non-metallic non-metallic reviewed, reviewed,
2) 2)
process process micro micro
In In
Traditionally, Traditionally,
regarded regarded
deoxidation deoxidation
ferroalloys ferroalloys recognised; recognised;
recently, recently,
terms terms
3) 3)
solidification solidification
basis. basis.
iron iron
modification modification new new
customers' customers'
overriding overriding
as as 1) 1)
presented presented
industry industry
the the development development
about about
crystal crystal
demonstrated. demonstrated.
from from
rely rely
product product Many Many
This, This,
ferroalloys. ferroalloys.
in in
impurities impurities
control, control,
iron iron
inoculants inoculants
the the
potential potential
Department Department
Department Department
Elkem Elkem
Trondheim, Trondheim,
and and
on-going on-going
structure structure
ferroalloy ferroalloy
in in
much much
of of
of of
new new
In In
and and
structure. structure.
present present
tum, tum,
1. 1.
quality quality
the the
steel steel
composition, composition,
the the
and and
towards towards
in in
the the
with with
of of
as as
ASA, ASA,
and and
steelmaking steelmaking
concern concern
ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
specifications specifications
particularly particularly
ideas ideas
in in
success success and
important important
of of
different different
has has
on on
Process Process
inclusions inclusions
and and
and and
manufacturing manufacturing
particular particular
Some Some
paper, paper,
and and
academia academia
research research
bulk bulk
heterogeneous heterogeneous
particular particular
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
iron iron
the the
minor minor
shifts shifts
affect affect
product product
Norway. Norway.
ferroalloys ferroalloys
paper paper
of of
of of
an an
This, This,
c/o c/o
the the
improved improved
about about
in in grain grain
0ystein 0ystein
Metallurgy, Metallurgy,
Materials Technology Technology Materials
inclusion inclusion
impact impact
has has
collaboration collaboration
principal principal
evolution evolution
products products
Elkem Elkem
end. end.
and and
results results
the the
in in
elements elements
size size
role role
alloying alloying
in in
projects, projects,
are are
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developments developments
their their
of of
been been
refiners refiners
The The
ferroalloy ferroalloy
that that
ferrous ferrous
on on
developments developments
emphasis emphasis
tum, tum,
the the
and and
solid solid
the the
supplied supplied
steel steel
and and
the the
on on
of of
Grong
future future
Thamshavn, Thamshavn,
has has
a a
chemistry chemistry
ability ability
are are
compositional compositional
guidelines guidelines
ferroalloys ferroalloys
ferroalloys ferroalloys
have have
form form
Future Future
to to
approach approach
demands demands
has has
costs. costs.
to to
content content
where where
multilateral multilateral
where where
nucleation. nucleation.
KTH, KTH,
elements elements
state state
metallurgy metallurgy
been been
has has
through through
presented presented
meet meet
be be
1
resulting resulting
between between
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role role
on on
brought brought
product product
through through
Par Par
to to
during during
during during
Iron Iron
added added
More More
by by
been been
been been
fully fully
both both
how how
S-100 S-100
acts acts
and and
and and
the the
the the
are are
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Role Role
for for
J0nsson
of of
in in
in in
of of
in in
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a a
1
PO PO
. .
and and
and and
44 44
Box Box
of of
Electroch~mistry, Electroch~mistry,
2 2
Stockholm, Stockholm,
Steel Steel
Ferroalloys Ferroalloys
and and
the the
refiners refiners
terms terms
on on
greater greater
production, production,
The The
presented presented
clearly clearly
made made
alloy alloy
and and
in in
finished finished metallic metallic
further further
fabrication fabrication
thermomechanical thermomechanical
resulting resulting
can can
transformations transformations
create create
solidification solidification
producer producer
different different
opportunity opportunity
authors authors
The The austenite austenite
materials materials
properties properties
11. 11.
inoculants inoculants
ensure ensure
in in
castings castings
2. 2.
10, 10,
ferrous ferrous
accordance accordance
the the
future future
The The
act act
Ole-Svein Ole-Svein
N-7301 N-7301
present present
steelmaker steelmaker
modifications modifications
of of
demand demand
in in
background background
derive derive
that that
or or
uniformity uniformity
as as
working working
and and
essence essence
REFINING REFINING GRAIN
), ),
opinion opinion
inclusions inclusions
for for
to to
below below
role role
developing developing
stricter stricter
types types
heterogeneous heterogeneous
materials materials
mechanical mechanical
with with
Sweden. Sweden.
introduce introduce
of of
the the
products products
and and
modify modify
is is
paper paper
wrought wrought
without without
for for
Orkanger, Orkanger,
iron iron
from from
iron iron
shaped shaped
of of
and and
with with
Klevan
overall overall
in in
NTNU, NTNU,
derive derive
steadily steadily
of of
of of
for for
ferroalloys ferroalloys
because because
optimum optimum
(e.g. (e.g.
grain grain
the the
this this
quality quality
to to
processing processing
summarises summarises
and and
these. these.
of of
and and
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or or
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in in
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microstructures microstructures
the the
steel steel
castings castings
standard standard
inoculants inoculants
innovative innovative
submicroscopic submicroscopic
the the
higher higher
represents represents
3 3 possibly possibly
performance performance
from from
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graphite, graphite,
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compromising compromising
problem problem
properties. properties.
refiners refiners
existing existing
by by
Norway Norway
N-
nucleation nucleation
future future
steel steel
steel. steel.
specifications specifications
needs needs
products. products.
the the
becoming becoming
7 7
liquid liquid
combination combination
be be must
from from
a a
491 491
and and
OF OF
broad broad
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purity. purity.
requests requests
means means
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performance performance
demand demand
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new new
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ferrite ferrite
welding welding
ferroalloy ferroalloy
STEELS STEELS
ferroalloy ferroalloy
a a
steel steel
slabs slabs
progress progress
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sites sites
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interest interest
In In
viewed viewed
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during during
Thus, Thus,
ideas ideas
grain grain
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state state
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l- 56~ 56~
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Typically, Typically,
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distribution distribution
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2.1.1 2.1.1
customers' customers'
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regarded regarded
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2. 2.
production production
designed designed
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of of
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15 15
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and and
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0.5 0.5
cooling cooling
systems systems
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· ·
final final
produced produced
group group
Alloy Alloy
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Ferroalloys Ferroalloys
development development
property property Characteristics Characteristics
the the
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Since Since
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methods, methods,
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% %
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products products
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size size
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steels, steels,
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shows shows
bulk bulk
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size size
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oxides oxides
alloys alloys
12 12
chances chances
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4
examples examples
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FeMn FeMn
where where
that that
shown shown
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13
can can
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size size
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-
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Cr
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properties properties
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obtained obtained
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3
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2.1.2 2.1.2
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Fig
inclusions inclusions
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1
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11
metallic metallic
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15
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2.1.3 2.1.3
will will
Controlled Controlled
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Fig. Fig.
ferrous ferrous
and and
shown shown
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elements elements temperature, temperature,
properties. properties.
quenched quenched but but
Therefore, Therefore,
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Fig
inclusions inclusions
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Data Data
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and/or and/or
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enormous. enormous.
ferroalloy ferroalloy oxides oxides
desirable desirable
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performance performance
castings castings
number number
weldability weldability
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austenite austenite
of of
has has costs. costs.
undercoolings. undercoolings.
presented presented
2.2.1 2.2.1 As-cast As-cast
potential potential
away away depend depend
microstructures microstructures
microstructure microstructure
coarse coarse materials materials solidification solidification
requirements requirements
800 800
steels steels
• •
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ferrite ferrite
shown shown
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exploit exploit
million million
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deep deep
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world-wide world-wide
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sulphides sulphides
readily readily
are are
by by
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Potential Potential
rates rates
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In In
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As-cast As-cast
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density density
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modification modification
delta delta
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3
Size Size
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Fig
these these
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process process
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Both Both 21
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22
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Control Control
finely finely
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enabled enabled
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10
promote promote
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3
as as
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prime prime
REM REM
properly properly
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steel steel
8 8
properties properties
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accordance accordance
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all all
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Steels Steels
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balanced balanced
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In In
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number number
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565 565
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Experience Experience
hot hot grain grain
line line
formation
Depending Depending
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Fig. Fig.
equiaxed equiaxed heterogeneous heterogeneous
equiaxed equiaxed shown shown
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Primary Primary
Primary Primary
peritectic peritectic Primary Primary
Primary Primary
chemical chemical
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5 5
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Grains Grains
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transformations, transformations,
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steels. steels.
schematically schematically
heterogeneous heterogeneous
of of
working working
grain grain solidifying solidifying
Schematic Schematic
grains grains
13
and and
grains grains
castability castability
grain grain
the the
absence absence
of of
, ,
size. size.
shaped shaped
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austenite austenite
ferrite ferrite
ferrite ferrite
ferrite ferrite
alloy alloy
improved improved
evolve evolve
which, which,
upon upon
has has
transformation transformation
resistance) resistance)
refining refining
.,. .,.
reduced reduced
Both Both
effective effective
ahead ahead
composition. composition.
nucleation nucleation
modes modes
of of
inherent inherent
form form
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structure structure
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Grains Grains
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shown shown content content
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subsequent subsequent
wire wire
directly directly
problems problems
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columnar columnar
turn, turn,
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diagram diagram
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Fig. Fig.
castability castability
circumstances, circumstances,
seed seed
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absent. absent.
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of of
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broader broader
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Fig. Fig.
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The The
• •
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2.2.2 2.2.2
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Rare Rare austenitic austenitic
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Aluminium-titanium Aluminium-titanium 6. 6.
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Ce/La Ce/La
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12
29Cr 29Cr
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23
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Fig. Fig.
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567 567
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2.2.4 2.2.4
van van
carbon carbon
Fig. Fig. ferrite ferrite
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27
the the
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28
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2.2.5 2.2.5 which which
industry. industry. main main
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steels steels
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Japan Japan
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GRAPIDTE GRAPIDTE
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30 30
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2
Europe Europe
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within within
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38
microstructure microstructure
commercially commercially
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DUCTILE DUCTILE
to to
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substantiated substantiated
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12
made made
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the the
technology. technology.
although although
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• •
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the the
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patents patents
The The
dispersed dispersed
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the the
FORMATION FORMATION
levels levels
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steels steels attractive attractive
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inclusions inclusions
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Nevertheless Nevertheless
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IRON IRON
design design
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increase increase
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provides provides
fine-grained fine-grained steels steels
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industry. industry.
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research research
product product
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existing existing
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a a
of of
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in in
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alloys. alloys.
w'idely w'idely
alloys alloys
to to
extent extent
result result
act act
IN IN
Both Both been been
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steel steel new new
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size size
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3.1 3.1
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Graphite Graphite
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FeSi. formation formation 4 role role this this structure structure . . liquid liquid 3 after after aimed aimed formers formers by by ·2Si0 high high the the documented documented CaS, CaS, Fig ferrosilicon ferrosilicon 4 sulphides sulphides after after The The iron iron surface surface ' ' the the heterogeneous heterogeneous the the 41 reaction reaction Mg, Mg, using using After After of of - additions additions . . nature nature 43 cast cast nodularizing nodularizing magnesium magnesium mechanical mechanical 44 dominating dominating number number MgO·Si0 lO(b). lO(b). 2 2 inoculation inoculation . . castability castability inclusions inclusions iron, iron, the the . . at at after after It It chemical chemical of of such such 0 iron; iron; or or Skaland Skaland silicate silicate is is with with of of a a during during of of . in in minor minor 5wt% 5wt% FeSi FeSi well well with with non thus thus iron iron will will The The and and the the the the for for the the the the the the (a) (a) (X (X as as of of of of a a 2 2 represent represent nucleus. nucleus. recognition recognition principle principle lattice lattice interfaces interfaces coheren graphite graphite offer offer illustrated illustrated definition definition enhance enhance inclusions inclusions the the efficient efficient ferrosilicon ferrosilicon If If After After Fig nucleus 3.2 3.2 Coherent Coherent Coherent Coherent Referring Referring La La magnesium magnesium 11 11 into into alloy, alloy, i) i) rare rare . . highlight highlight are are 11 11 three three minor minor Skaland Skaland slightly slightly / particularly particularly substrate substrate earth earth . t/semi-coherent t/semi-coherent Details Details Inclusion Inclusion disregistry disregistry Effects Effects Type Type Ca, Ca, (OOl)c.o·>J2D --t-r-r-t--r--r-- added added This This should should nucleation nucleation a a the the inoculants inoculants main main graphite in in to to in in graphite/BaO·Si0 between between of of with with good good Mg alloy equation equation et et the the metals metals Fig. Fig. ferrosilicon ferrosilicon Fig. Fig. elements elements nucleation nucleation A A different different nucleating nucleating of of conforms conforms al al categories categories »2S , , to to interface interface be be fundamental fundamental 4 of of / the the match match inclusions , , i0 1•1 1•1 Si, Si, . . CaO lb) lb) respect respect 11, 11, Formation Formation 2 2 12, 12, duly duly the the JJ JJ and and (001)""'"" (001)""'"" 5 5 (REM) (REM) the the lattice lattice Ce Ce favourable favourable S S because because (1) the the for for ·A , , they they inclusions inclusions liquid liquid and and li0 observed observed in in for for Q QC-a contained contained after after . . theory theory according according [ [ substrate substrate to to [l!OJ [l!OJ (001) (001) and and 4 The The 11 11 Qs Q (FSM) (FSM) 3 ductile ductile to to 2 2 3 arrangement arrangement potency potency si-atoms si-atoms : : OJ OJ , , · search search can can low low 2Si0 development development such such 0 0 a a C-atoms C-atoms ,ra,ru" ,ra,ru" C•O C•O which which i-atom toms toms inoculation importance importance interface, interface, results results graphite ·A>,D3.ZSi02 ·A>,D3.ZSi02 iron iron small small these these La La as as basal basal as as be be 2 2 s s 1 as as sites sites will will • • a a treatment treatment the the iron iron of of interface. interface. and and grouped grouped on on guiding guiding via via in in Ce Ce of of contain contain to to energy energy in in planes planes planar planar facets facets . . at at more more form. form. main main ; ; Fig. Fig. and and the the the the the the the the the the the the As As for for the the the the (b) (b) (a) (a) of of of of 568 568 569 569 La La The The iii) iii) Fig. Fig. ii) ii) inclusions rich rich 3.3 3.3 magnesium magnesium liquid liquid and and the the not not inoculation inoculation inclusions. inclusions. I from from occurring occurring inclusions inclusions Si Si the the context inclusions inclusions are are crystal crystal solidification solidification illustrated illustrated a a formation formation for for n n lower lower but but the the stable stable therefore therefore strong strong take take 12 12 treated treated La La inclusions inclusions graphite graphite type type (a) (a) " " absence absence not not iron. iron. reactions reactions 43 Mg Mg Type Type constituent constituent Type Type Mg Mg elements. elements. and and Grouping Grouping structure. structure. Formation Formation if if Conditions Conditions nucleating nucleating ~ ~ , , 0 0 part part • • After After eutectic eutectic Ce Ce these these and and (b) (b) A A in in Tn during during are are oxide oxide stage. stage. and La. La. ductile ductile and and The The treatment treatment ,A ,A of of Fig. Fig. or or C C inclusions inclusions in in process. process. Type Type B B of of are are nucleation nucleation less less Ons0ien Ons0ien (type (type /or /or minor minor inclusions, inclusions, is is La. La. elements elements the the Si Si of of Ce Ce inclusions, inclusions, forming forming type type They They temperature temperature therefore therefore 13(a) 13(a) Ce. Ce. thought thought the the occurring occurring inclusions inclusions temperature temperature Conversely, Conversely, elements elements potent potent B B Type Type cast cast (with (with '~'"'·~' '~'"'·~' Finally, Finally, as as and and graphite graphite C) C) or or k k inclusions interest interest B B As As the the et et without without and and final final Ca, Ca, may may stem stem due due La, La, probably probably iron; iron; for for al al Mg, Mg, inclusions inclusions are are elements elements sites sites a a Ce Ce main main at at 43 to to which which SI, SI, characterised characterised the the and and the the the the . . to to S, S, result, result, also also found found which which along along from from stages stages formation formation present present 0 0 be be La) La) in in of of the the (a) (a) , , during during a a phosphorus Tn temperature temperature for for the the ( ( subsequent subsequent constituent constituent the the the the just just favourable favourable c) c) absorb absorb contain contain , Gr~phite Gr~phite B· B· in in reactions reactions ongmate ongmate Type Type with with type type Mg Mg graphite graphite they they Type Type contain contain type type contain contain During During iron, iron, present present of of Ce Ce below below in in and and and and and and the the the the the the Ce Ce Ce Ce by by do do P P A A as as C C A A B B ' ' never never Fig. Fig. heat heat nucleation nucleation to to mechanism mechanism because because Nevertheless, Nevertheless, inclusions inclusions conditions conditions the the supercooled supercooled When When iron iron (region (region solidification solidification nucleation nucleation additions. additions. Fig change change indicated indicated this this composition composition the the reaches reaches the the type type inclusions inclusions graphite graphite undercooling undercooling This This count count a a graphite graphite slight slight . . the the total total A+B A+B 13 13 increase increase A A containing containing implies implies 13(b). 13(b). energy energy implies implies Ce Ce reach reach after after in in inclusions inclusions A),. A),. Schematic Schematic situation situation the the of of nodule nodule during during {b) {b) (•) (•) After After nodule nodule reduction reduction nucleation nucleation regime regime in in T..m T..m or or during during fe become become of of at at i "E "E will will ~ T T . a a s-~ at at 1- Fig. Fig. liquid liquid -~.,~-~-~--·- level level A solidification, solidification, .. .. is is type type At At modification modification Al!!; La La graphite graphite : : ' ' the the the the .~~-·-· .~~-·-· that that Ons0ien Ons0ien -__,.,,_. the the and and type type not not solidification, solidification, count count count count barrier barrier that that act act Ce Ce required required is is 13(a). 13(a). A+B A+B in in higher higher solidification, solidification, resulting resulting A A point point and and of of described described in in interaction interaction active. active. large large -- the the added added in in representation representation Fig. Fig. inclusions increases increases inclusions A A as as crystal crystal or or at at the the the the with with formation formation increases. increases. that that et et Ce Ce %Ceor%la %Ceor%la %Ceor%La %Ceor%La ; ' ' ~ ~ At At the the inclusions increases increases inclusions nucleation nucleation temperature temperature '"'""" '"'""" e e al al where where type type - La; La; REM-free REM-free enough enough 13(b). 13(b). type type Ce against against or or increasing increasing 43 to to 'Tn.A 'Tn.A T,, low low This This of of .s .s release release as as . . graphite graphite both both / La La La La for for the the in in (a) (a) their their conforming conforming structure, structure, B B B B in in Ce/La Ce/La illustrated illustrated between between (b) (b) gives gives the the corresponds corresponds As As Fig. Fig. to to liquid liquid levels levels inclusions. inclusions. ductile ductile inclusions. inclusions. Nucleation Nucleation types types chemical chemical Resulting Resulting iron iron of of sites sites promote promote Ce Ce graphite graphite a a graphite graphite of of type type nodule nodule of of levels, levels, rise rise result, result, latent latent 13(b) 13(b) or or iron iron will will cast cast and and the the the the the the the the for for La La as as to to of of B B to to in in I I in in more more Fig. Fig. manner, manner, Hence, Hence, promotes promotes against against lanthanum lanthanum net net Although Although 3.4 3.4 increased, increased, makes makes concentrations concentrations Ce Ce experimental experimental inclusions inclusions illustrated illustrated count count count count Fig. Fig. independent independent sulphide sulphide compiled compiled A A cast cast additions additions further further ductile ductile or or effect effect 14 14 ~ ~ 'O 'O -5 -5 o; o; .~ .~ .!!! .!!! 'E 'E g g 8 8 iron: iron: 14. 14. difficult difficult 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0 0.8 0.8 La La 1.0 1.0 passes passes 1 0.0 0.0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 . . . . 0 6 6 0 2 2 2 2 the the the the Practical Practical Effect Effect . the the . 00 00 00 00 L_~-'----'---'-~~---' L_~-'----'---'-~~---' r---- lanthanum lanthanum . - .. .. on on content content (b) (b) is is nucleation nucleation (a) (a) of of At At 8 8 by by former former • • ,./ increase increase in in Ce Ce (a) (a) cast cast .. .. use use more more sources) curve curve ·- graphite graphite ~ 0.02 0.02 .1 .1 these these the the observed observed 0.02 0.02 Fig. Fig. . observations observations o o in in through through Lanthanum Lanthanum the the to to · Ons0ien Ons0ien ~ ~ and and Cerium, Cerium, in in Cerium Cerium of of of of shifted shifted iron, iron, 0 0 - graphite graphite achieve. achieve. of of the the 13(b) 13(b) Implications Implications ··- difficult, difficult, 0 La La 0.04 0.04 is is changes changes s s same same compared compared - . . .04 .04 agreement agreement rare rare · · La La in in the the content content is is at at case case sharper co ------, ------, as as either either nucleation nucleation a a 0 0 the the 0 0 n a a peak peak behave behave type type (b) (b) 0.06 0.06 (region (region et et tent tent 0.06 0.06 iron iron maximum maximum an an earth earth formation formation stronger stronger time time Both Both (wt-%) (wt-%) of of in in towards towards Ce Ce (wt-%) (wt-%) is is al al alloying alloying Lanthanum. Lanthanum. which, which, alone alone B B , , is is La, La, Fig. Fig. 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 that that in in or or with with and and 4 inclusions, inclusions, progressively progressively metal metal factors factors 3 3 the the B). B). in in 0 0 as as the the with with La La at at (from (from 14. 14. the the oxide oxide 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 a a when when or or Thus, Thus, in in shown shown therefore therefore peak peak in in element element type type cerium. cerium. content content nodule nodule similar similar nodule nodule (REM) (REM) ductile ductile in in weigh weigh lower lower tum, tum, Data Data and and two two the the the the the the the the of of as as in in A A refining refining Possible Possible present, present, the the 5. 5. industry, industry, Future Future The The certainly certainly which, which, serve serve the the but but characterised characterised reach. reach. inclusions inclusions obtaining obtaining sufficiently sufficiently during during resulting resulting steel, steel, oxide oxide inoculation inoculation existing existing metallic metallic approach approach combinations combinations transformations transformations to to austenite austenite should should The The different different solidification solidification steels 4. 4. act act iron iron performance performance restore restore Product Product inoculants inoculants summarise summarise containing containing its its iron iron Ce Ce lead lead form form create create ability ability the the liquid liquid purpose purpose as as within within improvements improvements existing existing . . as as of of inclusions inclusions concept concept to to can can The The be be Thus, Thus, solidification solidification most most developments developments following following ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS heterogeneous heterogeneous CONCLUDING CONCLUDING the the a a developments developments the the inclusions inclusions ), ), candidate candidate misch misch with with are are treatment treatment mechanical mechanical and and have have have have or or guiding guiding continued. continued. types types the the is is to to a a state. state. and and the the treatment treatment lead lead essence essence is is a a relevant relevant potential potential . . graphite graphite of of introduce introduce promising promising without without also also fine fine enhance enhance FeCr FeCr it it by by sensible sensible a a the the and and and and progress progress not not an an the the metal metal introduction introduction well-established well-established theoretical theoretical grain grain has has of of in in of of to to (e.g. (e.g. This This high high tool. tool. applicable applicable a a improved improved better better search search impact impact ferroalloys ferroalloys distribution distribution present present the the in in yet yet of of subsequent subsequent and and alloys alloys been been microstructures microstructures grain grain grain grain late late properties. properties. and and and and alloys alloys and and the the and and additions. additions. nodularity nodularity within within refiners refiners along along the the composition composition the the provides provides alloy alloy oxygen oxygen submicroscopic submicroscopic been been nucleation nucleation graphite, graphite, comprom1smg comprom1smg element element made made FeMn, FeMn, technical technical liquid liquid REMARKS REMARKS addition addition in in comprehensive comprehensive demonstrated demonstrated for for limitations limitations nodule nodule on on problem problem paper paper refinement refinement optimisation optimisation are are refinement refinement these these after after for for framework framework to to the the fully fully this this of of the the for for in in new new for for solubility solubility steel, steel, iron iron of of by by still still technology, technology, In In This This ductile ductile a a has has solid solid inoculation inoculation solid solid developing developing which which steel steel in in quenching quenching ferrite ferrite new new lines lines count count ferroalloy ferroalloy field field explored. explored. basis basis to to so iron iron sites sites cast cast virtue virtue range range catalytic catalytic is is element element that that been been impure impure lution but, but, during during within within makes makes of of liquid liquid either either state. state. grain grain have have non both both state state iron iron will will that that cast cast and and Ce and and are are can can the the the the for for for for by by 43 to to in in or or to to of of of of is is at at s s . . 571 571 571 571 9. 9. 4. 4. 7. 7. 6. 6. 8. 8. 11. 11. 5. 5. 10. 10. 3. 3. 2. 2. Norwegian Norwegian discussions. discussions. for for Casper Casper (KTH) (KTH) Ferroalloy Ferroalloy addition, addition, (both (both The The 1. 1. also also support support partly partly authors authors many many . . van van Klevan Klevan Berg Berg International, International, Alexis Alexis SINTEF), SINTEF), Steelmaking, Steelmaking, Alexis Alexis Eijk Eijk Metall. Metall. 26 26 0, 0, Metall. Metall. J. J. 0, 0, 2353. 2353. 64. 64. Ons0ien Ons0ien 2345. 2345. (1999), (1999), Institute Institute Ons0ien Ons0ien (1999), (1999), Rev., Rev., Norway. Norway. Ferroalloy Ferroalloy Ferroalloy Product Product Ferroalloy Skaland Skaland Principle Principle Skaland Skaland of of to to Grong Grong Grong Grong Proc. Proc. (FFF), (FFF), and and Grong Grong 6. 6. Mater. Mater. from from they they Welding", Welding", (1997), (1997), 14 Research Research been been Skaland Skaland Skaland Skaland der der Research Research C C Dr. Dr. 111 111 31 31 Int. Int. H., H., pp. pp. J, J, J, J, van van 0. 0. 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Skaland Skaland Skaland Skaland Cast Cast Janke Janke Techn R0rvik R0rvik and and and and European European Freiberg Dillinger Dillinger Titanium Titanium Method Welding Welding Nippon Nippon Having Having (1997), (1997), J. J. St 1999 Fin C ., ., WO WO ee and and ast ast D. D. G, G, 15 15 T, T, T, T, of of ls ls e e , , , , , , 57: 57: