Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic no. 1 PHOTOGRAPHY PART I Whether you're hanging out with friends on the beach or reading about the history of the 1930s, photography will likely make an appearance. The oldest known photograph dates back to 1826, but the structure that would become the first camera was described by Aristotle. The process of taking pictures has become increasingly refined during the 19th century, transitioning from heavy glass plates to light, gelatin-coated flexible film. Today, once-innovative film cameras take a back seat to the convenience and ease of digital cameras. Photography is a fun form of art and many people are engaged in it. This is because of the wide form of artistry it can create with the uniqueness of every shot. People around the globe have appreciated the aftermaths of amazing photography. Do you know what makes these photos look amazingly stunning? It is because of the photography composition each one has. It would indeed be futile if you take shots without considering photography composition. You will not be able to give your images a perfect beauty without it. There are some photography composition techniques that one can do but it is the photographer’s touch and creativity that makes each output unique. 1. It creates more appealing photos 2. To deliver a more convincing story 3. It looks more professional. 4. It has balance 5. It makes unique pictures 6. It shows a personality7. It adds more life to images 8. It allows you to capture the essence of an image. 9. It allows you to capture the essence of an image 10. It awes the viewers. Topic no. 2 Macro photography is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size. By some definitions, a macro photograph is one in which the size of the subject on the negative or image sensor is life size or greater. However in other uses it refers to a finished photograph of a subject at greater than life size. The ratio of the subject size on the film plane (or sensor plane) to the actual subject size is known as the reproduction ratio. Likewise, a macro lens is classically a lens capable of reproduction ratios greater than 1:1, although it often refers to any lens with a large reproduction ratio, despite rarely exceeding 1:1. Apart from technical photography and film-based processes, where the size of the image on the negative or image sensor is the subject of discussion, the finished print or on-screen image more commonly lends a photograph its macro status. Reproduction ratios much greater than 1:1 are considered to be photomicrography, often achieved with digital microscope ( photomicrography should not be confused with microphotography , the art of making very small photographs, such as for microforms). Due to advances in sensor technology, today’s small-sensor digital cameras can rival the macro capabilities of a DSLR with a “true” macro lens, despite having a lower reproduction ratio, making macro photography more widely accessible at a lower cost. In the digital age, a "true" macro photograph can be more practically defined as a photograph with a vertical subject height of 24 mm or less. Macro" lenses specifically designed for close-up work, with a long barrel for close focusing and optimized for high reproduction ratios, are one of the most common tools for macro photography. (Unlike most other lens makers, Nikon designates its macro lenses as "Micro" Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 because of their original use in making microform.) Most modern macro lenses can focus continuously to infinity as well and can provide excellent optical quality for normal photography. Macro lenses of different focal lengths find different uses :  Continuously-variable focal length – suitable for virtually all macro subjects  45–65 mm – product photography, small objects that can be approached closely without causing undesirable influence, and scenes requiring natural background perspective  90–105 mm – insects, flowers, and small objects from a comfortable distance  150–200 mm – insects and other small animals where additional working distance is required Difference between macro micro and close up photography Macro photography is that which is taken with a dedicated macro lens. A real macro lens has the capability of achieving in the least a 1:1 magnification. Just because a camera has the word macro written on it, doesn’t make it a true macro lens. Close up photography, is the act of photographing objects such as flowers or insects in close range so the subject you are photographing fills the frame. In other words, it’s the act of photographing subjects close up. This is easily achievable with any lens, even a 300mm telephoto lens. Macro photography is in essence close up photography as well. However, close up photography is not always considered as true macro photography. For example, if you have a lens that is NOT considered a real macro lens, yet offers a macro setting (as many do nowadays), this is usually referred to as being close up photography, and not true macro. Topic no 03 Principles of Photography Pinhole Cameras and Photography The pinhole camera (also known as a camera obscura) was first envisioned around the 5th century BCE. The camera obscura was a box with a small hole in it, through which light (and the image carried by it) would travel and reflect against a mirror. The camera obscura was originally used to observe solar events and to aid in drawing architecture, though it became something entirely new in 1800. A young man named Thomas Wedgwood attempted to capture the image portrayed in a camera obscura with silver nitrate, which is light-sensitive. Unfortunately, the images didn't hold, and it wasn't until the French inventor Joseph Niepce attempted the same feat with bitumen (a kind of tar) that the first photograph was produced. The Birth of the Negative: Wet Plate Negatives, Dry Plate Negatives In 1848, sculptor Frederick Scott Archer became frustrated with the stark definition offered by photographs at the time. He set out to create a process that would allow him to capture the more subtle variations in shade, since all photographs were, at this point, restricted to black and white. For his wet plate process, he applied a gelatin mixture of iodide or chloride to a glass plate. The plate would be dipped into a solution of silver nitrate and used to take a photograph while the gelatin was still wet. The photograph had to be developed almost immediately afterward, but the negative that formed on the glass was capable of capturing immaculate levels of detail. The one downside to this process was the time required to prep the glass plate, usually on-site, which made it extremely impractical for news photographs and field reporting. A few years later, in 1864, W.B. Bolton and B.J. Sayce created a one-step emulsion fluid with silver iodide. This process, which became known as the dry plate process, wasn't faster than the wet plate process, but it did produce photographs of better overall consistency. Flexible Film and Photographic Films Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 For the next 20 years, daguerreotype photography remained the most popular form of taking pictures. However, as young George Eastman discovered when he took a trip to Santo Domingo, taking pictures was an expensive and heavy process? He set to work, building off the chemical finesse of the dry plate process, and gradually developed a flexible gelatin-paper film. In 1885, he created and patented a device to hold a roll of his new film, and in 1888, he introduced his first Kodak camera to the market. Camera Advancements : Daguerreotype Cameras, Box Camera, Flashbulbs, 35mm Cameras and Polaroid’s Color photography became possible with the Auto chrome plate in 1907, although it didn't take off until the release of Kodachrome film in 1936. Flashes of light, produced by burning magnesium, had long been used by photographers to enhance the light of a scene, but in 1930, The General Electric Company began producing flashbulbs specifically for use with cameras. The 35mm camera was created in 1913 by Oskar Barnack, who used existing 35mm movie film to capture still images. The first 35mm camera released was known as the Leica I , and once it hit shelves in 1925, the new compact camera became the standard for spur-of-the-moment snapshot s. In 1943, Edwin Land introduced the Polaroid camera after being asked by his 3 year-old daughter why she couldn't instantly see the picture he'd taken of her. Digital Cameras In 1975, the field of photography morphed yet again with the introduction of a digital camera. Pictures were stored on a cassette tape , and capturing a photo could take up to 23 seconds. The first filmless camera was created by Sony in 1981. Their creation, the Mavica, could store pictures on floppy disks which would then be viewed on a television monitor. Smartphone Cameras and Technologies In 2013, the Internet company Twitter introduced a service called Vine , allowing users Camera Basics, to use their camera phones to record and share 6 seconds of color- and audio-enabled video with their online followers. TOPIC NO 4 History of Photography Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process , the first publicly announced photographic process, which required only minutes of exposure in the camera and produced clear, finely detailed results. It was commercially introduced in 1839 , a date generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography . Daguerreotype process was based on Metal.. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965 in Basra – c. 1040 in Cairo) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera . Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–80) discovered silver nitrate , and Georges Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride . Daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. Around the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow-copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that ". The images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver ." The shadow images eventually darkened all over because " no attempts that have been made to prevent the uncolored part of the copy or profile from being acted upon by light have as yet been successful." Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 One of the oldest photographic portraits known, made by Joseph Draper of New York, in 1839 or 1840, of his sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper. The oldest surviving permanent photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827 . It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use. After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but in fact probably several days), the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light regions represented by hardened bitumen and the dark regions by bare pewter. To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light. A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film , available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image

Topic no. 05 History of Camera Pinhole Camera A pinhole camera is a simple camera without a lens and with a single small aperture, a pinhole effectively a light-proof box with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through this single point and projects an inverted image on the opposite side of the box. It is completely dark on all the other sides of the box including the side where the point is created. This part is usually painted black, but black boxes are also used for this purpose. There is also a thin screen which looks like a projector sheet, and is put in between the dark side adjacent to the pinhole. Up to a certain point, the smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the dimmer the projected image. Optimally, the size of the aperture should be 1/100 or less of the distance between it and the projected image. Because a pinhole camera requires a lengthy exposure, its shutter may be manually operated, as with a flap made of light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole. Typical exposures range from 5 seconds to several hours . A common use of the pinhole camera is to capture the movement of the sun over a long period of time. This type of photography is called solargraphy . The image may be projected onto a translucent screen for real-time viewing (popular for observing solar eclipses. Pinhole devices provide safety for the eyes when viewing solar eclipses because the event is observed indirectly, the diminished intensity of the pinhole image being harmless compared with the full glare of the Sun itself. The camera obscura was not so much an invention as a discovery and development. The camera obscura works on a naturally occurring phenomenon ( the rectilinear propagation of light ) and can, for example, often be observed when sunlight filters through dense leaves.

Selection of pinhole size Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Within limits, a smaller pinhole (with a thinner surface that the hole goes through) will result in sharper image resolution because the projected circle of confusion at the image plane is practically the same size as the pinhole. An extremely small hole , however, can produce significant diffraction effects and a less clear image due to the wave properties of light. Additionally, vignetting occurs as the diameter of the hole approaches the thickness of the material in which it is punched, because the sides of the hole obstruct the light entering at anything other than 90 degrees. The best pinhole is perfectly round (since irregularities cause higher-order diffraction effects), and in an extremely thin piece of material. Industrially produced pinholes benefit from laser etching, but a hobbyist can still produce pinholes of sufficiently high quality for photographic work. Brownie In 1900, the Eastman Kodak Company introduced a low-priced, point-and-shoot, hand-held camera, called the Brownie. The Brownie camera, simple enough for even children to use, was designed, priced, and marketed to have wide appeal. It made photography accessible to the masses. What Was the Brownie Camera? The Brownie camera was a simple, black, rectangular box covered in imitation leather with nickeled fittings. To take a "snapshot," all one had to do was hold the camera waist height, aim, and turn a switch. Kodak claimed in its advertisements that the Brownie camera was "so simple they can easily [be] operated by any school boy or girl" (excerpt from an ad in Cosmopolitan Magazine, July 1900). Though simple enough for even children to use, a 44-page instruction booklet accompanied every Brownie camera. Topic no 06 HISTORY OF CAMERA SLR & TSLR What is a DSLR (Digital SLR)? DSLR stands for “Digital Single Lens Reflex”. In simple language, DSLR is a digital camera that uses mirrors to direct light from the lens to the viewfinder, which is a hole on the back of the camera that you look through to see what you are taking a picture of. What do DSLR cameras consist of? Take a look at the following image of an SLR cross section (image courtesy of Wikipedia): Lens i) Lens ii) Reflex mirror iii) Shutter iv) Image sensor v) Matte focusing screen vi) Condenser lens vii) Pentaprism Eyepiece/Viewfinder How do DSLR cameras work?

When you look through the viewfinder on the back of the camera, whatever you see is exactly what you are going to get in the photograph. The scene that you are taking a picture of passes through the lens in a form of light into a reflex mirror(#2) that sits at a 45 degree angle inside Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 the camera chamber, which then forwards the light vertically to an optical element called a “pentaprism ” (#7). The pentaprism then converts the vertical light to horizontal by redirecting the light through two separate mirrors, right into the viewfinder (#8). When you take a picture, the reflex mirror (#2) swings upwards, blocking the vertical pathway and letting the light directly through. Then, the shutter (#3) opens up and the light reaches the image sensor (#4). The shutter (#3) remains open for as long as needed for the image sensor (#4) to record the image, then the shutter (#3) closes and the reflex mirror (#2) drops back to the 45 degree angle to continue redirecting the light into the viewfinder. The camera processor takes the information from the image sensor, converts it into an appropriate format, and then writes it into a memory card. The whole process takes very little time and some professional DSLRs can do this 11 times in one second! 1558: Camera: Obscura It was the first optical device to project an image of its surroundings on a screen. 1836: Daguerreo types Louis Daguerre invented a new camera to capture a permanent image on a screen. It used a process of coating a copper plate with silver which was later treated by iodine vapor to make it light-sensitive. The projected image was then developed by mercury vapor which was later fixed with a solution of ordinary salt. 1841: Alexander Wolcotts : Camera This camera got the first US patent for photography. The camera used daguerreo type plate placed in front of a focusing system using concave mirror to project images. A sliding shutter prevented further exposure after capture. 1861: Panoramic camera: The first wide-angle lens camera used a 76 mm lens.The lens was made up of two hollow glass hemispheres. The spherical lens was filled with water that would project an image onto a curved plate.The flap in the front had to be lifted to capture an image. 1888: KODAK George Eastman pioneered photographic films in camera. His first camera was called “Kodak”. It used a simple box having a fixed focus lens and a single shutter speed. It had enough film for around a hundred photographs. The detachable film could be taken out to be processed in a factory and a new film could be reloaded in the camera. 1900: Brownie: This was the camera which revolutionized the photo industry for the public. It was a basic cardboard box camera with a simple meniscus lens which captured images on a film role. It was priced at $1 and was extremely simple to use. 1913: LEICA: The Leica was the first practical 35 mm camera that used standard cinema 35 mm film built by Oskar Barnack in 1913. It transports photographic film horizontally, extending frame size to 24×36 mm, with a 2:3 aspect ratio. It was best suited for landscape photos. 1933: Exakta First single-lens reflex camera (SLR ) for 127 rolls film. In later models it pioneered the first built-in flash socket, activated by the shutter. In 1936, the first SLR for 35mm film was built. 1939: Argus C3Best-selling 35mm camera in the world for three decades. It used a simple diaphragm shutter built into the camera body allowing it to use interchangeable lenses without the need for a complex focal plane shutter. The rangefinder was separate from the viewfinder and was coupled to the lens through a series of gears located on the outside of the camera body. 1948: Polaroid Worlds first instant-picture camera. It used a patented chemical process to produce finished positive prints from the exposed negatives in under a minute. In spite of the high price, the camera remains one of the top-selling cameras of all time. 1949: Disposable Camera : A company called Photo-Pac produced a cardboard camera beginning in 1949 which shot 8 exposures and was mailed-in for processing. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 1980: Sony Mavica: It was one of the first analog camera. In essence it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then-current televisions. 1988: Fuji DS-1P : It was the first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file. Recorded images to a 16 MB internal memory card powered by a battery to retain data. 1991: Kodak DCS 100: First commercially available digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) camera. Aimed at the photo journalism market & worked well for the field. Was mounted on a Nikon F3 body and released by Kodak in May 1991. 1999: Nikon D1: At 2.74 megapixel this camera was the first digital SLR developed entirely by a major manufacturer, and affordable cost which was targeted at professional photographers and high-end consumers.

Topic no. 007 History of Camera Big Gun The view camera is a type of camera first developed in the era of the daguerreotype (1840s-'50s) and still in use today, though with many refinements. It comprises a flexible bellows that forms a light-tight seal between two adjustable standards, one of which holds a lens, and the other a viewfinder or a photographic film holder. The bellows is a flexible, accordion-pleated box. It encloses the space between the lens and film, and flexes to accommodate the movements of the standards. The front standard i s a board at the front of the camera that holds the lens and, usually, a shutter. At the other end of the bellows, the rear standard is a frame that holds a ground glass, used for focusing and composing the image before exposure—and is replaced by a holder containing the light-sensitive film, plate, or image sensor for exposure. The front and rear standards can move in various ways relative to each other, unlike most other camera types. This provides control over focus, depth of field, and perspective. The camera is usually used on a tripod or other support. Types of view camera Monorail camera - This is the most common type of studio view camera, with front and rear standards mounted to a single rail that is fixed to a camera support. This design gives the greatest range of movements and flexibility, with both front and rear standards able to tilt, shift, rise, fall, and swing in similar proportion. These are generally made of metal with leather or synthetic bellows, and are difficult to pack for travel. Field camera - These have the front and rear standard mounted on sliding rails fixed to a hinged flatbed that is fixed to a camera support (tripod, etc.). These cameras are usually made of wood, or sometimes lightweight and strong composites such as carbon fiber. With bellows fully retracted, the flat bed folds up, reducing the camera to a relatively small, light, and portable box. The price for this portability is that the standards are not as mobile or as adjustable as on a monorail design. The rear standard in particular may be fixed and offer no movement. These large format but transportable cameras are popular with landscape photographers. Tachihara and Wisner are examples of modern field cameras at opposite ends of the price scale. Studio and salon cameras are similar to field cameras, but do not fold up for portability. Press and technical cameras are true view cameras , as almost all of them have a ground glass integral to the film-holder mechanism that allows critical focus and full use of the sometimes limited movements. More expensive examples had a wide array of movements, as well as focusing and compositing aids like rangefinders and viewfinders. They are most often made of Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 metal, designed to fold up quickly for portability, used by press photographers before and during the World War II. Advantages The ability to skew the plane of critical focus: In a camera without movements the film plane is always parallel to the lens plane. A camera with tilts and swings let the photographer skew the plane of focus away from the parallel in any direction, which in many cases can bring the image of a subject that is not parallel to the lens plane into near-to-far focus without stopping down the aperture excessively. Both standards can be tilted through the horizontal or swung through the vertical axes to change the plane of focus. Tilts and swings of the front standard alone do not alter or distort shapes or converging lines in the image; tilts and swings of the rear standard do affect these things, as well as the plane of focus: if the plane of focus must be skewed without altering shapes in the image, front movements alone must be used. The ability to distort the shape of the image by skewing the film plane: This is most often to reduce or eliminate, or deliberately exaggerate, convergence of lines that are parallel in the subject. If a camera with parallel film and lens planes is pointed at an angle to a plane subject with parallel lines, the lines appear to converge in the image, becoming closer to each other the further away from the camera they are. With a view camera the rear standard can be swung toward the wall to reduce this convergence. If the standard is parallel to the wall, convergence is

Topic no. 008 History of Camera Digital Camera A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and performs other elementary image editing. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975. Earlier ones used a camera tube; later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were mainly military and scientific; followed by medical and news applications. The two major types of digital image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier . Compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back- side-illuminated CMOS (BSI-CMOS) sensor. Overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. Types of digital cameras Digital cameras come in a wide range of sizes, prices and capabilities. In addition to general purpose digital cameras, specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs are used for scientific, military, medical and other special purposes. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Compact cameras are intended to be portable and are particularly suitable for casual "snapshot". Many incorporate a retractable lens assembly that provides optical zoom. In most models, an auto actuating lens cover protects the lens from elements. Most ruggedized or water-resistant models do not retract, and most with (superzoom) capability do not retract fully. Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use. Almost all include an automatic mode, or "auto mode", which automatically makes all camera settings for the user. Some also have manual controls. Compact digital cameras typically contain a small sensor which trades-off picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. A few high end compact digital cameras have a hot shoe for connecting to an external flash. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo on an integrated LCD display. In addition to being able to take still photographs almost all compact cameras have the ability to record video. Compacts often have macro capability and zoom lenses, but the zoom range ( up to 30x) is generally enough for candid photography but less than is available on bridge cameras (more than 60x), or the interchangeable lenses of DSLR cameras available at a much higher cost. Autofocus systems in compact digital cameras generally are based on a contrast-detection methodology using the image data from the live preview feed of the main imager. Some compact digital cameras use a hybrid autofocus system similar to what is commonly available on DSLRs. Some high end travel compact cameras have 30x optical zoom have full manual control with lens ring, electronic viewfinder, Hybrid Optical Image Stabilization, built-in flash, Full HD 60p, RAW, burst shooting up to 10fps, built-in Wi-Fi with NFC and GPS altogether. Typically, compact digital cameras incorporate a nearly silent leaf shutter into the lens but play a simulated camera sound for skeuomorphic purposes. For low cost and small size, these cameras typically use image sensor formats with a diagonal between 6 and 11 mm, corresponding to a crop factor between 7 and 4. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field, generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors. Some cameras use a larger sensor including, at the high end, a pricey full-frame sensor compact camera, such as Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX1, but have capability near that of a DSLR. A variety of additional features are available depending on the model of the camera. Such features include ones such as GPS, compass, barometer and altimeter for above mean sea level or under (water) mean sea level.[13] and some are rugged and waterproof. Topic no 009 Camera Film Loading How to Load Film into a 35mm Camera? This provides information on loading film and adjusting the main settings on a 35mm camera. Steps: 1. Locate the Rewind Knob, on the left side of the camera, and pull up until the back of the camera opens. 2. Cut a Leader for your film to load into the Take-Up Spool. The leader must be approximately 22mm to fit into spool. 3. Place the film into the left side of the camera. Push the Rewind Knob down to create a snug fit on the film after it is placed into the pocket. 4. Pull the leader of film over to the Take-Up Spool. Insert the narrow end of the film leader into the slot. Hold the spool steady with one hand and push the film deep inside until film is way inside spool or comes out the other side. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 5. Make sure the teeth are properly placed on both sides of the film. Use the rewind knob to take in any slack in the film, tighten the film to the camera. Then close the back of the camera and use the film advance to wind the film. 6. Take 3 pictures. If the film has been loaded properly the rewind knob will turn ever time you crank the film advance lever. If not, make sure the slack has been taken out of the film by retightening the film to the camera. Make sure you take at least 2 pictures to clear out the exposed film and start with fresh film. Once you see the number 1 in the window, you are ready to take pictures. 7. Now it’s time to set your ISO Film Speed. To set film speed, gently lift up the ISO speed ring and turn it to your desired ISO speed shown in the window. (This should rotate the numbers on the INSIDE window on the ring). 8. To set Shutter Speed, rotate the shutter speed ring to desired shutter speed. The shutter controls the length of exposure, on this camera, the higher the number, the less the exposure time. (This should rotate the numbers on the OUTSIDE of the ring). Topic no 10 UV Filters UV filters are supposed to block UV light. So, for the newcomers to photography let's first look at what UV light is and why you would want to block it. The "traditional" visible spectrum runs from red to violet. Red light has the longest wavelength and violet the shortest . Light which has a longer wavelength than red is called infrared , and light which has a shorter wavelength than violet is called ultra violet or UV. The wavelength of light is measure in units of nanometers (abbreviated as nm), and 1nm is a billionth of a meter (that's a US billion or 1000 million, not a UK billion which is a million million!). Light shorter in wavelength than about 400nm is called ultra violet, light longer in wavelength than 700nm is called infrared. Why would be want to block it UV light? Color film works. There are basically three color sensitive layers, one sensitive to red light, one to green light and one to blue light. The blue layer not only responds to blue light, but also to UV light, so if there is a lot of UV around the blue sensitive layer gets extra exposure and the final image takes on a blue color. Since film isn't normally sensitive to infrared, you don't need an infrared blocking filter. Interestingly though, digital sensors are infrared sensitive and most digital cameras have an infrared blocking filter built in. Now there isn't usually a huge amount of UV around at sea level. There is some (that's what gives you a suntan or sunburn) but most of it is scattered by the atmosphere. However as you gain altitude, for example by going up a mountain, the amount of UV increases . Under these conditions a UV filter can prevent a blue cast in photographs. How to Clean Your Lens and Filters? Avoid unnecessary cleaning of your lens. Glass is relatively hard and durable. However, when advanced coatings and other chemicals are added to the lens, it becomes a surface that's more vulnerable to scratches and damage from chemicals and contact. Because of this, we want to try to keep our lenses and filters free of fingerprints and dirt, and avoid repeated physical interaction— this includes touching the lenses and—yes—cleaning. When stored in your camera bag or on your shelf, judicious use of front and rear lens caps will help keep your optics clean. But, when you use your gear, it's going to get dirty. This cannot be avoided. Your lenses will benefit from an occasional cleaning of your camera bag innards, as dust and dirt will likely find a home inside your bag and attach itself to the lens. . Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 "Dust is everywhere and everywhere is dust... Dust, however, is not the main enemy." Beware of rear smudges Oily fingerprints and smudges on the rear element will have the most dramatic impact on image quality, because of the way that the light is focused narrowly through the back of the lens. The good news is that the rear element of the lens is less susceptible to dirt and oil because, when mounted on the camera, it isn't subject to kids' sticky fingers, your sticky fingers, or other environmental dangers. Cleaning your optics is easy to do, even in the field Here is a simple, three-step process for effective lens and filter cleaning : 1. Remove as much dust and dirt as possible from the lens with a blower or soft- bristled brush. 2. Apply a few drops of lens cleaning solution to a lens tissue or cleaning cloth. 3. Using a circular motion, gently remove oil, fingerprints, and grime from the lens surface, working from the center outward Topic No 11 Handling the camera As a general rule, the camera should be held perfectly still, mounted to a camera support, unless the camera operator is deliberately panning it (turning it to one side) or tilting it (pointing it up or down) for a good reason. So what stops us from holding the camera steady? There are a number of difficulties. Even “lightweight” cameras still grow heavier with time. Muscles tire. Body movements (breathing, heartbeat) can cause camera movement. Wind can buffet the camera. The camera operator may be shooting from an unsteady position, such as a moving car or a rocking boat. On top of all that, if a telephoto lens is being used, any sort of camera shake will be considerably exaggerated. To overcome or reduce this problem and provide a stable base for the camera, several methods of camera support have been developed. Keeping the handheld camera steady takes practice. Here are some techniques to handhold a camera: Rest your back against a wall bracing the legs apart provides a better foundation for the camera. Kneel, with an elbow resting on one leg. Rest your body against a post. Lean the camera against something solid. Lean your side against a wall. Sit down, with your elbows on your knees. Rest your elbows on a low wall, fence, railings, car, or some other stationary object. Rest your elbows on the ground. Supporting the camera There are three basic ways to support a camera: Use the camera operator’s body. With practice, cameras can be handheld successfully. Depending on the camera’s design, a handheld camera may be steadied against the camera operator’s head or shoulder while he or she looks through the viewfinder eyepiece. Use some type of body support. A number of body supports are available for cameras of different sizes. They add a mechanical support of some type to give the camera added stability. Attach it to a camera mount. The camera can be attached to a camera mount of some type (monopod, tripod) with a screw socket in its base. A quick-release plate may be fastened to the bottom of the camera, allowing it to be removed in a moment. Handheld cameras When the decision is made to have the operator hold the camera by hand, it is usually because the camera has to be mobile, able to change positions quickly. This method is most commonly used by news crews, for documentaries, at sports events, or for shooting music videos. In all of these situations, the camera generally needs to move around to follow the action. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Some of the more lightweight consumer and lower-end professional cameras can be held in one hand. It is not large enough to be shoulder mounted. A camera operator can maintain steadiness fairly easily for short periods of time. However, over longer periods, even lightweight cameras can become difficult to hold steady. Larger cameras are designed to be shoulder mounted. The body of the camera rests on the camera operator’s right shoulder. The operator places his or her right hand through a support loop on the side of the lens. This way, the operator’s fingers are free to control the zoom rocker (servo zoom) switch while the thumb presses the record/pause switch. The camera operator’s left hand adjusts the manual zoom ring, the focusing ring, and the lens aperture. The secret to good camera control with a hand-held camera is to adopt a comfortable, well- balanced position, with legs apart and slightly bent and elbows tucked in on the sides. Grip the camera firmly but not too tightly or your muscles will tire and cause camera shake. Enhance steadiness by resting your elbows against your body or something really secure. This may be a wall, a fence, or perhaps a nearby car. The shoulder-mounted handheld camera is steadied by the right hand, positioned through the strap on the zoom lens. That same right hand also operates the record button and the zoom rocker (servo zoom) switch. The comfort and success of handholding a camera depends largely on the camera operator’s stamina and how long he or she will be using the camera. Standing with upraised arms supporting a shoulder-mounted camera can be very tiring, so several body braces and shoulder harnesses are available that help the camera operator to keep the camera steady when shooting for long periods. The monopod The monopod is an easily carried, lightweight mounting. It consists of a collapsible metal tube of adjustable length that’s crews to the camera base. This extendable tube can be set to any convenient length. Braced against a knee, foot, or leg, the monopod can provide a firm support for the camera yet allow the operator to move it around rapidly for a new viewpoint. Its main disadvantage is that it is easy to accidentally lean the camera sideways and get sloping horizons. And, of course, the monopod is not self- supporting. The pan head (panning head or tripod head) If the camera were mounted straight onto any mount it would be rigid, unable to move around to follow the action. Instead, it is better to use a tripod head. Not only does this enable the camera operator to swivel the camera from side to side (pan), and tilt it up and down, but the freedom of movement (friction, drag) can be adjusted as well. The tripod head can also lock in either or both directions. Although a camera can be controlled by holding it, it is usually much easier to control the pans, tilts, zooms, and focus by using the tripod arms (also known as a pan bar or panning handles) attached to the head. Whenever the camera is tilted or panned, the camera operator needs to feel a certain amount of resistance to control it properly. If there is too little resistance, the camera operator is likely to overshoot the camera move at the end of a pan or tilt. It will also be difficult to follow the action accurately. On the other hand, if the camera operator needs to exert too much effort, panning will be bumpy and erratic. So the friction (drag) for both pan and tilt is generally adjustable. Tripod heads for video cameras usually use either friction or fluid to dampen movements. The cheaper, simpler friction head has disadvantages, as pressure is gradually exerted to start a pan, the head may suddenly move with a jerk. And at the end of a slow pan, it can stick unexpectedly. With a fluid head though, all movements should be steady and controlled. Locking controls are part of the tripod head. These controls prevent the head Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 from panning or tilting. Whenever the camera is left unattended, it should be locked off. Otherwise, the camera may suddenly tilt and not only jolt its delicate mechanism but even tip the tripod over. Locking controls are useful when the camera needs to be very steady (such as when shooting with a long tele- photo lens). ii. Using a tripod A tripod offers a compact, convenient method of holding a camera steady, pro- vided it is used properly. It has three legs of independently adjustable length that are spread apart to provide a stable base for the camera. However, tripods are certainly not foolproof. In fact, precautions need to be taken in order to avoid possible disaster, so here are some useful tip s: Don’t leave the camera on its tripod unattended, particularly if people or animals are likely to knock against or trip over it. Take special care whenever the ground is slippery, sloping, or soft. To prevent the feet from slipping, tripods normally have either rubber pads for smooth ground or spikes (screw-out or retractable) for rough surfaces. (Be sure, though, not to use spikes when they are likely to damage the floor surface.) If the ground is uneven, such as on rocks or a staircase, the tripod legs can be adjusted to different lengths so that the camera itself remains level when panned around. Otherwise horizontals will tilt as the camera pans. Many tripods are fitted with bubble levels to help level the camera. ■ Tripods fitted with a camera tend to be top heavy, so always make sure that the tripod’s legs are fully spread and that it is resting on a firm surface. ■ There are several techniques for improving a tripod’s stability. The simplest is to add a central weight, such as a sandbag, hung by rope or chain beneath the tripod’s center. The legs can be tied to spikes in the ground. Or use a folding device known as a “spreader” to provide a portable base. The rolling tripod/tripod dolly One practical disadvantage of the tripod is that the camera operator cannot move it around while shooting. However, tripods can use a tri-pod dolly, a set of wheels that fit directly on the tripod, or a wheeled base (called a camera dolly) to become a rolling tripod. Although it sounds obvious, before moving a rolling dolly, remember to check that there is no cable or obstruction in the Camera’s path. It sometimes helps to give a slight push to align the casters in the appropriate direction before the dolly begins. Otherwise the video image may bump a little as the tripod starts to move. Although widely used in smaller studios, the rolling tripod dolly does not lend itself to subtle camerawork. Camera moves tend to be approximate. Camera height is adjusted resetting the heights of the tripod legs. So height changes while shooting are not practical unless a jib is attached to the dolly. The pedestal For many years, the pedestal (or ped as it is widely known) has been the all-purpose camera mounting used in TV studios throughout the world. It can support even the heaviest studio cameras, yet it still allows a range of maneuvers on smooth, level surfaces. Basically, the pedestal consists of a three-wheeled base, supporting a central column of adjustable height. A concentric steering wheel is used to push and steer the mounting around and to alter the camera’s height. Thanks to a compensatory pneumatic, spring, or counter-balance mechanism within the column, its height can be adjusted easily and smoothly, even while on shot. There may be occasions when a second operator’s assistance is needed to help push the pedestal and to look after the camera cable.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Jib arms In the golden days of filmed musicals, large camera cranes came into their own: bird’s-eye shots of the action, swooping down to a group, sweeping along at floor level, shots of dancing feet climbing to follow the action as dancers ascended staircases—in the right hands, such camerawork is very impressive. Some television production companies still use small camera cranes (jibs), but they need skilled handling and occupy a lot of floor space compared with a pedestal. If you want a wide variation in camera heights, a much less costly and more convenient mounting is the jib (or jib arm). The long jib arm (boom) is counterbalanced on a central column. This column is generally supported on a tripod or camera pedestal. The video camera is fixed into a cradle at the far end of the jib, remotely controlled by the camera operator who stands beside the mounting, watching an attached picture monitor. There is a wide range of jib designs, from the lightweight mountings used with smaller cameras with a maximum camera height of 10 feet to heavy-duty jibs that will reach up to 40 feet. The jib has a variety of operational advantages. It can reach over obstructions that would bring a rolling tripod or pedestal to a halt. It can take level shots of action that occur high above the floor while other mounts working on the floor level can only shoot the subject from a low angle. However, as the jib is swung, the camera always moves in an arc, whether it is being raised, lowered, or turned sideways. It cannot travel parallel with subjects moving across the action area. Whether an operator can turn and raise/lower the jib while on shot and keep the moving subjects in focus and in a well-composed picture will depend on the operator’s skills—and a bit of luck. Specialty camera mounts Several devices are available that can help camera operators cope with those awkward occasions when the camera needs to be secured in unusual places. Typical equipment that can prove handy for smaller production units includes the following:  Camera clamps . Metal brackets or clamps of various designs, which allow the camera to be fastened to a wall, fence, rail, door, or other structure.  Car rig (or car mount). A car mounts that attaches to the car, inside or outside of the car, in order to capture images that would otherwise be difficult to obtain. Some mounts use suction cups to fi t onto the car, others fi t over the side door, and some sit in a beanbag type mount. The Steadicam, Glidecam, and Fig Rig are just some of the special camera stabilizers that take the shake and shudder out of wide camera movements. These systems allow the camera operator to take smooth traveling shots while panning, tilting, walking, running, climbing, and so forth. An LCD color screen (treated to reduce reflections) allows the operator to monitor the shots. Handling care It’s easy to endanger video equipment, especially when shooting on location. Although some units are rugged and almost foolproof, others are easily damaged. A moment’s oversight can put the equipment out of action altogether—a camera momentarily rested on the ground, a spilt drink, the jolts, and vibration of a traveling vehicle. It takes just a moment to protect the camera with a water-proof cover (rain hood) against wind-blown dust and grit, sea-spray, or rain. Extreme cold, heat, or moisture can create problems too. A car’s trunk can become an oven in the hot sun. High humidity can wreak havoc with videotape recorders. Moving from a cold exterior to warm surroundings is liable to result in condensation (dew) in VCRs and can cause tape or machine damage. Condensation can also cause major problems with lens element misting, and care must be taken to protect internal elements if the lens is not sealed. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 The newer memory card cameras are not as susceptible to tape types of problems. Wrapping the equipment (even in a plastic bag) may help fight the condensation. Topic 12 Camera Lens A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media capable of storing an image chemically or electronically. There is no major difference in principle between a lenses used for a still camera, a video camera, a telescope, a microscope, or other apparatus, but the detailed design and construction are different. A lens may be permanently fixed to a camera, or it may be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths, apertures, and other properties. Convex Lens A convex lens is thicker at the center than at the edges. Convex lenses are thicker at the middle. Rays of light that pass through the lens are brought closer together (they converge). A convex lens is a converging lens. When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens the refracted rays converge at one point called the principal focus. The distance between the principal focus and the center of the lens is called the focal length. A camera consists of three main parts .  The body which is light tight and contains all the mechanical parts.  The lens which is a convex (converging) lens).  The film or a charged couple device in the case of a digital camera. The rays of light from the person are converged by the convex lens forming an image on the film or charged couple device in the case of a digital camera. The angle at which the light enters the lens depends on the distance of the object from the lens. If the object is close to the lens the light rays enter at a sharper angled. This results in the rays converging away from the lens. As the lens can only bend the light to a certain agree the image needs to be focused in order to form on the film. This is achieved by moving the lens away from the film. Similarly, if the object is away from the lens the rays enter at a wider angle. This results in the rays being refracted at a sharper angle and the image forming closer to the lens. In this case the lens needs to be positioned closer to the film to get a focused image. Thus the real image of a closer object forms further away from the lens than the real image of a distant object and the action of focusing is the moving of the lens to get the real image to fall on the film. The image formed is said to be real because the rays of lighted from the object pass through the film and inverted (upside down). While in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound lens made up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible) the many optical aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system. It is the job of the lens designer to balance these out and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production. Concave Lens A concave lens is thinner at the center than at the edges. Concave lenses are thinner at the middle. Rays of light that pass through the lens are spread out (they diverge). A convex lens is a diverging lens. When parallel rays of light pass through a concave lens the refracted rays diverge so that they appear to come from one point called the principal focus. The distance between the principal focus and the center of the lens is called the focal length. The image formed is virtual and diminished (smaller).

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic 13 Lens Aberrations A lens collects light from a point on an object and focuses it to a corresponding conjugate point on an image. Under most conditions, the lens fails at this task because of some error in the precision with which it focuses this light. Rather than a true point image, the lens produces a blur circle. It is the function of the optical designer to assure that this blur circle is sufficiently small to allow the required resolution or image quality. The inability of a lens to form a perfect image is caused by lens aberrations . The following paragraphs will describe the seven aberrations and discuss some of the salient points of each. 1. Spherical aberration Spherical aberration is the imaging error found when a lens is focusing an axial bundle of monochromatic light. In the presence of spherical aberration, each zone or annulus of the lens aperture has a slightly different focal length. The enlarged view shows the actual intersection of focused rays with the image surface. At the paraxial focus A, all rays close to the axis of the lens are focused accurately. The rays from zones farther from the axis are focused short of the paraxial focus. The farther the rays are from the axis, the greater is this error in focus. This lack of a common focus for all zones of the lens is spherical aberration.. In the case of focus for minimum spot size, the central spot is slightly greater, about 0.025 mm in diameter, while the visible flare diameter has been reduced to less than 0.04 mm. In almost all applications where spherical aberration is present, the overall image quality is best when the lens is focused close to the point of minimum spot. 2. Coma Coma is an aberration that afflicts off-axis light bundles in a manner quite similar to the way in which spherical aberration affects axial bundles. When an off-axis bundle is incident on a lens afflicted with coma, each annulus focuses onto the image plane at a slightly different height and with a different spot size. The result is an overall spot that is comatic in shape, having a bright central core with a triangular flare extending toward the optical axis of the lens. For a pair of simple lenses arranged symmetrically as in a relay lens system, or a complex lens that has some degree of symmetry, a significant reduction in the amount of coma is found. This important characteristic is used in the design of many lenses and instruments such as borescopes and submarine periscopes. The residual coma in a lens system is usually combined with other off-axis aberrations, making its individual contribution to final image quality difficult to evaluate. 3. Field curvature In most optical systems, the final image must be formed on a plane or flat surface. Unfortunately, most optical systems tend to form that image on a curved surface. The nominal curvature (1/radius) of that surface is referred to as the Petzval, or field curvature of the lens . For simple lenses this curvature is equal to approximately 2/3 of the lens power. When the lens is free of other off-axis aberrations, the image is formed on the Petzval surface. When astigmatism is present (which is most often the case) the Petzval surface has no real significance as far as actual imaging of the lens system is concerned. 4. Astigmatism . When astigmatism is present in a lens system, fans of rays of differing orientations at the lens aperture tend to focus on differing curved surfaces. Presence of astigmatism causes the ideal circular point image to be blurred into an elliptical patch. Astigmatism is, by definition, the difference between the tangential and sagittal field curves . If the tangential and sagittal Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 surfaces are coincident, then the lens is said to be free of astigmatism. In this case, the image is formed on the Petzval surface. When astigmatism is present, the tangential field departure from the Petzval surface is three times the departure of the sagittal field. In most cases it is not possible to correct field curvature and astigmatism to zero, but satisfactory image quality usually can be achieved by balancing residual astigmatism with inherent field curvature. 5. Distortion Distortion is a unique aberration in that it does not affect the quality of the image in terms of sharpness or focus. Rather, distortion affects the shape of the image, causing it to depart from a true scaled duplicate of the object. If the system suffers from positive distortion, then the off-axis points are imaged at distances greater than nominal, creating the pincushion effect. On the other hand, if the system exhibits negative distortion, the resulting image assumes a barrel shape. With the exception of certain metrological systems, where critical measurements are taken from the image, distortion errors in the 5 to 10 percent region usually are deemed acceptable. The five aberrations presented to this point have been monochromatic aberrations, generally compute at the central wavelength for the lens system. If the lens is to be used over an extended spectral bandwidth, the following two chromatic aberrations must also be considered. 6. Axial color For all optical glasses, the index of refraction varies as a function of wavelength; the index is greater for shorter (blue) wavelengths. Also, the rate at which the index changes is greater at the shorter wavelengths. In a simple lens this causes each wavelength to focus at a different point along the optical axis. This chromatic spreading of the light is known as dispersion . Except in very unusual cases, such as laser systems or nearly monochromatic systems, axial color is an aberration that must be dealt with in order to achieve usable image quality. This can be accomplished by converting the simple lens into an achromatic doublet . The two glass types selected correct the primary axial color by bringing the two extreme wavelengths to a common focus. In the lens illustrated, a reduction of 30 times in blur-circle size has been realized by the achromatization of this simple lens. A simple lens with little chief ray refraction (a) has little lateral color. An eyepiece design (b) where substantial nonsymmetrical refraction of the chief ray exists will be afflicted with lateral color. 7. Lateral color The second chromatic aberration (and the last of the seven primary lens aberrations) is lateral color. For on-axis light bundles , the optical axis of the lens coincides with the central ray in that bundle. For off-axis bundles , the corresponding central ray is called the chief ray, or principal ray. The height of the chief ray at the image plane defines image size. If lateral color exists in the lens system, this chief ray is dispersed, causing the differing wavelengths to be imaged at different heights on the image plane. The result is a chromatic, radial blur for off axis image points. In the case of a simple lens with the chief ray passing through its center, there is little refraction of that ray and, therefore, little lateral color. A system that is symmetrical about the point where the chief ray crosses the optical axis (the aperture stop) has little or no lateral color because the aberration tends to cancel itself as the chief ray traverses the symmetrical halves of the system. The eyepiece is a classic example of a lens form that produces large amounts of chief ray refraction that is not symmetrical about the aperture stop. As a result, in most eyepiece designs lateral color is a major contributor to degradation of off-axis image quality.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic 14 Lenses Normal lens In photography and cinematography, a normal lens is a lens that reproduces a field of view that generally looks "natural" to a human observer under normal viewing conditions, as compared with lenses with longer or shorter focal lengths which produce an expanded or contracted field of view that distorts the perspective when viewed from a normal viewing distance. Lenses of shorter focal length are called wide-angle lenses , while longer-focal-length lenses are referred to as long-focus lens (with the most common of that type being the telephoto lenses). For still photography, a lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of the film or sensor format is considered to be a normal lens; its angle of view is similar to the angle subtended by a large-enough print viewed at a typical viewing distance equal to the print diagonal; this angle of view is about 53° diagonally. For cinematography, where the image is normally viewed at a greater distance, a lens with a focal length of roughly double the film or sensor diagonal is considered 'normal'. The term normal lens can also be used as a synonym for rectilinear lens . Wide-angle lens In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal lens for a given film plane. This type of lens allows more of the scene to be included in the photograph, which is useful in architectural, interior and landscape photography where the photographer may not be able to move farther from the scene to photograph it. Another use is where the photographer wishes to emphasize the difference in size or distance between objects in the foreground and the background; nearby objects appear very large and objects at a moderate distance appear small and far away. This exaggeration of relative size can be used to make foreground objects more prominent and striking, while capturing expansive backgrounds. A wide angle lens is also one that projects a substantially larger image circle than would be typical for a standard design lens of the same focal length. This large image circle enables either large tilt & shift movements with a view camera, or a wide field of view. By convention, in still photography, the normal lens for a particular format has a focal length approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of the image frame or digital photo sensor. In cinematography, a lens of roughly twice the diagonal is considered "normal". Ultra-wide-angle lenses that do not produce a rectilinear image (i.e., exhibit barrel distortion) are called fisheye lenses. Common focal lengths for these in a 35 mm camera are 6 to 8 mm (which produces a circular image). Lenses with focal lengths of 8 to 16 mm may be either rectilinear or fisheye designs. Wide-angle lenses come in both fixed-focal-length and zoom varieties. For 35mm cameras, lenses producing rectilinear images can be found at focal lengths as short as 8 mm, including zoom lenses with ranges of 2:1 that begin at 12 mm. Macro Lens The official definition of a macro lens is that it should be able to reproduce a life-sized image of an object on the recording medium – in this case the image sensor. True macro lenses offer a magnification factor of 1.0x or 1:1 at its closest focus setting. Fit one of these lenses to a DSLR like the Canon EOS 60D, and a standard UK postage stamp will fill the whole frame. That might not sound particularly impressive, but when you consider that the 18Mp sensor in cameras like enable very large format prints, the potential for creating massive enlargements from shots of tiny objects is really quite astonishing. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Micro Lens A micro lens is a small lens, generally with a diameter less than a millimeter (mm) and often as small as 10 micrometers (μm). The small sizes of the lenses means that a simple design can give good optical quality but sometimes unwanted effects arise due to optical diffraction at the small features. Tilt shift lenses : perspective control Tilt shift lenses enable photographers to transcend the normal restrictions of depth of field and perspective. Many of the optical tricks these lenses permit could not otherwise be reproduced digitally making them a must for certain landscape, architectural and product photography. The first part of this tutorial addresses the shift feature, and focuses on its use for in digital SLR cameras for perspective control and panoramas. The second part focuses on using tilt shift lenses to control depth of field. Tilt shift movements Shift movements enable the photographer to shift the location of the lens's imaging circle relative to the digital camera sensor. This means that the lens's center of perspective no longer correspond the image's center of perspective, and produces an effect similar to only using a crop from the side of a correspondingly wider angle lens. Tilt movements enable the photographer to tilt the plane of sharpest focus so that it no longer lies perpendicular to the lens axis. This produces a wedge-shaped depth of field whose width increases further from the camera. The tilt effect therefore does not necessarily increase depth of field—it just allows the photographer to customize its location to better suit their subject matter. Topic 15 Lens Speed Lens speed is all about the amount of light that is let in through the lens. We’re talking about the light that reaches the image sensor. A fast lens lets in more light to the sensor. A slow lens lets in less light. How We Define Lens Speed? When we talk about lens speed, we are referring to the maximum aperture of the lens. The aperture of a lens is the diameter of the open circle or diaphragm inside a lens. This diameter is expressed as an f-number, such as f/2.8 or f/16. The f-number of a given lens is a mathematical expression that lets us use this as an aperture designation across all lenses of different focal lengths and still get the same exposure values. We’re not going to worry about those fancy formulas here. Instead we’re going to look at practical applications and what these aperture values or f-numbers mean when you are making adjustments to your camera. The lower the f- number, the wider the aperture . The wider the aperture, the more light that gets in to the sensor. These are “fast” apertures – like f/1.4 or f/2.8.The higher the f-number, the smaller the aperture. The smaller the aperture, the less light that gets in. These are “slow” apertures – like f/16 or f/22. Why “Fast” Lenses Are Better? Now that’s a pretty broad statement; however, most of us have more of a need for a “fast” lens than we do a slower lens. There are a couple of big benefits to “fast” lenses: 1. More exposure options in low light 2. Isolated subjects with out of focus backgrounds Because more light can get in when using a lower f-number, you can often get better images in available light – especially when that light is relatively dim. Using a wide aperture can help prevent camera shake and decrease motion blur in available light scenes because you have the ability to use a faster shutter speed. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 In addition to the exposure flexibility you get from using a wide aperture setting, you also can create a nice separation between the subject and the background. By setting the aperture value to f/2.8 on my 70-200 lens (or, “shooting wide open” as you will hear photographers state when shooting with a lens at its widest aperture setting), I was able to separate my favorite subject from the background of flowers and trees. If the aperture had been set higher to f/8 or so, then the flowers would be more in focus and, perhaps, distracting from the main subject. While you don’t always need or want a shallow depth of field, it’s nice to have the option. A smaller aperture value will increase the depth of field, which means more of the image will appear in focus. Fast and Slow Lenses Let’s take a look at some examples of fast and slow lenses. 50mm f/1.8 Lenses This is a fast lens. Recall that the low f-number means that the diaphragm inside the lens is very large when all the way open. These lenses are typically pretty affordable and solid performers across brands of cameras. The 50mm focal length is great for portraits on smaller DSLRs. 18-55mm f/3.5-5.6 Lenses This is a slower lens. This is a standard kit lens for entry-level DSLRs across several brands, including Canon, Nikon and Sony. The reason for the range of f/3.5-5.6 in the lens description is due to the zoom range. As you zoom the lens out, the physics of the lens require a smaller aperture to be used. As a result, when at 18mm, the widest aperture setting is f/3.5. However, when zoomed out to 55mm, the widest aperture is limited to f/5.6. Most of these kit lenses are decent performers; however, you can certainly tell a difference in low light. Often times, it is difficult to capture images indoors using these lenses without also using flash. Topic 16 APERTURE “Aperture is the size of the opening in the lens when a picture is taken”. Aperture either adds a dimension to a photograph by blurring the background, or magically brings everything in focus. Aperture is a hole within a lens, through which light travels into the camera body. It is easier to understand the concept if you just think about our eyes. Every camera that we know of today is designed like human eyes. The cornea in our eyes is like the front element of a lens – it gathers all external light, then bends it and passes it to the iris. Depending on the amount of light, the iris can either expand or shrink, controlling the size of the pupil, which is a hole that lets the light pass further into the eye. The pupil is essentially what we refer to as aperture in photography. The amount of light that enters the retina (which works just like the camera sensor), is limited to the size of the pupil – the larger the pupil, the more light enters the retina. Aperture is „the opening in the lens. When you hit the shutter release button of your camera a hole opens up that allows your cameras image sensor to catch a glimpse of the scene you’re wanting to capture. The aperture that you set impacts the size of that hole. The larger the hole the more light that gets in – the smaller the hole the less light Aperture is measured in „f-stops‟. For example f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6,f/8,f/22 etc. Moving from one f-stop to the next doubles or halves the size of the amount of opening in your lens (and the amount of light getting through). Keep in mind that a change in shutter speed from one stop to the next doubles or halves the amount of light that gets in also this means if you increase one and decrease the other you let the same amount of light in very handy to keep in mind). One thing that causes a lot of new photographer’s confusion is that large apertures (where lots of light gets through) are given f/stop smaller numbers and smaller apertures (where less light gets Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 through) have larger f-stop numbers. So f/2.8 is in fact a much larger aperture than f/22. It seems the wrong way around when you first hear it but you’ll get the hang of it. Lens Apertures: Maximum and Minimum Every lens has a limit on how large or how small the aperture can get. If you take a look at the specifications of your lens, it should say what the maximum (lowest f-number) and minimum apertures (highest f-number) of your lens are. The maximum aperture of the lens is much more important than the minimum, because it shows the speed of the lens. A lens that has an aperture of f/1.2 or f/1.4 as the maximum aperture is considered to be a fast lens, because it can pass through more light than, for example, a lens with a maximum aperture of f/4.0. That’s why lenses with large apertures are better suited for low light photography. The minimum aperture is not that important, because almost all modern lenses can provide at least f/16 as the minimum aperture, which is typically more than enough for everyday photography needs. This 50mm lens has a max aperture of f/1.4. There are two types of lenses: “fixed” (also known as “prime”) and “zoom”. While zoom lenses give you the flexibility to zoom in and out (most point and shoot cameras have zoom lenses) without having to move closer or away from the subject, fixed or prime lenses only have one focal length. Due to the complexity of optical design for zoom lenses, many of the consume lenses have variable apertures. What it means, is that when you are fully zoomed out, the aperture is one number, while zooming in will increase the f-number to a higher number. Why is this important? Because larger maximum aperture means that the lens can pass through more light, and hence, your camera can capture images faster in low-light situations. Having a larger maximum aperture also means better ability to isolate subjects from the background. Topic 17 SHUTTER SPEED “Shutter Speed is the amount of time that the shutter is open”. Shutter Speed is one of the three pillars of photography, the other two being ISO and Aperture. Shutter speed is where the other side of the magic happens – it is responsible for creating dramatic effects by either freezing action or blurring motion. What is a Camera Shutter? A camera shutter is a curtain in front of the camera sensor that stays closed until the camera fires. When the camera fire, the shutter opens and fully exposes the camera sensor to the light that passes through the lens aperture. After the sensor is done collecting the light, the shutter closes immediately, stopping the light from hitting the sensor. The button that fires the camera is also called “shutter” or “shutter button”, because it triggers the shutter to open and close. Introduction to Shutter Speed in Digital Photography The three main areas t hat you can adjust are ISO, Aperture and Shutter speed. In digital photography shutter speed is the length of time that your image sensor „sees‟ the scene you’re attempting to capture. Shutter speed, also known as “exposure time”, stands for the length of time a camera shutter is open to expose light into the camera sensor. If the shutter speed is fast, it can help to freeze action completely, as seen in the above photo of the dolphin. If the shutter speed is slow, it can create an effect called “motion blur”, where moving objects appear blurred along the direction of the motion. This effect is used quite a bit in advertisements of cars and motorbikes, where a sense of speed and motion is communicated to the viewer by intentionally blurring the moving wheels. In short, High shutter speeds freeze action, while low shutter speeds create an effect of motion. How shutter speed is measured? Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Shutter speeds are typically measured in fractions of a second, when they are under a second. For example 1/4 means a quarter of a second, while 1/250 means one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of a second or four milliseconds. Most modern DSLRs can handle shutter speeds of up to 1/4000th of a second, while some can handle much higher speeds of 1/8000th of a second and faster. The longest shutter speed on most DSLRs is typically 30 seconds (without using external remote triggers). Fast, slow and long shutter speeds Fast shutter speed is typically whatever it takes to freeze action. For me, it is typically above 1/500th of a second for general photography and above 1/1000th of a second for bird photography. Slow shutter speed is considered to be the slowest shutter speed that you can handle without introducing camera shake. Some of the newer Nikon lenses such as the Nikon 70-200mm VR II have special “vibration reduction” technologies within the lens that can handle shutter speeds of up to 1/10th of a second (depending on photographer’s technique), hand-held! • Shutter speed is measured in seconds – or in most cases fractions of seconds. The bigger the denominator the faster the speed (ie 1/1000 is much faster than 1/30). • In most cases you’ll probably be using shutter speeds of 1/60th of a second or faster. This is because anything slower than this is very difficult to use without getting camera shake. Camera shake is when your camera is moving while the shutter is open and results in blur in your photos. • If you’re using a slow shutter speed (anything slower than 1/60) you will need to either use a tripod or some type of image stabilization (more and more cameras are coming with this built in). • Shutter speeds available to you on your camera will usually double (approximately) with each setting. As a result you’ll usually have the options for the following shutter speeds – 1/500, 1/250, 1/125, 1/60, 1/30, 1/15, 1/8 etc. This „doubling‟ is handy to keep in mind as aperture settings also double the amount of light that is let in – as a result increasing shutter speed by one stop and decreasing aperture by one stop should give you similar exposure levels. • Some cameras also give you the option for very slow shutter speeds that are not fractions of seconds but are measured in seconds (for example 1 second, 10 seconds, 30 seconds etc.). These are used in very low light situations, when you’re going after special effects and/or when you’re trying to capture a lot of movement in a shot. Some cameras also give you the option to shoot in „B‟ (or „Bulb‟) mode. Bulb mode lets you keep the shutter open for as long as you hold it down. • When considering what shutter speed to use in an image you should always ask yourself whether anything in your scene is moving and how you’d like to capture that movement. If there is movement in your scene you have the choice of either freezing the movement (so it looks still) or letting the moving object intentionally blur (giving it a sense of movement). • To freeze movement in an image (like in the surfing shot above) you’ll want to choose a faster shutter speed and to let the movement blur you’ll want to choose a slower shutter speed. The actual speeds you should choose will vary depending upon the speed of the subject in your shot and how much you want it to be blurred. Motion is not always bad. I spoke to one digital camera owner last week who told me that he always used fast shutter speeds and couldn’t understand why anyone would want motion in their images. There are times when motion is good. For example when you’re taking a photo of a waterfall and want to show how fast the water is flowing, or when you’re taking a shot of a racing car and want to give it a feeling of speed, or when you’re taking a shot of a star scape and want to show how the stars move over a longer period of time. In all of these instances choosing a longer shutter speed will be the way to go. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 However in all of these cases you need to use a tripod or you’ll run the risk of ruining the shots by adding camera movement (a different type of blur than motion blur). Focal Length and Shutter Speed Another thing to consider when choosing shutter speed is the focal length of the lens you ’reusing. Longer focal lengths will accentuate the amount of camera shake you have and so you’ll need to choose a faster shutter speed (unless you have image stabilization in your lens or camera). The „rule‟ of thumb to use with focal length in non-image stabilized situations) is to choose a shutter speed with a denominator that is larger than the focal length of the lens. For example if you have a lens that is 50mm l/60th is probably ok but if you have a 200mm lens you'll probably want to shoot at around 11250. Topic 18 DEPTH OF FIELD Depth of Field (DOF) is that amount of your shot that will be in focus. Depth of field refers to the range of distance that appears acceptably sharp. It varies depending on camera type, aperture and focusing distance, although print size and viewing distance can also influence our perception of depth of field. Large depth of field means that most of your image will be in focus whether it’s close to your camera or far away (like the picture to the left where both the foreground and background are largely in focus taken with an aperture of f/22).Small (or shallow) depth of field means that only part of the image will be in focus and the rest will be fuzzy (like in the flower at the top of this post (click to enlarge). You’ll see in it that the tips of the yellow stems are in focus but even though they are only 1cm or so behind them that the petals are out of focus. This is a very shallow depth of field and was taken with an ape rture off/4.5). What is Depth of Field with relevance to aperture? Aperture has a big impact upon depth of field. One important thing to remember here, the size of the aperture has a direct impact on the depth of field, which is the area of the image that appears sharp. Large aperture (remember it’s a smaller number) will decrease depth of field while small aperture (larger numbers) will give you larger depth of field. The size of the circle represents the size of the lens aperture – the larger the f-number, the smaller the aperture. A large f-number such as f/32, (which means a smaller aperture) will bring all foreground and background objects in focus, while a small f-number such as f/1.4 will isolate the foreground from the background by making the foreground objects sharp and the background blurry. Image on left shot at f/2.8, Image on right shot at f/8.0 As you can see, just changing the aperture from f/2.8 to f/8.0 has a big effect on how much of WALL-E is in focus and how visible the background gets. If I had used a much smaller aperture such as f/32 in this shot, the background would be as visible as WALL-E. You now know that focus is related to the distance between the subject and the lens. There will be one focus setting which is the best for a subject at any particular distance. But it’s also true that on either side of this point (both closer and farther away) there’s a certain range of distance within which focus is still acceptable. This range, from front to back, is known as the depth of field. Lens Angle Affects Depth of Field Wider lens angles give a greater depth of field. This means that when the camera is zoomed out all the way, your subject will be able to move forward and backward across a considerable range and still be in focus. Narrower lens angles (especially telephoto) give a smaller depth of field. As you zoom in, the acceptable focus range for your subject will decrease. When you’re zoomed in all the way on a close-up shot, the depth of field will be smallest. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Iris Setting Also Affects Depth of Field The wider the aperture (the more open the iris) the smaller the depth of field. This means focus will be more problematic in low light conditions w h e r e the iris will need to be opened wide. You’ll find that your subject won’t be able to move forward or backward very far without going out of focus. Telephoto Lens and Wide Iris Combined The combination of telephoto lens (zoomed in all the way) and a wide aperture (big iris opening) gives you the smallest depth of field of all. This is the hardest situation for shooting action over which you have no directorial control, because very small movements forward or backward will cause focus difficulties. For example, if you’re taping a singer in low light at a night-time outdoor concert, and you have the lens in telephoto to give you a close-up of her face on the screen, you’ll find that if she sways only slightly forward or back with the feel of the music, she’ll go in and out of focus. There’s not much you can do. Your work will look awful and people won’t be able to understand why you didn’t just focus the camera. To retrieve the situation, you can stay on a wider angle shot, and then move your camera in closer to the stage when that song ends. But it’s times like this that make you wonder how you got into video in the first place. For better depth of field in lowlight conditions, you should try to either get in close to your subject so you can stay on the wide angle lens, or add lights, so you can use a smaller aperture. Lens Angle Affects Depth of Field Wider lens angles give a greater depth of field. This means that when the camera I had used a larger aperture such as f/1.4 and focused on one of the letters, probably only that letter would have been sharp, while everything else would have been blurred out. The larger the aperture, the smaller the area in focus (depth of field) you now know that focus is related to the distance between the subject and the lens. Aperture Priority/ Shutter Priority Some cameras are automated to the extent that you can decide what function you want most and set that one, and the camera will adjust all the other function settings accordingly. For example, if your main concern is to freeze the motion in the image because you’re a physio- therapist or sports teacher and you’re doing motion analysis, you can tell the camera to priorities the high speed shutter setting. The camera will then adjust the iris and other functions to suit the high speed shutter setting you’ve selected. On the other hand, if you’re mainly concerned with getting the greatest depth of field because you’re videoing dancers who will be coming forward and backward in the frame and you need them to always be in focus, you can tell the camera to priorities the aperture setting, and the camera will make all the adjustments needed to the other functions. Topic 19 Exposure In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area (the image plane illuminance times the exposure time) reaching a photographic film or electronic image sensor, as determined by shutter speed, lens aperture and scene luminance. Exposure is an umbrella term that refers to two aspects of photography – it is referring to how to control the lightness and the darkness of the image. The exposure is controlled by the camera's light meter . The light meter determines what the proper exposure is; it all sets the f-stop and shutter speed. The f-stop is a fraction; the f represents the focal length. The f-stop is determined by dividing the focal length by the aperture. f/2.8 Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 would be 1/2.8 versus f/16 which would be 1/16. If you look at it like slices of a pie, you would get a lot more pie with 1/2.8 than you would with 1/16. This can be very unnerving, but f-stops and shutter speeds on every picture to get the light right or the lightness and darkness and exposure. A good way to understand it is to "think of a bucket of water with a hole in the bottom. If you have a large hole in the bottom of the bucket (large aperture), water will drain out quickly (fast shutter speed). Conversely, for the same amount of water, if you have a small hole in the bottom of the bucket (small aperture), the water will drain out slowly (slow shutter speed). Exposure or lightness and darkness in the picture is a combination of the f-stop, which is the size of the hole in the lens, and the shutter speed, which is the length of time that the shutter is open. So, if you leave the shutter open longer, you're getting more light to the film or more light to the digital sensor, and the picture gets brighter, or lighter. If you shorten the exposure (give less light to the film or to the digital sensor), the exposure gets darker. Longer shutter speed: more exposure, more light; shorter shutter speed: less exposure, less light. "F-stop" (also called "f-number") means fraction and the f-number is the fraction of the actual opening in the lens compared to the focal length of the lens. The aperture is the opening light passes through. Why you would want to change the exposure? The aperture is really important to control the picture; it lets in the light, and the light is the most important thing for your picture. Without light, you won't have a picture. Set the aperture to control both the light and the amount that is in focus, in other words, the depth of field. Set a wide opening, like f/2 or 2.8, to blur the background and have your subject razor sharp. Also, you'll probably want to use the largest aperture when shooting in low-light, in order to prevent blur. Shoot a medium aperture, 5.6 or 8 so the subject is sharp and background is slightly out of focus but still recognizable. Shoot at smaller apertures, like f/11 and possibly smaller, for a landscape picture when you want the flowers in the foreground, the river, and the mountains all in focus. Depending on your format, tiny apertures like f/16 and smaller will cause you to lose sharpness due to diffraction effects. For many photographers, the aperture is far more important to achieving great pictures than the shutter speed, because it controls the depth of field of the picture, whereas it's more difficult to tell if a picture was shot at 1/250 or 1/1000 of a second. Why you would want to change the ISO? You change the ISO on your digital camera to control the camera's sensitivity to light. In bright light, we set the camera to be less sensitive, to give us a picture with less noise since the shutter speed is fast enough at 100 ISO. In low light where there's less ambient light, you need more sensitivity in the camera. Therefore, raise the ISO from 100 to possibly 1600 or even 6400 if you have to, to get enough light in so that the picture isn't blurry. Now, what's the payback? As you raise the ISO, you get more noise (the film equivalent being grain) in the picture and less color, so be sure to set the ISO as low as possible without having the ISO too low that you end up with blurry pictures. Determine what ISO is required for your shot. The ISO on your digital camera is just like it is on film. You used to buy the film by the kind of light you were using. Today, you set the ISO on your camera depending on the light. How do you set it? On some cameras there's a button right on the top of the camera that says ISO. You press the button, turn the dial, and change it. Some cameras you have to go into the menu and find the ISO setting. Click on the ISO setting and turn the dial and change it. That's how you set the ISO on your digital camera. Stop action by changing the shutter speed on your Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 camera. Change the shutter speed on your camera to affect the action-stopping ability. If you're shooting a picture with your camera handheld, you will need a shutter speed that as fast as or faster than the reciprocal of your focal length. In other words, if you were shooting on a 100mm lens, a shutter speed of 1/100 of a second would be optimal. Camera blur can be eliminated at these speeds. If you are shooting moving subjects, change your shutter speed to a shutter speed that ranges from 1/500 to 1/1000 to stop the moving subjects. If shooting pictures in low light, where you need more light to come in through the shutter, set the shutter speed to a thirtieth or a fifteenth of a second. When you do this, the action is going to blur, so use thirty or fifteen when there's low light or when you want the action to blur. Medium shutter speed: 125 or 250 for most pictures. Fast shutter speed: 500 or 1000 for action. Thirtieth or a fifteenth of a second to blur action or under low light. How to change the shutter speed on your digital camera? You might have the option of a dial, a button on your camera, or you may have to do it in-camera. Always err on the side of underexposure. Of course, it goes without saying that you want fantastic exposure, but if you can't get it quite right, err on the side of underexposure (let your scene be a little dark). When a picture is over-exposed, all of the information is lost and cannot be recovered. With underexposed pictures, you have a greater chance of recovering the picture through post- processing. You can set your camera to underexpose by using EV compensation (exposure value compensation). Learn your camera's "program mode". The exposure modes on y our camera allows you to control how you adjust the picture. The basic mode is the “P” mode (program mode) and it allows you to manipulate both the shutter speed or aperture settings, and it will adjust the other value accordingly so that the picture is exposed perfectly according to the light meter. The advantage of program mode is that you don't need to know anything. It's just a little bit above the green auto or “idiot proof” mode. Aperture priority mode On your digital camera you have the choice of “A-mode” or aperture priority. In the aperture priority mode (it's a way to determine the exposure); you the photographer pick the aperture or f- stop. The camera will choose the shutter speed for you. Aperture priority could be considered the more useful of the modes. So, you select the f-stop, whether it's f/2.8 to blur the background, f/8 for moderate depth of field, or f/16 to have everything in focus. Investigate your camera's "shutter priority" mode. Have at least some familiarity with the shutter speed of your camera. The advantage of shutter speed is you set the number that's most convenient or most comfortable to use. Then the camera will pick the other number, the f-stop. On your camera, shutter priority can either be S or TV mode depending on your camera. In shutter priority mode, pick the shutter speed and the camera sets the f-stop. When in shutter priority, the camera will take the picture at the selected shutter speed regardless of whether or not the picture will be exposed correctly. Topic 20 FILM SPEED/ EXPOSURE METER Film Speed “Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometer and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems.” How important is film speed? When we talk about film speed, we're referring to the measure of a film's sensitivity to light. Each film speed is best suited for a different type of photography. The lower the speed, the longer an exposure to light is necessary to produce image density. If the film speed is higher, it Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 requires less exposure but generally has reduced quality in the form of grain and noise. Noise and grain are the abnormalities in brightness and color in images; they look similar to a layer of "snow" on a television set. They're measured using the ISO system from the International Organization for Standardization (thus the ISO, which is used as an abbreviation for the group and the film speed) . ASA (American Standard Association) used in conjunction with film speed. ASA and ISA are interchangeable. ISO speed is used in digital cameras to judge the relationship between the exposure rating and the sensor data values. Most advanced cameras have an ISO setting available, which emulates the speed rating of film. The basic rules of film speed apply equally to film and digital cameras. Slow-speed films generally refer to film with 100-200 ISO ratings . These slower speeds are excellent for outdoor landscape photography and inanimate objects. They can also be a great choice if it's a particularly sunny day. Since the film takes longer to absorb light, it captures detail more effectively. So if you plan on enlarging those pictures you'll want to shoot with the lowest ISO possible. Medium speed is 400 ISO. As can be expected, the medium speed is probably the best for general-purpose use and can handle indoor lighting conditions, overcast days and any combination of the two. Even so, it's not suited for action shots or very bright days. Fast-speed film is usually rated at 800 ISO and above . It's best for moving subjects you might see at a sporting event or concert, or when you plan on using a zoom lens or are shooting in a dimly lit area. Unfortunately, if you plan on enlarging the photos, they'll likely turn out grainy Film speed is remarkably important and can make or break a photograph. Topic 21/22 EXPOSURE METER & GREY CARD Exposure Meter: In digital photography exposure meter is an instrument for measuring the amount of light falling on or being reflected by a subject, and usually equipped to convert this measurement into usable information, such as the shutter speed and aperture size required to take a reasonable photograph. GRAY Card: A gray card is a middle gray reference, typically used together with a reflective light meter, as a way to produce consistent image exposure and/or color in film and photography. A gray card is a flat object of a neutral gray color that derives from a flat reflectance spectrum. Types of light meters Choosing Hand Held Exposure Meters Hand-held exposure meters measure light falling onto a light-sensitive cell and converts it into a reading that enables the correct shutter speed and or lens aperture settings to be made. Hand-held exposure meters come in many variations, each with specific benefits. By using the appropriate meter for your specific needs, you can be assured of consistent professional results. Incident vs Reflected The two distinct techniques of measuring light, Incident and Reflected Each has their own advantages in different situations. Hand held meters can give you both capabilities, along with features not found in even the most advanced cameras with built-in meters. The 18% Neutral Gray Standard Light meters are designed to measure light in a consistent way. They cannot see the subject and interpret it as a photographer can. For example, a light meter cannot distinguish a black cat from a white cat, a red balloon from a blue balloon, nor textured powdery white snow from a shiny white auto paint finish. Given the same lighting situation, each of these objects would reflect a Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 different amount of light. Reflected measurements would indicate different exposures for each object. Incident measurements would indicate the same exposure for each object, to render a consistent exposure . Light meters are calibrated to assume that all subjects are of average 18% reflectance, or neutral gray . The use of the 18% neutral gray standard allows a reflected light meter to render correct readings for “average” subjects in “average” lighting situations. (The value of 18% neutral gray is also referred to as Zone V in the Zone System, an advanced black and white exposure method.) Incident Metering The incident meter is aimed at the light source and measures the light source falling directly on a scene and is not influenced by the reflectance of the subject being photographed. For more precise control of the photograph, incident meters are also used to measure various levels of light from multiple sources falling on separate parts of a scene. Using Incident Meters Incident metering measures the intensity of light falling on the subject and gives accurate and consistent rendition of the tonality and contrast regardless of reflectance, background, color, and shape. Subjects that appear lighter than gray will appear lighter. Subjects that are darker than gray will appear darker. Colors will be rendered accurately. Highlight and shadow areas will fall naturally into place. NOTE: Most light meters allow for both reflected and incident light readings. Advantages of Incident Measurement Incident meters measure accurately and consistently and are not affected by variances in reflectance of the subject or scene. Because of this, incident meters give the most accurate exposure for the majority of situations and subjects. Reflected Metering Reflected metering reads the intensity of light reflecting off the subject and may vary according to variances in tonality, color, contrast, background, surface, or shape. Meters are designed to regard all subjects as 18° neutral gray reflectance. Reflected measurement of any single toned area will result in a neutral gray rendition. Subjects that appears lighter than gray will reflect more light and result in an exposure that renders it darker. Subjects that are darker than gray will reflect less light and result in an exposure that renders it lighter. Using Reflected Measurement Hand-held reflected light meters and built-in camera meters read the intensity of light reflecting off the subject and measurements are taken from the camera position. Generally, reflected measurement of a wide subject area can include many different reflective surfaces or colors that can bias the meter and result in inconsistent and erroneous readings. Accuracy of a reflected measurement can be improved by reading an 18° neutral gray test card placed in front of the subject. Light meters in cameras react to how intense the light is as seen from the camera. SLRs measure the light (called metering) through the lens – TTL. They collect light that has actually passed through the camera’s lens and measure its intensity. There are problems when the scene has parts that are much brighter or darker than others, for example shadows on a sunny day. This can trick the light meter into measuring the intensity of the light incorrectly, depending on which part of the scene was illuminating the sensor. Modern SLR cameras use multi-point light meters, meaning that several light meters are actually scattered around the projected scene, each measuring the light intensity at that point. Very sophisticated cameras may have dozens of metering points. How much the measured intensity of Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 the light at each point influences the final meter reading depends on the metering mode selected by the photographer. As we now know, the correct exposure is created by juggling the three points of the exposure triangle : aperture, shutter and ISO . The light meter is the tool that puts us in the right neighborhood for how these should be set. If you are shooting on full auto, then when you meter the scene –usually done at the same time as focusing, by half pressing the shutter – the light meter gives its best guess for each of these variables. If you want to take creative control of the photo, you can manually set each of the three variables yourself. Typically ISO is left at the default, or previous setting, and you take control by choosing aperture priority or shutter priority. On most DSLRs that’s done by turning the exposure mode dial. If you set the dial to Av-aperture priority, the photographer chooses what the aperture will be, and the light meter adjusts the shutter speed to maintain the correct exposure. The reverse is true for TV-shutter priority. When using these modes, it’s useful to refer to the exposure meter display on the camera. The exposure meter (display) shows the result of the measurement taken by the light meter (sensor). Each number represents a stop change in the light, as indicated, with the central mark being the “correct” exposure, as determined by the light meter. Each pip between the numbers represents one third of a stop. The arrow underneath indicates how close the current settings are to the correct exposure. Usually in priority modes, the arrow will stay in the middle as the light meter will be able to set the exposure correctly. However, if for example you set your aperture to 1/400sec in Tv (shutter priority mode) and the light meter indicated that you needed an aperture of f4, but your lens was only capable of f5.8, then the exposure meter will display one stop of underexposure. You will need to compensate for this by setting a longer shutter time, or increasing the ISO. The juggling act becomes more complicated, and the light meter’s assistance more valuable, when you go to full manual control of the exposure. Here the exposure meter simply displays whether the current settings will under or over expose the image, according to the light meter. The photographer can freely change any of the values on the exposure triangle, and see the change to the predicted versus recommended exposure. Exposure compensation Even though the light meter in your camera is pretty sophisticated, sometimes it can get it wrong, especially with harsh contrasts , or highly reflective surfaces. By using exposure compensation, you can tell the camera to take the metered exposure and make it brighter by a chosen amount. This will then allow the photographer to correctly expose the person. Sports Scenario  High speed is needed to freeze action  Use Shutter Priority  Set shutter speed to 1/800sec  The light meter sets the aperture to f10  If under exposed, change ISO to compensate – ISO400 Scenario 2 – Portrait  An artistic narrow depth of field is desired  Use Aperture Priority  Set aperture to f5.6  The light meter sets the shutter to 1/160sec  If under exposed, change ISO to compensate – ISO100 Scenario 3 – Night scenery Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019  Ambient light is too low to accurately meter  Use full Manual  Set aperture to suit scene, erring to wider – f11  Set a long shutter speed to light meter’s best guess – 20sec  Set ISO to lowest possible for correct exposure – ISO100  Take a test shot and adjust settings if the light meter got it wrong Scenario 4 – Off-camera manual flash  On auto, meter the scene and note settings  Set camera to one or two stops under exposed  Set up flashes and tweak power to expose correctly  Tweak the flashes exposure by adjusting aperture  Tweak the ambient light by adjusting shutter speed  Settings for example shot: 1/160sec f8 ISO125, click image for flash details.

Topic 023 Sunny Rule f/16 What is the Sunny f/16 Rule? The Sunny 16 Rule is a way to meter for correct exposure during daylight without using the camera’s meter. The basic rule of thumb states that if you have a clear, sunny day and your aperture is at f/16, whatever ISO you are using, your shutter speed will be the reciprocal value of that ISO value (ISO X = 1/X seconds shutter speed). So for example, if your ISO is 200 at f/16, then your shutter speed will be 1/200 seconds. If your ISO is 100, then your shutter speed will be 1/100 seconds. How does the sunny 16 rule work? The sunny 16 rule works like this: On a clear and sunny day, at an aperture of F/16, you will get a correct exposure if you use a shutter speed that’s the inverse of the ISO speed you’re using. The second part is probably the one that’s confusing you (if any of it is). You have to know what ISO speed is in order to decipher what’s going on. The rule says you need to use the inverse of the ISO speed. That’s interesting because as you increase your ISO speed, you effectively have to increase your shutter speed to compensate. At ISO 200, your camera is twice as sensitive to light, so you need to use a shutter speed of 1/200 of a second to let in less light and balance it out. Let’s use another example. Let’s say it’s a sunny day, and your camera is set to ISO 400. According to the sunny 16 rule, if you use an aperture of F/16 and a shutter speed of 1/400 s, you will have an evenly balanced image that is neither too bright nor too dark. That’s interesting, but it seems like the rule can only help us out when it’s sunny.  The snowy/sandy F/22 rule.  The overcast F/8 rule.  The slightly overcast F/11 rule.  The heavy overcast F/5.6 rule.  The sunset F/4 rule.

Depending on the weather, you can use a different version of the sunny 16 rule to get an accurate exposure. Start with a pair and move forward from there Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Let’s also assume you’ve set your ISO to the minimum of 100. According to the sunny 16 rule, we’ve got a pair. You know that F/16 at shutter speed 1/100s will work. Now we simply need to find a similar pair by adjusting the aperture and balancing it out with the shutter speed. Thankfully, apertures and shutter speeds work on a system of stops. Every time you adjust your shutter speed up by one stop , your camera lets in exactly half as much light . The same is true for apertures. Every time you adjust your aperture either up or down , your camera lets in or blocks out half as much light .. On my Nikon D40x, the next aperture stop up is F18. The next shutter speed stop down is 1/80s. It then goes to F/20, 1/60s And finally, it arrives at F/22 shutter speed 1/50s. You’ll notice that the shutter speed is exactly half of what it was at F/16. That makes sense because we’ve just closed the aperture by one half, so we need twice as much light to take the same picture. Every time you adjust the aperture up, you need to adjust the shutter speed down. Every time you adjust the aperture down, you need to increase the shutter speed by one stop. Keep doing this until you get to the aperture or shutter speed you want to use. Topic 024 Filters UV Filter Ultra Violet filters are transparent filters that block ultra-violet light, in order to reduce the haziness that is noticeably apparent in some daylight photography. UV filters don’t affect the majority of visible light, so they are a perfect form of lens protection and they will not alter your exposure. There are some “strong” UV filters that are more effective at cutting atmospheric haze and reducing the notorious purple fringing that sometimes shows up in digital photography. Purple fringing is a purple ghost that you see at the edges of a subject when it is slightly out of focus. Polarizing Filter A Polarizing filter can be used to darken overly light skies as it increases the contrast between clouds and the sky. Like the UV filter, the Polarizer reduces atmospheric haze, but also reduces reflected sunlight. The most typical function of a Polarizer is to remove reflections from water and glass. When angled (or spun) properly, the Polarizer eliminates the reflection when shooting through a glass window or into water; a handy trick to be sure! There are two types of polarizers :  linear  circular Both types of polarizers produce a similar effect, except the circular polarizer eliminates unwanted reflected light with the help of a quarter-wave plate. The resulting image is free of reflected light, and transparent objects like glass are free of reflections. Color Balancing Filter As you know, visible light is made up of a multiple color spectrum. But in photography, you have to make a choice to capture images with the camera’s white balance set to record whitish blue light of daylight or set to record the reddish-orange tungsten (incandescent) light… with a few variations (i.e. sodium-vapor or fluorescent). This is what the white balance is used to control, and you use a color balancing filter to affect a change in your light sources. However, you can use a Color Balancing filter to compensate for the various differences in the photographed color of light (e.g. daylight is cooler and appears blue, whereas tungsten is warmer and appears reddish orange). The 85B (warm-up/orange filter) and the 80A (cool-down/blue Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 filter) are the two standard filters for compensating for color balancing. The 85B enables you to shoot in the daylight when the white balance/color temperature is set for tungsten. Without the 85B filter, your image will have a blue color cast to it. The 80A enables you to shoot under tungsten light when the color temperature/white balance is set for daylight. Without the 80A, your image will be abnormally warm/reddish orange. These filters have fallen out of use recently because this type of color temperature correction can easily be achieved with image processing software. Some photographers use them for various artistic affects. Neutral Density Filter Attaching a neutral density (ND) filter to your lens uniformly reduces the amount of light entering the lens. The ND filter is helpful when the contrast between the highlights and shadows is too great to get a quality exposure. The ND Filter also can enable greater motion blurring and image detail by allowing a large aperture and/or a slow shutter speed to be used. A variant on the ND filter is the graduated ND, in which there is a gradient that effects the reduction of light in a graduated, neutral level from 100% to 0% across the length of the filter. The Graduated ND is recommended for shooting landscapes and seascapes, because you can reduce the brightness of the sky (for better contrast) but still maintain an affecting exposure of the land or water. Soft Focus Filter Soft focus filters, do exactly that, they reduce the sharpness of an image, but only to an extent that is barely noticeable. They are useful in shooting close up shots of people’s faces. With the help of a little diffusion; imperfect skin conditions are replaced by silky smooth skin. Remember you can use soft focus filters while photographing landscapes or monuments as well. Filters for B&W Photography There are specific filters for B&W photography that lighten similar colors and darken opposite colors, thereby enhancing the monochromatic look. There are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green and Blue filters for use in B&W photography. Red filters are a favorite among landscape photographers and are often used to add drama. In nature photography, a red filter will increase the contrast between red flowers and green foliage . A red filter will deepen a blue sky and make white clouds pop out. It can also decrease the effects of haze and fog. In some cases, depending on its strength, a red filter could even turn the sky black . Orange filters increase contrast between tones in textures such as tile or bricks, making it a good choice for general use and urban or abstract photography. It also helps to decrease haze and fog, but its effects on the sky and clouds are subtler than the red filter . Yellow filters are even subtler than orange filters, making it a ‘classic’ choice for beginners just starting to explore using filters with black and white photography. It helps to darken the clouds slightly, and it also separates light green foliage from the darker shades of green. Green filters lighten dark green foliage and boost light green foliage. They have a more specific use and are not as commonly used as the other filters, but green filters are extremely useful for the nature photographer. Green filters may lighten the sky, so landscape photographers should take note of this when using it. Blue filters are not as commonly used in black and white photography because they lighten the sky and darken highlights or colors that are seen as light. Blue filters can draw attention to haze and fog, which can enhance the mood of the photo if needed. It’s a good idea to experiment with this filter using the B&W setting, as opposed to shooting in color and converting the image to B&W in an image processor. Since a filter absorbs light, it necessitates an increase in exposure. Filter-makers will usually suggest an amount of exposure compensation in the form of a “filter factor”. A filter factor of 2X means that you should multiply the exposure by 2. A filter factor of 4X means that you should multiply your exposure by 4, and so on. If the filter factor is 2X and 4X, add 1 f/stop Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 and 2 f/stops to your exposure respectively. Another alternative is to divide your ISO by the filter factor. If the filter factor is 2X and your ISO is 200, your new ISO is 100.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019

Topic 025 Filter Factors Filter Factor Filters change the dynamics of the light entering the lens and usually require you to alter your exposure to compensate for this fact. This is called the Filter Factor and each filter has a specific filter factor. If you use filters on your camera, this can have an effect on the white balance, depending on the filter type. Polarizer’s are neutral – they don’t change the color balance, only the depth of color . Warm-up or other color -adjusting filters will, of course, change the color of the light. One interesting alternative to a ‘straight’ colored filter is to use a colored graduate. This will add a color to the sky without changing the foreground colors. A blue grad can add a sunny feel to an overcast day, while a yellow/orange grad can add drama to a stormy sky. With these, it’s wise to take your meter reading before you fit the filter. Purpose of Using Filters Color filters allow the black and white photographer to exercise some selective control over tone values. To this extent they can be an important tool in helping photographers realize their creative vision; to put on film what they see in their minds' eye. At times the use of filters is almost mandated by the limitations of the medium. For example, film users quickly learn that, despite being called "panchromatic", film is extra sensitive to (i.e., overexposes) the blue and ultraviolet (UV) light in skies resulting in the dreaded "white sky" effect. A filter may be needed to compensate for this bias. How Filters Affect Tone Values? In a nutshell, a colored filter used with B&W film will lighten similar colors and darken opposite colors. A red filter, for example, will darken the other two primary colors (blue and green) and will especially darken its complementary or opposite color (cyan) that is formed by combining green and blue. On the other hand, it will lighten red objects and to a lesser extent colors that contain red such as yellow, orange and magenta. Yellow filters will do a particularly good job of darkening blue objects but tends to lighten red and green objects and so on. A filter lightens and darkens because it transmits some colors and absorbs (or filters) others. Obviously, because it absorbs light, using a filter will necessitate an increase in exposure. (The UV filter is an exception.) Logically, darker filters require more exposure compensation. The actual effect of a filter and the amount of exposure compensation it needs will depend on:  The film being used  The color of the ambient light  The predominant color of the subject. The amount of exposure compensation is often expressed as a " filter factor". A filter factor of 2X means that you should multiply the (unfiltered) exposure by 2, a 2.5 filter factor means that you should multiply it by 2.5 and so on. Topic 026 Filters Color Photography UV/Skylight These filters are almost clear (slightly amber) and reduce blue haze caused by UV light. They're used mainly for protection - if you drop your lens, you might just damage the filter instead of the lens. They also protect against dust, moisture and scratches. Note: By using these filters you can save your lens. Nikon and B+W make the best Skylight and UV. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Polarizers Most people only think about using a polarizer when there is a blue sky and they want it make it a richer, deeper blue. This is a good enough reason to have this filter, but not the only one. What this filter will not do is make a blue sky out of an overcast sky, no matter how much you want it to be blue. The only way to do that is with a blue graduated filter. Another use for this filter on sunny days is that it can be used as a neutral density filter in order to give you longer shutter speed times. Enabling you to pan, zoom or any other types of camera motion that you can think of. Split Neutral Density and Split Graduated Graduated filters are useful for scenic landscapes, when you want to combine a bright sky with a dark foreground. Use them primarily at sunrise and sunset . The top half of a split neutral density filter is neutral-density and the bottom half is a clear. If you look through a split ND filter, the top half is dark; it gradually turns lighter and finally becomes clear from halfway down to the bottom. The reference to "neutral density" indicates that the filtration neither adds nor subtracts from any of the naturally occurring color. The only effect the filter has is in decreasing the amount of light that passes through the ND portion of the filter. These filters can be purchased in a variety of densities, but are generally found in one of the following : 1-stop (ND.3), 2-stops (ND.6) and 3-stops (ND.9). The three different densities provide various amounts of ND effect depending upon the strength of the filter ( the strongest being the 3-stops variety ). It is difficult to say which one you will need at any given time. During the day if you are photographing in open shade you will probably do best with a 2 stop, in darker shade - 3 stop. When photographing a landscape that is in bright sunlight try using the 1 stop filter on the sky, it will slightly darken the sky and make the landscape really stand out. When photographing at sunrise or sunset if you use a 3-stop grad filter you will have complete balance between the sky and the foreground. Sometimes you may want this or you may want to keep the sky a little brighter than the foreground, then use a 2 stop. The split-graduated filters work the same way, except that they are colored. Whatever color they are, that color will be added to your photograph. Sometimes the color works while at other times it makes your picture look totally unrealistic. The only filter in this group that I use but not all that often is the 1-stop blue, which I use on blue skies days to darken the blue sky and add a bit of blue at the horizon line. Yellow/Blue Polarizer This filter adds blue and/or yellow to the scene. Color Enhancing (Didymium/Intensifier) It creates brighter, more saturated reds, rust browns and oranges on film, with minimal effect to the other colors. Since it increases the color saturation, particularly for red, it is useful for sunrise/sunset, fall foliage, red barns, red-orange flowers, and the red soil of Prince Edward Island. 80 Blue The "80" series of filters is designed for daylight film to be used with tungsten lighting. The strength of these filters is backwards to other filters. The 80A has the strongest blue (2-stops), 80B (1-2/3 stops), 80C (1-stop). 80B at twilight increases the blue in the scene to a rich cobalt blue as well as converting any tungsten lighting in the scene from yellow to white light. This filter is also used when you are photographing waterfalls or snow scenes to make them appear slightly blue.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Warming Filters There are 2 different series of warming filters, both as their name suggests add warmth to a picture. The 81 series is the more popular of the two, it is available in varying strengths - 81A, 81B and 81C. A is the lightest, B is medium, and C is the strongest. Their best use is to remove the blue cast from your pictures on an overcast day. Number 85 is the other series (they look orange in color), they are much stronger in intensity than the 81 series (they look amber). The #85 filters are normally used so that tungsten film can be used in daylight - usually used for motion pictures. For the landscape photographer they can be used at sunrise/sunset to create a very warm and golden appearance. Neutral Density (ND) Don't get these confused with split-graduated neutral density filters. These neutral density filters have the same degree of light reducing effect across the entire picture. You would use this filter when you want to reduce the overall light level in a scene, usually to obtain a slower shutter speed or if you wanted to use a wider depth-of-field. This doesn't apply so much with today's cameras as it did a few years ago, when cameras didn't have the high/fast shutter speeds that they do now. Uses for this filter include wildflowers blowing in the wind to create a blur of color or moving water that takes on a softer look with a slower shutter speed. These filters are available in densities of .3 (1 stop), .6 (2 stop) and .9 (3 stops). FL-D This is a magenta colored filter that is designed to correct the color of fluorescent lighting for daylight film. Florescent lighting unfiltered has a blue-green color cast on daylight film. Some photographers use it for dusk shots in cityscapes, to correct for the green of the office lights it also adds pink-purple color to the sky. Some other photographers use it as an enhancing filter at sunrise/sunset. The only problem with using the FL-D filter to correct for fluorescent lighting in a cityscape at twilight is that there is also tungsten lighting in the city. This must be corrected with an 80A or 80B filter, which makes the sky go cobalt blue. Unfortunately you can't use both filters at the same time to correct for the two lighting sources because they negate each other, therefore you must choose between the two. Soft and Diffusing The greatest selection and variety of soft/diffusing filters that is available on the market is probably the largest of all of the filters. The concept behind them is to soften the image by adding some blur so that the image is no longer sharp or crisp. Out of all of my soft looking images 99% were created by using a double exposure technique, where one exposure is sharply in focus and the other is completely out of focus. Color Correcting (Compensating) What these filters really do is they hold back all of the other colors in favor of the color of the filter that is being used. For example, a CC20B reduces all colors but blue by 20%. These filters come as "gels" (thin pieces of gelatin) which are used with a gel holder or as hard plastic filters, which can be used in the Cokin holders. Color Correction filters are available in primary colors - green, red and blue - and printing colors - yellow, cyan and magenta. Colored Polarizers Sunset: - This is a warm/orange-graduated filter that adds a light brown to the foreground and orange to the sky, simulating or enhancing sunsets. I find that it just looks like you really filtered the shot and not very well. Sepia: -This filter is used to give the image an old, weathered, brown look. Star : -These filters give a star effect from any bright - point light source. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic no 027 Photography An art or Science Literal meaning of photography is the “drawing with light ”. Photo means light and grapy means light. Dividing up the world into “art” types and “science” types is a useful way to look at things. So much of what we do falls neatly into one category or another. Camera Basics There are three basic camera types: 1. Mechanical (M) Older film cameras with most or all functions controlled mechanically or manually, with rotating, mechanical settings indicators. 2. Electronic (E) Newer film cameras with most or all functions controlled by buttons or electrical knobs, with digital readout of the settings. 3. Digital (D) Similar to Electronic, except an electronic sensor replaces the film. There are three basic systems that operate in all cameras: • Viewing System The viewing system allows a human being to see, with varying degrees of ac- curacy, what image will strike the film or sensor at the time of exposure. • Light Gathering System The light gathering system is composed of one or more pieces of glass which gather light reflected from an image and focus that light on the film or sensor. • Exposure System The exposure system allows a precisely controlled quantity of light to strike the focal plane, where it (M/E) causes chemical changes in dyes and silver compounds that eventually result in a viewable image, or it (D) causes electrons to be stored in cells that eventually result in pixels on a electronic display. These basic camera types control their basic systems using: Shutter Release The button you push to record an image. (E) It also advances the film to the next frame. Focus (M) A ring on the lens, or (E/D) a button or lever, that changes how sharp or fuzzy an image appears in the viewfinder. Aperture (M) A ring on the lens, or (E/D) a button or knob, that changes how much light is allowed to pass through the lens. Shutter Speed A button or knob that changes how long light strikes the (M/E) film or (D) sensor during exposure. Zoom (M) A ring on the lens, or (E/D) a button or lever that changes the focal length of the lens. Film Speed (M) A knob, or (E/D) knob or menu selection, that determines how sensitive the imaging system (film or sensor) is to light. Exposure Compensation Similar to film speed, a knob that changes imaging system sensitivity, typically used on a per–image basis for unusual lighting. Other controls perform supplementary functions: Self-Timer Allows you to be in the picture; also useful as a stability aid. DOF Preview Allows you to see the effect of aperture on focus Flash Modes Allows control of built–in flash. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Exposure Modes Allows different ways of measuring light, such as average, spot, matrix, etc. Exposure Lock Keeps exposure values from one shot to the next White Balance (D) Compensates for different types of lighting (D) Menus, Previews, Resolution, and More! Exposure: There can be a lot of light, or there may be very little. “Exposure” is what we talk about when we describe how the intensity of light is controlled to suit a particular film or sensor. Art: overall exposure determines how light or dark an image is. Photographers call light images “high key” and dark images “low key,” whereas artists refer to lightness and darkness in an image as “value.” Science: light is measured in terms of exposure value,” which is a logarithmic absolute scale. Each increase of 1 EV represents a doubling of light. Exposure is determined by four variables: The amount of light illuminating the subject You often don’t have much control over this, but you may be able to move lights around, or to move your subject from shadow to sunlight, or to use a reflector to move light onto your subject. The sensitivity of the film or imaging sensor Film comes in different sensitivities, specified by their “ASA” or “DIN” numbers. Digital cameras can have different sensitivity settings per image. In either case, greater sensitivity means more “grain” or “noise,” less sensitivity means longer exposure times and blurring. The “focal ratio,” or aperture of the lens Generally miscalled the “aperture,” this is actually the ratio of the length it takes to focus the image (focal length) to the effective width of the lens (focal width). It is often represented by the symbol “ƒ”. And the length of time the film or sensor is exposed . Also known as “shutter speed,” this is typically fractions of a second up to tens of seconds, and is represented by the letter “t”. Your camera’s exposure system gives you control over the latter two and your (M/E) choice of film or (D) sensitivity setting control the second item. For “normal” lighting situations, your camera’s exposure system wants to use settings that result in mid tone gray. Exposure Compensation Most cameras have an “exposure compensation” control to help with such subjects. Neither film, nor digital sensors come anywhere near being as sensitive to the wide range of light that the human eye can perceive. The range of light to dark in images is called the “scene contrast,” and you often have to choose to sacrifice shadow detail in order to get highlight detail. Perspective art: Distant objects appear to be smaller than nearby objects. Parallel lines, like the edges of a long, straight road, converge in the distance. Looking up at a tall building makes it look like it recedes into the distance. This is artistic perspective. In photography, perspective is manipulated by two means: The focal length of the lens , This is the distance from the lens’s rear nodal point and the film or sensor, and it determines both the magnification of the imaged subject, and the angle of view of the imaged scene. The position of the lens relative to the film/sensor. This is normally fixed in common 35mm and digital cameras, but is variable in large format view cameras and with some specialized 35mm lenses. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Perspective is divided into three categories: • Wide Angle These lenses enhance perspective — close objects appear much larger than normal, far off objects appear much smaller than normal. • Normal: - These lenses correspond to the perspective we are used to seeing with our own eyes. • Telephoto: - These lenses reduce or compress perspective — close objects and far objects are closer in size to each other than our eyes perceive them. Wide angle lenses correspond to human “circle of perception,” the angle at which we can sense objects. Normal lenses correspond to human “circle of attention,” the angle of the fovea, an area of the retina that has an expanded number of cones. Telephoto lenses correspond to human “circle of detail,” the area upon which we concentrate when we examine tiny objects, such as text. MOTION CONTROL: Much of the time, you want your images to be nice and sharp, as though frozen in time. You control this by having an appropriate shutter speed. However, once you master sharp images, you may find it interesting to indulge in purposeful, controlled blurring. If the desire is to impart a feeling of motion, purposeful blurring is usually more effective than frozen action! Science: Human “Persistence of vision” is an effect by which quickly moving objects appear blurred. It is how movies and television are able to create the illusion of continuous motion, when they’re actually a sequence of quickly changing still images. The eye cannot perceive changes that happen in less than about 1/10th to 1/15th of a second , so if you want motion to appear as you see it, choose such a shutter speed. Motion is controlled through a variety of ways : • Shutter speed: -Is how you control how long it takes to form a latent image on the film (M/E) or how long photons are collected by a sensor (D). • Camera motion control: -like a tripod, is how you keep camera motion from impacting the exposure as it is in progress. • Subject motion control: -Like telling the child, “Sit still!” is how you keep subject motion from impacting the in–progress exposure. The first technique, shutter speed, is the first to come to mind, but it rarely can have much impact without other considerations. It depends on several other items: • Lighting: If possible, choose bright lighting to stop action, dim lighting to purposefully blur action. A flash also stops action. Film sensitivity: -Determines how fast a shutter speed you can use for a given lighting situation. • Maximum aperture: -Of a given lens also impacts shutter speed. A lens with a large maximum aperture (ƒ2 or larger) is often called a “fast” lens, because it enables faster shutter speeds for a given lighting situation than a “slow” lens (ƒ3.5 or smaller) does. Many techniques enable camera motion control : • Tripod: -Is essential for serious photography! But don’t simply leave it in your closet. A lightweight tripod may get used more than a more expensive, sturdy, heavy one! • Cable release: - If you use a tripod, you need a cable release! Pushing the shutter button, even when on a tripod, may move the camera. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 • Self–timer: -Set your camera on a stable surface, compose your shot, and then use the self– timer to capture the image. This can be used instead of a cable release. • Carful hand–holding: - Make yourself into a human tripod! You often have more control over subject motion than you imagine: • Plane of action: -Shoot into the motion of travel • Peak of action: - Shoot when the subject has the least relative movement. Light: - This is it. This is what photography is all about. Without light, there would be no photography. Basic qualities of light : Light has six basic qualities: 1. Intensity (Amplitude, brightness, value) how bright or dim the light is 2. Color (Frequency, spectrum, temperature) warm, cool 3. Direction (Angle, vector) front, top, bottom, side, back 4. Contrast (Size & shape) soft, harsh 5. Polarization Invisible to the human eye, but manipulable for special effects 6. Number of sources: - Multiple light sources, each of which will have their own set of the five characteristics above The intensity of light is largely negated by your camera’s exposure system, which guides you in choosing shutter speed and focal ratio such that the average light reflected from the subject will result in proper exposure. Manipulating intensity, we can indirectly control other factors : • The expression of time, via motion–control techniques, • The sharpness of objects, via DOF techniques. Contrast of light: The most poorly understood quality of light is contrast. 1. A high contrast light source has a small angular size, such as the sun. It tends to produce sharp, hard–edged shadows. 2. A low contrast light source has a large angular size, com- pared to the subject, such as the entire sky on an overcast day. It tends to produce soft, fuzzy–edged shadows. Topic 028 Things to remember Following are the important things which you need to remember in the art of photography: 1. Light Without light, there is no illumination. In a room without illumination, everything is pitch black. You can’t see a thing. Taking a shot – assuming your camera allows you to – produces a solid black photograph. You switch on a lamp, and you send light across the room, and everything is illuminated. Now you can take a photograph and show something in the picture. You realize that your eye and the camera both need light and illumination to work. Photography is about capturing light and recording it, whether on paper, or more frequently now, in a digital format. As a photographer, you control the amount, intensity and duration of light required to create the picture. The apparatus used to draw with light is called the camera, which comes from camera obscura, a box with a hole for light to pass through and strike the back wall of it. The name “camera obscura” actually means dark chamber, and indeed, the word “camera” is still used in some languages such as Italian to mean “room” or “chamber”. The camera and our eyes work in pretty much the same way. The difference between the two is that our eyes are better able to handle wide differences in light intensity. For example, if you take a photograph from inside a Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 room with an open window, you may get the room properly exposed but the window is too bright, or the window looks right but the room too dark. Yet our eyes don’t have such a problem: they can see everything inside the room and outside the window properly exposed. The reason is, our eyes can compensate for the wide difference in light whereas the camera cannot. Secondly, our eye is more sensitive to light than most of the amateur/prosumer cameras. In a dark environment, such as inside a movie theatre, our eyes can still adjust to the lack of light and allow us to see the rows of chairs and people. Most cameras would have difficulty focusing under such a demanding condition. 2. Quantity of light passing through aperture Aperture refers to the opening of a lens's diaphragm through which light passes. It is calibrated in f/stops and is generally written as numbers such as 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11 and 16. The lower f/stops give more exposure because they represent the larger apertures, while the higher f/stops give less exposure because they represent smaller apertures. 3. Shutter speed Shutter speed, also known as “exposure time”, stands for the length of time a camera shutter is open to expose light into the camera sensor. If the shutter speed is fast, it can help to freeze action completely, as seen in the above photo of the dolphin. If the shutter speed is slow, it can create an effect called “motion blur”, where moving objects appear blurred along the direction of the motion. This effect is used quite a bit in advertisements of cars and motorbikes, where a sense of speed and motion is communicated to the viewer by intentionally blurring the moving wheels. 4. Composition (retention of interest) In essence, composition is all about putting together objects in your viewfinder in such a way as to emphasize the bits you want to, making them stand out in just the right way. These objects include anything in the foreground, the background, those that "frame" the picture, and most importantly light. The truth of the matter is that most successful photographic compositions are in fact quite simple, there may be numerous objects but there is never any doubt as to what the subject actually is. Another great truth is that no matter how expensive your camera equipment is that without knowledge of composition, you'll never be able to "capture" the essence of the image you see. Worse still, someone with a cheaper set up, and who knows about composition, will more than likely be producing better photographs. Annoyingly, some people seem to have the knack for creating well composed images, while others have to shoot and shoot whilst they hone their composition skills. The important thing to remember is that wherever you start, you will only get better with practice. With landscapes the challenge is to capture an image so that the subject is presented in the way that you want it to be, which for many means learning new ways of seeing what is in front of you. Besides the subject, there is of course "light", it can make all the difference between a fantastic picture and a dull and uninteresting one. Make sure you note the lights direction, intensity and color (yes the color of light changes quite dramatically, e.g. at the beginning and end of the day). Besides the color of the light, the position of the sun in the sky also has a major impact on a photograph, as when the sun is low it produces marvelous shadows that enhance the subjects shape and give it that important 3d effect. There is another thing about taking photographs when the sun is low in the sky, as this means that it is either early or late in the day and thus its intensity is not at its height, which in turn means that the range of contrast (the difference between the deep shadows and highlights) is low, something that really helps capturing the details in both (especially with digital cameras). The viewpoint is the next vital ingredient, but just what is the best? Here only you can tell, you just have to move around Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 the subject, looking at it from different angles and from different heights, not to mention different focal lengths from the very wide to the telephoto. All of these will have dramatic impact on the image you capture and there is no real formula to follow, except perhaps one. This composition “formula” center on something called the "thirds". Take any image and divide it into three equal part both lengthwise and height wise and you end up with 2 vertical and 2 horizontal lines, placing anything on these vertical lines can really emphasize them, whilst placing anything on the intersections can be really powerful. Bearing these "thirds" in mind when composing your photograph could make all the difference. To sum up, when taking your photographs, decide what your subject is, from which viewpoint and angle it looks the best, decide where to place it, and most importantly, make sure that the light is right, after all with landscapes there is normally always another day. 5. Optics (lens) The most important part of a camera is its lens since the quality of an image is so dependent upon it. The most basic camera body fitted with a good lens can make a good picture, but the best camera body in the world cannot make a good picture if its lens is of poor quality - if the image or parts of it are not in focus or if an inadequate amount of light for proper exposure reaches the film or the sensor in a digital camera. Topic 029 Pinhole Photography Pinhole photography is lens less photography . A tiny hole replaces the lens. Light passes through the hole; an image is formed in the camera. Basically a pinhole camera is a box, with a tiny hole in one end and film or photographic paper in the other. Pinhole cameras are used for fun, for art and for science. Pinhole images are softer - less sharp - than pictures made with a lens. The images have nearly infinite depth of field. Wide angle images remain absolutely rectilinear. On the other hand, pinhole images suffer from greater chromatic aberration than pictures made with a simple lens, and they tolerate little enlargement Topic 30 Rule of Thirds The Rule of Thirds is perhaps the most well-known principle of photographic composition . Rule of third is also known as “ Rule of Golden means”. Basic Principle: The basic principle behind the rule of thirds is to imagine breaking an image down into thirds (both horizontally and vertically) so that you have 9 parts. With this grid in mind the ‘rule of thirds’ now identifies four important parts of the image that you should consider placing points of interest in as you frame your image. The theory is that if you place points of interest in the intersections or along the lines that your photo becomes more balanced and will enable a viewer of the image to interact with it more naturally. Studies have shown that when viewing images that people’s eyes usually go to one of the intersection points most naturally rather than the center of the shot – using the rule of thirds works with this natural way of viewing an image rather than working against it. How to use the rule of thirds? To use Rule of third in your photography ask following questions to yourself before capturing the photo:  What are the points of interest in this shot?  Where am I intentionally placing them? Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic 31 Factors of Photography There are six basic factors of photography. 1. Light To make a picture you require light, that light may be natural (sunlight/moonlight) or artificial such as a light bulb or flash. Light that our own eyes are sensitive to9 is called a visible light. But other creatures and material are sensitive to non-visible forms of light such as ultra-violet light, infrared, or x-rays. 2. Medium Medium of light is also very important in photography. Photographer has to check which medium is being used in the photography either its sunlight, bulb light, or any other indoor light. Techniques of the photography vary according to the medium of photography. 3. Aperture Aperture refers to the opening of a lens's diaphragm through which light passes. It is calibrated in f/stops and is generally written as numbers such as 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11 and 16. The lower f/stops give more exposure because they represent the larger apertures, while the higher f/stops give less exposure because they represent smaller apertures. This may seem a little contradictory at first but will become clearer as you take pictures at varying f/stops. Be sure to check your manual first to learn how to set your camera for Aperture Priority, and then try experimenting to get comfortable with changing the aperture and recognizing the effects different apertures will have on the end-result image. 4. Shutter speed Shutter speed, also known as “exposure time”, stands for the length of time a camera shutter is open to expose light into the camera sensor. If the shutter speed is fast, it can help to freeze action completely, as seen in the above photo of the dolphin. If the shutter speed is slow, it can create an effect called “motion blur”, where moving objects appear blurred along the direction of the motion. This effect is used quite a bit in advertisements of cars and motorbikes, where a sense of speed and motion is communicated to the viewer by intentionally blurring the moving wheels. 5. Composition Main factor of composition is Rule of Third. Rule of third can be done manually by cropping too. 6. Optics (lenses) Optics or lenses are very important in photography. There are different kinds of lenses used in photography like Standard/Normal lens, Wide angle lens, Telephoto lens, Zoom lens, Fish eye lens, Macro lens, Tilt-shift lens and image stabilization lens. The choice of the lens depends on your type of photography. If you want to shot outdoor you will need wide angle lens but in indoor photography vivid range of lenses are used to cater different types of photography. Topic 32 Lightening for photography Hard or Soft light When you photograph indoors or out, the scene is illuminated by light that ranges from hard to soft. 1. Hard Light Hard light coming from a source that's small compared to the subject casts hard shadows and has high contrast. Outdoors you see this light on a bright sunny day. The sun may be very large but it's also far away and small in the sky so it casts hard light on subjects. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 2. Soft Light Soft light falling on the subject from a source that's large compared to the subject, wraps light around the subject, filling shadows and lowering contrast. Outdoors you see this light on a cloudy bright day when the entire layer of clouds is the light source. Whether light falling on a subject is hard or soft depends on one thing, the relative sizes of the light source and subject. A large source will wrap light around a small subject filling shadows and lowering contrast. A small source will direct light onto a large subject creating hard shadows and high contrast. How to create Hard and soft light? There are two ways to soften light indoors in addition to moving a light closer to the subject using reflectors and diffusers . To get harder light, move the light farther from the subject or use a bare bulb or bare bulb flash. When a bulb is mounted in a reflector, it's really the larger reflector that is the light source. A bare bulb has no reflector so the light source is much smaller. Since it's more of a point source, it casts a hard light on the subject. Because it lacks a reflector to focus the light, its range is shorter than other kinds of light. Hard light is created when the light source is small relative to the subject. Soft light is created when the light source is large relative to the subject. Topic 33 Lighting for Photography Studio lights Studio lighting can seem daunting task . However, most portrait photography lighting techniques are not nearly as scary as most people think. By using a simple home photo studio kit with just a couple of flash heads and a few basic accessories, you can get great results in no time at all. In fact, it’s arguably easier to use a studio lighting setup than off-camera flash. Key tools need to create the classic studio lighting techniques 1. Light stands Studio flash is all about positioning the light source away from the camera, so stands are crucial. They support the flash heads, which means they can be positioned at the right distance and angle to the subject. 2. Flash heads Most kits have two flash heads. Along with a flash tube, there’s a modeling light. Most have a switchable ‘slave’, enabling one flash to be triggered by another, so you only need to have your camera connected to one of the heads. 3. Umbrella A brolly is the most standard form of lighting accessory. The flash is directed into the brolly so the light is reflected back onto the subject. They are available in different reflective surfaces – typically white, silver or gold. 4. Soft box Soft boxes are slightly more sophisticated than brollies and once you’ve worked out how to assemble these tent-like devices, they create a softer and generally more flattering light, with a more even illumination. 5. Snoot/honeycomb Both of these tools help to concentrate or ‘focus’ the light. They’re ideally suited for use as backlights or for isolating a particular part of an image. 6. Reflector A simple reflector can be really useful in a studio lighting setup, especially if you’re only using one light. You use it the same way you would with natural light – to bounce light back onto your subject and fill in any hard shadow areas. Steps of Studio Lighting 1. Rembrandt This studio lighting technique is ideal for artistic shots with depth A simple reflector can be really useful in a studio lighting setup, especially if you’re only using one light. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 You use it the same way you would with natural light – to bounce light back onto your subject and fill in any hard shadow areas. Position one flash head with a silver brolly at a 45° angle to the model at about six feet high. This creates a strong, hard, direct light from the side and above. This is called a key light. To even the lighting, position a reflector on the other side of the model to bounce the light back into the shadow side. There should be a small triangle of light on the subject’s face – this is referred to as Rembrandt lighting. 2. Clamshell This studio lighting technique is used to capture every detail with even light. This studio lighting setup is great for beauty images as the lighting is flat and even. It’s pretty easy to achieve this effect too – all you need to do is place two soft boxes on either side of your subject at the same angle and at an equal distance. Set the power so it’s the same from each light. Try using a reflector under the face – your model should easily be able to hold this. This will bounce light up and onto the face. 3. Backlight This studio lighting technique is used to add depth and drama with rear lights. To add drama, use a honeycomb or snoot accessory on one of the lights. This will narrow the beam of light. We’re going to position this behind the model, pointing back towards the camera so that it lights the back of her head. This is a great way to add drama and depth to a photo, and it also creates a sense of separation from the background. Of course, you need to make sure the backlight isn’t visible in the shot. 4. Rim lighting This studio lighting technique is used to create an exciting style with good definition. Place both lights slightly behind the subject, pointing back towards the camera. This setup requires some tweaking and can work really well with nudes as it helps define body shape. You’ll need to watch out for lens flare, though, as the lights are pointing back towards the camera. A set of ‘barn doors’, a lens hood or a shield can help prevent this. An assistant who can hold a carefully positioned reflector is useful – this will help fill in those areas of deep shadow. Topic 34 Lighting for photography Transmitted & Reflected light Transmitted light photography is the technique of photographing a translucent subject (such as flowers, feathers, and leaves) from light that passes through it, rather than photographing the subject with light that is reflected or emitted from the front surface, as we normally see a subject. This type of lighting enhances the dramatic mode of subject, produces a soft ethereal glow from apparent interior lighting, and provides a visual perception of extended depth-of-field. Using colored filters show exciting internal features of your subjects. Backlighting is a well-known photographic technique for creating exciting and unusual images, such as silhouettes, rim-lighted, and transmitted light photographs. Some photographers, however, avoid backlighting because they were told early in their careers that the lighting source should always face the subject. For backlighting, the light source and the photographer face each other with the subject in between. Transmitted lighting is not a new or unique phenomenon; we view it almost daily through leaves and other translucent subjects’ backlit by the sun. However, many photographers are unaware of transmitted light’s potential to produce unusual and radiant images. The major difference between transmitted and reflected lighting is that transmitted light passes through the entire subject’s cross section, whereas reflected lighting penetrates only a short distance into a subject’s Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 sub-surface. Many photographers assume the directional differences between transmitted and reflected light will not have any consequence on the appearance of a photograph. But, as I will show, it is just this difference in penetration depth that explains the effects produced in transmitted light photographs. Topic no. 35 Photography on Film Photographic film is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or still image when the film is exposed to light. Typically, film is placed in a camera, and light from the image being photographed is allowed to enter and is focused and sometimes made larger or smaller by the camera lens. The film is exposed to the image by opening a shutter in the camera body, and the combination of the speed of the shutter and the film speed (which is the chemical reactivity of the film) controls the amount of light that strikes the film. The image is recorded on the film, but it is a latent or invisible image. When the film is removed from the camera, it is developed by chemical processes into a visible image. This visible image is negative or the reverse in brightness of the way our eyes see light; the brightest parts of the photographed object appear the darkest on the negative where the film received the most exposure to light. The negative image is made positive, or as our eyes see it, by another type of processing whereby the negative is printed on sensitive paper. Color-reversal films are positives and are used for making slides. All of the elements of the process—the parts of the camera, the type and parts of the lens, the type of film, including its chemistry, the developing process, the printing process, and the type of paper—contribute to the sharpness or trueness of the finished photograph. Raw Materials : - A roll of film consists of the emulsion and base that compose the film itself, the cassette or cartridge, and outer protective packaging. The materials used to make the emulsion are silver, nitric acid, and gelatin. The base consists of cellulose and solvents that are mixed to form a thick fluid called dope. Film that is packed in a cassette (35-millimeter film is typically packed this way) requires a metal spool, the protective metal canister, and plastic strips at the canister opening where the film emerges. Other sizes of film including Polaroid film are protected from light and air by plastic cartridges or packs. Outer packaging, which varies among film products, is made from foil-lined paper, plastic, and thin cardboard cartons. The outer packaging is also insulating and protects the film from exposure to light, heat, and air. Topic 36 Dark Room & Film Processing A darkroom is a room that can be made completely dark to allow the processing of light sensitive photographic materials, including photographic film and photographic paper. Darkrooms have been created and used since the inception of photography in the early19th century. Darkrooms have many various manifestations, from the elaborate space used by Ansel Adams to a retooled ambulance wagon used by Timothy H. O'Sullivan. From the initial development to the creation of prints, the darkroom process allows complete control over the medium. Due to the popularity of color photography and complexity of processing color film and printing color photographs and also to the rise, first of Polaroid technology and later digital photography, darkrooms are decreasing in popularity, though are still commonplace on college campuses, schools and in the studios of many professional photographers. Other applications of darkrooms include the use in nondestructive testing, such as magnetic particle inspection. Darkroom equipment Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 In most darkrooms, an enlarger, an optical apparatus similar to a slide projector, that projects the image of a negative onto a base, finely controls the focus, intensity and duration of light, is used for printmaking. A sheet of photographic paper is exposed to the enlarged image from the negative. When making black-and-white prints, a safelight is commonly used to illuminate the work area. Since the majority of black-and-white papers are sensitive to only blue, or to blue and green light, a red- or amber-colored light can be safely used without exposing the paper. Color print paper, being sensitive to all parts of the visible spectrum, must be kept in complete darkness until the prints are properly fixed. Another use for a darkroom is to load film in and out of cameras, development spools, or film holders, which requires complete darkness. Lacking a darkroom, a photographer can make use of a changing bag, which is a small bag with sleeved arm holes specially designed to be completely light proof and used to prepare film prior to exposure or developing. Print processing During exposure, values in the image can be adjusted, most often by dodging. Dodging is a technique of reducing the amount of light to a specific area of an image by selectively blocking light to it for part or all of the exposure time; or burning, which means giving additional exposure to specific area of an image by exposing only it while blocking light to the rest. Filters, usually thin pieces of colored plastic, can be used to increase or decrease an image’s contrast (the difference between dark tones and light tones). After exposure, the photographic printing paper is ready to be processed. Photographers generally begin printing a roll of film by making a contact print of their negatives to use as a quick reference to decide which images to enlarge. The paper that has been exposed is processed, first by immersion in a photographic developer, halting development with a stop bath, and fixing in a photographic fixer. The print is then washed to remove the processing chemicals and dried. There are a variety of other, additional steps a photographer may take, such as toning. Topic 37 Printing & Enlarging Since the 1960s, 35mm film has been the most popular film size. While the quality of 35mm film cannot match that of larger film sizes, the ease of use and flexibility it offers is unmatched. As a result, a large majority of film cameras, including single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, support the 35mm film size. And because 35mm film has the most support in the photography industry, is available at most retail outlets, and is typically much lower in price than the larger size film equipment, 35mm film is often the starting point for beginner photographers. Printing with 35mm Film 35mm film can be enlarged up to 16×20 inches. What Are Contact Sheets? Contact sheets are useful to show clients how their finished photographs will look. Contact sheets are sheets filled with all the photos from the shoot. Contact sheets are easy to produce and will make your photography business much more professional. A contact sheet is similar to a negative but in positive colors. This contains thumbnail images of all the photos from the shoot. This makes it very easy for your clients to look at the photos that you have chosen and decide which ones they want to order. These are also sometimes known as an index sheet. Digital Contact Sheets When using software like Photoshop it's actually very easy to create contact sheets. This is simply a matter of selecting the images that you want to include and then allowing the wizard to add them in place. These can then be printed out on any photo printer. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 The photo contact sheets can be printed to a large sheet of paper or a much smaller 4"x6" photograph if you prefer. Deciding Which to Order The best advantage of a contact sheet is that it gives your clients an opportunity to look at the photos before they have ordered them. They can then decide exactly which photos they want to order and have printed larger. Topic 38 Flash Photography The reason to use flash is of course that flash is very bright (and very fast) for easy camera exposure. In comparison, the brightest light bulbs are dim for photography, not near sunlight bright. Without flash, even well lighted rooms will suffer from long slow shutter speeds, or high ISO, or both. Light bulbs can be fine for still life photography, when a one second shutter is no problem, but which is unacceptable for pictures of people, who tend to move. Flash also allows us to create the lighting, to be like we want it, to place flash wherever we want them, and to be made soft as we might desire, etc. Flash photography is many things. There is on-camera flash and off-camera flash, manual flash and automatic TTL flash, and direct flash and bounce flash. There is fill flash in bright sun, multiple flash units, studio and portrait and table top flash in umbrellas, high speed flash, and more. Lighting is a big and fun subject, but before anyone can get much into "lighting", there are a few more fundamental basics we need to know, about "light". In all of these cases, there are basic differences between flash and existing continuous ambient light. Flash is not difficult, it is just different than either sunlight or regular continuous room light, and we need to understand flash too. In short summary , the major points, the really big deal about flash, is: The intensity of any near light source falls off fast with distance. Therefore, flash can achieve a correct exposure at only one distance. TTL automation can determine that exposure, but we also need to know that relative to that subject distance, any distant background is necessarily underexposed; any close foreground is necessarily overexposed. Bounce flash can help to minimize this, but distance is a huge issue for flash, with huge implications concerning our use. But in drastic contrast, sunlight is quite unique, very special because the Sun is so distant that its intensity appears not to vary with subject distance. Flash pictures involve two exposures , flash and ambient, with two different concepts of rules. Flash is typically very fast, shorter duration than the shutter duration (the shutter merely needs to be open when the flash occurs). Speed lights in particular can be very fast, easily stopping extreme motion. But therefore, flash exposure is not affected by shutter speed. But of course, continuously available ambient light (continuous light) is still affected by shutter speed, like we always understood. Since flash exposure does not care about shutter speed, but shutter speed does affect any continuous ambient light, then specifically, we can use shutter speed as a tool to adjust the ratio between flash and continuous light in our photos. Flash is convenient to modify the light itself, as we desire, for example, large close lights (umbrellas for example) are very soft light with vague diffused shadows, instead of the harsh dark shadows from a small light source. Photography of course has other important factors (composition, lighting, etc), but flash is simply about adding light, and flash exposure is simply about adjusting the flash power level to deliver the right amount of light to the specific distance of your subject. Flash imposes a few limits we work around, like flash power capability and flash range is limited. Also our maximum shutter speed has a limit (maximum shutter sync speed, which varies Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 with camera model, but usually in the ballpark of around 1/200 second maximum shutter sync speed). And waiting for flash recycle time between pictures can be a factor. But flash also allows us control over more things about the light in our photos direction, intensity, soft light from umbrellas, etc. Flash is just a light that we can aim. In one way, it is just another light source, but we can aim flash where we want it (lighting), and we can turn its power up or down (exposure), to deliver the lighting and exposure we want. It is not rocket science. Our picture shows everything that happens. For Exposure, we simply adjust the flash intensity to give the result we want at the subject. In manual flash modes, we simply adjust flash power level to do this. In TTL flash modes, TTL automation gets it close, and then we simply adjust Flash Compensation to adjust this level for our preference. Either way, manual or TTL, if it is too bright, then turn it down, etc. Flash can be necessary, and it can be a big help. Pictures indoors need flash of course, and specifically, Bounce Flash offers much better lighting. Aiming the flash head up at the ceiling is simple, not always possible, but better lighting is almost automatic when it is possible. Direct flash is flat uninteresting light, but bounce is from an off-camera angle, causing soft graduated tonal shading that shows shapes, and is greatly improved as bounce does need more flash power. Pictures of people outdoors in bright sun need fill flash, to lighten the dark harsh shadows. Balanced flash mode is designed to do this, and even the little popup flash will help, if the distance is not too great. Of course, finding some shade is always good (softer light), but a little fill flash is still needed. The control of automatic TTL e xposure is done with Flash Compensation. Simply adjust Flash Compensation as seen needed. Topic no 39 Comparative Imaging Comparative imaging can be better understood with the perfect knowledge of lenses and their function and usage. There are different types of lenses. Types of lenses 1. Fixed Focal Lens/ Prime lens: -Also referred to as a "prime lens," the fixed focal length lens (FFL) has a focal length that is not adjustable. Photographers are unable to zoom in and out on a particular subject when using a prime lens. Often used as a term opposite of zoom, prime lenses have only one focal length, with fewer moving parts and a simpler lens formula. A fixed focal length lens is less likely to produce images with chromatic aberrations (fringes of color along boundaries of dark and light parts of an image). FFL lenses come in all focal lengths, from a wide-angle lens to the longer telephoto lenses. 2. Zoom lens: - Zoom lenses have variable focal lengths, and are extremely useful. Some can range between a wide-angle and a telephoto (i.e. 24 to 300mm) so you have extensive versatility for composition. The trade off with zoom lenses is the aperture. Because of the number of elements required in constructing these lenses, they have a limited ability to open up and allow in light. So unless you’re prepared to outlay a lot of money, you will give up lens speed. 3. Wide angle lens: - A wide-angle has a shorter focal length (10 thru 42mm) when compared to a standard lens. This enables you to capture a comparatively wider angle of view. A wide-angle lens is a natural choice for capturing outdoor landscapes and group portraits. In fact, wide angle can be the only way to capture the complete setting without omitting any important elements in the image. In this manner, you can use wide-angle lenses to capture a deep DOF. 4. Tele-photo lens: - Telephoto lenses (100mm - 800mm) can provide you with a narrow field of view. These long lenses enable you to compress a distance (and compress the sense of depth, as Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 well) and pick out specific objects from far off. They have a strong resolving power and an inherent shallow DOF, where the slightest lateral moment can take a subject out of view. Telephoto lenses are great for wildlife, portrait, sports, and documentary types of photography. They enable you to capture subjects from hundreds of feet away. 5. Macro/Micro photography lens: - Macro lenses are used for close-up or “macro” photography. They range in focal lengths of between 50-200mm. These lenses obtain razor-sharp focus for subjects within the macro focus distance, but lose their ability for sharp focus at other distances. These lenses enable the photographer to obtain life-size or larger images of subjects like wasps, butterflies, and flowers. 6. Process lens: - Process lenses are lenses which are primarily designed for the graphics industry. They are flat field lenses which are optimized for 1-1 reproduction. That being said, many of the process lenses are excellent large format landscape lenses if stopped down. Normally a process lens will be mounted in a barrel. much flash, turn it down a little with -EV Flash Compensation, or vice versa. Topic 40 Photographic Lab- Photoshop How to Use Layers in Photoshop? Think of layers as sheets of glass stacked on top of one another that you'll use to create a final product. Each sheet can be modified individually without affecting the project as a whole; this can save you tons of time when making edits to individual elements of your graphic. A layer can be used for an image, text, brush strokes, background colors, patterns, and filters. To add or delete a layer, you can either use the Layers tab from the top menu bar or select your option, or you can locate the Layers module on the right hand side of your Photoshop application and use the corresponding icons. Once you've located your Layers tool bar, you'll notice a number of icons along the bottom of that module. Add and delete icons are indicated by the screenshot below. You will also notice the little "eye" icons along the left side of each layer you add; clicking these icons lets you toggle the visibility of those layers. How to Use the Color Tool in Photoshop? This may seem like a pretty self-explanatory element, but the Color tool in Photoshop has powerful features that will keep your visual content vibrant and unify your color schemes. The Color tool is located on the tool bar on the right, and lets you use, modify, copy, and save custom colors for your content. In the color module, there are a set of bars that you can adjust to create your own custom color like if you already have a brand style guide that defines the colors you should use. Or, you can use the quick color selection bar located underneath the RGB bars to find the color that's right for you. You'll notice that your selected color is indicated by a small box shown in the screenshot below. If you would like to use a more expansive color picker, simply double click the foreground color box, and you'll be presented with a much more advanced color creating tool to work with. Within the Color Picker, you'll be able to create your custom color and save it to your swatches for future use. How to Use Fonts and the Text Tool in Photoshop Fonts are a defining piece of any marketer’s visual content. Let’s face it; an image of a teddy year in a box is just an interesting image until you define it with some text. The great thing about the Photoshop Text tool is that it’s easy to add custom fonts to your database, and it gives you access to advanced font settings that give your text some serious style. To access your font tools, click the icon indicated in the screenshot below. You'll immediately notice all of the settings and font options you have available at your fingertips. These settings let you change the font, font Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 size, spacing between characters, height, width, color, and style. The text tool works like any other text tool you’ve used. Click the "T" icon on the left side bar, drag the text box over any particular area you want text to appear, and you’re set to go. Whenever you create a text box, Photoshop will generate a layer for it. You can choose the color, size, stroke, font style, and a variety of other options to switch things up. How to Use Brushes in Photoshop? Brushes are a great way to add some visual accents to your content. Photoshop starts you off with a nice selection of brush tips that you can use to clean up your graphics and create some basic visual effects. Just as with fonts, you can add your own royalty-free custom brush tips. With the brush settings, you can change the size, shape, and transparency of your brush strokes to achieve a number of different visual effects. Check out the screenshot below for a breakdown of the brush settings. How to Use the Brush Tool in Photoshop? The brush tool, as mentioned earlier, is perfect for adding design accents to your marketing content. When using the brush tool, I always suggest adding a new layer to work with so you don’t paint over any of your other elements. You can choose colors from your library of swatches, or use a custom color. In the screenshot below, I’m using a custom brush to add a splash of color and character to this graphic. It’s a simple process that produces great results. To access your Brush tool, locate the icon indicated in the screenshot (you'll also notice that the brush icon is also located in the top left corner). The drop down will indicate your current brush tip. Changing the brush settings can give your brush a drastically different look and style. Don’t be afraid to play around a bit with all of your custom brushes. To make changes to your brush tip, locate the settings icon on the side bar on the right; and a slide out menu will appear, and you can make your changes as you see fit. Once you're satisfied with your settings, create a new layer over the elements you'd like to paint and go to town! How to Use the Select Tool in Photoshop? If you’ve used any photo editing software, you’re probably well aware of the Select tool. For Photoshop, this tool is represented by the dotted-line square in your tool bar (you'll see this in the screenshot below). This is one of the most basic, yet frustrating, tools to use in Photoshop. When used correctly, this tool will let you select individual elements, entire graphics, and determines what is copied, cut, and pasted into your graphics. Some people also get hung up on how to select an image to insert in their graphic. To do this, open the image you would like to use in Photoshop, and use the Select Tool to determine how much of the image you would like to copy. Once you’ve selected the area of the image, simply copy the area. Open the tab for your current project and paste it in as a new layer. Once you’ve pasted the image, you can position and resize the image anyway you’d like. How to Use the Move Tool in Photoshop? This is a fairly basic tool that allows you to move individual elements of your graphic. The Move tool works on individual layers, and on the graphic as a whole -- if (remember how to do this?) you highlight all of your layers. This tool comes in handy when you’re trying to reposition images, text, and other design elements. Click the Move Icon from the left hand menu bar and simply drag the object(s) you would like to move. You can also right click the object for additional options. How to Use the Magnetic Lasso in Photoshop? Have you ever wished you could just select a particular shape, person, or object instead of having to highlight the entire image? Well, the Magnetic Lasso will do the trick! You can access the Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Magnetic Lasso from your tool bar. Simply click it, and start selecting your custom object by guiding your cursor along the outside of the object -- the Magnetic Lasso will snap to it like, well, a magnet. Use your zoom tool to get up close and personal with your object, too, for more accurate lasso work. You’ve finished highlighting your object, right click and copy or cut it out. How to Use the Eraser in Photoshop? The eraser is one of the most useful tools in Photoshop. Yes, I understand it’s technically just an eraser, but you’ve never used an eraser like this! First off, we’ve got the basic eraser, which functions a lot like the brush tool. You can change the size and hardness of the eraser tip to achieve a variety of effects, like blending and fades. To use the Erase tool, locate the icon on the right-hand tool bar and select it. Once you've selected your Eraser tool, you can change the size, hardness, and other aspects of that erase tool by clicking on the drop down tab in the top menu bar, indicated by the screenshot. Like most tools in Photoshop, the eraser works only on a specifically selected layer. Make sure you've got the layer you want selected before you start erasing! A Background eraser uses differences in color to help you erase unwanted background areas from your images. This tool is a time-saving wonder! You can see how easily it eliminates background colors from images. This is especially helpful if you need an object with a transparent background. To use the Background eraser, click and hold the eraser icon until the slide out menu appears. Once you've located the Background eraser icon, pictured in the screenshot, click it. Now you're ready to some serious erasing! Adjust the size of the Background eraser, and simply click the color you would like deleted from the selected layer. How to Use the Crop Tool in Photoshop? This works like any crop tool you’ve ever encountered. Simply choose your area and crop it out! You’ll find yourself using this just as often as any other tool in Photoshop, especially when you’ve completed your graphic and need to clean up some of the free space around the edges. To use the Crop tool, select the icon indicated in the screenshot from the side menu bar, and drag the box over the area you would like to crop. To adjust the crop box, simply click and drag the small anchor boxes on the sides and corners of the crop box. How to Use the Paint Bucket in Photoshop? This tool is perfect for giving your marketing content some much needed color, and a nice background off of which to build your graphics. There are three tools built into the Paint Bucket that a marketer should learn how to use. The first is the basic Paint Bucket tool, which essentially fills any solid area with the color of your choice. It’s great for solid backgrounds or coloring large areas. To use the Paint Bucket tool, simply select the icon from the side menu bar as indicated in the screenshot, and find the color you would like to paint. Once you've found the color you'd like to use, select the appropriate layer and apply the color by clicking the area you would like painted. The Paint Bucket can also be used to apply patterns to your images. These patterns can be manually created if you have the time and patience, or you can find a variety of royalty-free patterns available for download through a basic Google search. To use the Paint Bucket to apply a pattern, select the paint bucket icon from the side menu bar and use the drop down tab from the top menu bar to change the foreground to "Pattern" as indicated in the screenshot below. Once you've changed the tab over to "Pattern," you will notice a new tab appears to the right of that "Pattern" tab. Select that new pattern box and choose your pattern from the drop down box. You have now chosen a pattern, and are now ready to apply that pattern to whichever layer you would like. The third feature of the paint bucket is the Gradient tool. This can be used to create a nice faded background effect of the color of your choice. It’s a simple tool that’s easy to use, and produces a nice professional look for your marketing content. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 To use the Gradient tool, click and hold the paint bucket icon until the slide out menu appears. Select the Gradient tool and make sure that the Gradient tab in the top menu bar is set to a gradual face, as indicated in the screenshot above. Now, choose the color you would like to use, place your cursor on the right side of the graphic, and drag to the left. How to Use the Eyedropper in Photoshop? This handy little tool lets you simply extract and use any color from any image in Photoshop. It’s perfect for keeping your marketing content uniform with company color schemes. To use the Eyedropper tool, select the icon from the sidebar as indicated in the screenshot. Locate that color you would like to extract, and simply click that area to clone the color. Once you've extracted the color, you will see it indicated at the bottom of the left sidebar. You can double click that color box to bring up the advanced color picker where you can adjust and save the color to a swatch for future use. How to Use Blending Options in Photoshop? The blending options are great for putting finishing touches on your marketing content. You can access these options by right-clicking the layer you want to use and selecting “Blending Options” from the menu. You can also double click any layer to bring up the options for that particular layer. You’ll notice in the screen shot below that there are quite a number of features you can use. You should take some time to play around with all the layer effects and find out which ones tickle your fancy. Topic 41 Digital Imaging Device Key components in DSLR cameras

In the above figure, we can see that there are several key components in a DSLR camera, which are listed as follows with their respective functions: 1. Matte focusing screen: A screen on which the light passes through the lens will project. 2. Condensing lens: A lens that is used to concentrate the incoming light. 3. Pentaprism: To produce a correctly oriented and right side up image and project it to the viewfinder eyepiece. 4. AF sensor : its full name is autofocus sensor, which is used to accomplish correct auto focus. 5. Viewfinder eyepiece: To allow us to see what will be recorded on the image sensor. 6. LCD screen: its full name is liquid crystal display, which is used to display the photos stored in its memory card, settings and also what will be recorded on the image sensor in the live view mode. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 7. Image sensor : A device that contains a large number of pixels for converting an optical image into electrical signals. The commonly used types are charge- coupled device (CCD) and Complementary Metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS). 8. AE sensor : its full name is auto exposure sensor, which is used to provide exposure information and adjust the exposure settings after calculations under different situations. 9. Sub mirror : To reflect the light passes through the semi-transparent area on the main mirror to the autofocus (AF) sensor. 10. Main mirror: To reflect incoming light into the viewfinder compartment. It must be in an angle of exactly 45 degrees. There is a small semi-transparent area on it to facilitate auto focus.

In the above figure, we can see that light from the outside world first passes through the lens. After this, the light is projected on the matte focus screen through reflection by the main mirror. The condensing lens and the pentaprism then project the image formed on the matte focus screen to the viewfinder eyepiece by internal reflection. This explains why we can see the image that will be taken by the camera through the viewfinder. When we need to take a photo using autofocus, we can first press the shutter button halfway down to trigger the process. During this process, the light is directed to the AF sensor by the sub-mirror. The AF sensor then performs a series of calculations to achieve correct focus. After focusing, the main mirror will flip up (towards the matte focus plane). As a result, the light coming from the lens can reach the image sensor. A digital image is formed after the light has been converted to electronic signals by the image sensor. Mirror less Interchangeable Lens Cameras (MILCs) The internal structure of a MILC There are some common components with DSLR camera mentioned in the previous part, for instance image sensor and LCD screen. However, unlike a typical DSLR, there are no mirrors, and therefore no optical viewfinder, in a MILC, as what it called. Also, MILCs use contrast- detect autofocus, which is achieved by measuring the contrast within the field of the image sensor, instead of phase-detect autofocus, which is achieved by dividing the incoming light into pairs of images and comparing them, that is being used in conventional DSLR cameras. In addition, auto exposure of MILCs is dealt with by the image sensor in real time, rather than being done by a dedicated AE sensor in conventional DSLR cameras. Furthermore, most MILCs do not have a viewfinder, but only the LCD display. This can be a great disadvantage under strong sunlight since it is very difficult to see what the LCD display shows due to reflection of sunlight.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic 42 Digital Imaging Files Pixel: In digital imaging, a pixel, pel, or picture element is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an all points addressable display device; so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the screen. The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a two-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares, but CRT pixels correspond to their timing mechanisms and sweep rates. Each pixel is a sample of an original image; more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable. In color image systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. In some contexts (such as descriptions of camera sensors), the term pixel is used to refer to a single scalar element of a multi-component representation (more precisely called a photo site in the camera sensor context, although the neologism sensel is sometimes used to describe the elements of a digital camera's sensor), while in others the term may refer to the entire set of such component intensities for a spatial position. In color systems that use chroma subsampling, the multi-component concept of a pixel can become difficult to apply, since the intensity measures for the different color components correspond to different spatial areas in such a representation. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix (pictures) and el (element); similar formations with el for “element” include the words voxel and texel. Resolution of computer monitors: Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads, with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that are equally well supported. To produce the sharpest images possible on an LCD, the user must ensure the display resolution of the computer matches the native resolution of the monitor. Bits per pixel: A bit is the basic unit of information in computing and digital communications. A bit can have only one of two values, and may therefore be physically implemented with a two state device. These values are most commonly represented as either a 0or1. The term bit is a combination of binary digit. The number of distinct colors that can be represented by a pixel depends on the number of bits per pixel (bpp). A 1 bpp image uses 1-bit for each pixel, so each pixel can be either on or off. Each additional bit doubles the number of colors available, so a 2 bpp image can have 4 colors, and a 3 bpp image can have 8 colors:  1 bpp, 21 = 2 colors (monochrome)  2 bpp, 22 = 4 colors  3 bpp, 23 = 8 colors  8 bpp, 28 = 256 colors  16 bpp, 216 = 65,536 colors (High color )  24 bpp, 224 = 16,777,216 colors (True color) The Byte : Byte is a unit of digital information in computing and telecommunications that most commonly consists of eight bits. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 memory in many computer architectures. The size of the byte has historically been hardware dependent and no definitive standards existed that mandated the size. The de facto standard of eight bits is a convenient power of two permitting the values 0 through 255 for one byte. The international standard IEC 80000-13 codified this common meaning. Many types of applications use information representable in eight or fewer bits and processor designers optimize for this common usage. The popularity of major commercial computing architectures has aided in the ubiquitous acceptance of the 8-bit size. The unit Octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of 8 bits because of the ambiguity associated at the time with the byte Topic 43 Videography- Historical Background The kinetoscope led the way to the Kinetograph, which was considered the first motion picture device. The Kinetograph consisted of still photographs that were positioned in a setting of quick stop-and-go film movements and gave the appearance of an actual movie. In the 1920s and 1930s, people would flock to the movie “picture house” to watch silent movies led by, of course, Charlie Chaplin. Then “talkies” (talking film movies) evolved and the movie industry took off. In 1932, 8mm movie film cameras and projectors were being sold to the public and the Kodak Company, one of the pioneers for film projection, introduced “Super 8 film.” This format provided images that appeared larger than normal 8mm film. Whether 8mm or super 8mm film was used, people across the world would use these silent movie cameras to film their families on vacation, their children, and weddings and other affairs. When the movie was complete, the film would be sent to a film development company to process them. In order to view the movie, the film would have to be “sewn” through a “movie projector” before it could be viewed. The process usually took between five to ten minutes to complete. The technology had its advancements, but in general, making home movies this way continued right into the 1960s and 1970s. Then a breakthrough occur red. What was once only seen in sci-fi movies – “video” became a reality. No more would the people need to use the cumbersome 8mm film cameras and projectors. All that was needed was a video camera, cartridge and a player on which to watch the movies. In the early years of video, the cameras were large and needed a separate battery back pack when making movies. As technology advanced in the 1980s, the bulky video camera was reduced to a hand-held size, making it much easier for people to take home movies. Professional photographers embraced this new technology and started offering professional videos for weddings, bar mitzvahs and corporate events; hence, the beginning of the professional videography industry. Topic 44 Motion Picture Historical Background The illusion of motion pictures is based on the optical phenomena known aspersistence of vision and the phi phenomenon. The first of these causes the brain to retain images cast upon the retina of the eye for a fraction of a second beyond their disappearance from the field of sight, while the latter creates apparent movement between images when they succeed one another rapidly. Together these phenomena permit the succession of still frames on a motion-picture film strip to represent continuous movement when projected at the proper speed (traditionally 16 frames per second for silent films and 24 frames per second for sound films). Before the invention of photography, a variety of optical toys exploited this effect by mounting successive phase drawings of things in motion on the face of a twirling disk (thephenakistoscope, c. 1832) or inside a rotating drum (the zoetrope, c. 1834). Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic 45 Film Reel Reel, in motion pictures, is a light circular frame with radial arms and a central axis, originally designed to hold approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) of 35-millimetre motion-picture film. In the early days of motion pictures, each reel ran about 10 minutes, and the length of a picture was indicated by the number of its reels. A film was a “one-reeler,” a “two-reeler,” or longer. Modern projector accommodates reels holding from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of 35-millimetre film, while the so-called mini-theatres often mount an entire movie on a single reel. The standard length of a 35 mm film reel is 1,000 feet (305 m), which runs approximately 11 minutes for sound film (24 frames per second) and slightly longer at silent film speed (which may vary from approximately 16 to 22 frames per second). Most films have visible cues which mark the end of the reel. This allows projectionists running reel-to-reel to change over to the next reel on the other projector. A so-called "two-reeler" would have run about 20–24 minutes since the actual short film shipped to a movie theater for exhibition may have had slightly less (but rarely more) than 1,000 ft. (305 m) on it. Most modern projectionists use the term "reel" when referring to a 2,000-foot (610 m) "two-reeler", as modern films are rarely shipped by single 1,000-foot (305 m) reels. The "reel" was established as a standard measurement because of considerations in printing motion picture film at a film laboratory, for shipping (especially the film case sizes) and for the size of the physical film magazine attached to the motion picture projector. A " split reel" is a motion picture film reel in two halves that, when assembled, hold a specific length of motion picture film that has been wound on a plastic core. Using a split reel allows film to be shipped or handled in a lighter and smaller form than film would on a "fixed" reel. In silent film terminology, two films on one reel. As digital cinema catches on, the physical reel is being replaced by a virtual format called Digital Cinema Package, which can be distributed using any storage media (such as hard drives) or data transfer medium (such as the Internet or satellite links) and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional movie projector. Actors may submit a demo reel of their work to prospective employers, often in physical reel format. Topic no. 46 Film Projection The History of 35mm Film The first machine patented in the United States that showed animated pictures or movies was a device called the " wheel of life" or "zoopraxiscope ". Patented in 1867 by William Lincoln, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit in the zoopraxiscope. However, this was a far cry from motion pictures as we know them today. Modern motion picture making began with the invention of the motion picture camera. What Lumiere invented was a portable motion-picture camera, film processing unit and projector called the Cinematograph, three functions covered in one invention. The cinematograph made motion pictures very popular, and it could be better being said that Lumiere's invention began the motion picture era. In 1895, Lumiere and his brother were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, pictures to a paying audience of more than one person.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic no. 47 STILL CAMERA MECHANISM A still film camera is made of three basic elements : an optical element (the lens), a chemical element (the film) and a mechanical element (the camera body itself). The only trick to photography is calibrating and combining these elements in such a way that they record a crisp, recognizable image. Single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera is a camera where the photographer sees exactly the same image that is exposed to the film and can adjust everything by turning dials and clicking buttons. Since it doesn't need any electricity to take a picture, a manual SLR camera provides an excellent illustration of the fundamental processes of photography. The optical componen t of the camera is the lens . At its simplest, a lens is just a curved piece of glass or plastic. Its job is to take the beams of light bouncing off of an object and redirect them so they come together to form a real image -- an image that looks just like the scene in front of the lens. As light travels from one medium to another, it changes speed. Light travels more quickly through air than it does through glass, so a lens slows it down. When light waves enter a piece of glass at an angle, one part of the wave will reach the glass before another and so will start slowing down first. This is something like pushing a shopping cart from pavement to grass, at an angle. The right wheel hits the grass first and so slows down while the left wheel is still on the pavement. Because the left wheel is briefly moving more quickly than the right wheel, the shopping cart turns to the right as it moves onto the grass. The effect on light is the same -- as it enters the glass at an angle, it bends in one direction. It bends again when it exits the glass because parts of the light wave enter the air and speed up before other parts of the wave. In a standard converging, or convex lens, one or both sides of the glass curves out. This means rays of light passing through will bend toward the center of the lens on entry. In a double convex lens, such as a magnifying glass, the light will bend when it exits as well as when it enters. This effectively reverses the path of light from an object. A light source - - say a candle -- emits light in all directions. The rays of light all start at the same point -- the candle's flame -- and then are constantly diverging. A converging lens takes those rays and redirects them so they are all converging back to one point. At the point where the rays converge, you get a real image of the candle. In the next couple of sections, we'll look at some of the variables that determine how this real image is formed. Topic no 48 Film Camera Mechanism Movie cameras can capture moving images that better reflect the changing nature of our world. Persistence of vision": How the eye fools the brain Open up a movie camera or camcorder (a compact electronic video camera) and you'll find all kinds of mechanical and electrical parts packed inside. But the basic science behind making movies has nothing to do with lenses, gears, electric motors, or electronics—it's all about how our eyes and brains work. Before movie cameras and projectors were invented, 19th-century toy makers were using the same idea to make relatively crude animated films. A typical toy from this era was called the zoetrope. It was a large rotating drum with thin vertical slits cut into its outer edge. Inside, you placed a long strip of paper with small colored pictures drawn on to it. Then you rotated the drum to make the pictures blur together (just like a flick book) and looked down through one of the slits to watch them Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 How Film Works? It’s a relatively small step from flip books and zoetrope’s to fully fledged movies. The theory of making a movie is just as simple: you take thousands and thousands of still photographs one after another. When you play them back at high speed, they blur into a single moving image—a movie. A famous American photographer called Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904) was one of the first people to show how one moving picture could be made from many still ones. Using multiple cameras arranged in rows, he took series of photographs of galloping horses and vaulting gymnasts. Classic movie cameras A basic movie camera is like a standard film camera that takes a photograph on to plastic film every time the shutter opens and closes. In a standard film camera, you have to wind the film on so it advances to the next position to capture another photograph. But in a movie camera, the film is constantly moving and the shutter is constantly opening and closing to take a continuous series of photographs—about 24 times each second. Before modern camcorders were invented, people used mechanical home movie cameras, which were very small versions of professional movie cameras with all the parts (and the film itself) miniaturized. In these early cameras, the film was moved past the lens by either a wind-up (clockwork) mechanism or a small electric motor. How a Classic movie camera works? 1. The unexposed movie film starts out on the large reel at the front. The film and its path through the camera are shown by the black dotted line and the black arrows. 2. The film passes over guide rollers and spring-loaded pressure rollers that hold it firmly against the central sprocket (a large wheel with teeth protruding from its edge, rather like a gear wheel). The sprocket's teeth lock into the holes on the edge of the film and pull it precisely and securely through the mechanism. 3. Light from the scene being filmed enters through the lens and passes into a prism (shown by the yellow triangle), which splits it in half. 4. Some of the light continues on through the shutter (black line) and hits the film, exposing a single frame (one individual still photo) of the movie. 5. The rest of the light takes the lower path, bouncing down into a mirror. 6. The shutter is like a mechanical eyelid that blinks open 24 times a second, allowing light through when each frame of the film is securely in place and blocking the light when the film is advancing from one frame to the next. The shutter is driven by the same mechanism that turns the sprocket. 7. More pressure rollers hold the exposed film against the lower part of the central sprocket. The teeth on the sprocket pull the exposed film back through the camera. 8. Light redirected by the mirror exits through a lens and viewfinder so the camera operator can see what he or she is filming. 9. Guide rollers take the exposed film back up toward the upper reel. 10. The large upper reel at the back collects the exposed film. CAMCODERS When video recording was invented, photographic film was replaced by magnetic videotape, which was simpler, cheaper, and needed no photographic developing before you could view the things you'd recorded. Modern electronic camcorders use digital video. Instead of recording photographic images, they use a light sensitive microchip called a charge-coupled device (CCD) to convert what the lens sees into digital (numerical) format. In other words, each frame is not Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 stored as a photograph, but as a long string of numbers. So a movie recorded with a digital camcorder is a series of frames, each stored in the form of numbers. In some camcorders, the digital information is recorded onto videotape; in others, you record onto a DVD; and in still others, you record onto a hard drive or flash memory. The advantage of storing movies in digital format is that you can edit them on your computer, upload them onto web sites, and view them on all kinds of different devices (from cellphones and MP3 players to computers and televisions). How to make a movie with Digital Camera Most modern digital cameras allow you to capture video as well as still photos, so you don't need a movie camera or camcorder to win an Oscar! If you've never tried home movie making with your camera, why not give it a go? Here are a few basic tips: Preparing: Make sure your digital camera batteries are fully charged before you start. Unlike still photography, which uses battery power only intermittently, making movies means your camera is operating continually for perhaps a half-hour or more—easily enough to drain your batteries at the most inconvenient moment. It helps to have fully charged spare batteries standing by. Planning: Unless you're making a spontaneous home movie, decide what you want to film before you start recording. You could even draw up a storyboard to help you plan what to film and when. That way, you can record all the outside shots together, all the inside shots together, and so on—to save lots of moving around. Casting: Who's going to act in your movie? Friends and family? Or maybe you'll just talk to the camera yourself in a kind of video diary? Filming: Just like a professional movie director, be sure to record much more footage than you actually need. That way, you can edit down to a much higher quality end product. If you're working with other actors, record multiple takes of key scenes and choose the best ones when you watch them later. Editing: Explore your computer and see what video editing software (if any) is already installed on it. If you're a Microsoft Windows user, see if you have a program called Movie Maker installed. It lets you load files you've recorded with a digital camera or webcam and then edit them frame by frame, adding text titles and all kinds of other visual effects. The most recent version is called Windows Movie Maker and you can download it for free if you've not got it already. On a Mac, you can do the same sort of thing in iMovie. Publishing: Once you've recorded and edited your movie, decide what you'll do with it next. How about burning it onto DVD and giving it out to your friends and family? Or maybe you could upload it to YouTube or Facebook and become the next overnight movie sensation? Photo: It's easy to add special effects to your movie with software like Movie Maker, a program packaged with most recent versions of Microsoft Windows. With a preview of your movie in the right-hand pane, you can click through a whole list of visual effects on the left, including transitions, fade-outs, and making your movie look old and crackly like a silent movie from the 1920s! Topic no. 49 Film Exposure Exposure in film photography is defined as the quantity of light that is allowed through the camera lens and onto the photo film controlled by the intensity of light (through the aperture) and length of time (determined by the shutter speed). For correct exposure in a film camera, whether Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 35mm, medium format, or large format, it is essential that you correctly set both the shutter speed and aperture. Film speed will also play a role in determining the correct exposure. Obtaining the Correct Film Exposure Technically speaking, the correct film exposure does not exist as different photographers will have a different idea of what is properly exposed and what is not. See the example below for three different exposures of the same site. Depending on whether you want to see all the detail or darken it for night will determine the right exposure for you. However, the way in which you get any exposure remains the same. Light Metering Most modern 35mm single-lens reflex (SLR) film cameras have through-the-lens (TTL) meters that intake the amount of light available to help you determine the best exposure. These types of light meters are called Reflective Meters as they measure the light bouncing off your subject and into the camera lens. For beginners using a camera without a light meter, it is highly suggested that you purchase a handheld meter to use. Handheld meters can be Reflective or take Incident Light Readings. Incident readings put the light meter directly in the light of the subject to capture one light source instead of an overall average. While successful, light meters often are very flawed in areas of great contrast. Because contrasting images may contain white areas, mid-gray areas, and black areas, the light meter is forced to take an average reading of average gray. This is of prime importance, especially in beach or winter photography, as the bright areas will be measured as mid-gray. A system was developed to compensate for the mid-gray exposure by exposing for the darker shadow areas. Film Exposure without Light Meters The /Sunny 16 Rule can be used when a light meter is not available. Instead of wasting film trying to guess your exposure, you can use this rule. On a sunny day with no clouds overhead, set your aperture to f/16. Your shutter speed is then set to the ISO film speed of the film you’re using. This will leave you with a nice, even exposure. It is rare that your shutter speed will match the ISO film speed perfect. For instance, there is no shutter speed 100 for 100 ISO film. The Sunny 16 rule then dictates to use the next highest shutter speed above the ISO film speed. So for speed 100 you would use shutter speed 1/125. It’s much easier to remember shutter speed equals ISO film speed, but always remember the shutter speed will likely not match. On a perfect, clear, sunny day, f/16 is to be used. Days that aren’t clear and sunny can still use the Sunny 16 rule with some minor changes. Extremely bright days with distinct shadows use f/22. Hazy sun and soft shadows use f/11, cloudy days with barely visible shadows use f/8, and overcast days with no shadows use f/5.6. The same shutter speed rule applies. In our example of using ISO film speed 100, the shutter speed will always be 1/125, regardless of the aperture used. Perfect Exposure: There are four steps to get a perfect exposure of a running movie film: 1. A shutter to blank off the aperture while the mechanism pulls the film through ready for the next frame to be exposed. 2. A channel or gate in which to position the film accurately. 3. A device to pull the film down to its next position, usually a ‘claw’. 4. Loops of film top or bottom of the film gate to act as reservoirs during the pull down period.

Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 Topic no. 50 Camera Shutter and Claw What is Shutter Speed? Camera shutter speed works hand in hand with the aperture settings of a film camera lens to achieve a good exposure. Any guide to photography will stress the importance of correct shutter speed and aperture settings of your35mm film camera, medium format camera, orlarge format camera. Whereas the camera aperture sets the amount of light allow through the lens, the shutter speed dictates how fast the shutter opens and closes to allow more or less light in to expose the film. And while the aperture will determine depth of field, the shutter speed will capture motion. If your subject is moving, a slow shutter speed will result in a blurry subject. A fast shutter speed will capture the subject nearly instantly to capture one frame of that movement. How the Shutter Works ? In the case of single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, the shutter is also part of the mirrors used to reflect the image from the lens into the viewfinder. When the photograph is taken, the mirror flips up to allow proper timed exposure to the film sitting behind the shutter. Because the mirror flips up during exposure the viewfinder will go black. On other film cameras, such as the twin- lens reflex (TLR) camera, the shutter works in a similar fashion but does not block the viewfinder – allowing the photographer to always see the subject. How to Measure Shutter Speed on a Film Camera? The majority of film cameras have multiple shutter speed settings on the shutter speed dial. They will typically read, in order, 1-2-4-8-15-30-60-125-250-500-1000-2000-4000 and possibly more. Be aware that these numbers do not equate to full seconds. 1 is equivalent to 1 second, but 2 is actually 1/2 second, 4 is 1/4 second, etc. Therefore, a shutter speed of 1/125 will allow more light than 1/500 and is a longer exposure. This becomes prime importance because if there is a slow shutter speed you may see some resulting blurriness from the subject moving or your hands moving the camera slightly. A general rule of thumb is that anything slower than 1/60 requires the use of a tripod to avoid blurriness. Most cameras will also have a shutter speed labeled B, known as bulb mode. This B setting allows the photographer to keep the shutter open for as long as they hold the shutter release. This is especially useful for dark areas or night photography that require long exposures. Some newer cameras will also have an Auto feature. By putting the shutter on Auto, the shutter speed is automatically adjusted based on the camera’s aperture, referred to as aperture priority. Of course, none of this matters if you do not set both the aperture and shutter speed to the correct exposure. Topic no. 51 Early Cameras Photography is a word derived from the Greek words photos ("light") and graphein ("to draw"). The word was first used by the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839. It is a method of recording images by the action of light, or related radiation, on a sensitive material. Pinhole Camera Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham), a great authority on optics in the Middle Ages who lived around 1000AD, invented the first pinhole camera, (also called the Camera Obscura} and was able to explain why the images were upside down The first casual reference to the optic laws that made pinhole cameras possible, was observed and noted by Aristotle around 330 BC, who questioned why the sun could make a circular image when it shined through a square hole. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019

Topic no. 52 Film Speed 1. Film Speed “Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometer and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems.” How important is film speed? Many people today love using a digital camera to take pictures, but others still prefer the old- school charm and control of traditional film. When we talk about film speed, we're referring to the measure of a film's sensitivity to light. Each film speed is best suited for a different type of photography. The lower the speed, the longer an exposure to light is necessary to produce image density. If the film speed is higher, it requires less exposure but generally has reduced quality in the form of grain and noise. Noise and grain are the abnormalities in brightness and color in images; they look similar to a layer of "snow" on a television set. They're measured using the ISO system from the International Organization for Standardization (thus the ISO, which is used as an abbreviation for the group and the film speed) and are the giant numbers you'll typically see on a box of film. You'll also see the abbreviation ASA (American Standard Association) used in conjunction with film speed. ASA and ISA are interchangeable. The rating still applies to digital photography even though the cameras don't use film. ISO speed is used in digital cameras to judge the relationship between the exposure rating and the sensor data values. Most advanced cameras have an ISO setting available, which emulates the speed rating of film. The basic rules of film speed apply equally to film and digital cameras. Slow-speed films generally refer to film with 100-200 ISO ratings. These slower speeds are excellent for outdoor landscape photography and inanimate objects. They can also be a great choice if it's a particularly sunny day. Since the film takes longer to absorb light, it captures detail more effectively. So if you plan on enlarging those pictures you'll want to shoot with the lowest ISO possible. Medium speed is 400 ISO. As can be expected, the medium speed is probably the best for general-purpose use and can handle indoor lighting conditions, overcast days and any combination of the two. Even so, it's not suited for action shots or very bright days. Fast-speed film is usually rated at 800 ISO and above. It's best for moving subjects you might see at a sporting event or concert, or when you plan on using a zoom lens or are shooting in a dimly lit area. Unfortunately, if you plan on enlarging the photos, they'll likely turn out grainy Film speed is remarkably important and can make or break a photograph. There are exceptions to the above rules, and experimenting can certainly yield impressive and interesting results, but the fact remains that the film speed you choose will have a direct effect on the quality and density of the picture you take, regardless of whether you're shooting digital or on film. Topic no. 53 The Film People Producers & Directors Producer The producer is generally responsible for a specific production. Usually the producer is concerned with the business organization, budget, the choice of the staff and crew, interdepartmental coordination, script acceptance, and production scheduling. The producer may Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 select or initiate the program concepts and work with writers. He or she may assign the production’s director and is responsible for meeting deadlines, production planning, location projects, rehearsals, production treatment, and other duties. Producers may also become involved in specifics such as craft or union problems, assessing postproduction treatment, and the final program format. Assistant producer or associate producer (AP) The assistant or associate producer is responsible for assisting the producer. These responsibilities, as assigned by the producer, may include coordinating appointments and production schedules, making sure contracts are completed, booking guests, creating packages, and supervising postproduction. This person may be assigned some of the same responsibilities of an associate director. Director Ultimately the director is the individual responsible for creatively visualizing the script or event. This means that the director instructs the camera operators on the type of shots they want and select the appropriate camera shots for the final production. Directors are people who can effectively communicate their vision to the crew. They are also team builders who move the crew toward that vision. This involves advising, guiding, and coordinating the various members on the production team (scenic, lighting, sound, cameras, costume, etc.) and approving their anticipated treatment. The director may choose and hire performers/talent/actors (casting), envision and plan the camera treatment (shots and camera movements) and editing, and direct/rehearse the performers during pre-rehearsals. The multi-camera live production director must look at multiple camera images and select the most appropriate shot Assistant director or associate director (AD) The AD is responsible for assisting the director. Functions may include super- vising pre- rehearsals and location organization. The AD may also review storyboards, implement the shooting schedule, and shield the director from interruptions, and he or she is sometimes responsible for the cast. The AD may take the director’s notes on changes, retakes, performance, and other factors. For multi-camera shoots, the AD may be responsible for lining up shots, graphics, and tapes. He or she may also be responsible for checking on special shots (such as Chroma key), giving routine cues (tape inserts), and other duties while the director guides the actual performance and camera(s). The AD may also check program timing and help the director with postproduction. This person may be assigned some of the same responsibilities of an associate producer. This position may be merged with the floor manager. Topic no. 54 The Film People The Director of Photography A cinematographer or director of photography (sometimes shortened to DP or DOP) is the chief over the camera and lighting crews working on a film, television production or other live action piece and is responsible for achieving artistic and technical decisions related to the image. Directors of Photography (DoPs) are key Heads of Department on film productions and theirs is one of the major creative roles. They provide a film with its unique visual identity, or look. DoPs must discover the photographic heart of a screenplay, using a variety of source material including stills photography, painting, other films, etc. Camera Basics, Principles and Techniques –MCD 401 Organized by:-Rao Rajpoot Muhammad Bilal 0306-8994125, April 21, 2019 They create the desired look using lighting, framing, camera movement, etc. DoPs collaborate closely with the camera crew (Camera Operator, 1st and 2nd Assistant Camera, Camera Trainee and Grips). During filming, DoPs also work closely with the Gaffer (who runs the lighting team), the Production Designer, Costume Designer, and the Hair and Make-up Department. After reading the screenplay, DoPs meet with the Director to discuss the visual style of the film. They conduct research and preparation including carrying out technical recces of locations. They prepare a list of all required camera equipment, including lights, film stock, camera, cranes and all accessories etc., for the production office to order. During preparation DoPs also test special lenses, filters or film stocks, checking that the results fit with the Director's vision for the film. On each day of principal photography, DoPs and their camera crews arrive early on set to prepare the equipment. During rehearsals, the Director and DoP block (decide the exact movements of both actors and camera) the shots as the actors walk through their actions, discussing any special camera moves or lighting requirements with the Camera Operator, Gaffer and Grip. Each shot is marked up for focus and framing by the 1st AC, and, while the actors finish make-up and costume, the DoP oversees the lighting of the set for the first take. On smaller films, DoPs often also operate the camera during the shoot. At the end of each shooting day, DoPs prepare for the following day's work and check that all special requirements (cranes, Steadicams, remote heads, long or wide lenses, etc.) have been ordered. They also usually view the rushes (raw footage) with the Director. During post production, DoPs attend the digital grading of the film, which may involve up to three weeks of intensive work. Most DoPs work on commercials and promos as well as on feature films. Although the hours are long, and some foreign travel may be required, the work is highly creative and very rewarding.