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Evolution of the Regional Hydrogeologic Units of the Great Indian Sedimentary Basin in Relation to Prevailing Tectonic Movements

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Evolution of the Regional Hydrogeologic Units of the Great Indian Sedimentary Basin in Relation to Prevailing Tectonic Movements EVOLUTION OF THE REGIONAL HYDROGEOLOGIC UNITS OF THE GREAT INDIAN SEDIMENTARY BASIN IN RELATION TO PREVAILING TECTONIC MOVEMENTS ÉVOLUTION DES SECTIONS HYDROGÉOLOGIQUES RÉGIONALES DU GRAND BASSIN SEDIMENTABLE INDIEN PAR RAPPORT AUX MOUVEMENTS TECTONIQUES M. BAUDHAN International Hydrologieal Programme, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Rafi Marg, New Delhi-110001, India RÉSUMÉ L'auteur a étudié le rôle des mouvements tectoniques dans la formation des princi­ pales sections hydrogéologiques régionales du Grand Bassin Sédimentaire Indien, situées dans l'ouverture entre la chaîne montagneuse de l'Himalaya au Nord et le rempart péninsulaire au Sud. En s'appuyant sur les données géohistoriques et les résultats des récentes explorations géologiques, il propose une nouvelle hypothèse expliquant l'origine du bassin. Il démontre que les mouvements tectoniques ont exercé une influence décisive sur la détermination de la configuration, de la structure, de la stratigraphie, de la litho­ logie et même des caractères physico-chimiques des quatre différentes sections géologiques du bassin, à savoir, les zones de Siwalik, Bhabar, Terai et Alluviale. L'auteur étudie également les principales caractéristiques hydrogéologiques de ces sections en vue de souligner leurs traits distinctifs. Introduction The Great Indian Sedimentary Basin, drained by the Indus—Ganges — Brahmaputra river system, is one of the largest and most productive ground­ water provinces of the world. It is flanked by the Great Himalaya in the north and the Deccan Shield in the south (Fig. 1). The history of development of this basin and its sedimentary units is closely related to the orogenic and neotectonic events of the late and post Himalayan times. These events are traced back to assess their impact on the formation of the basin and its filling materials. For this purpose, reliance is placed on the geohistorical and recent geotechnical informations. It is shown that there had been both direct and indirect influences of these movements in shaping the basin as well as in deciding the distribution and nature of the sediments. The existing ideas pertaining to the origin of the basin are discussed and a new hypothesis is proposed, which appears to better explain the present structural and hydro- geologic features of the basin as well as the history of sedimentation leading to the development of the regional hydrogeologic units. 287 Fig. 1. Distribution of regional hydrogeologic units in the Great Indian Sedimentary- Basin Description of the basin and its hydrogeologic units The basin runs a length of over 2400 km from Punjab in the west to Assam in the east. Its width is variable, the maximum being over 400 km and the minimum as small as 25 km (Fig. 1). The floor of the basin appears to be highly disturbed by NE —SW trending cross faults, as have been located at Patna, Lucknow, Moradabad and other places in the basin, giving rise to a good number of horsts and grabens (MITHAL and SRIVASTAVA, 1959). While 288 the configuration of the basin floor has not been worked out in detail, it can be reasonably inferred from the available information that the presence of these horsts and grabens together with the existence of a large number of apophyses of Peninsular shelf margins, is liable to render the topography of the basin bottom highly rugged and irregular. This situation should lead to the uneven spatial distribution of thickness of the sediments in the basin, so also the groundwater regime, particularly in the deeper zones. It is further postulated that there exist at least five to six deeper sub-basins along the northern margin of the basin with different groundwater regimes (MITHAL, 1966). The basin is filled with four distinct sedimentary units designated as the Siwalik, Bhabar, Terai and Alluvial formations (MEDLICOTT, 1873), which are disposed in a nearly parallel fashion between themselves as well as with the Himalayan range. Though the major part of the Siwalik formation is now present as the Siwalik hills along the northern border of the basin and consi­ dered as a separate geologic system, from a tectonic angle it can be considered as an integral part of the Great Indian Sedimentary Basin, as will be clear from the discussions to be taken up later. In the following the relevant salient features of the four units of the basin are presented to facilitate further treat­ ment of the subject matter at hand. Biwalik system The Siwalik system derived its name from the Siwalik hills lying in the Hardwar region of Uttar Pradesh. It continuously extends along the southern foot of Himalaya from the Brahmaputra valley in the east, to the Potwar Plateau and Bannu plaines in the west. Its equivalents are seen in Sindh, Baluchistan, Assam and Burma. The Siwaliks comprise consolidated and semi-consolidated rocks namely sandstones, grits, conglomerates, pseudo- conglomerates, clays and silts. They have the character of deposits formed by torrential streams and floods in shallow and fresh-water basins. The fossils found in them indicate that the earlier beds were deposited in a somewhat brackish environment. The Siwalik system is divided into three major divisions namely the Lower, Middle and Upper Siwaliks, ranging in age from Middle Miocene to Lower Pleistocene. While there are no marked unconformities within a system, there are indications that the Upper Siwaliks were deposited on the Middle Siwaliks after severe tectonic disturbances resulting in folding and uplift. So far the Siwaliks are very little exploited for groundwater. However, due to high elevation, in general the groundwater conditions in them appear to be difficult except in rare, wider longitudinal valleys. Bhabar formation The Bhabar formation comprising boulders cobbles and gravels as pied­ mont deposits occurs all along the southern slope of Siwaliks as a distinct belt, varying in width between 3 and 24 km. The formation occurs as an accumulation of talus materials and coalescent alluvial cones built by the hill streams. Groundwater is known to stay in this formation as unçonfined. The 289 water table is generally deep but varies between 5 and 90 m below ground level. The ground slope is high and towards the south in the range it descends 8 to 17 m per km. The individual alluvial cones in the Bhabar belt have their own set of aquifers and the adjacent cones appear to have poor inter­ connection (SAH, 1966). The water table contours generally reflect upon the surface topography. Yearly fluctuation of water table is rather high and a figure of 8 m is quite common. In general the ground water conditions are considerably better along the southern portion of the belt, both in respect of depth of occurrence and quantum of availability. Most of the surface streams in the Bhabar zone remain dry except during monsoon (July to September), though they may be perennial both upstream in the Siwalik hills,and down­ stream in the Terai zone, respectively. This is due to the absorption of the flow of these streams in the highly porous materials constituting the Bhabar. Terai formation Immediately following the Bhabar belt on its south is the Terai belt, composed of alternate layers of clay and sand-pebble beds. A spring line is usually seen to separate the Bhabar from the Terai. These sand beds, except the topmost one, usually form artesian aquifers, in which the piezometric level lies at 0.3 to 1.5 m above ground surface. The pressure head shows a tendency to decrease from the north to the south. The confined aquifers occur at varied depths, but more often below 60 m. The general slope of ground is towards south averaging about 0.4 m per km. The sand-clay ratio in the Terai formation is of the order of 25:75. The granular beds, mostly confined to the stream channels, appear as tongue-like projections into thick clays, often maintaining a lithological continuity with Bhabar in the north. The permeability of the granular zone in the Terai formation show large spatial variation due to the presence of highly irregular textural gradation. In this zone the streams are perennial, and many of them receive discharge from the spring-line intervening the Bhabar and Terai. Alluvial Plain deposits On its south, the Terai belt is followed by the vast alluvial plain comprising of sand and clay with kankar. The sand beds constitute highly rich aquifers. It is interesting to note that in the northern half of the Plain the aquifers maintain a continuity in the N—S direction, whereas in the southern half an E — W continuity is exhibited. On a regional scale the aquifers are unconfined but subartesian conditions have developed locally (SINGHAL and GUPTA, 1966). However, flowing wells are practically absent in the alluvial Plain. The depth of water table or piezometric surface lies within about 4 to 12 m from the terrain level. The aquifers commonly show a lenticular character indicating that the sand and gravel layers were deposited in the channel beds whereas the silt and clay beds were formed in the flood plains (MITHAL et al., 1973). It is estimated that the alluvial plain together with the Terai and Bhabar zones, covering an area of about 1,048,500 sq.km holds a groundwater reserve of approximately 9.08-1013 cu.m within a depth of 300 m from the terrain level (MITHAL, 1966). 19 MÂFI Évkenyv 290 Evolution of the basin The history of development of the basin is interlinked with the formation of Himalaya and hence with the past existence of the great mediterranean sea or Tethys geosyncline. The basin emerged as a by-product of the tectonic process that moulded the sediments of the Indian portion of the Tethys geosyncline into the Himalaya mountains. The movements associated with this tectonic process acted intermittently throughout the Tertiary period in 5 to 6 major stages, beginning at the end of Cretaceous and culminating in the Early Pleistocene.
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