e c t i n g ed g e s and should be easily cleaned. Eliminate gaps during inclement wea t h e r . Pens should be placed in a wh e r e chicks can get their heads, bills, or feet caught. series to provide visual contact between chicks or with Ide a l l y , a door operated remotely by a rope inside imprinting models (adults). the service area allows chicks to pass between their Inside run s should be at least  m wide and - m indoor and outdoor runs. This door should be large long to provide adequate exer cise space when the enough to allow a person to pass through it while chicks are kept inside for much of the day. Out s i d e bending over (ca  cm x   cm). The door betwee n runs should be the same width but  m or more long the service area and the chick runs should have a win- to give the larger chicks room to exer cise. If the chicks do w in it to allow observation of the chicks without do not have access to a large exer cise area during the disturbing them. da y , their outdoor pens should be larger (e.g., . x The indoor pens should have an overhead li g h t an d  m). Pens should be  to . m high, with net-covere d two electrical outlets for operating two heat lamps or outside run s . space heaters. The heat lamps should be on separate The roof of the chick building should proj e c t ci r cuit breakers to ensure that both heat lamps in one (> . m) over the edges of the outside runs and have a pen do not go out when one circuit fails. Small chicks gutter to catch rainwater. This overhang preve n t s should also have two lamps in case one bulb burns out water from flooding the indoor pens and also provi d e s (fails). Heat lamps, hung from the ceiling on additional shade. adjustable chains , can be raised as the chicks grow Indoor chick pens should have mesh no larger ta l l e r . These lamps may be thermostatically control l e d , than . cm separating adjacent pens. Chicks can get or they can be adjusted in height above the grou n d their heads caught in gaps larger than this, and small and checked each day. 2 5 6 Chapter 12

Clear or red   or   W heat lamps work wel l . the pen. Place shade tree s in the exer cise pen to Stone lamps, which do not produce visible light, pr otect the chicks on hot days. Small (.- m diam- should not be used for small chicks because the chicks eter) po o l s with washed gravel drainage systems may become chilled. Stone lamps are acceptable for al l o w the chicks to bathe and cool off during hot chicks that are more than  days old. wea t h e r . These should be drained daily and disin- Chick Exer cise Yar d. Han d - re a r ed chicks bene- fected periodically. The yard should have a grass or fit from a large pen (Figs.  . and  .) where they di r t surface. During warm or humid wea t h e r , can be socialized and exer cised. This yard gives chicks rem o ve grass clippings after mowing to prev ent the running room and space for short practice flights. If gr owth of Asp e r g i l l u s . the yard is near the outside chick r un s , it is easy to Swimming Pool. Swimming therapy (Fig.  .) transfer the chicks between their pens and the yard. can be used to provide exer cise for any chick, but is The chick pens and exer cise pen should have gates especially important for chicks that show leg growt h that stay open and have no high objects to step over . pr oblems. The pool should be at least . m deep and The exer cise pen should have at least two gates, or one - m in length to accommodate large chicks. Th e gate for ever y  m of perimeter. Sev eral gates are pool must have a filtration system, should be cl e a n e d needed for rapid pursuit of fledging chicks. Exerc i s e reg u l a r l y , and be kept properly ch l o ri n a t e d . Poo l s pens should be at least  x  m, but preferably larger may not be needed frequently so are optional for small ( x  m) . crane breeding operations. Walls of the exer cise yard should be soft, .-c m Chick Trea tment Pens. The chick house mesh fence like that recommended for outdoor should contain one or more pens where sick or injured chick runs. The pen need not have an overhead net chicks can be isolated from disturbance. This pen if the chicks are well supervised (Fig.  .). Th e should be  x . m. The room should have a window fence should be .-. m high if it is not cover ed, or for viewing the chick without disturbing it. The pen . m high if it is flight netted. Place fence posts should have a ceiling-mounted heat lamp or other outside the fence so that they do not project into heating system .

Fig. 12.4. Di a g r am of chick exer cise yard at ICF. Fac i l i t i e s 2 5 7

The door for feeding chicks (Figs.  . and  .) has an  -cm diameter hole cover ed by a small hatch that swings outward into the service area. This door should be  cm above the ground. A person should be able to reach nearly any place within the brooder throu g h the feeding door or use a puppet to lure the chick near the door for capture. At Pat u x ent, the pen walls along the service area are not opaque but are cover ed by a tennis-netting visual ba r r i e r . This allows the costumed caretaker to view the chicks easily, but it partially obstructs the chick’s view of the caret a k e r . Chicks are fed by costumed caret a k e r s Fig. 12.5. The chick exer cise yard at ICF is also used as an inter - in the pen itself. Small, plexiglass pet incubators are pre t i v e center (Susan McDonald demonstrates use of the puppet used for the chick’s first day; they are kept cover ed by head). Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n an opaque cloth unless a costumed caretaker is feeding the chick with a puppet head. At ICF, we provide an exe r cise yard adjacent to the outdoor chick runs (Fig.  .) and accessible from each chick pen. Her e chicks can also approach live adult socialization models, a pair or a few subadult co n s p e c i fi cs penned next to the exer cise yard. The pen for these models should span the length of all the outdoor runs so that all chicks can see the cranes when outdoors (Fig.  .). This pen should be  m or less in width to ensure that the adults are near the outdoor runs and constantly in view. Because the adults will often try to attack the chicks, it is imperative to have either a two fence barrier (Fig.  F.) or a plexiglass or fine mesh wire barrier to separate the chicks from the Fig. 12.6. Marianne Wellington attends to chicks during aqua ad u l t s . th e ra p y. Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n The perimeter fence around the costume-rea r i n g facility should be opaque or should have some visual barrier (e.g., tennis netting) to prev ent the chicks from Costume-rearing Facilities seeing uncostumed humans. Wh e r e practical, the co s t u m e - r earing pen complex should be adjacent to a The rearing of chicks in isolation from humans wetland so chicks learn to use natural habitats. req u i r es special facilities that allow people to hand raise chicks using the proper imprinting cues while pre v enting the chicks from seeing uncostumed humans (Chapters  and  D). At ICF, the broo d e r s and pens are equipped with one-way mirr or s an d small feeding doors within the larger door or wall to al l o w caretakers to see and reach the chicks without being seen themselves. Two one-way mirrors in the door are recommended: one . m high for watching the chicks during feeding, and one . to . m high to al l o w standing persons to easily check the chick’s sta- tus. One-way mirrors must be cover ed with a li g h t w eight opaque cloth to prev ent the human care- taker from being seen by the chick when light Fig. 12.7. Props for rearing a chick in isolation from humans. intensity is greater in the service area than in the pen. Ph oto ICF 2 5 8 Chapter 12

Parent-rearing Facilities the adult cranes from digging beneath it. An alterna- ti v e chick proo fi ng system uses opaque tennis netting Pens in which adult cranes raise chicks must be modi- that reaches all the way to ground level, preve n t i n g fied for safety of caretakers and chicks. Flight netting chicks from getting out below it (see Visual Bar r i e r s (F ig.  .) is important in areas where aerial pred a t o r s and Capture Corners). ar e a serious danger. Because chicks are not thermo- competent, they also benefit greatly from shade and wind shelters (F ig.  .). Safety featur es to prot e c t ca r etakers from the extreme aggression of some paren t Adult Crane Fac i l i t i e s cranes should be built into pens for chick rea r i n g . Food and water can be supplied inside a shelter when the adults are locked out, or supplied outside when General Features of Crane Pens the parents are locked inside. Remotely operated (either ver tically or horizontally) sliding doors (Fig . Mat e r ials and Spe c i fic ations. Rec o m m e n d e d  .) are ideal for this purpose. Locking one or both fence height for pens is .-. m. Vinyl-coated  pa r ents in the shelter when their chick is still outside gauge over  gauge chain link is the safest fencing al l o ws safer capture of the chick for health exams. material for large cranes. Perhaps the most practical fencing material for crane pens is  cm mesh  ga u g e ga l va n i z ed steel chain link (F ig.  . ). Al u m i n u m chain link is much more expensive but is otherwi s e better than ga l va n i z ed steel because it is smoother and causes fewer injuries. Specify “knuckled” when orde r - ing chain link to avoid the hazard of twisted barbs at the top or bottom of the fence. Pou l t r y wire ( ga or thicker) is an acceptable alternative but causes more cuts to bills, wings, and legs. Small mesh (. cm ) po u l t r y wire causes fewer injuries and is stronger than  cm mesh. Fen c e s s h o u l db e s u p p o rt e da t  to  m in t e r val s wi t h s t e e lp o s t s o rp re s s u re - t re a t e d (i . e . , rot res i s t a n t ) wo o d e n p o s t sp re f e r a b l y se t i nc o n c re t e .W h e re po s s i - bl e , po s t s s h o u l db e p l a c e da l o n g th e o u t s i d eo f th e Fig. 12.8. A flight-netted pen showing shade shelter (near) and p e no ra t le a s t o u t s i d eo f t w ow a l l s o ft h e p e n .C o r n e r food/wind shelter (far). Ph oto Jo n athan P. Ma l e po s t s req u i r e st a b i l i z a t i o n . Pl a c es u p p o rt br a c e s ou t s i d e

Chick safety is furth e r facilitated by having the lo wermost  cm of the fence cover ed by a fine mesh (.-. cm) ch i c k - pr oof fencing (Fi g .  . ) which also pre- vents chicks from getting their heads caught in the fencing or being injured by cranes in adjacent pens. Th i s Fig. 12.9. The sliding door on finer mesh should be a Red - c r owned Crane shelter Fig. 12.10. Chain link fence. Photo also illustrates . m tall chick extended at least  cm can be operated rem o t e l y . gu a r d, and Pat u xe n t ’s new double-door, feed/wind shed. un d e r g r ound to preve n t Ph oto Patty Mc C o u rt Ph oto Ge o rge F. Ge e Fac i l i t i e s 2 5 9 t h ep e n w h e n e ve rp o s s i b l e ;w h e n t h e ym u s t b ei n s i d e a p e n ,m a k e su r e th e y l i ea g a i n s t th e f e n c i n gs o th a t a cr a n e ’s h e a do r fo o t ca n n o t b ec a u g h t b e h i n dt h e m . Toprite XL,  cm mesh, nylon flight netting is recommended (see Appendix). For smaller species, .- cm netting is recommended. Flight netting is attached to the pen perimeter and supported by gu y wi re s cr ossing the pen at - m intervals (Figs. . an d  .), depending on the size of the pen and anticipated sn o w loads. Larger pens req u i r e more guy wires per unit area, and req u i r e internal fence posts at  m inter- vals to support the guy wires. Guy wires should always cr oss fence boundaries over a fence post. Flight netting must be st r ung tightly and without gaps along the fence and guy wires. The flight netting Fig. 12.11. Nets are attached for easy release by hooking the mesh should be attached at  to  cm intervals along fence over the cut-ends of the chain link fabric. Ph oto Ge o rge F. Ge e tops. Some institutions leave the netting free along the wi r es, while others attach it to wires at  - cm inter- vals using small hog rings. If you anticipate the need reed mats with an area of  m attached to the top of to rem o ve a net, secure it by hooking it over the cut the flight netting works well in summer; rem o ve them end of the chain link fabric (Fig.  . ). Ot h e rw i s e , each autumn before the first snow. A . x . m alu- stainless steel hog rings or plastic clips can be used to minum shade roof (Fig.  .) supported by four posts permanently attach flight netting to fences. is an alternate method. Open-topped pens allow for Vis u al Bar r iers and Cap t u r e Corners. Som e larger shade trees. Landscape pens to prev ent st a n d i n g pairs of cranes req u i r e visual barriers on one or more wa t e r wh e r e pathogens are likely to devel o p . sides of their pens to reduce di s t u r b a n c e fr om humans Cranes prefer seclusion during the breeding season or neighboring cranes. Visual barriers also help pre- so it is best to mo w grass after the breeding season . If vent injuries when introducing cranes into new pens sh o r t grasses (like buffalo grass, Buc h l o e da c t y l o i d e s ) are or when capturing cranes. Barriers can be made of used, little or no mowing is req u i re d . tennis netting (F ig.  . ) or reed mats tied or clipped Pre d a tor Proo fi ng. Crane pens should be built to the fence. The flexibility of these surfaces helps to exclude digging predators (dogs, foxes, etc.) and pre v ent trauma to cranes when they collide with the climbing predators (raccoons). Pens should be sur- fence or try to attack something on the other side. In rounded by a perimeter fence with el e c t r ical wires cases of extreme aggression between neighboring (F igs.  F. and  F.). The wires can be supported by cranes, a visual barrier between them must be com- fiberglass rods or attached to insulators on support bined with a gap of more than  m between the brackets projecting from the fence posts or chain link adjacent pens to prev ent stres s - r elated pacing or fence fabric. At ICF, electrical and ground wires alternate at pecking. Ropes or cables are the best permanent  cm intervals on brackets that extend  mm out and attachment system, but clips are pref e r r ed for tempo-  o up from the point of attachment. ra r y attachment. The perimeter fences (Fig.  F.) of crane pens Cranes that are handled frequently for AI or some should be bu ri e d . m in the ground and be back- other purpose may req u i r e a ca p t u r e corne r . This is a filled with  mm washed gravel. The base of the po r tion of the pen wall that is padded or cover ed with perimeter fence includes a  -cm wide skirt of -c m a soft material (such as tennis netting) to preve n t mesh fencing extending horizo n t a l l y outside the cranes from becoming injured during the capture perimeter fence to deter digging pred a t o r s . pr ocess (Figs. . and  . ). Dis c a r ded Christmas Sh e l ters. A shelter provides a dry place for the tr ees tied to the fence extending  m in each direc t i o n food and protects the cranes during inclement fr om a corner work well for this purpose. wea t h e r . For cold-hardy cranes a -sided shelter is Landscaping. Cranes adjust better to pens with su f fi cient. A fully closed shelter (F ig.  . ) is useful natural cover and shade . In netted pens, shrubs or for locking cranes inside during heavy snow or ice art i fi cial shade struc t u r es are needed. Tennis netting or storms, when pen repairs are needed, for medical 2 6 0 Chapter 12

Sp ecial Pen Feat u re s . Some cranes may bree d better with a pool in their pens. Pools can be con- st r ucted of concrete or plastic. The floor of the pool should slope gradually to a depth of  to  cm . Each pool should have a dr a i n , unless water flow is su f fi cient to prev ent stagna- tion. Pools with natural vegetation are more likely to stimulate normal rep r o- Fig. 12.12. Crane City at ICF. Breeding pens are provided with du c t i v e behavior. Poo l s tennis netting visual barriers that also create non-abras i v e without water circulation should be drained and ca p t u r e corners. Ph oto David H. T h o m p s o n cleaned ever y few days. Even pools as small as  m in diameter may be effective. At Pat u x ent, continuously flowing water is provided in stainless steel cups co n fi nement, or during brief periods when there is (Fi g .  . ). exc e s s i v e risk of nocturnal predators. If the shelter is O ve r h e a d sp ri n k l e r s (Fi g . .) co n t ro l l e d by ti m e r s primarily or solely a feeding station, only a simple ha v e b e e nu s e d t os i m u l a t e a ra i n y se a s o n (L a Ru e st ru c t u r e that keeps the food dry is req u i r ed (see    ) a n dp ro m o t eb re e d i n gi n Brol g a s . A du r a b l e Fig .  . ). ho s i n g s u c ha s  -m m po l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e (P VC ) mu s t If warm climate cranes are kept at temperate be u s e di f th e c r a n e sc a n rea c h th e p i p e s .T h eh o s e ca n latitudes, they req u i r e insulated shelters with ca  be a t t a c h e dt o over h e a d wi re s a n dh a ve sp ri n k l e r he a d s m of floor space per crane. Some cranes req u i r e co n n e c t e d at ca -m in t e r val s t os p r i n k l e a la r g e are a . heated shelters. A    -   W heater hung from Be su r e t h a ts p r i n k l e dp e n s ha v e ad e q u a t e dr a i n a g e . the ceiling is enough to heat a  x  m insulated shelter (see Table . for guidelines on when to lock cranes inside or provide heat). Insulated shelters also offer the advantage of staying cooler during the su m m e r . If cranes will be confined for days or wee k s at a time (e.g., during quarantine), shelters must be well ven t i l a t e d . Shelters should have sloping roofs and adequate drainage. A non-breakable window should be pro- vided for viewing cranes and for natural light when cranes are locked inside. An overhead light may also be necessary for some servicing activities and to pro- vide supplemental light during extended confine m e n t . Sliding guillotine doors (F ig.  .) operable by rop e s or wires from outside the pen are useful for control - ling access without having to enter the pen. Some shelters req u i r e floo r s . Concrete is both durable and easy to wash, but req u i r es a soft bedding (e.g.,  cm of wood shavings or sand, or  - cm of Fig. 12.13. A specially fabricated stainless steel Van E s water cup wood shavings during extremely cold weather). A heat ( cm x  cm) and Sandhill Crane. Water rises from a supply line pad may be buried in the floor if the climate demands at the base of an inver ted cone, and drains through holes at water it. Slope the floor slightly towa r d the main servi c e line. Each supply line has a val v e accessible through the drain line. door to provide drainage. Ph oto David H. El l i s Fac i l i t i e s 2 6 1

Pho t o p e r iod lights (F igs. ., ., and .) are Pens should have an  -  cm wide se r vice gate sometimes needed to simulate the long days experi- th r ough which mowers and other equipment can pass. enced by arctic and subarctic nesting cranes and Gates should not have a sill that would impair a hasty th e re b y promote breeding. The recommended li g h t exit when escaping from an aggres s i v e crane or that in t e n s i t y at ground level is an average of  fo o t - c a n - would impede movement of equipment. dles (Gee and Pendleton    ). Howeve r , lights are Pai r ing Pens. Pens intended for use in establish- so m e what effective at intensities as low as  fo o t - c a n - ing new pairs should be built so birds can be ea s i l y dle. Either many small light bulbs or one large one can mo ved between pen halv es . Doors between the pens be used. Ten   W incandescent light bulbs mounted should open a full   o. This enables nervous birds to . m high (just below the flight netting) around the be moved between adjacent pens without handling perimeter of a pen or two   -   W metal halide and allows a crane to ret r eat to its own pen if it fears bulbs mounted - m high in opposite corners of the its pros p e c t i v e mate. If the cranes share a common pen will adequately illuminate a   -  m pen. Be sh e l t e r , it is useful to have a door between the two aw a r e that light spillage into adjacent pens may affect ha l v es of the shelter. Pairing pens should be at least  non-target birds. Metal halide bulbs are ver y expen- x  m. If pairs of cranes have two pens to allow for si v e, but they use less energy than incandescent bulbs. rotation, place cranes in al t e r nate pens rather than in Ele c t r ic timers can be used to control the duration of the halves of a single pen. If this arrangement res u l t s art i fi cial light. in same sex birds sharing a common fence, a visual barrier is normally req u i re d . Exhibit Pens. Because cranes that are on display Types of Pens ar e frequently not intended to breed, their pens have Br eeding Pens. Pai r ed cranes should be provi d e d fe wer design constraints. If exhibit cranes are intended with two adjacent outdoor enclosures and a shelter to breed, their pens must provide a “sa f e ” place for the accessible from both outdoor pens and from a servi c e nest. Elongated pens (Fig.  . ) allow cranes to stay ar ea. This arrangement allows for annual pen rot a t i o n fu r ther from the public and are more likely to result in (see Chapter ). Separate pens allow paired birds to be br eeding (see Chapter ). separated if they become temporarily incompatible (due to injury, etc.). We recommend that bree d i n g pens be at least   m for smaller species , and   -   m for larger cranes . For some purposes, flight-netted pens are req u i re d . We recommend that flight netting be . m high. Th i s height is a compromise: if nets are higher cranes can do more flying and dancing, but they can also attain higher speeds thereb y increasing the chance of injury. In regions where there are no aerial predators of con- cern, pens may be left unnetted for flightless cranes. Some pairs benefit from larger pens. Bir ds that are full-winged and fly frequently should be kept in smaller pens to prev ent injuries. Ner vous birds that req u i r e mo r e priva c y may breed better if given larger pens with more visual barriers along the perimeter and sc r eening vegetation within the pen. If the pens are in rows, leave a - m buffer zon e be t w een rows . Gr oup Pens. Subadult cranes may be kept in gr oups of - in larger pens, such as  x  m. Sta n d a r d breeding pens are also adequate for small gr oups (-) of compatible subadults. The pen size should be prop o r tionate to the number of cranes occupying it. Group pens must have two or more Fig. 12.14. The display pod at ICF showing a wedge-shaped pen feeding stations and water sour ce s (see Chapter ). with a pair of White-naped Cranes. Ph oto David H. El l i s 2 6 2 Chapter 12

Exhibit pens should allow the public to view al l o w for the entire release cohort (- bi r ds) to be cranes without overly disturbing the birds. Bree d i n g housed together. The details of pen design depend on pens, described earlier, can make good display pens if the type of release (see Chapter  D) . no visual barriers are erected on the public viewi n g end. When people approach, some cranes choose to Veterinary Facilities stay inside their shelters and must be locked outside during viewing hours. Feeding the cranes at the The hospital facility should include a small su r g e r y vi e wing end of the pen encourages them to stay near roo m , and a series of small tr eatment pens (ca  x  the visitors. This practice also confines disturbances m) with outdoor runs (ca  x  m) where cranes can be to one area, leaving the back of the pen secluded for readily captured for frequent treatments. These pens ne s t i n g . should have lights and heat lamps. A small (ca  x  Cranes can also be encouraged to stay closer to the m), easily darkened rec o ver y roo m (may be the same public if their shade is near the public end of the pen. facility as the treatment rooms) should have indoor- For pens that have elevated viewing points, use the outdoor carpeting with a thick rubber backing. type of shade that does not block the view of the Crane hospital equipment should have as a mini- cranes. Moated pens or pens with elevated viewi n g mum: a walk-on scale with   kg capacity, a gram points make good displays. Howeve r , elevated viewi n g scale with . g accuracy, a   X (preferably    X) points offer less of an opportunity to appreciate the mi c r oscope, a micro-hematocrit centrifuge, and an si z e of cranes. au t o c l a v e. Larger facilities should have: a radiograph Tall grass and shrubs obscure the view of cranes but machine, anesthesia equipment, a centrifuge, a med- help make the pen look more natural and can be ical laboratory that contains additional diagnostic placed to promote a sense of security in the res i d e n t equipment, and an incinerator. cranes. Water pools (Fig. .) make pens appear more natural and allow cranes to exhibit their aquatic ten- dencies, but may increase the risk of disease (see Chapter ). Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Gee, G. F., and G. W. Pendleton.    . Effect of extended photoperiod on crane rep r oduction. Pages   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. Proceedings    Nor th American Cra n e Special Fac i l i t i e s Work s h o p . Florida Nongame Wildlife Program Tec h n i c a l Rep o r t # . Quarantine Facilities La R ue, C.    . Breeding the Brolga. Avi c u l t u r e Mag a z i n e  ():   -  . New arrivals are quarantined before being housed near other cranes. Ide a l l y , the quarantine facility should be located at least  km away from other crane pens and should be serviced by separate per- sonnel or be the last area serviced each day . Th e walls and floor should be easy to disinfect . A se a l e d co n c r ete floo r is advisable. The quarantine facility should either have no outside run to avoid long- term contamination of the soil, or the contaminated soil should be left idle for at least one year before reuse (see Chapter ).

Pens for Holding Release Cranes Crane release projects usually req u i r e an acclimation pen where the cranes are kept for the last few wee k s be f o r e transfer to a release site. These pens are nor- mally flight-netted and should be large enough to CHAPTER 13 Eco l o g y, Status, and Co n s e r vat i o n

Cu rt Meine and Ge o rge W. Arc h i b a l d

ranes constitute one of the world’s most en d a n g e r ed families of birds. At the same time, their cultural value, high Black Crowned Cra n e vi s i b i l i t y , extraordi n a r y beauty, dramatic The Bla c k - C rowned Crane (Fig. .) inhabits the Cmigrations, and striking behavior have inspired Sahel and Sudan Sav anna region of Africa from the wi d e s p r ead conservation efforts. Cranes often serve Atlantic coast to the upper Nile River basin (Fig.  .). as “um b re l l a ” and “flag s h i p ” species in conservi n g Two subspecies are rec o g n i z ed. B. p. pavon i n a (t h e wetlands and grasslands around the world. As such, West African Crowned Crane), with an estimated they draw attention to, and provide protection for, population of  ,  - ,  , occupies the western part a broad array of species and ecosystems (Schoff of this range and is divided into eight or more disjunct    ). Cranes have stimulated innovat i v e conserva- populations. B. p. ceciliae (the Sudan Crown e d tion measures at the international level (Lewi s Crane), with an estimated population of  ,  -    ), while also providing a focus for local conser-  ,  , occurs in eastern Africa, with the largest vation programs (e.g., Harris    a,    b) . concentrations in southern Sudan (Urban    ). Ca p t i v e propagation and rei n t r oduction prog r a m s His t o r i c a l l y , the Black Crowned Crane was more ha v e provided important experience in the conser- nu m e r ous and more evenly distributed than at pre- vation not only of cranes, but other endangered sent. In the eastern part of its range, the species species as well. Cranes have also proven to be effec- remains rel a t i v ely abundant. In the western porti o n s ti v e in focusing information for environ m e n t a l of the range, howeve r , both its numbers and its range education programs (e.g., Dietzman and Swen g e l ha v e been reduced dramatically over the last two    ; Landfried et al.    ). decades (Mustafa and Durbunde    unpubl.). Th e In all of these areas, cranes present exce l l e n t species is classified as Vulnerable under the rev i s e d op p o r tunities to develop programs that combine IUCN Red List criteria. B. p. pavon i n a is classified varied conservation goals, activities, and techniques. End a n g e r ed, and B. p. ceciliae Vul n e r a b l e . Such integrated programs will become even more Black Crowned Cranes use both wet and dry open vital as cranes face growing challenges in a world of habitats, but prefer a mixture of shallow wetlands and accelerating environmental change. grasslands (especially flooded lowlands in the sub- This chapter rev i e ws the status of the fifteen Sahelian savannas). They are both yea r - ro u n d species of cranes, assesses current conservat i o n residents and local migrants, flocking together during activities, and identifies future conservation needs. the dry (non-breeding) season and moving from large Table  . pr ovides a summary of population esti- permanent wetlands to smaller temporary wet l a n d s mates and population trends. Our species accounts during the rainy season. Although they are non- ar e derived from The Cranes: Status Sur vey and mi g r a t o r y, daily and seasonal movements may, in Co n s e r vation Action Plan (M eine and Arch i b a l d some areas, range up to several dozen kilometers    ), which was compiled in consultation with (U rban    ). the Crane Specialist Group of the Wor l d The principal threat facing the Black Crown e d Co n s e r vation Union (IUCN) and Bird l i f e Crane is the loss, transformation, and degradation of International. We thank the many individuals its habitat (Tréca    ). Behind this threat lies a com- ar ound the world who contributed information, bination of causal factors: () extended drought in the advice, and text for the species accounts. Sahel and sub-Sahelian savannas, () expanding 2 6 4 Chapter 13

TABLE 13.1 Population estimates for crane taxa.1 Spe c i e s Nu m b e r Tre n d Su b s pecies, population, or wintering populat i o n Black Crowned C ra n e B. p. pavon i n a  ,  - ,  Declining. Extirpated (or nearly extirpated) in some range countries. B. p. ceciliae  ,  - ,  Unk n o wn. Generally stable, but possibly declining locally. Still fairly abundant in Sud a n . Tot a l  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g

Gray Crowned Cra n e B. r. gibbericeps  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g B. r. reg u l o ru m < ,  Unk n o wn Tot a l  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g

Wattled Cra n e South African population   -  Dec l i n i n g South-central African population  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g Ethiopian population se v eral hundred Unk n ow n Tot a l  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g

Blue Cra n e Southern population  ,  Dec l i n i n g Namibia (Etosha Pan) population <  Sta b l e Tot a l  ,  Dec l i n i n g

Demoiselle Cra n e Atlas population (N Africa) < Dec l i n i n g Black Sea population ~  Dec l i n i n g Tur key population <  Unk n ow n Kalmykia population  ,  - ,  Sta b l e Kazakhstan/Central Asia population   ,  Stable to increa s i n g Eastern Asia population  ,  -  ,  Stable to declining Tot a l   ,  -  ,  Sta b l e

Sib e r ian Cra n e Eastern population ,  -,  Unk n ow n . Central population ? Steadily declining. Not observed on the traditional wintering grounds in India since the winter of    - . Western population  Holding at - bi r ds on the wintering grou n d s since mid-   s. Highly vulnerable. Tot a l ,  -,  Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 6 5

TABLE 13.1 CONTINUED Population estimates for crane taxa.1 Spe c i e s Nu m b e r Tre n d Su b s pecies, population, or wintering populat i o n Sandhill Cra n e G. c. canadensis ~  ,  2 Probably stable. an d G. c. rowa n i Unk n o wn due to difficulty in distinguishing fr om Lesser Sandhill Cranes; probably stable. G. c. tabida  ,  - ,  Inc r easing rapidly in the eastern portion of its range. Generally stable elsewh e r e. Some wes t e r n populations may be declining. G. c. prat e n s i s ,  -,  Generally stable, with local increases and declines. Includes the Okefenokee portion of the population (about   in d i v i d u a l s ) . G. c. pulla   Numbers in wild increasing through augmenta- tion. Rep r oduction in the wild is below replacement level . G. c. nesiotes   Generally stable. New populations rec e n t l y di s c o vere d . Tot a l   ,  Stable to increa s i n g

White-naped Crane (winter counts) Japan (Izu m i ) ,  -,  Inc re a s i n g Kor ean Pen i n s u l a   -  Dec re a s i n g China (Poyang Lake) ~,  Unk n ow n Tot a l ,  -,  Stable to decreasing (based on loss of bree d i n g ha b i t a t )

Sar us Cra n e G. a. ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g G. a. sharpii   -,  Unk n o wn; likely declining G. a. gilli <,  Unk n ow n Tot a l  ,  - ,  Dec l i n i n g

Brol g a Tot a l  ,  -  ,  Stable through most of its range. Dec r easing in southeastern Aus t r a l i a .

Eurasian Cra n e West Eur opean population  ,  - ,  Stable to increa s i n g East Eur opean population > ,  Stable to increa s i n g Eur opean Russia population ~ ,  Dec re a s i n g Tur kish population (non-migratory)   -  Dec re a s i n g West Siberia population ~ ,  Dec re a s i n g C Siberia/NE China population ,  Dec re a s i n g Tibetan Plateau population ,  Sta b l e Tot a l   ,  -  ,  Inc r easing overall, but with local declines 2 6 6 Chapter 13

TABLE 13.1 CONTINUED Population estimates for crane taxa.1 Spe c i e s Nu m b e r Tre n d Su b s pecies, population, or wintering populat i o n Hooded Crane (winter counts) Hubei (China) up to   Unk n ow n Dongting Lake (China) up to   Unk n ow n Poyang Lake (China) up to   Unk n ow n Shengjin Lake (China)   Stable, but habitat declining West Taegu (South Kore a )   -  Unk n ow n Yas h i r o (Jap a n )  Dec l i n i n g Izumi (Jap a n ) ~,  Sta b l e Tot a l ,  -,  Sta b l e

Black-necked Crane (winter counts) NE Yunnan/W Gui z h o u ,  -,  Unk n ow n NW Yun n a n <  Stable to declining SC Tib e t ,  Sta b l e E Tib e t < Dec l i n i n g Bhu t a n   Sta b l e Ind i a - A r unachal Pra d e s h < Dec l i n i n g Tot a l ,  -,  Stable but vulnerable

Red - c r owned Crane (winter counts) Ch i n a   -  Unk n ow n Nor th Kore a   -  Inc re a s i n g South Kore a   -  Unk n ow n Jap a n   Stable to increa s i n g Tot a l ,  -,  Stable to decreasing (based on loss of br eeding habitat)

Whooping Crane (as of August    ) Ar a n s a s - W ood Buffalo population   Inc r easing slowl y . Rocky Mountain population  Dec re a s i n g . Florida population  Inc r easing through arti fi cial augmentation. Wild sub-total   Pat u xe n t  IC F  Ca l g a r y Zoo   Ca p t i v e sub-total   Tot a l   Slo wly increa s i n g

1 For details of proposed population status categories and criteria see IUCN (   ) and Meine and Archibald (   ). 2 In mid-continental population estimates, Lesser and Canadian Sandhill Cranes are not distinguished. Also a rel a t i v ely small number of Grea t e r Sandhill Cranes are included in the total. Estimates are based on -y ear running aver ages of spring counts conducted on the Platte River during mi g r ation. The figu r e given here rep r esents the    su r vey results for the mid-continental populations (  ,  ) plus about  ,  Lesser San d h i l l Cranes from Cal i f o rn i a . Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 6 7

Fig. 13.1. Distribution of the Black Crowned Cran e . human populations, () intensive agricultural devel o p - Priority conservation needs for the Black Crown e d ment and expansion, and () extensive changes in Crane include: () listing the species under CITES hyd r ological systems as a result of dams, drainage, and Appendix I; () ratification of the Ramsar Conven t i o n irrigation projects (Fry    ; Daddy and Ayeni    ). by countries within the species’ range and adoption of These factors are most pressing in West Africa, but st r onger national wetland protection policies and also affect the species in the east. In some areas, these legislation; () mandatory assessment for environ m e n - cranes are hunted for meat or captured and sold for tal impact of all large-scale land development schemes trade. Ine f f e c t i v e law enforcement and the lack of affecting Black Crowned Crane habitat; () increa s e d long-term population monitoring leave the species in su p p o r t for existing protected areas and designation of je o p a rd y . ne w areas used by cranes; () ecological res e a r ch on The decline of the Black Crowned Crane in Wes t wetlands and crane habitat req u i r ements; () a coordi - Africa has begun to stimulate conservation efforts on nated surveying and monitoring program for the behalf of the species. It is legally protected in most species; () collaborative projects involving local com- countries where it occurs, and many of the prot e c t e d munities in the conservation and sustainable use of ar eas in these countries harbor cranes. Sev eral local wetlands; () establishment of a West African su r veys have recently been undertaken. In    , Crowned Crane Rec o ver y Team; () development of Nigeria hosted an international conference on the educational programs involving Black Crown e d Black Crowned Crane and its habitat. A Bla c k Cranes and wetlands; and ( ) expanded training Crowned Crane Coordinating Centre was established op p o r tunities for crane and wetland conservat i o n as a result. No rei n t r oduction program has been sp e c i a l i s t s . un d e r taken for the species, but the potential for rei n - tr oduction of the West African subspecies is under discussion, and an experimental release took place in Nigeria in    (G arba    ). 2 6 8 Chapter 13

List criteria. B. r. reg u l o ru m is classified End a n g e re d , and B. r. gibbericeps Vul n e r a b l e . Gray Crowned Cra n e Gray Crowned Cranes use mixed wet l a n d - g r a s s - land habitats for nesting and foraging, and, along with The Gray Crowned Crane (Fig. .) is the most abun- Black Crowned Cranes, are the only cranes able to dant of the resident African cranes. Although prec i s e roost in trees. The species’ feeding strategy (i.e., gener- population numbers are not available, recent estimates alist) has allowed it to adjust to human settlement and place the total population at  ,  - ,  (Ur b a n activity; most populations in East Africa now live in    ), down from more than   ,  over the last hu m a n - m o d i fi ed habitats (Pom e r oy    ). Abu n d a n c e decade. It no longer occurs in certain portions of its and distribution of food and nest sites are the key historical range, especially the drier areas (Fig.  .). ecological factors determining the size of the home Two subspecies are rec o g n i z ed. Most are B. r. gibberi - range. These, in turn, are largely influenced by local ce p s (the East African Crowned Crane). This race rainfall. Gray Crowned Cranes are non-migratory, but occurs in East Africa from northern Uganda and un d e r take local and seasonal movements in res p o n s e Kenya south to Zim b a b we, , and Nam i b i a . to changing water conditions and food avai l a b i l i t y B. r. reg u l o ru m (the South African Crowned Crane) is (G ichuki and Gichuki    ; Gichuki    ). found in Zim b a b we and South Africa. The species is Al t h o u g h Gra y Crown e d Cr a n e sa n dp e o p l eh a ve cl a s s i fi ed as Vulnerable under the revised IUCN Red l o n gc o e x i s t e d ,p o p u l a t i o nd e c l i n e s ove rt h el a s td e c a d e re fle c tw i d e s p re a dt h re a t s t ot h es p e c i e s’ h a b i t a td u e t or a p i dh u m a n po p u l a - t i o ng rowt h , d ro u g h t - re l a t e dc h a n g e s i nl a n du s e ,a n di n t e n s i- fie da g r i c u l t u r a lp r a c t i c e s (A rc h i b a l d    a ) .L o s s a n dd e t e r i o r a t i o no f wet - la n d b re e d i n gh a b i t a t c o n s t i t u t et h em o s ts i g n i f- i c a n tt h re a t st ot h es p e c i e s . Ot h e rp ro b l e m si n c l u d e i n c re a s e du s eo fa g r i c u l- tu r a l p e s t i c i d e s ,d e c l i n e s i nt h ef a l l ow i n go fc ro p- la n d s , h i g hr a t e so f we t l a n ds e d i m e n t a t i o n d u et od e f o re s t a t i o n , an d al t e re d floo d i n g reg i m e s d u et od a mc o n s t ru c t i o n . T h ec a p t u r i n go f Gra y Crown e d Cr a n e sf o r d o m e s t i c a t i o na n df o r ex p o r t i sa l s o a se r i o u s t h re a t( K a t o n d o    ). Many native people reve r e the Gray Crown e d Crane as sacred and strictly protect it. No range-wide surveys of the species have been under- Fig. 13.2. Distribution of the Gray Crowned Cran e . taken, but crane counts Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 6 9 and localized surveys have been undertaken intermit- with the greatest losses occurring in South Africa tently in several countries. In recent years, field studies (B rooke and Vernon    ). The species as a whole is ha v e begun to provide basic biological information, cl a s s i fi ed as End a n g e r ed under the revised IUCN Red although our knowledge of this species remains rel a - List criteria. The South Africa population is Cri t i c a l l y ti v ely limited compared to other cranes. Th e End a n g e re d . in c r easing number and effectiveness of prot e c t e d The Wattled Crane is the most wet l a n d - d e p e n d e n t ar eas, especially in East Africa, has benefitted the of Africa’s cranes. The extensive riparian wetlands of species (Pom e r oy    ). Howeve r , most Gra y southern Africa’s large river basins (especially the Crowned Cranes nest and forage outside prot e c t e d Zam b e zi and Oka v ango) are their pref e r r ed habitat, ar eas, so the overriding conservation challenge is to but they also use smaller upland wetlands throu g h o u t de v elop sustainable alternatives to the overe x p l o i t a t i o n their range (Konrad    ). The Ethiopian birds may of non-res e r ve wetlands. This goal has stimulated make greater use of drier habitats during the non- many community-based wetland conservation pro- br eeding season. Nesting pairs establish large (often > jects and several nationwide crane and wet l a n d km ) territories, generally in shallow wetlands with co n s e r vation plans (Wanjala    ). Non - g o ver n m e n - minimal human disturbance. Their diet consists pri- tal organizations have often played a key role in these marily of aquatic vegetation, but in drier habitats also e f f o rt s . includes seeds, insects, and waste grain. Wat t l e d Priority conservation measures for the species Cranes are non-migratory, but do undertake irreg u l a r include: () listing of the species under CITES local movements in response to water avai l a b i l i t y Appendix I; () strengthening laws to restrict trade (U rban and Gichuki    ). and protect wild cranes; () expanding community- Loss and degradation of wetlands constitute the based wetland conservation programs; () designating most important threats to the species (Mac d o n a l d additional res e r ves to protect key breeding areas; ()    ; Allan    ). Habitat loss in South Africa is due de v eloping and implementing national crane and mainly to intensified agriculture, dam construc t i o n , wetland conservation plans and more specific manage- industrialization, and other pres s u r es. In other por- ment programs for key breeding habitats outside tions of the range, dams and other water devel o p m e n t pr otected areas; () organizing national-level crane schemes have caused fundamental changes in the counts and long-term monitoring programs; () sp e c i e s ’ floodplain habitats (Beilfuss    ). Hum a n implementing res e a r ch on the basic ecology of the disturbance at or near breeding sites is also a major species (e.g., critical habitat, local and regional move- th r eat (Eksteen    ); breeding success declines when ment patterns, and the extent of crop damage); and human settlements are too close to wetlands. Bec a u s e fina l l y , () developing broad-based public awaren e s s Wattled Cranes occasionally forage on agricultural pro g r a m s . fields alongside Blue and Gray Crowned Cranes, they ar e also vulnerable to poisoning (Allan    ). Co n s e r vation measures have been undertaken most ex t e n s i v ely in South Africa, but are increasing in other Wattled Cra n e range countries. These measures include: () strict legal protection; () establishment of protected area s co n t r i buted by Ann Bu rk e in key wetlands, especially in Zambia, Namibia, and Botswana; () identification and communication of The Wattled Crane (Fig. .) is the largest and rarest of ap p r opriate habitat conservation practices for farmers the six African cranes. The three main populations are and other private landholders; () marking and rel o c a - in south-central Africa, with smaller populations tion of electrical utility lines; () expanded counts and found in and South Africa (Fig.  .). Over su r veys (especially since the early    s); () expanded the last several decades, the species has been declining res e a r ch, especially in South Africa, Zambia, and over much of its range. The total population estimate Namibia; () establishment, in    , of a Wat t l e d of  ,  - ,  has remained constant over the last Crane Steering Group in South Africa; and () devel - decade, but this is due largely to the discover y of ca opment (mainly by non-governmental organizations) ,  bi r ds in in the early    s (Urb a n of education and public awareness programs. A lim-    ). His t o r i c a l l y , the species was more abundant ited release program for the species has been initiated and more widely distributed across southern Africa, in South Africa. 2 7 0 Chapter 13

Priority conservation measures for the species include: () enforcing existing prot e c t i v e legislation; () strengthening key protected areas, especially in Blue Cra n e the Ban g w eulu Swamps and Kafue Flats in Zambia; () identifying additional areas of critical The Blue Crane (Fig. .), the national bird of Sou t h habitat for protection; () assessing large-scale Africa, is still abundant in parts of its historical range habitat threats (mainly from water devel o p m e n t (F ig.  .), but has experienced significant declines in schemes) in the Kafue Flats, Oka v ango Del t a , many areas over the last twenty years. Its distribution Makgadikgadi Pans, and Zam b e zi Delta; () devel - is the most restricted of the fifteen crane species. It is oping a coordinated program for the protection of endemic to southern Africa, with the vast majority of br eeding habitat on privately owned farmland; the population occurring in eastern and southern () organizing a range-wide census and local South Africa (Allan    ). A small disjunct population Wattled Crane counts; () expanding field res e a rc h occurs in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia, while outside South Africa; and () developing education br eeding pairs are occasionally found in five other pr ograms aimed at private landowners, farm countries. As recently as    , there was little concern la b o r ers, and students. about the Blue Crane from a conservation standpoint. Since then, howeve r , the species has largely disap- pe a r ed from the Tra n s k e i region, Lesotho, and Swaziland. In other area s , including Province, Natal, north e r n Orange , and Tra n s v aal, populations ha v e declined by as much as  % (Allan    ; Urban    ). The total population is estimated at  ,  and is declining (Allan    ). Due to its rapid decline, the species is classified as Cri t i c a l l y End a n g e r ed under the revised IUCN Red List criteria. Both the main South African population and the Namibian popu- lation (because of its limited numbers) are Critically End a n g e re d . The Blue Crane is primarily a bird of dry, upland grasslands. In South Africa, the species occurs in the grassland, Ka r oo, and fynbos bio- mes. Blue Cranes use natural grass- and sedge- dominated habitats in Fig. 13.3. Distribution of the Wattled Cran e . these biomes for both Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 7 1

especially on private lands; the emergence and active invol v e- ment of non-gover n m e n t a l organizations in Blue Cra n e co n s e r vation programs; and the development of new edu- cation programs focussing on the status and needs of the sp e c i e s . Priority conservation mea- su r es include: () stron g e r en f o r cement of existing con- se r vation laws; () listing of the species under CITES Appendix I; () devel o p m e n t of a coordinated plan to halt the poisoning of cranes; () id e n t i fi cation and prot e c t i o n of critical habitat, especially traditional wintering grou n d s ; () adoption of habitat man- agement programs on farms and other private lands; () implementation of req u i r e- ments for environ m e n t a l impact assessments prec e d i n g Fig. 13.4. Distribution of the Blue Cran e . timber plantation projects; () expansion of surveys and monitoring prog r a m s nesting and feeding, but will roost in wetlands if avai l - th r oughout the species’ range; () extension of able. Pref e r r ed nesting sites are secluded grasslands in res e a r ch on population dynamics, demographics, higher elevations, although they also nest in wet l a n d s . seasonal movements, breeding habitat req u i re m e n t s , In agricultural areas (especially conver ted farms in the and the threats posed by poisoning and commerci a l fynbos region), Blue Cranes nest in pastures, fallow af f o r estation; and () development of educational fields, and crop fields (Allan    ; Aucamp    ). pr ograms specifically directed towa r d privat e They migrate locally across elevation gradients, spend- la n d o wners, farm laborers, and students. ing the breeding season in higher elevation grasslands and moving to lower elevations for the fall and winter (Vernon et al.    ). Flocking occurs yea r - r ound, but in t e n s i fi es in the winter (Vernon et al.    ; Allan Demoiselle Cra n e    ). Intentional and unintentional poisoning, affores t a - The Demoiselle Crane (Fig. .) is the second most tion of South Africa’s grasslands, and growing human abundant of the world’s cranes. Only the San d h i l l populations constitute the most significant threats to Crane is more numerous. The total population is the Blue Crane (Johnson    ; Tarboton    ; Allan estimated at   ,  -  ,  , but reliable surveys are    ). As these threats have taken their toll, conserva- av ailable for only limited portions of its range. Six tion efforts have accelerated. These measures include: main populations are distinguishable. The three east- stricter legal protection for the species; local and ern populations (the eastern Asia, Kazakhstan/Central national surveys of the population; expanded res e a rc h Asia, and Kalmykia) are abundant, each numbering in on the species’ biology, ecology, and conservat i o n the tens of thousands. The Black Sea population con- status; increased attention to habitat management, sists of approximately   individuals. A disjunct 2 7 2 Chapter 13 no n - m i g r a t o r y population in the Atlas Plateau of east-central Africa include acacia savannas, grasslands, no r thern Africa is believed to include no more than and riparian areas. In India, they feed in agricultural  bi r ds, and a small breeding population (fewer than and stubble fields, and roost in shallow water or on   cranes) exists in Turk e y . sandbars and mudflats surrounded by water. Historical rec o r ds indicate that the species’ The future of the Demoiselle Crane is more range (Fig.  .) has contracted substantially se c u r e than for most cranes because of its large total (Su d i l o vskaya    ; Kovshar    ; Winter et al. population, broad range, abundant breeding habitat,    ). The species is classified as Lower Risk (Nea r ad a p t a b i l i t y , and high rate of breeding success (even Th r eatened) under the revised IUCN Red List in areas inhabited by people). Howeve r , the species criteria. Howeve r , the Atlas and Tur key populations faces several serious threats. First, much of its bree d - ar e classified Critically End a n g e r ed, the Black Sea ing habitat in steppe areas is suitable for agricultural population is End a n g e r ed, and the East Asia co n v ersion. Although the species sometimes success- population is listed as Vul n e r a b l e . fully adapts to agricultural fields (Winter et al.    ; Demoiselle Cranes breed in the Eurasian steppes Bold et al.    ), some population reduction is fr om the Black Sea to northeastern China. The main expected as a result of this trend. Its wintering wintering grounds are in India, Sudan, and other parts gr ounds are subject to increased disturbance and of eastern Africa to Chad. They are primarily grass- agricultural development due to rising human popu- land birds, but are usually found within a few lations. Other threats include sport hunting and hu n d r ed meters of rivers, shallow lakes, depres s i o n s , persecution in response to occasional crop damage or other natural wetlands. If water is available, they (Ahmad and Shah    ; Khachar et al.    ). Th e s e will inhabit even true deserts. Their winter habitats in th r eats have brought about the species’ decline in the

Fig. 13.5. Distribution of the Demoiselle Cran e . Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 7 3 western part of its range, and have endangered local IUCN Red List criteria. The central and wes t e r n populations in other area s . populations, because of their extremely small num- Co n s e r vation measures that have benefitted the bers, are Critically End a n g e re d . Demoiselle Crane include: () protection, either Siberian Cranes are divided into three popula- th r ough cultural traditions or formal legal res t r i c t i o n s , tions. All but a few belong to the eastern population in many range countries; () establishment of numer- (F ig.  .). These birds breed in northeastern Sib e r i a ous protected areas; () extensive local surveys and and winter along the middle Yan g t z e River in studies of several key migration routes; () devel o p - China. The central population (Fig.  .) breeds in ment of a monitoring program for the threa t e n e d the lower basin of the Kun o vat River in wes t e r n Black Sea population; () exchange of information on Siberia and winters in the Indian state of , the species in several international forums; and () most regularly at Keoladeo National Par k. Wh e n in t e n s i v e crane education programs in India and this population was last observed on its wintering Pakistan. No release or rei n t r oduction programs are gr ounds in    - , it included just five birds. Onl y u n d e rw a y, but releases into areas where it has been four birds wer e observed in the Kun o vat bree d i n g se ve r ely reduced or extirpated have been considered . gr ounds in    . The western population (Fig.  .), Priority conservation measures for the species which has apparently held at - bi r ds over the last include: () expanded management programs for the - years, winters at a single site along the southern Atlas, Turk e y , and Black Sea populations and their coast of the Caspian Sea in . The exact location habitats; () protection of key res e r ves and establish- of the breeding grounds is still unknown, but rec e n t ment of new protected areas in important habitats; rep o r ts indicate that they lie in the extreme north - () development and adoption of agricultural prac- ern portion of Eur opean Russia. This population tices that minimize the conflict between cranes and remains extremely vulnerable. farmers; () coordinated international surveys of the The Siberian Crane is unique among the cranes in species; () studies of the migration routes, res t i n g its morphology, vocalizations, and behavior (Sau e y ar eas, and wintering grounds of the various popula-    ). It is the most aquatic of the cranes, excl u s i ve l y tions; () public education programs in the species’ using wetlands for nesting, feeding, and roosting. It br eeding range and along its migration routes; and nests in bogs, marshes, and other wetlands of the low- () development of a more specialized education land tundra, taiga/tundra transition zone, and taiga, pr ogram involving hunters in Pakistan and pr eferring wide expanses of shallow fresh water with Af g h a n i s t a n . good visibility. Although its migration and wintering habitats are somewhat more varied, it still feeds and roosts only in shallow wetlands, including arti fic i a l water impoundments in India and Iran. Its pref e r re d Siberian Cra n e foods are the roots, tubers, sprouts, and stems of sedges and other aquatic plants, and it seldom forages The Siberian Crane (Fig. .) is the third rares t ab o ve water line. species after the Whooping and Red - c r own e d The three populations of Siberian Cranes face an Cranes. Until    , the species was believed to be array of threats. The traditional migratory and winter- mo r e endangered than it is today. Then, in    , ing habitats of the species (especially in China) are Chinese biologists discover ed a wintering flock of under constant pres s u r e from the demands of the   -  cranes at Poyang Lake along the middle gr owing human population on wetland systems and Yan g t z e River in China (Zhou et al.    ). res o u r ces (Harris    ). Large portions of the eastern Subsequent field surveys have revised the total popu- po p u l a t i o n ’s wintering grounds in China have been lation estimate upwa r d to ,  -,  (G ui    ; lost to drainage, reclamation, and agricultural devel - Song et al.    ). These numbers, although encour- opment. These areas are also threatened by oil aging, do not negate the conservation challenges the exploration and by construction of the Th r ee Gor g e s Siberian Crane faces. Archibald (   b) noted that Dam on the Yan g t z e River (Su    ; Topping    ). “fr om the tundra to the subtropics, few endangered Oil exploration also poses a broad-scale threat to the species invol v e so many complex problems in so kn o wn breeding grounds of the species. Hunting is many countries as does the Siberian Crane.” Th e be l i e v ed to be the major cause of the rapid decline of species is classified as End a n g e r ed under the rev i s e d the central population, and is of continuing concern 2 7 4 Chapter 13

Information about the species has been shared at se v eral international confer- ences and through expanded communications among biologists. Eff o r ts are now un d e r way to establish an international Siberian Cra n e Rec o ver y Team and to de v elop a Rec o ver y Plan. A Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Co n s e r vation Mea s u r es for the Siberian Crane has been de v eloped. Howeve r , it has not yet been signed by all the range countries (UNEP/CMS    ). An in t e n s i v e captive prop a g a - tion program, invol v i n g th r ee separate facilities, was initiated in the mid-   s. Ca p t i v e-raised birds are now being released in an effort to maintain the central popula- tion, and releases are also planned for the wes t e r n po p u l a t i o n . Priority conservation mea- su r es for the species include: () active participation of all Fig. 13.6. Distribution of the eastern population of the Siberian Cran e . range countries in the Memorandum of Understanding; () full devel - in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and other portions of the opment of the Rec o ver y Team and Rec o ver y Plan; () sp e c i e s ’ range (Landfried et al.    ). The central and cr eation of protected areas on the breeding grou n d s western populations are especially vulnerable because and at key staging areas and stopover points; () of their extremely low numbers. upgrading habitat protection and management efforts Co n c e r ted conservation efforts on behalf of the at the wintering grounds in Iran and China; () con- Siberian Crane began in the early    s. Since then, tinuation of annual winter counts; () identifica t i o n ex t e n s i v e res e a r ch has been conducted on the ecol- of the western population’s breeding grounds in og y , ethology, breeding and wintering grounds, and Eur opean Russia; () identification of migration migration routes of the species. Annual censuses are routes, important staging areas, stopover points, and av ailable for all three wintering areas and on the al t e r n a t i v e wintering grounds (including those used br eeding grounds of the eastern and central popula- by Eurasian Cranes); () studies of breeding, migra- tions. Based on this data, a Population and Hab i t a t tion, wintering, ecology, causes of morta l i t y , and other Viability Assessment (PHV A) was prep a r ed for the cr ucial aspects of Siberian Crane biology; and () species in    (M irande et al. In prep .). Prot e c t e d de v elopment of special educational programs invol v - ar eas have been established at several migration ing hunters along the migration route of the central st o p o ver points in Russia, Pakistan, and China, and population and communities near the wintering area s at the wintering grounds in China and Ind i a . in Iran, India, and China. Captive propagation and Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 7 5

Cranes) are rel a t i v ely abun- dant. They are distributed ac r oss a broad breeding range in northern Nor th America and eastern Siberia, with win- tering grounds in the southern United States and north e r n Mex i c o . The other three sub- species (the Mis s i s s i p p i , Florida, and Cuban San d h i l l Cranes) exist as small, non- mi g r a t o r y populations with restricted ranges in the south- ern United Sta t e s (southeastern Mis s i s s i p p i , Florida, and southern Georgia) and Cuba. Although some local populations may be declining, the total population is increasing. While the species is classified as Lower Risk under the revised IUCN Red List criteria, the Mis s i s s i p p i and Cuban subspecies are cl a s s i fi ed as Cri t i c a l l y End a n g e re d . Prior to Eur opean settle- ment of Nor th America, the Sandhill Crane was more widely distributed than at pr esent (Walkinshaw    , Fig. 13.7. Distribution of the central and wes t e r n populations of the Siberian Cran e .    ). While the remote arct i c and subarctic bree d i n g gr ounds of the Lesser and rei n t r oduction efforts should focus on bolstering the Canadian Sandhill Cranes have been rel a t i v ely free western and central populations, maintaining a genet- fr om human disturbance, the wintering grounds of ically diverse captive population, and perfe c t i n g these subspecies have been extensively altered . rearing and release techniques. Hunting, agricultural expansion, drainage of wetlands, and other habitat changes in the  th and  th centuries led to the extirpation of the Grea t e r Sandhill Crane from many parts of its breeding range Sandhill Cra n e in the United States and Canada (Walkinshaw    ). In recent decades, conservation efforts have allowed With a total population estimated at more than some of these populations to rec o ver . The numbers   ,  , the Sandhill Crane (Fig. .) is the most and distribution of the two non-migratory races of the abundant of the world’s cranes. It is widely (though Sandhill Crane in the southern United States have intermittently) distributed throughout Nort h diminished due to hunting, loss of wetlands, and America, with Cuba and northeastern Siberia at the other changes in its habitat. The Cuban San d h i l l range extremes (Fig.  .) (Tacha et al.    ). Six sub- Crane was probably more widely distributed in the species have been described. The three migratory Cuban archipelago than at pres e n t . subspecies (the Lesser, Grea t e r , and Canadian San d h i l l 2 7 6 Chapter 13

Sandhill Cranes are primarily birds of open fres h - and Per era    ). Sandhill Cranes are omnivoro u s , water wetlands and shallow marshes, but the differen t feeding on a wide variety of plant materials (including subspecies use a broad range of habitat types from waste grains) and small ver tebrates and inve rt e b r a t e s , bogs, sedge meadows, and fens to open grasslands, both on land and in shallow wet l a n d s . pine savannas, and cultivated lands (Tacha et al.    ). The leading threat to Sandhill Cranes is the loss During the breeding season, the three migratory sub- and degradation of wetland habitats, especially ecolog- species are found in a wide variety of north e r n ical and hydr ological changes in important staging wetlands. Habitats along migration routes tend to be ar eas. Of special concern are the spring staging area s large, open palustrine and riparian wetlands near agri- along the central Platte River . The areas favor ed by the cultural areas, while wintering habitats include cranes have diminished due to anthropogenic effects riparian wetlands, wet meadows, playas, and pastures on the river ’s flow. Cur r ent plans, if carried out, would (Krapu et al.    ; Iverson et al.    ). The non- result in more dams and exce s s i v e water withdrawals mi g r a t o r y subspecies use seasonally variable wet l a n d s , (C urrier et al.    ; Faanes and Bowman    ). grasslands, and palm and pine savannas (Smith and Continuing loss of roosting habitat has concentrated Valentine    ; Nesbitt and Williams    ; Gal v ez the migrating cranes, increasing the risks associated with disease, disturbance, and other threats. Habitat loss contin- ues on breeding grounds of the Greater Sandhill Crane and on the yea r - r ound habitats of the no n - m i g r a t o r y subspecies. Ov erhunting poses a potential th r eat to certain segments of the mid-continental Sandhill Cra n e populations. Lead and myco t ox i n poisoning, abnormal pred a t i o n pre s s u r es, and collisions with fences, vehicles, and utility lines ar e of local concern. Since the decline of the Sandhill Crane in the first half of the    s, extensive conservat i o n me a s u r es have been underta k e n on its behalf. These include: () legal protection under the Mig r a t o r y Bir d Treaty of    ; () establishment of protected area s in key breeding, migration, and wintering habitats; () stron g e r national wetland protection poli- cies and programs; () annual su r veys and counts of many pop- ulations; () wide-ranging res e a r ch on many aspects of the sp e c i e s ’ biology and ecology; () management guidelines and plans for mid-continental and Roc k y Mountain populations; () devel - opment of a rec o ver y plan, PHV A, and captive prop a g a t i o n Fig. 13.8. Distribution of the Sandhill Cran e . and release program for the Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 7 7

Mississippi Sandhill Crane; () initiation of a res e a rc h or mixed forest steppes (Su et al.    ; Fujita et al. and management program for the Cuban San d h i l l    ). White-naped Cranes feed in their bree d i n g Crane; and () a wide variety of public education habitat and in adjacent grasslands or farmlands. pro g r a m s . During migration and on their wintering grou n d s , Priority conservation measures for the San d h i l l they use rice paddies, mudflats, other wetlands, and Crane include: () protection, restoration, and man- agricultural fields, where they feed on waste grains, agement of critical breeding, migration, and wintering seeds, and tubers (Chen et al.    ; Hal v orson and habitat for the migratory subspecies (especially along Kaliher    ). the Platte River) and of the yea r - r ound use areas for The loss of wetlands to agricultural expansion, the non-migratory subspecies; () implementation of especially in the breeding grounds of the Amur River co n s e r vation programs and incentives that invol v e basin and other parts of northern China, is the most pr i v ate landowners; () res e a r ch to improve under- si g n i fi cant threat to the species. Its pref e r r ed habitats standing of the size, status, dynamics, distribution, ar e especially prone to drainage and conversion to and movements of populations; () continued imple- ag r i c u l t u r e (Harris    a). The Kor ean Dem i l i t a r i ze d mentation and updating of the rec o ver y plan for the Zone, which has served as a critical refuge for Wh i t e - Mississippi Sandhill Crane; () development of a com- naped and Red - c r owned Cranes, is highly vulnerable pre h e n s i v e Cuban Sandhill Crane conservat i o n to armed conflict or to development should political pr ogram; () greater attention to problems associated tensions between Nor th and South Kor ea be res o l ve d with crop depredation; () greater attention to the (Ha l v orson and Kaliher    ). Other threats include long-term effects of hunting; and () clarification of over exploitation of wetland res o u r ces, ineffective subspecies phylogeny. management of key protected areas, indiscriminate pesticide use, and the proposed dams on the Amur Ri v er and on the Yan g t z e River at Th r ee Gor g e s . Wintering Hooded and White-naped Cranes at Izu m i White-naped Cra n e in Japan are highly concentrated and susceptible to disease outbrea k s . T h et o t a l p o p u l a t i o no fW h i t e - n a p e d Cr a n e s( Fi g . .) Cu r re n tc o n s e rva t i o nm e a s u re sf o r t h es p e c i e s is e s t i m a t e da t ,  -,  .T h es p e c i e sb re e d si n i n c l u d e :l e g a lp ro t e c t i o ni na l lr a n g ec o u n t r i e s ;i n t e r n a- no rt h e a s t e r n Mo n g o l i a ,n o rt h e a s t e r nC h i n a ,a n da d j a- t i o n a lc o o p e r a t i o nt op ro t e c tt h es p e c i e sa n dt o ma n a g e c e n ta re a so fs o u t h e a s t e r n Ru s s i a( Fi g .  .). Bird s in ke y res e r ve si nt h eC h i n a - Ru s s i a - Mo n g o l i ab o rd e r th e we s t e r np o rt i o no ft h eb re e d i n gr a n g e( a b o u t ,  re g i o n ;e s t a b l i s h m e n to fp ro t e c t e da re a si ni m p o rt a n t i n d i v i d u a l s )m i g r a t es o u t ht h ro u g hC h i n a , res t i n g b re e d i n ga n dw i n t e r i n gh a b i t a t s ; reg u l a r su r ve y so ft h e a l o n gt h e Yel l o w R i ve rd e l t a ,a n dw i n t e r i n gi nt h em i d- p o p u l a t i o na tm i g r a t i o ns t o p ove rp o i n t sa n do nt h e dl e Yan g t z e Ri ve r va l l e y( Ha r r i se ta l .    ). ma i n w i n t e r i n gg ro u n d s ;e x p a n d e d re s e a rc ho nt h e App r oxi m a t e l y ,  bi rd s i nt h ee a s t e r np o rt i o no ft h e s p e c i e st h ro u g h o u ti t sr a n g e ; a n dt h ei n vo l ve m e n to f b re e d i n gr a n g em i g r a t e s o u t ht h ro u g ht h e Kore a n no n - g o ve r n m e n t a lo r g a n i z a t i o n si n re s e a rc h ,h a b i t a t p e n i n s u l a( C h o n ge ta l .    ;Ohs a k o    ). Seve r a l p ro t e c t i o n ,a n dc a p t i ve p ro p a g a t i o np ro g r a m s .L i m i t e d hu n d re d re m a i no nw i n t e r i n gg ro u n d si nt h e rel e a s e s o fc a p t i ve - re a re db i rd sh a ve b e e nc a r r i e do u t at Dem i l i t a r i ze d Zo n eb e t we e n No rt ha n d Sou t h Kore a ; t h eZ h a l o n g Nat u r e Res e r ve i nC h i n aa n dt h e th e re m a i n d e rc o n t i n u eo nt ot h e Ja p a n e s ei s l a n do f Kh i n g a n s k i Nat u r e Res e r ve in Rus s i a . Kyu s h u . In t h ep a s t ,t h eW h i t e - n a p e d Cr a n ew a sm o re Priority conservation measures include: () n u m e ro u sa n dm o re e x t e n s i ve l yd i s t r i b u t e d t h a na t expanded international cooperation in managing p re s e n t( Fl i n t    ;Won    ) .T h ep o p u l a t i o n rea c h e d na t u r e res e r ves and in res e a r ch on migration patterns i t sn a d i ri nt h e yea r s fo l l ow i n g Wor l d Wa rI Ia n dt h e and timing; () expansion of existing res e r ves and Kore a n War .Sin c e t h e n ,i th a si n c re a s e di nm a n yp a rt s establishment of new protected areas (especially in o fi t sr a n g e ,a l t h o u g hi t m a ya g a i nb ed e c l i n i n gi np a rt s , northeastern China, and the Kore a n of Rus s i a a n dC h i n a .T h es p e c i e si sc l a s s i fie da s Peninsula); () dispersion of the wintering crane pop- Vu l n e r a b l eu n d e rt h e re v i s e dI U C N Re dL i s t cr i t e r i a . ulations at Izumi; () development of integrated land Typical White-naped Crane breeding habitat use and conservation programs in key watersheds; () includes shallow wetlands and wet meadows in broa d assessment of the environmental impacts of large-scale ri v er valleys, along lake edges, and in lowland steppes dam and development projects; () continuing sur- 2 7 8 Chapter 13

been extirpated from large por- tions of its historical range and continues to decline in area s wh e r e it still exists (Gole    ,    ). The Eastern Sar us Cra n e (G. a. sharpii) has been deci- mated throughout its historical range in southeast Asia. One kn o wn population, estimated at be t w een   and ,  , bree d s in Cambodia and Laos (and possibly surrounding areas) and winters in Vietnam (Duc    ; Bar zen    ). The Aus t r a l i a n Sar us Crane (G. a. gilli) is lim- ited to northeastern Aus t r a l i a , and probably numbers less than ,  (A. Haf f e n d e n , Australian Nat u r e, Atl a n t a , Georgia, personal communica- tion). Sar us Cranes, possibly of a distinct subspecies, formerly oc c u r r ed in the Phi l i p p i n e s . This population is now pre- sumed extinct. The species is cl a s s i fi ed as End a n g e r ed under the revised IUCN Red List criteria. The Indian and Eastern subspecies are also classified as End a n g e r ed. We know too little Fig. 13.9. Distribution of the White-naped Cran e . about the Australian subspecies to classify it at this time. The three subspecies use veys of the population; () more complete identifica - widely var ying habitats. The Indian race is highly tion of the species’ breeding grounds, especially in tolerant of human activity. These birds use even ver y no r theastern China; () professional training opportu - small wetlands if they are not persecuted or heavily nities for res e r ve managers and conservation offici a l s ; disturbed (Gole    ,    ). Breeding pairs and fami- () improved agricultural information services for lies with pre- fl edged chicks are typically dispersed farmers; and ( ) community-based conservat i o n among scattered natural and arti fi cial wet l a n d s . education programs involving cranes and wet l a n d s . Adult pairs will use drier habitats such as cultivat e d and fallow fields. Eastern Sar us Cranes are less toler- ant of people and are almost completely dependent on natural wetlands in both wet and dry seasons. Sar us Cra n e Australian Sar us Cranes nest in open wet l a n d s during Aus t r a l i a ’s wet season and feed in upland At . m, the Sar us Crane (Fig. .) is the world’s agricultural fields and grasslands at other times of the tallest flying bird. It is also the only resident bree d i n g year (Mar chant and Higgins    ). crane in India and southeast Asia (Fig.  . ). Th e Loss and degradation of wetlands (due to agricul- total population for the three subspecies is betwee n tural expansion, industrial development, river basin  ,  and  ,  . The Indian Sar us Crane (G. a. de v elopment, pollution, warfa r e, heavy use of pesti- an t i g o n e ) is still common in northern India, but has cides, and other factors) are the most importa n t Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 7 9

Fig. 13.10. Distribution of the Sar us Cran e . th r eats to the species, especially in India and southeast an International Sar us Crane and Wet l a n d Asia. In many areas, high human population pres s u re s Co n s e r vation Wor kshop; () development of a pre- compound these threats by increasing disturbance li m i n a r y PHV A for the Eastern Sar us Crane; and () (G ole    ; Suwal    ). Human population growt h establishment of education programs in and and planned development projects on the Mek o n g Vietnam. Sar us Cranes are not currently being rei n - Ri v er are acute threats to the Eastern Sar us Cra n e tr oduced, but plans for rei n t r oduction are underwa y (Lohmann    ). Hunting, egg stealing, and the cap- in Thailand and other portions of the species’ histor- turing of chicks are also significant problems in some ical range. ar eas, and especially affect the Eastern Sar us Cra n e . Priority conservation measures for the species Trading in adults and chicks has been rep o r ted in include: () identification and protection of bree d i n g India, Cambodia, and Th a i l a n d . ar eas in India, Cambodia, Mya n m a r , and Laos, and of Local traditions and religious beliefs have pro- no n - b r eeding habitat in Vietnam, Laos, and tected the Sar us Crane in many parts of its range, Cambodia; () full implementation of the manage- especially northern India, Nep a l ’s western Terai, and ment plan for Vie t n a m ’s Tram Chim Nat i o n a l Vietnam (Gole    ). The species has been the focus Res e r ve; () protection, maintenance, and res t o r a t i o n of increased conservation activity in recent yea r s , of village ponds and other small wetlands in India; () including: () international agreements and collabo- im p r oved pesticide management and regulation in ra t i v e conservation projects in southeast Asia; () agricultural areas used by cranes, especially in Ind i a field studies of the species in India and Nepal; () and Nepal; () watershed-level conservation planning in t e n s i v e surveys of the Eastern Sar us Crane during in the Mekong River basin; () expanded efforts to the dry season in Vietnam and during the bree d i n g su r vey and monitor Eastern Sar us Cranes; () furth e r season in Cambodia; () establishment of the Tra m res e a r ch on distribution, ecology, movement, and Chim National Res e r ve in Vietnam and efforts to habitat needs throughout the species range; () res t o r e the res e r ve’s wetlands; () convening (in    ) expanded surveys and basic ecological studies of the 2 8 0 Chapter 13

Australian Sar us Crane; () development and imple- Aus t r a l i a , w h i l ea p p a re n t l y e x p a n d i n g( d u e to mentation of national-level wetland conservat i o n i n c re a s i n gu s e of cro p l a n d s ) i nt h e Nort h e r n plans in range countries; ( ) preparation of full Ter r i t o r y, on th e Ki m b e r l e y Pla t e a u , an d el s ew h e r e in PHV As for both the Indian and Eastern Sar us Cra n e ; wes t e r n Au s t r a l i a( Bl a k e r se t al .    ; Wh i t e    ). and ( ) assessments of existing habitat and the poten- L i t t l ei s kn ow n a b o u tt h e st a t u s of , o rt re n d si n , th e tial for natural recolonization in areas where the New Gui n e a p o p u l a t i o n s .T h e s p e c i e si sc l a s s i fie d as species is now rare or extinct. Lo we rR i s k ( L e a s tC o n c e r n ) un d e r th e rev i s e d IU C N Re dL i s t cr i t e r i a . Brol g a s ar e no n - m i g r a t o r y, bu t d om ove in res p o n s e t os e a s o n a lr a i n s . Eco l o g i c a l l y , th e y ar e p e r h a p st h e Brol g a mo s t op p o rt u n i s t i c o ft h e c r a n e s ,h a v i n g e vo l ve dt o c o p ew i t h Aus t r a l i a ’s e x t re m ec l i m a t i c var i a t i o n s . Th e Brol g a (Fi g . . ) oc c u r s th ro u g h o u t no rt h e r n No rt h e r np o p u l a t i o n s ar e co n c e n t r a t e d du r i n g th e dr y an d ea s t e r n Aus t r a l i a a n di n li m i t e d a re a so f New se a s o n i nc o a s t a l fre s h w a t e r wet l a n d s wh e r e th e y su b - Gui n e a (Fi g .  . )(Wh i t e    ;Ma rc h a n ta n d s i s to n t h et u b e r s of t h eb u l k u ru se d g e (El e o c h a r i s Hig g i n s    ) .T h e Brol g a s i nn o rt h e r na n d so u t h e r n du l c i s ). In th e wet s e a s o n ,t h e y d i s p e r s et o bre e d i n g Au s t r a l i ac a n be reg a rd e d as d i s c re t ep o p u l a t i o n s , bu t te r r i t o r i e s in f re s h w a t e ra n d b r a c k i s hm a r s h e s , wet ar e no lo n g e r re c o g n i ze da s di s t i n c t su b s p e c i e s . m e a d ow s ,a n d o t h e rs e a s o n a l we t l a n d s( L a ve ry an d Bec a u s e n os y s t e m a t i c , ra n g e - w i d e su r vey o ft h e Bla c k m a n    ;Bla c k m a n    ) .A l t h o u g ht h e wet s p e c i e sh a s b e e nu n d e rt a k e n ,n o rel i a b l e po p u l a t i o n a n dd ry s e a s o n si n so u t h e r n Aus t r a l i a ar e l e s sm a rk e d , es t i m a t e i sa va i l a b l ea n d tre n d s ar e p o o r l yu n d e r- so u t h e r n Bro l g ap o p u l a t i o n sa l s o mo ve be t we e n wet s t o o d .T h e t o t a lp o p u l a t i o n ma y ra n g e fro m  ,  se a s o n bre e d i n g t e r r i t o r i e sa n dt r a d i t i o n a l dr y se a s o n to   ,  an d i sp ro b a b l y st a b l e over a l l . T h es p e c i e s floc k i n g a re a s .T h e yi n h a b i t a si m i l a r l y wi d e r a n g eo f st i l l o c c u p i e sm u c h of it s hi s t o r i c a l ra n g e . In rec e n t ava i l a b l e we t l a n dt y p e s , bu t g e n e r a l l yu s es a l tm a r s h e s de c a d e s , th e Brol g a h a sd e c l i n e d in so u t h e a s t e r n f a rl e s s th a n t h en o rt h e r n Brol g a s . The most significa n t th r eat to the Brolga acros s its range is the loss and degradation of wet l a n d habitat. In north e r n Australia (especially along the eastern coast), wet l a n d s used by Brolgas have been ex t e n s i v ely degraded by li v estock grazing, disrup - tion of hydro l o g i c a l pr ocesses, and changes in vegetation (A. Haf f e n d e n , Australian Nat u r e, Atl a n t a , Georgia, personal commu- nication). In the south, loss of wetlands to drainage and reclamation for agri- cu l t u r e is probably the main factor behind the dramatic decline in Brol g a s th e r e (Arnol et al.    ). Other threats include the subdivision (and subse- quent fencing) of large Fig. 13.11. Distribution of the Brol g a . pr i v ate land holdings, pre- Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 8 1 dation by the introduced red fox (Vulpes fulva), inci- Mongolia, northern China, and eastern Siberia, with dental poisoning, and collisions with utility lines. isolated breeding populations in eastern Tur key and Most res e a r ch and conservation activity invol v i n g Tibet (Fig.  . ). The winter range includes porti o n s the Brolga has taken place in the southeast, where the of France and the Iberian Peninsula, north and east species is no longer as common as in the north . Africa, the Middle East, India, and southern and east- Co n s e r vation measures undertaken for the species ern China. The species continues to occupy most of include: () legal protection throughout Australia; () its historical range. Howeve r , during the last   -  local surveys in South Australia, Victoria, and New years it has been extirpated as a breeding species in South Wales; () preparation of an Action Sta t e m e n t much of southern and western Eur ope, the Bal k a n for Brolgas under the Victorian Flora and Fau n a Peninsula, and southern Ukraine (Prange    ,    ). Guarantee Act; () programs to protect and res t o r e The Eurasian Crane nests primarily in bogs, sedge pr i v ately owned wetlands in Victoria; and () estab- me a d o ws, and other wetlands within Eur a s i a ’s borea l lishment of a private conservation organization, and temperate forest zones (Walkinshaw    ; Friends of the Brolga. A captive propagation prog r a m Joh n s g a r d    ). Under natural conditions, pairs was initiated in Victoria in    ; surplus birds from pr efer large, isolated nesting territories. Howeve r , in this program are to be released in    and    . in t e n s i v ely cultivated areas they have adapted to Priority conservation needs for the Brol g a smaller and less wild wetlands (Mewes    ). Dur i n g include: () adaption of strong watershed-level migration, they forage in agricultural fields, pastures , wetlend conservation programs, () assessment of and meadows, and roost in shallow lakes, bogs, river s , the status and conservation needs of the species in along the edges of res e r voirs, and in other wet l a n d s . New Guinea; () enactment of stronger national The widely scattered wintering grounds include a wetland protection laws and policies; () devel o p - wide spectrum of upland and wetland habitats, from ment of incentive and extension programs to open oak woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula to shal- encourage and rewa r d private landowners who con- lo w lakes, agricultural fields, and delta wetlands in se r ve Brolga habitat; () development of a systematic China (Alonso and Alonso    ; Xu et al.    ). censusing and monitoring program for the species, Eurasian Cranes are omnivor ous, foraging in wet - and inclusion of the species in routine aerial water- lands, on dry land, and in agricultural fields for a wide fo wl counts; () expanded res e a r ch on flocking sites, variety of plant and animal foods. br eeding biology, size and trends of each popula- Habitat loss and degradation are the principal tion, and identification of isolated populations; and th r eats to the species. Wetlands have been lost to () expanded education and extension prog r a m s . drainage, dams, and other forms of devel o p m e n t th r oughout the species’ range, particularly in Eur ope, Eur opean Russia, and central Asia (P riklonski and Mar kin    ; Harris    ; Newt o n Eurasian Cra n e    ). Although Eurasian Cranes have adapted to human settlement in many areas, continuing The Eurasian Crane (Fig. . ) is the third most abun- changes in land use and agricultural prod u c t i o n dant species after the Sandhill and Demoiselle Cra n e s . methods (such as expanded irrigation and conver - The total population, estimated at   ,  -  ,  , sion of traditional pastures) have had negative is probably increasing, although some populations are impacts. Human disturbance and collision with declining. Howeve r , no coordinated survey has been utility lines are problems in Eur ope and other heav- conducted throughout the species’ range. The species ily developed areas. Hunting is a significant concern is not globally threatened, but it is legally protected in for the populations that migrate throu g h many countries. The species is classified Lower Risk Afghanistan and Pakistan (Landfried et al.    ). (Least Concern) under the revised IUCN Red List Co n s e r vation measures have been undertaken most criteria. Breeding populations in Eur opean Russia and in t e n s i v ely in the western portions of the species’ central Siberia are classified Vulnerable, while small range. In western and central Eur ope, the species has populations in Tur key and the Tibetan Plateau are too be n e fi tted from legal protection, systematic res e a rc h poorly known to classify at pres e n t . and monitoring programs, creation and restoration of The species’ breeding range extends from north e r n wetlands, and protection of important staging area s , and western Eur ope across Eurasia to north e r n roosting sites, and wintering grounds. Inf o r m a t i o n 2 8 2 Chapter 13

Fig. 13.12. Distribution of the Eur asian Cran e . about migration patterns is available due to color populations; () res e a r ch on the number, status, distri- banding programs and regular observations along the bution, migration routes, and breeding and wintering migration routes (Prange    ,    ). Int e r n a t i o n a l ar eas of the main populations; () field studies of the cooperation has played an important role in prom o t - isolated populations in the Tibetan Plateau and ing these measures. In the last decade, such Tur key; () establishment of a central database to cooperation has expanded into Eastern Eur ope, where maintain information on the species; ( ) coordi n a t e d the species has been under greater threat due to rec e n t ef f o r ts to address crop depredation problems; ( ) economic changes. Conservation efforts have been less training programs for volunteers working in prot e c t e d focused in eastern Russia, Africa, the Middle East, and ar eas established for cranes; and ( ) expanded educa- Asia. In these areas, howeve r , the Eurasian Crane often tion programs for students and the general public. mi x es with other cranes and thereb y has benefitt e d fr om conservation actions undertaken on their behalf. Priority conservation measures for the species include: () adoption of the Ramsar Convention in all Hooded Crane range countries; () stronger legal protection for cranes and crane habitats; () expanded international The total population of Hooded Cranes is estimated res e a r ch, monitoring, and conservation programs; () at ,  -,  . The breeding grounds of the species establishment of protected areas at key breeding, stag- (F ig.  . ) are in southeastern Russia and north e r n ing, and wintering areas; () broad-scale wet l a n d China, while non-breeding flocks occur in the Rus s i a - pr otection and restoration programs (especially in Mongolia-China border region (Neufeldt    ; Eur ope); () expanded efforts to survey and census Fujimaki et al.    ; Li    ; Bold et al.    ). Th e Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 8 3

either too open or too densely fo r ested (Pukinski    ). Non - br eeding cranes are found in shallow open wetlands, natural grasslands, and agricultural fields in southern Siberia, northeastern Mongolia, and no r thern China. Wintering Hoo d e d Cranes use a wide variety of habi- tats. In China, they tend to roo s t along the shores of rivers and shal- lo w lakes, and to forage in the muddy edges of lakes and in nearby grasslands, grassy marshes, rice pad- dies, and agricultural fields (Chen and Wang    ). In Kor ea and Jap a n they feed almost excl u s i v ely at feed- ing stations and in agricultural fiel d s (Cho and Won    ; Ohsako    ). Although the Hooded Crane is a th r eatened species, it is more secure than other threatened cranes of East Asia. This is due mainly to the rel a t i v e absence of intensive human economic activity in their bree d i n g gr ounds. More o ver , the species (unlike the other East Asian cranes) winters primarily in Japan rather than China and the Kore a n Peninsula, where threats are some- what grea t e r . Howeve r , the species Fig. 13.13. Distribution of the Hooded Cran e . does face several critical threa t s , including: drainage of wetlands and in t e n s i fi ed logging in Rus s i a ’s taiga species is divided into several wintering subpopula- fo r ests; reclamation of wintering grounds in China tions. Mor e than  % of the world’s Hooded Cra n e s for agriculture and alterations in the hydr ology of (about ,  bi r ds) spend the winter at Izumi on the these areas; the planned Th r ee Gorges dam on the Japanese island of Kyushu, where they are sustained Yan g t z e River; rapid development of the key winter- by arti fi cial feeding (Ohsako    ). Small subpopula- ing grounds in Kor ea, especially through the tions are found at Yas h i r o in southern Japan, near co n s t r uction of greenhouses; and high risk of disease Taegu in South Kor ea, and at several sites along the ou t b r eak in the concentrated flocks at the winter middle Yan g t z e River in China. Although little is feeding stations in Jap a n . kn o wn about historical changes in the distribution of Co n s e r va t i o nm e a s u re st h a th a ve b e e nu n d e rt a k e n the species, its numbers are known to have fluc t u a t e d in c l u d e : () l e g a lp ro t e c t i o nt h ro u g h o u tt h es p e c i e s’ dramatically since the    s (Ohsako    ). At pre- ra n g e ; () i n t e r n a t i o n a la g re e m e n t st op ro t e c tt h e sent, the population is probably as large as at any sp e c i e s a n dk e yh a b i t a t st h ro u g h o u ti t sr a n g e ; () point this century. The species is classified as re c e n t l ye x p a n d e d re s e a rc ho nb re e d i n gh a b i t a t s ,w i n t e r Vulnerable under the revised IUCN Red List criteria. ec o l o g y , a n dm i g r a t i o n rou t e s ; () a n n u a ls u rve y so f Hooded Cranes (Fig. . ) nest in isolated, widely p o p u l a t i o n so nt h ew i n t e r i n gg ro u n d s ; () es t a b l i s h - sc a t t e r ed bogs in the taiga and in other forested wet - m e n to fp ro t e c t e da re a s ,e s p e c i a l l yi nt h ew i n t e rr a n g e ; lands, preferring mossy areas with widely scattered an d () in t e n s i v e m a n a g e m e n t( i n c l u d i n gt h ea rt i fic i a l la r ch trees (La r i x sp .), and avoiding areas that are f e e d i n gp ro g r a m s )a tt h em a i nw i n t e r i n ga re ai n Jap a n . 2 8 4 Chapter 13

The Hooded Crane has many of the same priority cranes winter in lower elevation, agricultural val l e y s , co n s e r vation needs as the White-naped, Red - c r own e d , wh e r e they feed mainly on waste grains and other and Siberian Cranes, including stronger enforce m e n t residue in fields and pastures. In both breeding and of existing laws, adoption of an umbrella agree m e n t wintering areas, Black-necked Cranes are quite toler- on the migratory cranes of East Asia, adoption of the ant of human activity, and regularly feed near human Ramsar Convention in all range countries, expanded settlements and domestic lives t o c k . international conservation programs, continued Degradation and loss of habitat are the main res e a r ch on migration routes, and protection of key th r eats facing the Black-necked Crane. These prob - habitats in China and the Kor ean Pen i n s u l a . lems are most serious in the wintering areas, where Additional priorities specific to the species include: wetlands have been extensively affected by irrigation pr otection of potential alternative feeding and roo s t - pr ojects, dam construction, drainage and conver s i o n ing sites for the wintering populations in southern to agriculture, river channelization, heavy grazing Japan and Kor ea; studies of the West Taegu popula- pre s s u r e, sedimentation, and industrial pollution (Li tion in Kor ea and application of this information in and Li    ; Wei et al.    ; Bishop et al. In prep .). In cr eating an adequate protected area for the floc k ; Tibet, widespread changes in traditional agricultural ag r eements to bring greenhouse development under practices have reduced the availability of waste barley co n t r ol in and near the Hooded Crane Prot e c t i o n and spring wheat, the main winter foods (Bis h o p Ar ea in Kor ea; continued winter surveys of all    ). Hunting has become an important threat in Hooded Crane populations; and development of a se v eral wintering areas with the introduction of pr ogram to monitor the status of the bree d i n g firearms and increased accessibility of formerly rem o t e gr ounds in Rus s i a . ar eas. Other factors, including egg collecting and pr edation by feral dogs, are significant threats in some lo c a l e s . Co n s e r vation measures for the species have grea t l y Black-necked Cra n e expanded since the late    s. These measures include: () implementation of an integrated prog r a m co n t r i buted by Ma ry Anne Bi s h o p of conservation and development at Cao Hai Lake, a key wintering area in Guizhou Province, China; () The world’s Black-necked Crane population is esti- establishment of additional protected areas in China mated at ,  -,  . The species’ breeding range and Bhutan; () regular population surveys in the (F ig.  . ) includes much of the Qinghai-Tib e t a n main wintering areas; () expanded field studies of the Plateau in China, with a small breeding population sp e c i e s ’ distribution, habitat use, breeding biology, occurring nearby in Ladakh, India (Lu et al.    ). wintering ecology, and conservation status; () sup- Six main wintering locations have been identified . po r t for conservation programs from national and These include lower elevations of the Qinghai-Tib e t international non-governmental organizations; and and Yun n a n - G uizhou Plateaus in China, with some () training programs for local conservation offici a l s bi r ds also occurring in Bhutan and Arun a c h a l and res e r ve personnel. Local religious beliefs have also Pradesh, India (Bishop    ). Published rec o r ds and pl a y ed a critical role in safeguarding the Bla c k - n e c k e d local rep o r ts indicate that the species has declined in Crane across much of its range. many breeding and wintering areas over the last Priority conservation measures for the species se v enty years, although the population seems to have include: () stronger efforts to control poaching; () st a b i l i z ed since the    s. The species is classified as im p r oved management of existing protected area s Vulnerable under the revised IUCN Red List (especially Cao Hai Nat u r e Res e r ve); () establishment Cri t e r i a . of protected areas in Yunnan and India; () prot e c t i o n During the breeding season Black-necked Cra n e s of wetlands (especially in wintering areas) against (F ig. . ) use high altitude wetlands, nesting in grassy fu r ther deterioration and development; () establish- marshlands, sedge meadows, and marshes along the ment of agricultural management areas in key sh o r es of lakes and streams, and foraging in shallow wintering and breeding areas; () reg u l a r , coordi n a t e d marshes, streams, and pastures (Li    ). Their diet counts of the wintering populations; () banding and includes plant roots, tubers, snails, shrimp, small fish , satellite radio studies of the main wintering popula- and other small ver tebrates and inver tebrates. Th e tions; () studies of roosting habitats in Tib e t , Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 8 5

Fig. 13.14. Distribution of the Black-necked Cran e .

Yunnan, and Bhutan; () further development of Hokkaido in northern Japan (Masatomi    ; Su education programs; and ( ) expanded training    ). In the winter, the mainland population divides op p o r tunities for nature res e r ve personnel. into two or three wintering subpopulations. The total population has fluctuated over the last century, prob a - bly reaching its lowest point in the years followi n g World War II (Masatomi    ). Although the species Red - c r owned Cra n e has rec o ver ed in some areas, much habitat has been lost to agricultural development and other human co n t r i buted by Scott R. Swe n g e l economic activities. The species is classified as End a n g e r ed under the revised IUCN Red List criteria. The Red - c r owned Crane (Fig. . ) is the second Red - c r owned Cranes prefer to nest and feed in ra r est species of crane, with a total population in the marshes with rel a t i v ely deep water, building their wild of ,  -,  bi r ds. The species breeds in large nests in areas with standing dead veg e t a t i o n wetlands in temperate East Asia, and winters along (Sm i r enski    ). They prefer wetter foraging sites, ri v ers and in coastal and freshwater marshes in Jap a n , but will also forage on dikes and in croplands. On China, and the Kor ean Peninsula (Fig.  . ). Th e r e their wintering grounds, they feed on waste (or ar e two main breeding populations, a migratory popu- hu m a n - p r ovided) grain and on aquatic plants and lation on the East Asia mainland (northeastern China animals in coastal marshes and open waterco u r s e s and Russia) and a resident population on the island of (A n d ro n o v et al.    ; Masatomi    ). 2 8 6 Chapter 13

opment of winter feeding stations and the marking of ne a r b y powerlines in Jap a n ; () regular surveys on bree d - ing and wintering grou n d s ; () preparation of a PHV A for the species; () coopera- ti v e conservation and education programs focused on the species; and () sev- eral limited rei n t ro d u c t i o n e f f o rt s . Priority conservat i o n needs include: () adoption of an umbrella international ag r eement on the cranes of East Asia; () development of a compreh e n s i v e rec o ver y plan for the species; () con- tinued international cooperation in res e a r ch on migration routes and pat- terns; () protection of key habitats on the Kore a n Peninsula; () adoption of im p r oved methods of res o u r ce management (including both wet l a n d res o u r ces and agricultural lands) in and around existing Fig. 13.15. Distribution of the Red - c r owned Cran e . pr otected areas; () annual su r veys of the main winter- ing populations; () res e a rc h Habitat loss is the principal threat to the species. on the impacts of human res o u r ce use on bree d i n g Continued agricultural and industrial devel o p m e n t habitats and breeding behavior; and () devel o p m e n t affects breeding areas in Hokkaido, the San j i a n g of education programs to encourage farmers and other Plain in northeastern China, and the Amur River local residents to adopt sustainable res o u r ce use basin in Russia (Masatomi et al.    ; Harris    a; pr a c t i c e s . Smi r enski et al.    ). Water control and diver s i o n pr ojects (including proposed dams on the Amur Ri v er and on the Yan g t z e River) and the potential for co n fl ict or development in the Kor ean Dem i l i t a r i ze d Whooping Cra n e Zone pose large-scale threats to breeding, migration, and wintering habitat. Other anthropogenic threa t s The Whooping Crane (Fig. . ) is the rarest of the include disturbance, intentional setting of fires, and wo r l d ’s  crane species. The species’ historical decline, over h a r vest of wetland res o u r ces in key breeding area s near extinction, and gradual rec o ver y is among the (H arris    a) . best known and documented cases in the annals of Cur r ent conservation measures include: () interna- co n s e r vation (Allen    ; McN ulty    ; Dou g h t y tional agreements and cooperative res e a r ch (especially    ). Over the last  years, a combination of strict in v olving migration); () establishment of res e r ves to legal protection, habitat pres e r vation, and continuous pr otect habitat and minimize disturbance; () devel - international cooperation between Canada and the Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 8 7

United States has allowed the only surviving wild br eeding range stretched from Alberta across the population to increase steadily from a nadir of just  no r theastern portions of the mid-continental prairies or  individuals in    - to about   to d a y . Sin c e nearly to the southern end of Lake Michigan (Allen the mid-   s, captive propagation has become    ). The historical wintering grounds included the in c r easingly important and now provides security highlands of northern Mexico, the Texas Gulf coast, against extinction of the species while affordi n g and parts of the Atlantic coast. Non - m i g r a t o r y popu- op p o r tunities to initiate new populations. The species lations occurred in Louisiana and possibly other area s pr ovides an important case study in the conservat i o n in the southeastern United States. The species of rare and endangered species, and serves as a symbol declined rapidly in the late    s and early    s as a for international cooperation in conserving not only result of hunting, collecting, and the conversion of its th r eatened cranes, but biodiversity in general. Th e habitats to agriculture. By    , only one self-sustain- species is classified as End a n g e r ed under the rev i s e d ing flock rem a i n e d . IUCN Red List criteria. As of August    , the Whooping Crane numbered The Whooping Crane occurs excl u s i v ely in Nort h   in the wild and another   bi r ds in captivity. In America (Fig.  . ). The historical mid-continental the wild, the species exists in three separate popula- tions: the historical Aransas-Woo d Buffalo population, an experi- mental cros s - f o s t e r ed population of only four surviving birds in the Rocky Mountains, and an experi- mental non-migratory population of released birds in central Flo r i d a . Whooping Cranes are maintained in captivity at four locations. His t o r i c a l l y , the species bred primarily in wetlands of the no r thern tall- and mixed - g r a s s prairies and aspen parkl a n d s (H j e r taas    ). The remnant wild population breeds at the north - ernmost extreme of the historical range in intermixed muskeg and bo r eal forest in Canada’s Woo d Buffalo National Par k (Kuyt    ). During migration, this population uses a variety of feeding and roo s t - ing habitats, including crop l a n d s , marshes, and submerged sandbars in rivers along the migration rou t e (L e wis    ). The birds winter in bays and coastal marshes within and near the Aransas Nat i o n a l Wildlife Refuge on the Texas Gul f Coast. A population derived from   eggs placed in Sandhill Cra n e nests in the Rocky Mou n t a i n s peaked at about  bi r ds in    but now consists of only four individuals (Ellis et al.    ). Th e experimental non-migratory pop- Fig. 13.16. Distribution of the Whooping Cran e . ulation of  ca p t i ve - re a re d 2 8 8 Chapter 13 subadults (as of August    ) results from rec e n t releases in Flo r i d a ’s Kissimmee Prairie. Another  bi r ds are due to be released in winter    -   . Lit e r a t u r e Cit e d Whooping Cranes continue to face multiple threa t s Ahmad, A. and S. I. H. Shah.    . The future of cranes in including habitat loss and air and water pollution in Pakistan with special ref e r ence to the Nort h w est Fron t i e r their Texas wintering grounds, collision with utility Province. Pages   -  in J. Harris, editor. Proc e e d i n g s lines, human disturbance, disease, predation, loss of    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e genetic diversity within the population, and vulnera- Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Allan, D. G.    . Aspects of the biology and conservat i o n bility to natural and human-caused catastrop h e s status of the Blue Crane Ant h r opoides parad i s e u s and the (USFWS    ). Concern over the near extinction of Lud w i g ’s Neotis Lud w i g i i and Sta n l e y ’s N. denhami stanleyi the Whooping Crane has prompted a broad range of Bus t a r ds in southern Africa. M. S. thesis, Uni v ersity of co n s e r vation actions including: () national and inter- Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.   pp . national legal protections; () compreh e n s i v e scientific Allan, D. G.    . Cranes and farmers. End a n g e r ed Wil d l i f e Trust, Park v i e w, South Africa.  pp . res e a r ch and monitoring programs; () protection of Allen, R. P.    . The Whooping Crane. Res e a r ch Rep o r t No. key habitats; () development of Whooping Cra n e . National Audubon Soc i e t y , New Yor k.   pp . rec o ver y teams and compreh e n s i v e rec o ver y plans in Alonso, J. A. and J. C. Alonso, editors.    . Distribución y Canada (Edw a r ds et al.    ) and the United Sta t e s demografía de la Grulla Común (Grus grus ) en España. (USFWS    ); () and extensive public education ICONA-CSIC, Madrid.   pp . ca m p a i g n s . An d ro n o v, V. A., R. S. Andron o va, and L. K. Pet r ova.    . Distribution of Red - c r owned Crane nesting territories in Priority conservation measures for the future the Arkharinski Lowlands. Pages  - in N. M. Litvinenko include: () full implementation of the U.S. and and I. A. Neufeldt, editors. The Pal e a r ctic Cranes: biology, Canadian Whooping Crane Rec o ver y Plans; () spe- mo r p h o l o g y , and distribution. Academy of Sciences of the cial attention to key problems within existing habitats, USSR, Vl a d i v ostok, USSR. [In Russian with Eng l i s h potential breeding areas, and potential rei n t ro d u c t i o n ab s t r a c t . ] Ar chibald, G. W.    a. African cranes for the future. Pages - sites; () continued efforts to establish two additional  in D. J. Port e r , H. S. Cra v en, D. N. Johnson, and M. J. self-sustaining wild populations and to maintain Port e r , editors. Proceedings of the First Southern African viable captive populations; and () res e a r ch related to Crane Conference. Southern African Crane Fou n d a t i o n , the above topics. Durban, South Africa. Ar chibald, G. W.    b. Meeting develops plans for Sib e r i a n s . ICF Bugle  (): -. Arnol, J. D., D. M. White, and I. Hastings.    . Management of the Brolga (Grus rub i c u n d u s ) in Vic t o r i a . Con c l u s i o n s Technical Rep o r t Series No. . Victoria Fisheries and Wildlife Ser vice, Dep a r tment of Conservation, For ests, and These summary accounts provide only a hint of the Lands.  pp . tr emendous challenges faced by the cranes and those Auc a m p , E.    . The breeding biology of the Blue Cra n e , Ant h r opoides parad i s e u s , in the Southern Cape, Sou t h who are working to protect them and the ecosystems Africa. R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gichuki, editors. that sustain them. Cranes, along with much of the Proceedings of the    African Crane and Wet l a n d wo r l d ’s biodiver s i t y , will face difficult circumstances in Training Work s h o p . In pres s . the coming decades. Although their survi v al, and in Bar zen, J.    . ICF team discovers rare wildlife in Cambodia. some cases rec o ver y, cannot be assured, the steps out- ICF Bugle  (): -. lined above will greatly enhance their chances. Beilfuss, R.    . Wattled Cranes in the great Zam b e zi delta. ICF Bugle  (): . Howeve r , these steps will only be effective if those Bis h o p , M. A.    . A new tune for an ancient harmony. ICF who are most concerned about, and invol v ed in, crane Bugle  (): -. co n s e r vation effectively coordinate their efforts and Bis h o p , M. A.    . The Black-necked Crane winter count sh a r e their knowledge. Local peoples, as well as the    -   . Journal of the Ecological Society (India) : - . leaders of nations, must participate in these conserva- Bis h o p , M. A., Canjue Zhouma, Song Yanling, Gu Bin y u a n , and J. Har kness. In prep . The status of Bla c k - n e c k e d tion efforts. Only through such shared commitment Cranes wintering in Tib e t . will cranes continue to grace the world’s skies. Blackman, J. G.    . The development and application of aerial survey methods for population and ecological studies of the Brolga Grus rub i c u n d u s (Pe r r y) Gruidae. M.S. thesis, Eco lo g y, Status, and Conservat i o n 2 8 9

James Cook Uni v ersity of Nor th Queensland, Town s v i l l e , Training Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Aus t r a l i a . Baraboo, Wis. In pres s . Blakers, M., S. J. J. F. Davies, and P. N. Rei l l y .    . The atlas Ellis, D. H., J. C. Lewis, G. F. Gee, and D. G. Smith.    . of Australian birds. Melbourne Uni v ersity Pres s , Population rec o ver y of the Whooping Crane with emphasis Melbourne, Aus t r a l i a . on rei n t r oduction efforts: past and future. Proc e e d i n g s Bold, A., N. Tse v eenmyadag, and B. M. Zvon o v.    . Cra n e s Nor th American Crane Wor kshop :  -  . of Mongolia. Pages  - in C. H. Hal v orson, J. T. Har r i s , Faanes, C. A. and D. B. Bowman.    . Relationship of chan- and S. M. Smi r enski, editors. Cranes and Sto r ks of the nel maintenance flows to Whooping Crane use of the Pla t t e Amur River: the proceedings of the international work- Ri ve r . Pages   -  in D. A. Wood, editor. 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Proceedings of the Foundation, Baraboo, Wis .    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Newton, S. F.    . Nor th African crane and wetland action Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . plan. Rep o r t of the Nor th and Nor theast African Cra n e Song Xianjin, Zhao Jinsheng, and Huang Xiangyu.    . and Wetland Wor king Grou p . R. Beilfuss, W. Tar b o t o n , Crane and counts and conservation measures at and N. Gichuki, editors. Proceedings of the    Af r i c a n Poyang Lake Nat u r e Res e r ve. Pages  - in C. H. Crane and Wetland Training Work s h o p . Int e r n a t i o n a l Hal v orson, J. T. Harris, and S. M. Smi r enski, editors. Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis. In pres s . Cranes and storks of the Amur River: the proceedings of Ohsako, Y.    . Effects of arti fi cial feeding on cranes winter- the international works h o p . Arts Literature Pub l i s h e r s , ing in Izumi and Akune, Kyushu, Japan. Pages  - in G. Mos c o w, Rus s i a . W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the Su Liying.    . Human impacts on cranes in China. Pages  -    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e  in H. Wh i t a k e r , editor. The proceedings of the Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . International Crane Symposium. People, water and Ohsako, Y.    . Analysis of crane population change, habitat wildlife: human population impacts on cranes. Nat i o n a l selection, and human disturbance Pages   -  in H. Audubon Soc i e t y , Washington, D.C. Higuchi and J. Minton, editors. The future of cranes and Su Liying.    . Comparative feeding ecology of the Red - wetlands: proceedings of the international symposium. cr owned and White-naped Cranes. M. A. thesis, Uni ve r s i t y Wild Bir d Society of Japan, Tok y o, Jap a n . of Missouri, Columbia.  pp . Pom e r oy, D. E.    . The ecology and status of Crown e d Su Liying, Xu Jie, and Zhou Desheng.    . Breeding habits of Cranes in East Africa. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and White-naped Cranes at Zhalong Nat u r e Res e r ve. Pages  - R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l  in J. Harris, editor. Proceedings    International Cra n e Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Baraboo, Wis . Sud i l o vskaya, A. M.    . Changes in the nesting ranges of the Prange, H., editor.    . Der Graue Kranich. Die Neu e Common Crane, the Siberian Crane, and the Dem o i s e l l e Breh m - B ü c h e r ei. A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg.   pp . Crane in the Soviet Union. Bulletin of the Mos c o w Soc i e t y [I n Ger m a n ] . of Naturalists, Biology Section  :  -  . Prange, H.    . Occ u r r ence of cranes in Eur ope: evol u t i o n , Suwal, R.    . Crane ecology and in pro t e c t i v e measures, and future tasks. Pages   -  in H. Lumbini (   - ). Pages  - in C. Schimmel, editor. Prange, editor. Crane res e a r ch and protection in Euro p e . Proceedings of the Th i r d Annual International Cra n e Eur opean Crane Wor king Group and Mart i n - Lu t h e r - Symposium: people, water, and wildlife: human population Uni v ersität, Hal l e - W ittenberg, Ger m a n y . impacts on cranes. National Audubon Soc i e t y , Boulder, Priklonski, S. and Y. Mar kin.    . The number and fluc t u a - Co l o . tion of the Common Crane in the center of Euro p e a n Tacha, T. C., S. A. Nesbitt, and P. A. Vohs.    . San d h i l l Russia over a twen t y - y ear period. Pages  - in I. A. Crane. The Bir ds of Nor th America, No.  . The Aca d e m y Neufeldt, editor. Cranes in the USSR. Zoological Ins t i t u t e of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and the American of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad, Orn i t h o l o g i s t s ’ Union, Washington, D.C.  pp . Rus s i a . Tarboton, W. R.    . Extent and reasons for population Pukinski, Y. B.    . The Hooded Crane in Pri m o r ye. Okh o t a declines in South Africa’s three crane species. Pages   -  i Okh o t n i c h y e Koz y a i s t v o : - . in D. J. Po rt e r, H. S. Cra v en, D. N. Johnson, and M. J. Sau e y , R.    . The range, status, and winter ecology of the Port e r , editors. Proceedings of the first southern African Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeran u s ) . Ph.D. disserta t i o n , Crane Conference. Southern African Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Cornell Uni ve r s i t y , Ithaca, New Yor k.   pp . Durban, South Africa. Sc h o f f , G.    . Refl ections: the story of cranes. Int e r n a t i o n a l Topping, A.    . Ecological roulette: damming the Ya n g t ze . Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis.  pp . For eign Affairs  ():   -  . 2 9 2 Chapter 13

Tréca, B.    . Wetland habitats for Black Crowned Cranes in Won, P. O.    . Status and conservation of cranes wintering west and central Africa. In R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. in Kor ea. Pages  - in J. C. Lewis and H. Mas a t o m i , Gichuki, editors. Proceedings of the    African Cra n e editors. Crane res e a r ch around the world. Int e r n a t i o n a l and Wetland Training Work s h o p . In pres s . Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . United Nations Env i r onment Prog r a m m e / C o n v ention on the Xu Xinjie, Liu Hongxi, Wang Jiangtang, and Zhang Wan c a n g . Co n s e r vation of Mig r a t o r y Species of Wild Animals    . Cranes in the place where the Yel l o w River flowed (UNEP/CMS).    . Memorandum of understanding long ago in Henan Province. Pages   -  in G. W. concerning conservation measures for the Siberian Cra n e : Ar chibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the rep o r t of the first meeting of range states. Sec r etariat of the    International Crane Work s h o p . International Cra n e Co n v ention on the Conservation of Mig r a t o r y Species of Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Wild Animals, Bonn, Ger m a n y .   pp . Zhou Fuzhang, Ding Wenning, and Wang Zhiyu.    . A large Urban, E. K.    . The Sudan Crowned Crane. Page   in J. flock of White Cranes (Grus leucogeran u s ) wintering in C. Lewis and H. Masatomi, editors. Crane res e a r ch arou n d China. Acta Zoologica Sinica  ():   . the world. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . Urban, E. K.    . Status of cranes in Africa,    . In R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gichuki, editors. Proceedings of the    African Crane and Wet l a n d Training Work s h o p . In pres s . Urban, E. K. and N. N. Gichuki.    . Recent res e a r ch and co n s e r vation activities with cranes in Africa. Pages   -  in J. Harris, editor. Proceedings    International Cra n e Work s h o p . International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser vice (USFWS).    . Wh o o p i n g Crane Rec o ver y Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Se rv i c e , Al b u q u e r que, New Mex i c o .  pp . Vernon, C. J., A. F. Boshoff, and W. S. Str etton.    . Th e status and conservation of cranes in the Eastern Cape Province. Pages  - in D. J. Port e r , H. S. Cra v en, D. N. Johnson, and M. J. Port e r , editors. Proceedings of the firs t southern African crane conference. Southern African Cra n e Foundation, Durban, South Africa. Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . The Sandhill Cranes. Cra n b ro o k Institute of Science Bulletin  :-  . Wal k i n s h a w , L. H.    . Cranes of the world. Win c h e s t e r Press, New Yor k.   pp . Wanjala, M.    . The Kipaina Wetland Conservat i o n Organization. In R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gic h u k i , editors. Proceedings of the    African crane and wet l a n d training works h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Baraboo, Wis. In pres s . Wei Tianhao, Wu Jingliang, Huang Guozu, Wu Jiy ou, Li Zongqiang, and Han Lianxian.    . Inv estigation on Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in Yunnan. Pages  -  in Wat e r b i r d Res e a r ch in China. Wat e r b i r d Spe c i a l i s t Group of the Chinese Ornithological Association. East China Normal Uni v ersity Press, Sha n g h a i . White, D. M.    . The status and distribution of the Brol g a in Victoria, Australia. Pages   -  in G. W. Archibald and R. F. Pas q u i e r , editors. Proceedings of the    Int e r n a t i o n a l Crane Work s h o p . International Crane Fou n d a t i o n , Baraboo, Wis . Win t e r , S. V., Y. A. Andryushchenko, and P. I. Gor l o v.    . The Demoiselle Crane in the Ukraine: status, ecology, and co n s e r vation prospects. Pages   -  in H. Prange, editor. Crane res e a r ch and protection in Eur ope. Eur opean Cra n e Wor king Group and Mart i n - Lu t h e r - Un i v ersität, Hal l e - Wittenberg, Ger m a n y . A P P E N D I X Equipment and Sup p l i e r s

he following is a list of sources of equipment MVE Cryog e n i c s and supplies mentioned in the var i o u s Minnesota Valley Eng i n e e r i n g chapters. Much of the equipment needed for   th Str eet NW crane propagation is nonspecialized and can New Prague, MN     Tbe obtained locally from hardw a r e stores, lives t o c k (  )   -   equipment and feed dealers, laboratory supply stores , and other sources. This list is not meant to be all Praxair Inc . in c l u s i v e, nor is it an endorsement of any parti c u l a r P. O. Box  pr oduct or supplier. Tonawanda, NY     -   (  )   -   , (  )   -  

Arti fi cial Insemination and Histological mounting medium (Permount): Cryop re s e r vat i o n Fisher Scientific Co.   Forbes Ave. Beltsville Poultry Semen Extender: Pittsburgh, PA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   Continental Plastics Corporation P. O. Box “C” Insulated multipurpose bath with stirrer   South Second Stre e t (Neslab Agitator): Del v an, WI     (  )   -   Neslab Ins t r uments, Inc . P. O. Box    International A.I., Inc . Por tsmouth, NH     -      South Fai rf a x (  )   -   , (  )   -   Bloomington, IN     (  )   -   , (  )   -   Refrigeration compressor immersion probe (Neslab Cryocool Immersion Cooler CC-100II): Tri Bio Laboratories, Inc .    Fox Hill Roa d Neslab Ins t r uments, Inc. (above) State College, PA     (  )   -   Temperature recording unit (Honeywell Electronik II, Type T): Hon e y w ell Industrial Div i s i o n Cryogenic equipment:    Virginia Ave. Brinkman Ins t r uments, Inc . Ft. Washington, PA      Cantiague Roa d (  )   -   , (  )   -   Wes t b u r y, NY     -   (  )   -   , (  )   -   2 9 4 Ap pe n d i x

Tube sealer and holder (Seal-ease): ( P a r a f i l m ) : Becton Dickinson and Co. Fisher Scientific Co.  Becton Dri v e   Forbes Ave. Rut h e rf o r d, NJ     Pittsburgh, PA     (  )   -   (  )   -   , (  )   -  

Incubators and brooders: Chick Rea r i n g / In c u b a t i o n Georgia Quail Farm (above)

C a n d l e r s : Hawkhead International Inc . (also sells used, mainly Robbins, equipment) Lyon Electric Co. General Offi ce Suite      Main Stre e t   Industrial Loop Chula Vista, CA     Orange Par k, FL     (  )   -   (  )   -  

Georgia Quail Far m Hum i d a i r e Incubator Co.    Louisville Roa d   West Wayne Stre e t P. O. Box    New Madison, OH     Sav annah, GA     (  )   -   (  )   -   Lyon Electric Co. (above) Valentine Inc .    S. Western Blvd . Petersime Incubator Co. Chicago, IL       Nor th Bridge Stre e t (  )   -   , (  )   -   Gettysburg, OH     (  )   -   or   -   Chickens (adult stock, chicks, hatching eggs): Stro m b e r g ’s Chicks and Pets Unlimited (above) Murray McM urray Hat c h e r y Webster City, Iowa     Valentine Inc. (above) (  )   -  

Stro m b e r g ’s Chicks and Pets Unl i m i t e d P. O. Box   Feed and Food Sup p l e m e n t s Pine River , MN     (  )   -   Prepared crane feed —local feed mills may also Egg repair custom-mix feeds according to formulas given: (Nexaband, surgical-grade cyanoacrylate): Gar ver Feed Co. Tri - P oint Medical L.P.    Atwood Ave.    Capital Blvd . Madison, WI     Raleigh, NC     (  )   -   (  )   -   , (  )   -   Zeigler Bros., Inc . Bo x  Gar dners, PA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   Equipment and Su p p l i e r s 2 9 5

Supplemental food, complete diet, for tube feeding Bands, metal: (Emeraid I and II): Gey Band and Tag Co. La f e b e r P. O. Box   RR # Nor r i s t o wn, PA     -   Odell, IL     (  )   -   (  )   -   Old Dominion Mfg.     Duv al Roa d Supplemental food ingredients Mos e l e y , VA     ( N u t r i - c a l ) : (  )   -   EVSCO Pha r m a c e u t i c a l s IGI Affili a t e National Band and Tag Co. P. O. Box   (Ha r ding Hwy.)   Yor k Str eet, P. O. Box   Buena, NJ     Newp o r t, KY     -   (  )   -   (  )   -  

( P r o s o b e e ) : A. C. Hug h e s Mead Johnson Nut r i t i o n a l s  High Stre e t    W. Lloyd Exp re s s w a y Hampton Hil l Evansville, IN     Middlesex, England TW NA (  )   -   , (  )   -   Lambournes, Ltd. (Vionate, vitamin supplement): Sha l l ow f o r d Court off High St. Gimborn U.S. Henley in Arden, Sol i h u l l    N.E. Exp re s s w a y West Midlands, England B BY Atlanta, GA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   I. O. Mekaniska HB Eric Ohm a n P. O. Box  Tubes, for tube feeding: S-    Ban k e r yd, Swed e n Hen r y Schein Inc .  Harbor Par k Dri v e Dan i e l e s o n ’s (anodizing) Por t Washington, NY     Bo x  -S   - (  )   -   , (  )   -   Upp l a n d s - Za n s b y, Swed e n

Acraft Sign and Nameplate Co.      th Aven u e General Hus b a n d ry / Fa c i l i t i e s Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (  )   -   General animal care equipment: Bands, colored: Valentine Inc .    S. Western Blvd . (En g r a v ed bands) Chicago, IL     Al l a r d Trophy Co. (  )   -   , (  )   -   Valley City, ND     (  )   -   2 9 6 Ap pe n d i x

Avinet, Inc . D i s i n f e c t a n t s : P. O. Box    Dryden, NY     -   American Scientific Prod u c t s (  )   -      Waukegon Roa d McG aw Par k, IL     J. T. W. Anderson (Da rv i c ) (  )   -    Elm Pla c e Abe r deen, Scotland AB   W (En v i ro n / O ne Str oke Env i ro n ) : Calgon Vestal Laboratories National Band and Tag Co. (above) Bo x   St. Louis, MO     Gey Band and Tag Co. (above) (  )   -  

A. C. Hughes (above) Holt Products, Inc .   Atlas Ave. Dan i e l e s o n ’s (above) Bo x    Madison, WI     (  )   -   Band materials, laminated plastics: Chesapeake Wildlife Her i t a g e Mid w est Vet Sup p l y P. O. Box         th Avenue Sou t h Easton, MD     Burnsville, MN     (  )   -   (  )   -   , (  )   -  

Lynn Plastics Sales Co. F e e d e r s :  Li b e r ty Stre e t Merrimac, MA     Valentine Equipment Co. (above) (  )   -   Fencing, wire: (Gr a vo p l y ) : New Hermes, Inc . J. A. Cissel    Nor thmont Park w a y Squ a n k u m - Ye l l ow b r ook Roa d Duluth, GA     Farmingdale, NJ     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (  )   -   , (  )   -  

Spinner Pla s t i c s Valentine Equipment Co. (above)    N. First St. Spr i n g field, IL     Flight netting for pens (Toprite XL netting): (  )   -   ; FAX (  )   -   J. A. Cissel (above) Band materials, lubricant (Pam): Nicholas Net & Twi n e American Home Foods Products Inc .    Highway   Fiv e Giralda Far m s Granite City, IL     Madison, NJ     (  )   -   (  )   -   Equipment and Su p p l i e r s 2 9 7

Photoperiod lights (use high intensity discharge lamps: mercury, metal halide (Multivapor), or high pressure sodium (Lucalox)): Medical and Surgical Sup p l i e s General Ele c t r i c General veterinary medical/surgical supplies Nela Par k including instruments, syringes, pharmaceuticals Cl e v eland, OH     and reagents: (  )   -   A. J. Buck & Son, Inc .     Cronhill Dri v e Space heaters: Owings Mills, MD     Animal Spe c t r um, Inc . (  )   -   , (  )   -   P. O. Box    Lincoln, NB     Blood counts (Eosinophil Unopette, Unopette, (  )   -   Microtainer tubes): Bec t o n - D ickinson & Co. Transponders (Trovan/A.E.G. Transponder System):  Becton Dri v e (U.S. source) Rut h e rf o r d, NJ     Inf o P ET Ide n t i fi cation Sys t e m s (  )   -     West Tra v elers Tra i l Burnsville, MN     C a l p h o s a n : (  )   -   Glenwood, Inc . (European source)  N. Summit St. Euro I D Ten a fl y, NJ     Grossbuellesheimer Str .  (  )   -     Eus k i r chen  , Ger m a n y Cameo Quick Stain II: Water heaters, coil and pole-type (tube): Cambridge Diagnostic Prod u c t s Nelson Manufacturing Co.    NW  th Aven u e Bo x   Ft. Lauderdale, FL     Cedar Rapids, IA     (  )   -   (  )   -   Centrifuge (IEC Centra-B Centrifuge): International Equipment Co. Gen e t i c s / Re c o rd s   nd Ave. Neeham Heights, MA     Co n s e r vation Breeding Specialist Group (  )   -   , (  )   -   (C B S G ) / I S I S Minnesota Zoological Gard e n D i f f - Q u i c k :     Johnny Cake Ridge Roa d Apple Val l e y , MN     -   A. J. Buck & Son, Inc. (above) (  )   -   2 9 8 Ap pe n d i x

D e r m a c l e n s : H e m a g l o b i n o m e t e r : Smith Cline Beecham Clinical Laboratories Cur tin Matheson Scientifics    W. Baseline, Suite    American Roa d Temple, AZ     Morris Plains, NJ     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (  )   -  

Dremel tool Heparinized capillary tubes: Drem e l Mid w est Vet Sup p l y Division of Emerson Electric Co.      th Avenue Sou t h     st Stre e t Burnsville, MN     Racine, WI     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (  )   -   Medical diagnostic services: Ellman Cautery Unit: Medical Diagnostic Serv i c e s Ellman International Mfg. Inc . P. O. Box       Ra i l r oad Ave. Brandon, FL     Hewlett, NY     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (  )   -   , (  )   -   Moldable cast material E n d o s c o p e s : ( O r t h o p l a s t ) : Karl Sto r z Vet e r i n a r y End o s c o p y Johnson and Joh n s o n   Cremona Dri v e   Paramont Dri v e Goleta, CA     Raynham, MA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (  )   -  

Ri c h a r d Wolf Medical Ins t r uments Corp. (Roylan Polyflex II):    Lyndon Aven u e Smith & Nep h e w Rolyan Inc . Rosemont, IL     P. O. Box    (  )   -   , (  )   -   Ger m a n t o wn, WI     -   (  )   -   , (  )   -   Schott Fiber Optics, Inc .   Charlton St. Nebulization equipment Southbridge, MA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (Ultra-Neb 99): Sunrise Med i c a l DeV ilbiss Health Care Div i s i o n Glutaraldehyde (Glutarex):    E. Main St. VWR Scientific Somerset, PA        Han o ver Park w a y , Suite D (  )   -   , (  )   -   Greenbelt, MD     -   (  )   -   (Snyder Oxygen Cage Model ATC-32): Sny der Manufacturing Co.    E. Pac i fi c Pla c e Den ve r , CO     (  )   -   , (  )   -   Equipment and Su p p l i e r s 2 9 9

N o l v a s a n : Frightening agent for birds (Avitrol): For t Dodge Laboratories Inc . Summit Chemical Co. (above)   th Str eet NW For t Dodge, Iowa     Fumigant (Giant Destroyer Cartridge): (  )       Atlas Chemical Corporation P. O. Box   Self-curing dental acrylic (Lang’s Jet Acrylics): Cedar Rapids, Iowa     Lang Dental Manufacturing Co. (  )   -     Messner Dri v e P. O. Box   Mammal traps Wheeling, IL     (  )   -   , (  )   -   (Tomahawk Model 108; 110A, B, or C): Tomahawk Live Trap Co. P. O. Box   Surgical lubricant: Tomahawk, WI     E. Fougera & Co. (  )   -   , (  )   -    Baylis Roa d Melville, N.Y.     (Live traps, Havahart): (  )   -   Valentine Inc .    S. Western Bl vd . Chicago, IL     V e t w r a p : (  )   -   , (  )   -   M Animal Care Prod u c t s Building   -N-  (Victor, Conibear, and Soft Catch traps): M Center Woo d s t r eam Corporation St. Paul, MN      Nor th Locust Stre e t (  )   -   , (  )   -   Lititz, PA     (  )   -   , (  )   -   Vitamin A, injectable form (Aquasol A): Non-selective herbicide (Roundup): Astra U.S.A., Inc .  Otis Stre e t Monsanto Co. Wes t b o r o, MA     -   Agricultural Prod u c t s (  )   -   Solaris P. O. Box    San Ramon, CA     (  )   -  

Predator and Pes t Poisoned bait for rodents (Quintox, Man a g e m e n t Eaton’s Bait Blocks): Summit Chemical Co. (above) Arthropod control (Wasp Freeze; Permanone): Starlicide Complete: Summit Chemical Co.    Canton Center Dr. Met r o Feeds Ltd. Bal t i m o r e, MD     P. O. Box     (  )   -   Bal t i m o r e, MD     3 0 0 Ap pe n d i x

Sexing Laboratories

Karyotyping using blood cells:

Avian Genetic Sexing Laboratory (Avi g e n )    Stage Oaks Dr., Suite A Bar tlett, TN     (  )   -  

Arlene Kum a m o t o San Diego Zoo P. O. Box   San Diego, CA     -   (  )   -  

Commercial feather pulp sexing: Avigen (above)

Peter van Tui n e n    -C Kensington Dri v e Waukesha, WI     (  )   -  

Zoogen, Inc .    Kennedy Place, Suite  Davis, CA     (  )   -   Ind e x

Aca n t h o c e p h a l a (a c a n t h o c e p h a l a n ) 103 , 160 bacteria (bacterial) 32, 35, 60-61, 64, 66, 69, 72, acclimation (acclimating) 117, 231-233, 239, 26 2 88 -89, 96-98 , 140 -142 , 151-152 , 155 -157 , ac i d o s i s 141, 153 , 164 165 -166, 209-211, 216-217 ad o p t i o n ( s ) 45 -46, 61, 85-86, 267, 271, 273, 282, Balearica pavon i n a 2, 26 7 28 4 , 28 6 Balearica pavonina ceciliae (B. p. ceciliae) 2, age distribution 176 26 3 -26 4 , 26 7 age struc t u r e 176 -177 Balearica pavonina pavonina (B. p. pavon i n a ) 2, ag g re s s i o n 23 -24, 29, 62, 78, 84-86, 90-92 , 101, 108 , 26 3 -26 4 , 26 7 110, 113-115, 136 , 138 , 160 -161, 205, 225, 236, Balearica reg u l o ru m 2, 29, 75, 133, 268, 28 9 25 8 -25 9 Balearica reg u l o r um gibbericeps (B. r. gibbericeps) 2, ag g re s s i v e displays 106 , 109 , 114, 119 26 4 , 26 8 air sac(s) 138 -140 , 156 , 161, 170, 205, 20 7 Balearica reg u l o r um re g u l o ru m (B. r. reg u l o ru m ) 2, al l e l e ( s ) 175 -178 , 181 26 4 , 26 8 an a t o m y 3, 123 , 129 , 134 -136 , 155 , 166 , 168 , bandage (bandaging) 101-102 , 146 , 166 -167 20 5 , 20 7 ba n d s 41-42, 85, 181, 238-23 9 an d ro g e n s 124 -127 , 130 , 136 beak fractures 161, 173 an e m i a 140 -141, 143 , 147 , 150 -151 beak rep a i r 169 , 171-172 anesthesia (anesthetized ) 137 , 141, 146 , 154 , 168 -171, beak trimming 100 , 137 173 , 186, 227, 26 2 Black Crowned Cra n e 2, 4, 26, 5, 223, 263-26 4 , an e s t h e t i c 143 , 146 , 166 , 168 , 173, 242, 24 4 267, 289, 291 angel wing 101 Bla c k -necked Cra n e 109 , 179, 266, 284-285, 288, Animal Care and Use Committee 31 29 0 , 29 2 Animal Rec o r d Keeping System (ARKS) 185 -186 , blood collection 144 , 146 193 , 196 , 199, 202, 20 4 blood glucose 99 , 144 Animal Wel f a r e Act 31 blood smears 146 -147 , 153 Ant h r opoides parad i s e a (A. parad i s e u s ) 2, 271, 28 8 blood typing 181-182 Ant h r opoides virgo 2, 76, 172 -173, 272, 28 9 Blue Cra n e 2, 26-27, 29, 8, 76, 179, 225, 264, an t i b i o t i c ( s ) 32, 72, 80, 87, 95-97 , 100 , 141-142 , 27 0 -271, 28 8 155 -157 , 160 -162 , 164 , 166 , 171-17 2 , 210 body condition index (BCI) 98 , 139 an t i f u n g a l 97 , 156 -157 bo t u l i s m 164 , 171-172 an t i h e l m i n t h i c s 96 bo wed legs 83 , 102 aqua therapy (see swimming) 90 , 25 7 br a i l i n g 41, 114, 239, 241, 243-24 4 ar thritis (see osteoarth r i t i s ) 102 , 162 , 166 br eeding objectives 176 , 182 , 20 4 art i fi cial insemination (AI) 25, 34, 37-38, 49, 52, 56, br eeding pens 77, 260-26 2 84 , 113-116, 134 , 140 , 189 -190 , 192 , 197 , 199 -20 0 , br eeding season 3, 23-24, 33-34, 45, 49, 51-52, 55, 20 2 -207, 209-217, 221-222, 228, 241, 25 9 85, 87, 93, 110, 112, 115, 124 , 186 , 188 , 192 -19 3 , art i fi cial selection 177 196, 200, 202, 228, 251, 259, 271, 276, 279, 28 4 Asp e r g i l l u s (a s p e r g i l l o s i s ) 32, 97, 140 , 152 , 156 , 25 6 Brol g a 2-3, 26, 14, 34, 39, 48, 50, 55, 67, 83, 107 , at t a c h m e n t 90 , 117, 119, 247, 25 9 22 4 -226, 262, 265, 280-281, 288, 29 2 au s c u l t a t i o n 140 bro o d e r 77 -78, 85, 87-88, 91-93, 236, 253-25 4 , 25 7 avian pox 138 , 143 , 157 , 174 bro o m 37 , 87 3 0 2 In d e x

Bug e r anus carun c u l a t u s 2, 120, 270, 28 9 daylength (see photoperiod) 46 -47 , 52 bumblefoot (see pododermatitis) 102 , 140 -141, 161, de h yd r a t e 20 7 , 221 165 -166 , 174 de h yd r a t i o n 73, 79-80, 89, 97-98 , 101, 123 , 136 , 140 -141, 152 , 164 , 20 9 demography (demographic) 175 -178 , 183 , ca c h e x i a 98 -99 185 -186 , 196 ca l c i u m 34 -36, 51, 54, 62, 79, 130 , 145 , Demoiselle Cra n e 2, 26, 29, 9, 20, 172, 223, 264, 150 -152 , 162 271-273, 290-29 2 ca n d l i n g 60, 65-66, 68-69, 72, 74 di a r r h e a 97 -98 , 139 , 153 , 155 , 158 , 162 , 171 Cap i l l a r i a (c a p i l l a r i d s ) 103 , 153 , 158 , 160 di e t ( s ) 3, 34-35, 41, 43, 51, 55, 57, 62, 78-79, 83, ca p t i v e management prog r a m s 178 89 -90, 99, 101-102 , 104 , 144 , 152 , 164 -166 , 174 , ca p t u r e corners 36 , 115, 258-26 0 237, 269, 28 4 ca p t u r e myop a t h y 38, 43, 141, 143 , 152 , 164 , di f f e r ential cell count 147 172 -17 4 di m e t h y l s u l f o xide (DMSO) 22 0 -22 2 ca rc i n o m a ( s ) 155 , 163 di s e a s e 25, 32, 45, 49, 59, 61, 65, 67, 86, 92, 97-99 , ca r diac disease 152 103 -104 , 123 , 132 , 137 -138 , 140 -141, 150 -153 , ca r r ying capacity 176 -177 156 -158 , 164 , 166 , 170 -175 , 182 , 192, 204-20 5 , central nervous system 124 , 152 234, 246, 248-250, 252, 262, 276-277, 283, 28 8 ce s t o d e s 153 , 158 -159 di s i n f e c t 32, 36, 60, 72, 78, 253, 26 2 Ch l a m yd i a 14 2 , 152 disseminated visceral coccidiosis (DVC) 97 , 158 cl i m a t e 47 , 26 0 di s t u r b a n c e 31-34, 41, 43, 45, 51-52, 54, 56, cl o a c a 98 , 128 -129 , 134 , 162 -163 , 170 , 190, 205-210, 112-113, 115-116, 121, 123 , 132 , 135 , 161, 212, 212-214, 22 8 247, 251, 256, 259, 269, 272, 275-276, 279, 281, cloacal prol a p s e 97 286, 288, 291 Cl o s t r i d i u m 32 , 156 , 164 DN A 3, 28, 181-183, 223, 227, 22 9 cl u t c h 23 -24, 52-54, 60, 68, 85-86 , 116, 130 , 20 0 drinking water 34, 36, 61 coccidia (coccidiosis) 97 , 103 -104 , 153 , 158 -159 , dummy eggs 45, 54-55, 60, 62, 85-86 172 -173 co n d i t i o n i n g 94 -95 , 115, 118, 205, 207, 233, 23 7 , 25 3 eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) 33 , 157 , 171-172 , co p u l a t i o n 45, 48, 106 , 110, 114 -115, 121, 128 , 25 0 , 25 2 20 5 -20 9 , 241 ec t o p a r a s i t e s 159 -160 , 25 0 cornea (corneal) 37 , 100 , 104 , 161 ef f e c t i v e population number 175 co rt i c o s t e ro i d s 141-142 , 160 -161, 164 eg g ( s ) 3, 22-26, 32-34, 45-57, 59-76, 84-86, 94-96 , co s t u m e 93 -94 , 118, 232, 234-23 7 103 , 106 , 110, 112-117, 124 -127 , 129 -132 , co s t u m e -rearing (costume-rea re d ) 93 -95 , 117-119, 134 -136 , 139 , 143 , 152 -153 , 157 -158 , 160 , 234, 236-23 9 , 25 7 162 -16 3 , 170 , 173 , 181-182 , 186 , 188 , 190 , c o u rt s h i p 45 , 48 192 -193 , 196 -197 , 199 -203, 206-213, 215-216, cr a t e s 40 -41 219, 228, 231, 233, 235-236, 239, 245-246, 248, cro s s -fostering (cros s -fo s t e re d ) 85 , 104 , 117-118, 120 , 251, 279, 284, 28 7 23 3 -234, 240, 28 7 egg binding 143 , 152 , 162 cr yop re s e r vation (cryop re s e r ved ) 176 , 199, 216, 219, egg brea k a g e 51, 53-54 , 63 221-22 2 egg laying interval 52 -53 , 199 -20 0 , 20 2 cu l l i n g 176 egg rem o val 53 , 199 cu l t u re ( s ) 60, 72, 96-97 , 100 , 141, 155 -156 , 162 , 166 , egg ret e n t i o n 162 193, 226-22 9 Eim e r i a 10 3 , 153 , 158 , 160 cu l t u r i n g 141, 156 electric fencing 24 6 Cya t h o s t o m a 10 3 , 153 , 158 em a c i a t i o n 98 -99 , 139 , 144 cy t o l o g y 97 , 172 endocrine disorde r s 152 endogenous rhythms 46 , 124 In d e x 3 0 3 endoscope (endoscopic) 170 , 174 genetic defects 59 energy req u i re m e n t s 98 genetic diversity (diver s i t y ) 175 -178 , 181-183, 219, Escherichia coli 96 , 139 , 155 -156 28 8 , 29 0 es t ro g e n s 124 -127 , 129 -130 genetic drift 176 Euc o l e u s 15 3 , 158 genetic fing e r p r i n t i n g 181 Eurasian Cra n e 2, 25-26 , 15, 106, 265, 281-28 2 genetic load 177 eu t h a n a s i a 176 genetic management 27 , 175 -177 , 179 , 181, 183 , 185 exe rc i s e 34, 61-62, 77-78, 83-84, 87, 90-93 , 101-103 , genetic rep re s e n t a t i o n 176 110, 165, 234, 255-25 7 ge n e t i c s 102 , 182 -18 3 , 22 7 exhibit pens 261-26 2 Gia rd i a 15 3 ey e injuries 78 , 100 go n a d o t ro p i n s 124 , 130 go u t 140 , 152 , 162 Gray Crowned Cra n e 2, 4, 26, 6, 123, 264, 26 8 fa c i l i t i e s 31, 39, 45, 48, 54, 59-60, 77-78, 84, 90-91 , gr owt h 29, 32, 34-35, 43, 54, 60-61, 66, 78, 80-84 , 94 -95 , 152 , 158 , 160 -161, 211-212, 237, 246-24 8 , 86 -87, 89-90, 97, 100 -104 , 121, 124 -127 , 129 -13 0 , 25 0 -251, 253, 255, 257-259, 261-26 2 , 27 4 136 , 162 -16 3 , 165 , 174 -17 7 , 186 , 188, 256, fa l l o w pen (see pen rot a t i o n ) 31-32 , 158 26 8 , 27 9 fecal examination(s) 103 , 153 , 193 Grus americana 2, 104 , 121, 173 -174 , 183, 228, feeding (feed) 3, 26, 33-36, 38, 41, 43, 51, 56, 62, 28 7 , 29 0 78 -79, 84-85, 88-89, 91-92, 94-95, 97, 99-101, Grus antigone 2, 172 , 27 9 108 , 113-114, 117-119, 125 , 144 , 154 , 159 , 164 , Grus antigone antigone (G. a. antigone) 2, 265, 168 -169, 209, 236-239, 248-251, 257-25 8 , 27 8 -27 9 26 0 -262, 268, 271-273, 276-278, 283-28 7 , 291 Grus antigone gilli (G. a. gilli) 2, 265, 278-27 9 fe rt i l i t y 54, 60, 66-69, 76, 103 , 110, 116, 134 , 136 , Grus antigone sharpii (G. a. sharpii) 2, 265, 278-27 9 155 , 175 -17 7 , 190 , 197, 205, 208-213, 215-217, Grus canadensis 2, 29, 56, 104 , 120 , 135 , 172 -174 , 219, 221-22 2 217, 27 6 fitn e s s 177 Grus canadensis canadensis (G. c. canadensis) 2, 26 5 flot a t i o n 60, 66, 69, 153 , 158 Grus canadensis nesiotes (G. c. nesiotes) 2, 26 5 fluid therapy 96 -97, 99, 101, 104 , 140 -141, 144 , Grus canadensis prat e n s i s (G. c. prat e n s i s ) 2, 26 5 162 , 174 Grus canadensis pulla (G. c. pulla) 2, 56, 172 , 26 5 follicule stimulating hormone (FSH) 124 -127 , Grus canadensis rowa n i (G. c. rowa n i ) 2, 26 5 130 -131 Grus canadensis tabida (G. c. tabida) 2, 104 , 120 , food storage 35 , 24 6 174 , 26 5 fo o t b a t h 32 Grus grus 2, 27, 282, 288, 29 0 fo r eign body 162 , 170 -171, 173 Grus grus grus (G. g. grus ) 2 fo r m a l d e h yd e 65 Grus grus lilfordi (G. g. lilfordi ) 2 fo s s i l 1, 28 Grus japonensis 2, 28-29, 56, 120 -121, 183, 229, fo u n d e r 176 , 182 , 219 28 6 , 291 fr a c t u re ( s ) 38 , 103 , 137 , 140 , 143 , 161-16 2 , 165 , Grus leucogeran u s 2, 29, 180, 274-275, 291-29 2 167 -169 , 172 -173 Grus monacha 2, 283, 28 9 fu m i g a t e 65 Grus nigricollis 2, 285, 29 2 fungal infection(s) 51, 72, 97, 151, 156 Grus rub i c u n d a (G. rub i c u n d u s ) 2, 280, 28 8 Grus vipio 2, 29, 56, 104 , 120 , 172, 204, 278, 28 9 , 291 ga p e worm(s) (see Syn g a m u s ) 103 , 153 , 158 Gua r d-ca l l 112, 223, 225, 23 7 ga s t ro i n t e s t i n a l 98 -99 , 150 -151, 154 -155 , 158 , 170 -171 ge n e a l o g y 56 , 177 , 185 , 20 4 generation time 177 genetic bottleneck 177 , 181 3 0 4 In d e x ha n d -rearing (hand-rea re d ) 33, 37, 77-78, 80-84 , la c e r a t i o n ( s ) 80 , 100 , 161, 165 , 168 , 170 87 -95, 97, 101-102 , 111, 114-11 7 , 120 -121, 188 , la p a ro s c o p y 155 , 173, 223, 227-22 9 192, 201, 225, 231-234, 236, 240, 253, 25 6 la p a ro t o m y 162 ha n d l i n g 36, 39, 60, 65, 68, 72, 74, 80-81, 84, 86, la t i t u d e 46 -48, 50, 111, 132 , 154 89, 95, 98, 101, 116, 152 , 154 , 160 -161, 164 , 169 , lead poisoning 150 , 152 , 163 , 173 -174 199, 208-209, 212, 214, 236, 251, 261 leg injuries 38, 81, 165 -166 hatch (hatching) 23, 34, 42, 46, 54-56, 59-61, 63, leg rot a t i o n 83 , 102 -103 65 -67, 69-73, 75-82, 85-88, 90-91, 94-96, 99, Le u c o c y t o zo o n 15 8 104 , 117, 136 , 140 , 165 , 177 , 180 , 186 , 188 , 193 , li f e s p a n 51-52 200, 202-204, 236, 253, 25 7 li v e-dead count 211 ha t c h a b i l i t y 54, 59-60, 65, 71-76 , 134 , 136 , 177 , li v er disease 152 -15 3 192 , 216 lo n g e v i t y 25, 28-29, 52, 176 heat stres s 29, 40, 98, 135 luteinizing hormone (LH) 124 -127 , 130 -131, he m a t o c r i t 141, 143 , 145 , 147 , 150 -151 133 -136 he m a t o l o g y 144 , 153 , 172 -174 luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) he m a t o m a 140 , 146 124 -127 , 130 , 132 he m o g l o b i n 145 , 147 -148 , 150 lu x a t i o n s 140 , 165 , 168 Hem o p ro t e u s 15 8 he t e ro z y g o s i t y 177 , 182 Hex a m i t a 15 3 , 158 Mac ra c a n t h o rh y n c h u s 15 3 ho b b l i n g 102 ma c ro c h ro m o s o m e s 22 6 Hooded Cra n e 2, 26, 16, 105 , 121, 179, 266, Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) 182 -18 3 28 2 -284, 289-291 ma l p o s i t i o n s 70 -72 , 75 hormonal status 45 ma s s a g e ( s ) 20 5 -208, 212-213, 215, 219, 22 8 ho r m o n e ( s ) 52 , 124 -127 , 129 -131, 133 -136 , 22 8 me t h i o n i n e 35, 89, 165 hu m i d i t y 35, 47, 59, 63-66, 71, 73, 96, 98, 124 , 193 , minimum viable population 176 -177 20 9 , 25 3 mo l t 63 , 111, 113, 123 , 131-132 , 134 -135, 228, 24 2 hyd r otherapy (see swimming, aqua therapy) 78 , 103 m o rt a l i t y 25, 37, 59, 63, 68-69, 71, 75, 84, 87, 157 , hy p e r g l o b u l i n e m i a 152 163 -164 , 172 -176 , 185 , 188 , 192 -19 3 , 196 , 199 , hy p o g l yc e m i c 99 , 141 20 2 -203, 231, 233, 246-247, 250, 252, 27 4 multiple clutching 52 , 54 muscle rel a x a n t 143 , 161 im p a c t i o n 138 -139 Myco b a c t e r i u m 15 5 im p r i n t i n g 25, 77-78, 83, 85, 87, 91-95 , 117-122 , myc o t ox i n s 164 , 174 231-238, 254-25 5 , 25 7 myo p a t h y 38, 43, 141-143 , 152 , 164 , 171-174 in b re e d i n g 59, 61, 67, 177 -178 , 183 , 185 , 199 inclusion body disease (IBDC) 151, 157 , 171 in c u b a t i o n 23, 28, 45, 53-56, 59-71, 73-76, 85-86 , nebulization (nebulize) 97 , 156 -15 7 88, 96, 101-102 , 104 , 111-112, 123 , 125 , 131-13 2 , neck collars 42 188 -189 , 193 , 199 -203, 235, 25 3 ne m a t o d e s 103 , 153 , 158 -159 in c u b a t o r s 33, 53, 59, 61, 63-66, 68, 72-74, 77-78 , neoplasm (neoplasia) 139 , 152 , 162 -16 3 200, 253, 25 7 ne s t ( s ) 21, 23, 25, 29, 34, 45-46, 48-49, 51-52, 54, i n f e rt i l i t y 67 -68, 205, 20 9 56, 59-63, 68, 72-73, 76, 86, 106 , 112-113, 115, inseminating equipment 211 117, 125 , 130 -132 , 136 , 181, 193, 200, 212, 231, insemination (inseminate) 25, 33-34, 56, 61, 84, 113, 245, 248-250, 261, 268-269, 271, 273, 278, 281, 116, 134 , 140 , 181, 189 , 197, 200, 202, 204-217, 283, 285, 287, 29 0 221-222, 228, 241 nest building 34, 45, 86, 106 , 113, 125 , 131, 212 International Species Information System (ISIS) 25 , ne t s 238, 241, 250, 259, 261 150 , 178 , 185 -186, 202, 20 4 Newcastle disease 156 -157 , 173 in t r a v enous therapy 140 -141, 174 is o l a t i o n -rearing (isolation-rea re d ) 85, 93-94 , 24 0 In d e x 3 0 5 nutrition (nutritional) 35 -36, 43, 51, 54-55, 59, po o l ( s ) 32, 49, 51, 78, 87, 89-90 , 146 , 176 , 178 , 183 , 72 -73, 89, 91, 95-96, 98-99 , 101, 104 , 123 , 132 , 219, 238, 256, 260, 26 2 137 , 139 , 144 , 152 , 165 -166 , 168 , 174 , 22 9 Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA ) nutritional status 139 181, 274, 276, 279, 286, 291 nutritional support 98 -99 , 104 , 144 , 168 , 174 population growt h 176, 268, 27 9 pre d a t o r 77, 84, 88, 237, 245, 247-249, 251, 25 9 pre ve n t a t i v e health prog r a m 95 ocular injuries 161 pre ve n t a t i v e medicine 95 om p h a l i t i s 96 pro g e s t e ro n e s 130 ort h o p e d i c 100 , 166 pro l a c t i n 45 , 125 -127 , 131, 133 -135 os t e o a r thritis (see arth r i t i s ) 165 pro s t a g l a n d i n s 126 , 129 -130 , 134 -135 os t e o m ye l i t i s 103 , 161-16 2 , 166 pro s t h e s i s 170 -171, 173 ovar y 126 , 129 -130, 207, 22 8 pro t e i n 34 -35, 51, 55, 78-79, 99, 101, 129 , 134 , ovu l a t i o n 52 , 126 -127 , 129 -130 , 132 -133, 207, 215 144 -145 , 150 -152 , 181, 216 oyster shell 34, 51, 62 pr otein electrop h o re s i s 181 pro t o zo a 153 , 158 pr oximate factors 46 packed cell vol u m e 98 Pse u d o m o n a s 10 0 , 104 , 156 pair bond(s) 22, 45, 51, 59 , 108 , 112 , 114 -116 pubic bones 62 , 190, 207-208, 212-21 3 pa r a s i t e ( s ) 31, 43, 61, 78, 84, 86, 92, 95, 98, public display 45 , 105 , 116 103 -104 , 133 , 137 , 151, 153 , 158 , 160 , 171-173 , 245, 248-24 9 parasitic diseases 43 , 153 , 158 , 172 , 25 2 qu a r a n t i n e 158 , 171, 178, 260, 26 2 pa r a s i t i c i d e s 158 pa re n t -rearing (paren t -rea re d ) 33, 37, 77, 79-80 , 83 -84, 86-87, 89-91, 95, 97, 103 , 110-111, 114, radio transmitters 23 8 116 , 192 -193, 202-203, 231, 233-234, 238, 240, ra d i o g r a p h 138 , 154 -155 , 162 , 165 , 171, 193 , 24 4 , 25 8 24 4 , 26 2 pa re n t a g e 175 , 177 , 181 ra d i o l o g y 154 , 193 pe d i g re e 181, 185 ra i n f a l l 48, 51, 124 , 26 8 pen rotation (see fallow pen) 31, 33, 39, 158 , rec o rd s 25, 54, 57, 60, 65, 67, 78, 154 , 185 -20 4 , 251, 261 212-213, 272, 284, 289-29 0 pe r i t o n i t i s 97 , 103 , 152 , 158 red blood cell count 148 pe s t 24 5 -247, 249-25 2 Red -cr owned Cra n e 83 , 105 , 107 , 120 , 178 -179, 233, pe s t i c i d e ( s ) 151, 163 , 173 -174, 245-246, 252, 268, 240, 258, 266, 285-286, 288, 29 0 27 7 -27 9 rei n t ro d u c t i o n 27 -28, 56, 75, 77, 118, 120 , 133, 231, pe t s 24 23 3 -235, 237, 239-240, 263, 267, 273, 275, 279, p h o s p h o ru s 34 -35, 51, 145 , 150 -152 286, 288-28 9 photoperiod (see daylength) 33 -34, 46-50, 56, rel e a s e s 117, 125 , 127 -129 , 132, 231-232, 239, 60 -61 , 111, 131-13 2 , 134 -135, 261-26 2 27 3 -274, 277, 28 8 physical examination(s) 33 , 137 , 140 , 155 , 188 , 192 , releases, abrup t 21, 24, 39, 85, 94, 231-23 2 199 , 23 6 releases, gentle 98, 231-232, 234, 240, 24 4 physical res t r a i n t 36 , 154 renal disease 152 -15 3 physical therapy 164 -16 5 rep ro d u c t i v e lifespan 51-52 ph y s i o l o g y 29, 56-57 , 113, 123 , 125 , 127 , 129 , res p i r a t o r y disease 97 131-136, 216-217 res t r a i n i n g 36 -37, 39, 146 , 164, 243-24 4 pi p p i n g 66, 69, 73, 20 0 pl u m a g e 1, 21, 29, 106 -107 , 119, 131, 134 , 136 , 139 pododermatitis (see bumblefoot) 140 , 161, 165 3 0 6 In d e x

Sal m o n e l l a 95 , 155 -156 , 171, 174 sperm concentration 1, 32, 148 , 150 , 153 , 173, 207, Sandhill Cra n e 2-4, 21-24, 26, 29, 11, 33, 40, 43, 20 9 -210, 213-214, 216, 219-22 0 48 -49, 51, 53, 56-57, 75-76, 81-83, 85-86, 92-93 , sperm density 144 , 154 -155 , 165, 210, 215, 220-221 99 , 101, 103 -105 , 107 , 109 -11 3 , 118-122 , 129 , sperm motility 75 , 136, 210-212, 214, 219-221 134 -135 , 138 -139 , 150 -151, 163 -164 , 168 , 171-174 , sp l a y ed leg 102 181, 208-210, 216-217, 219, 221, 225, 231, 233, splint(s) (splinting) 100 -103 , 165 -169 23 8 -240, 242, 245, 260, 265, 271, 275-27 7 , sp r i n k l e r s 48 , 26 0 28 7 , 291 Sta p h y l o c o c c u s 14 0 , 152 sa n i t a t i o n 31, 65, 75, 87, 246, 24 8 Sta r l i c i d e 25 0 Sar us Cra n e 2, 26, 83, 163 , 172, 225, 265, st re s s 29, 31, 39-40, 45, 54, 77, 80, 86, 90, 97-98 , 27 8 -28 0 , 28 9 115, 123 , 127 , 132 , 134 -135 , 139 -140 , 151-152 , sc o l i o s i s 138 , 156 154 -155 , 160 , 162 , 166, 206-209, 227, 23 4 sc re e n -rea r i n g 93 , 23 4 st re s s o r s 132 se l e n i u m 36 , 102 , 143 , 163 -164 subcutaneous emphysema 139 , 161, 165 , 170 se m e n 34, 45, 47, 49, 51-53, 55-57 , 124 -125 , 128 , sulphur amino acids 35 130 , 132 , 134 , 181, 189 -190 , 199, 204-21 7 , supplemental (supplementary) feeding 79 , 156 219-22 2 supplemental heat 33 -34 semen, collection 61, 95, 105 , 137 , 144 , 146 , 155 , su r ro g a t e 45, 53, 59, 61, 85, 87, 119-120, 231, 24 0 157 , 185 -186 , 193 , 199, 202, 205-207, 209-212, su r r ogate incubation 61 215-217, 219 su r r ogate pair 61 semen extender 209, 211-213, 217, 219-22 0 , 22 2 s u rv i va l 1, 23, 27-28, 49, 56, 63, 95, 103 , 113, 117, semen, fecal contamination 20 7 , 210 141, 158 , 168 , 175 -17 9 , 181-18 3 , 192 , 196, 210, semen, prot e c t i o n 27, 37, 115, 209, 211, 237, 245, 219, 231-234, 237-238, 240, 244, 288, 291 250, 263, 267, 269-271, 273-274, 276-277, 279, su t u re ( s ) 96, 98, 100 , 141, 162 -163 , 166 , 168 -16 9 , 281-284, 286, 288-289, 291-29 2 170 -171 semen, quality 52, 55-56, 83, 154 -155 , 164 , 173 , 190 , swimming (see aqua therapy, hydro t h e r a p y ) 78, 90, 199, 209-210, 215 103 , 25 6 se ro l o g y 97 Syn g a m u s (see gapewo r m ) 103 , 153 , 158 se r um chemistries 152 sex ratio 28, 56, 175 -17 7 se x i n g 34 , 110, 173 , 181, 223, 226-22 9 ta m i n g 84 , 115 sexing, blood culture 22 7 ta t t o o s 42 sexing, DNA prob e 22 3 , 22 7 ta x onomy (taxon o m i c ) 1, 27, 120 -121, 182, 204, 22 8 sexing, feather pulp 22 7 tennis netting (see visual barriers) 37, 94, 115, 247, sexing, fecal steroi d 22 3 , 22 8 25 7 -26 0 sexing, karyot y p i n g 22 3 , 22 6 te n o t o m y 162, 241-24 2 , 24 4 sexing, surgical 173, 227, 22 9 tension taping 103 sexing, vent sexing 22 8 te s t e s 128, 205, 22 7 sexual maturity 51-52, 56, 117, 121, 123 , 132 , 177 to e s 67, 83, 101-103 , 106 , 140 , 165 shipping (shipment) 40 -41 , 158 , 160 -161, 199, 202, toes, croo k e d 101-10 2 , 165 22 7 , 24 3 toes, curled 101, 165 , 168 sh o c k 98 , 101, 137 , 140 -142 , 153 , 160 -161, 24 9 total prot e i n 145 , 150 -15 2 Siberian Cra n e 2-4, 21, 25-29 , 10, 39-40, 46, 52, tox i c i t y 141, 151-15 2 , 164, 220, 25 2 56 -57, 83, 86, 98, 100 , 108 , 112, 118 , 169 , tox i n s 151, 163 178 -180, 225, 235, 252, 264, 273-275, 291-29 2 tr a c h e a 1, 21, 97, 99, 123 , 138 , 144 , 156 , 158 , 170 sl i n g 39 -40 , 164 , 168 tracheal flus h e s 156 social display(s) 22 , 106 , 110-113, 116 , 212 tracheal washes 158 so c i a l i z a t i o n 77 -78, 91, 93, 95, 188, 233, 238, 25 7 tr a i n i n g 27 -28, 82, 87-89, 95, 116, 118, 170, 209, so n a g r a m 22 3 237, 245, 252, 267, 278, 282, 284-285, 288-29 2 sp e r m 52 , 128 , 130 , 135 , 148, 205, 207-211, tr a n s f e r 40, 73, 180 , 185 , 199, 205, 219-221, 237, 213-217, 219-221 25 6 , 26 2 In d e x 3 0 7 tr a n s l o c a t e d 231, 24 7 yolk sac 60, 72-73, 82, 94, 96-97 , 104 tr a n s m i t t e r ( s ) 23 7 -24 0 tr a n s p o n d e r s 42 -43 tr a n s p o rt a t i o n 164 , 24 5 zinc toxi c o s i s 164 tr a n s p o rt i n g 36, 39-41, 73, 164 tr a p ( s ) 24 7 -25 2 tr a u m a 41, 66, 97, 100 -101, 103 , 137 -143 , 152 , 160 -162 , 164 -165 , 170 , 25 9 tre m a t o d e s 158 -159 tube feeding 79, 89, 97, 99-10 0 , 144 , 168 -169 tu b e r culosis (TB ) 151-152 , 155 , 162 , 171, 174 , 20 7 , 214 ultimate factor 46 um b i l i c u s 60, 86-87 , 96 Uni s o n -ca l l 4, 108 , 111, 223-22 5 vac c i n a t i o n 33 , 157 , 171-172 , 186 vac c i n e s 157 ven i p u n c t u r e 141, 146 viral infections 151 vi ru s 157 , 172 -174, 250, 25 2 visual barriers (visual screening) (see tennis netting) 31, 34, 45, 54, 115, 161, 247, 258-26 2 wading pools 32 Wattled Cra n e 2-3, 21, 23, 25-26, 28-29, 7, 66, 75, 120 -121, 145 , 149 , 179, 225, 264, 269-27 0 , 28 9 -29 0 wei g h i n g 39, 81-82, 93, 98-99 , 139, 234, 25 3 wei g h t 34, 38, 51, 54, 60, 63, 66, 68, 71, 74-75, 78, 81-86, 88, 95, 97-99 , 101, 103 , 111, 130 , 139 , 144 , 146 , 155 -156 , 158 , 164 -16 6 , 188 , 192, 215, 22 6 , 241 white blood cell count 148 -149 Wh i t e -naped Cra n e 4, 46, 83, 179 , 183, 204, 225, 229, 265, 277-27 8 , 28 9 Whooping Cra n e 2-3, 21-22, 24-29 , 19, 33, 38, 47, 51, 56, 71, 74-75, 82-83, 85-86, 90-91, 99, 103 -108 , 110-112, 120 -121, 133 , 135 -136 , 154 -15 5 , 160 , 163 -164 , 171-174 , 181-182 , 197, 204-20 6 , 211, 215, 223, 225-226, 228-229, 231, 233, 235, 24 0 -241, 252, 266, 286-29 0 , 29 2 wing clipping 33, 241-24 2 wing prob l e m s 78, 82, 101 wing tags 42 , 85 wo u n d s 140 , 150 -151, 160 , 168 , 24 4 3 0 8 In d e x