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A Game of Horns

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A Game of Horns INTERNATIONAL MAX PLANCK RESEARCH SCHOOL on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy Köln, Germany Annette Michaela Hübschle A Game of Horns Transnational Flows of Rhino Horn Studies on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy Annette Michaela Hübschle A Game of Horns Transnational Flows of Rhino Horn © Annette Michaela Hübschle, 2016 Published by IMPRS-SPCE International Max Planck Research School on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy, Cologne http://imprs.mpifg.de ISBN: I978-3-946416-12-8 DOI: 10.17617/2.2218357 Studies on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy are published online on http://imprs.mpifg.de. Go to Dissertation Series. Studies on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy Abstract A multi-sectorial regime of protection including international treaties, conservation and security measures, demand reduction campaigns and quasi-military interventions has been established to protect rhinos. Despite these efforts, the poaching of rhinos and trafficking of rhino horn continue unabated. This dissertation asks why the illegal market in rhinocer- os horn is so resilient in spite of the myriad measures employed to disrupt it. A theoretical approach grounded in the sociology of markets is applied to explain the structure and functioning of the illegal market. The project follows flows of rhino horn from the source in southern Africa to illegal markets in Southeast Asia. The multi-sited ethnography includ- ed participant observations, interviews and focus groups with 416 informants during four- teen months of fieldwork. The sample comprised of, amongst others, convicted and active rhino poachers, smugglers and kingpins, private rhino breeders and hunting outfitters, Afri- can and Asian law enforcement officials, as well as affected local communities and Asian consumers. Court files, CITES trade data, archival materials, newspaper reports and social media posts were also analysed to supplement findings and to verify and triangulate data from interviews, focus groups and observations. Central to the analysis is the concept of “contested illegality”, a legitimization mechanism employed by market participants along the different segments of the horn supply chain. These actors’ implicit or explicit contestation of the state-sponsored label of illegality serves as a legitimising and enabling mechanism, facilitating participation in gray or illegal markets for rhino horn. The research identified fluid interfaces between legal, illegal and gray mar- kets, with recurring actors who have access to transnational trade structures, and who also possess market and product knowledge, as well as information about the regulatory regime and its loopholes. It is against the background of colonial, apartheid and neoliberal exploita- tion and marginalization of local communities that a second argument is introduced: the path dependency of conservation paradigms. Underpinning rhino conservation and regula- tion are archaic and elitist conservation regimes that discount the potential for harmonious relationships between local communities and wildlife. The increasing militarization of an- ti-poaching measures and green land grabs are exacerbating the rhino problem by alienat- ing communities further from conservation areas and wild animals. The third argument looks at how actors deal with coordination problems in transnational illegal markets. Resolv- ing the coordination problems of cooperation, value and competition are considered essen- tial to the operation of formal markets. It is argued that the problem of security provides an additional and crucial obstacle to actors transacting in markets. The systematic analysis of flows between the researched sites of production, distribution and consumption of rhino horn shows that the social embeddedness of actors facilitates the flourishing of illegal mar- kets in ways that escape an effective enforcement of CITES regulations. About the author Annette Michaela Hübschle was a doctoral researcher at the IMPRS-SPCE from 2011 to 2015. Studies on the Social and Political Constitution of the Economy A game of horns: Transnational flows of rhino horn Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln 2016 vorgelegt von Annette Michaela Hübschle aus Pretoria, Südafrika Referent: Professor Dr. Jens Beckert Korreferent: Professor Dr. Sigrid Quack Tag der Promotion: 26. Januar 2016 2 Table of Contents Table of figures, graphs, maps and tables ............................................................................. 6 Abbreviations and acronyms ................................................................................................ 7 Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 1: An unstoppable pathway to extinction? ............................................................ 15 1.1 Setting the scene: Where have all the rhinos gone? ................................................................ 15 1.2 Problematizing the resilience of illegal markets ...................................................................... 22 1.2.1 Rhino horn trade as a poaching problem ............................................................................... 22 1.2.2 Rhino horn trade as a transnational organized supply chain ................................................. 30 1.2.3 Rhino horn trade as a multi-actor business enterprise .......................................................... 38 1.2.4 Synthesizing the research gaps .............................................................................................. 41 1.3 Theoretical framing ................................................................................................................ 43 1.3.1 Rhino horn markets are socially embedded ........................................................................... 44 1.3.2 Defining ‘illegal markets’ and introducing the notion of ‘flows’ ............................................ 46 1.3.3 The notion of contested illegality and its impact on the emergence and functioning of flows ........................................................................................................................................................ 49 1.3.4 Resolving coordination problems in illegal markets .............................................................. 53 1.4 Structure of the dissertation .................................................................................................. 66 Chapter 2: Researching illegal markets ............................................................................... 69 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 69 2.2 Researching illegal markets .................................................................................................... 70 2.2.1 Choosing the qualitative route ............................................................................................... 74 2.2.2 Research design: A multi-sited ethnography ......................................................................... 76 2.2.3 Single-case study and theoretical development .................................................................... 80 2.4 Methods ................................................................................................................................ 82 2.4.1 Desktop and archival research ............................................................................................... 83 2.4.2 Fieldwork ................................................................................................................................ 87 2.5 Triangulation and data analysis .............................................................................................. 96 2.6 Gray areas of social research: Research ethics ........................................................................ 98 2.6.1 Informed consent ................................................................................................................. 101 2.6.2 Anonymity and confidentiality ............................................................................................. 103 2.6.3 Positionality of the researcher ............................................................................................. 105 2.6.4 Reciprocity ........................................................................................................................... 112 2.6.5 Security concerns ................................................................................................................. 115 2.7 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................. 119 Chapter 3: Of unicorns and rhino horns: The demand for rhino horn ................................ 121 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 121 3.2 The physical and chemical properties of rhino horn .............................................................. 122 3.3 A global history into the mythology of the rhino .................................................................. 130 3.4. Hunting tales and myths .....................................................................................................
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