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Provided for Non-Commercial Research and Education Use. Not for Reproduction, Distribution Or Commercial Use Provided for non-commercial research and education use. Not for reproduction, distribution or commercial use. 175 Christmas 176 Christmas Comparison with not only HB/OT and early Jewish I. New Testament metaphoric shepherd images (cf. 1 Sam 16 : 1–13; Ps II. Christianity 78 : 70–71) but also mythical stories from Hellenis- III. Judaism tic-Roman literature (cf. Virgil, 4th Eclogue; Calpur- IV. Islam and Other Religions nius, 1st Eclogue) come to the fore. The form of 2 : 8– V. Literature 15a corresponds with that of an epiphany report, VI. Visual Arts vv. 13–14 blending the model of the epiphany of a VII. Music single messenger with that of the angels serving VIII. Film and praising God in heaven. Indeed, the central fo- cus of the passage lies in the announcement of the I. New Testament birth of the “savior” for all of Israel (in this sense Neither the Pauline Epistles (see, e.g., Gal 4 : 4), the “men of good will/men with whom he is pleased” Sayings Source Q, nor the Gospel of Mark know a in 2 : 14c constitutes the original variant), who is narrative of the birth of Jesus. It is Matthew and called “Christ the Lord” (Gk. ριστς κ ρι ς). Even Luke that first expand the history of Jesus by add- more, the Lukan “today” (cf., e.g., 4 : 21; 5 : 26; ing to the beginning of his biography. Matthew 19 : 5, 9) underscores this announcement as abso- 2 : 1–12 is not a birth narrative (2 : 1 only briefly lutely relevant for the present. Luke is the only Syn- takes note of the birth, prepared narratively in optic Gospel to call Jesus “Savior” (cf. 1 : 47; 2 : 30; 1 : 18–25) but rather a report on the magi’s bestowal 3 : 6; cf. Acts 5 : 31; 13 : 23), the corresponding Greek of honor upon the king of the Jews, born in Bethle- root being of crucial significance for Luke’s theo- hem. While the path of the star does not describe logical and christological understanding: for read- an astronomically verifiable route, it does indicate ers of Greek, “Savior” not only implies the process Jesus’ unique majesty and significance (2 : 2: “his of political redemption from oppressive situations star”). Two conceptions of kingship and two pos- (as in the case of, e.g., Plutarch, Cicero 22.5–6) but sible ways of receiving Jesus stand in contrast to one also includes an aspect of physical healing. The cor- another in Matthew’s narrative: whereas the hom- responding “salvation” – likewise initially deter- age mentioned in 2 : 11 is the adequate response – mined exclusively for Israel – is now, through the as opposed to the lack of welcome in 2 : 3–4 fore- Christ-event, offered and proclaimed universally as shadows the rejection of Jesus and his final death in a joyous happening. Jerusalem, further superimposing the conflict with Judaism upon the narrative. Bibliography: ■ Brown, R. E., The Birth of the Messiah (New 2 ■ Even though the transmission histories of both York 1993). Luz, U., Das Evangelium nach Matthäus: Mt 1–7 (Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Tes- narratives may intersect and while parallels appear tament 1/1; Neukirchen-Vluyn 52002). ■ Wolter, M., Lukas- in motives and forms alike, Luke 2 : 1–21 proves in- evangelium (HNT 5; Tübingen 2008). dependent of Matt 2 : 1–12. Within the complex of Reinhard von Bendemann Lukan prehistories, 2 : 1–21 represents a new begin- ning. In particular, the notion of the virgin (or II. Christianity “spiritual”) birth (cf. 1 : 35; cf. Rom 1 : 3–4) seems ■ Patristics and Early Medieval Times ■ Medieval relegated to a less important role. Luke opens the Times and Reformation Era ■ Modern Europe and narrative with a synchronism (2 : 1–2; cf. 3 : 1) that America correlates salvation history and world history: the A. Patristics and Early Medieval Times census allows Jesus – for the sake of the narrative – to be born in Bethlehem, who together with his 1. Introduction. The oldest traditions concerning family originated from Nazareth in Galilee (cf. the date of the nativity of Christ point to spring 1 : 26; 2 : 4). The historical background remains the (Förster 2000: 11–53). Indeed, the Feast of Decem- subject of scholarly debate, however. Augustus re- ber 25, celebrating the nativity of Christ, was first portedly carried out periodical censuses in the prov- introduced in the 4th century CE. While the older inces but none empire-wide. (Besides, a census important feasts of the church (Easter and Pente- would have presumably occurred in the place of res- cost) connect to the Jewish calendar, this feast uses idence or the main location of the tax district.) Luke the Roman solar calendar, which itself, then, sug- possibly expanded a census originally limited to gests secular influence. However, two feasts of Judea that took place after the deposition of Arche- Christ’s nativity were almost certainly celebrated in laos in 6 CE, casting it as encompassing the entire the second half of the 4th century CE: the Feast of known world and further giving it a new date December 25 originated in the West (natalis Christi) (cf. Josephus, Ant. 17.355; 18.1–3.26; 20.102; B.J. and spread to the East, changing in this process the 2.117–18; 7.253). In Luke 2 : 7, the author also em- content of the Eastern Feast of the Nativity of phasizes the very human conditions under which Christ (Förster 2006), usually called Epiphany, the birth of Jesus, like all humans beings (see esp. which was celebrated on January 6. The introduc- Wis 7 : 1–6), took place. Furthermore, 2 : 8–20 tion of a nativity feast comes as a surprise since the presents a shepherds’ story rich in connotations. popular practice of celebrating birthdays found Angemeldet | [email protected] Heruntergeladen am | 07.03.13 18:20 Provided for non-commercial research and education use. Not for reproduction, distribution or commercial use. 177 Christmas 178 widespread disfavor among Christian communities sun made this day holy (Serm. 186.1). Hence, cur- (Origen, Hom. Lev. 8.3, remarks that only the birth- rent scholarly consensus unsurprisingly tends to fa- days of sinful and pagan kings receive commemora- vor the “history of religions hypothesis” (Roll 2003: tion). 457–58), even calling it a “natural explanation” The problem of Christmas’ origins stands as one (Botte 1932: 61–62). The evidence, however, re- of the most puzzling questions of the ancient mains circumstantial, since no connection between church’s history. Essentially two different hypoth- the natalis solis invicti and the natalis Christi actually eses exist: one argues that calculations led Chris- appears in the texts of this period. A mere gloss in a tians to the introduction of the feast (“calculation manuscript of a 12th century theologian from Syria hypothesis”); the other (“history of religions hy- (Dionysius bar Salibi) mentions for the first time a pothesis”) points to the parallel feast of the natalis direct and intentional connection between these solis invicti, the feast of the winter solstice, which two feasts, but this rather curious note cannot serve was allegedly very popular in the Roman Empire as historical evidence because of its very late date. (cf. Halsberghe 1972) and thus would have forced 4. The Historical Dilemma. If this circumstantial the church to fight against it by creating a Christian evidence proves convincing, the paradox faced by feast as its competitor. the historian could not be more dramatic, even if 2. The “Calculation Hypothesis.” Using Luke this explanation has found wide acceptance in cur- 1 : 8–22, John Chrysostom (In diem natalem Christi), rent scholarship. First and foremost, no clear evi- e.g., claims Zacharias was high priest on the Day of dence connects the two feasts. To make matters Atonement (i.e., the end of September; Lev 16 : 29– worse, close scrutiny casts doubt on many aspects. 34) in the holy of the holies (Lev 16 : 2, 17) when The seemingly overwhelming evidence that makes the angel announced the conception of John the a homily of Augustine (Serm. 186.1) a clear and un- Baptist. Six months later (Luke 1 : 26), i.e., around shakable witness to a parallel pagan feast (Rahner March 25, Jesus must have been conceived, and 9 1945: 196) is, in fact, a mistranslation of a quota- months later, the nativity of Christ is celebrated. tion (Ps 66 : 5 [LXX]; cf. Förster 2007: 278). Faustus’ This calculation, however, is used for other dates as argument, already mentioned, is not as convincing well: Ananias of Shirak (7th cent. CE) argues it took as it seems, for the same Augustine preaches a very some time until Zacharias went back to his wife polemical homily against the Calends of January: (Luke 1 : 23–24), which means John the Baptist was Christians have to fast while the pagans feast (Serm. conceived a few days later, thereby making January 198 = Serm. 26 Dolbeau). Even more problematic is 6 the correct date. Yet Zacharias was certainly not Augustine’s use of a Christmas homily as an oppor- a high priest; thus, the apparition of the angel to tunity to criticize pagan customs of January 1 (Serm. Zacharias does not relate to a date in the Jewish cal- 196.4). Thus, Augustine probably did not know a endar. pagan Feast of the solstice celebrated on December 3. The “History of Religions Hypothesis.” At 25. The importance of this day as mentioned by Au- first sight, this hypothesis seems to be the more gustine may come from its astrological significance. convincing explanation for the introduction of For him, December 25 is the correct date of the na- Christmas as a feast in the 4th century CE.
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