1 Korean Physical Education Teachers' and Female Students

Home , All Girls Are the Same, Girls Like, So Girls

Korean Physical Education Teachers’ and Female Students’ Beliefs about

Girls’ Physical Activity Participation

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Mijoo Kim

Graduate Program in Kinesiology

The Ohio State University

2020

Dissertation Committee

Dr. Samuel R. Hodge, Advisor

Dr. Sue Sutherland

Dr. Donna Pastore

Copyrighted by

Mijoo Kim

2020

Abstract

Despite the well-known holistic benefits of regular participation in physical activity

(Blair et al., 2001; Mears, 2007), secondary school students worldwide do not meet the recommended guidelines (Hallal et al., 2013), and female students report significantly lower rates of physical activity than male students (Oh et al., 2019; Wilkinson &

Bretzing, 2011). Moreover, research indicates that girls’ physical activity rates decline in adolescence (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003), and their levels of enjoyment and confidence in secondary school physical education influence their physical activity later in life (Davison et al., 2010; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). There is a lack of research conducted on female students’ physical activity in secondary schools in East Asian contexts, and in South Korea in particular. Thus, this qualitative study utilized theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) to explore the beliefs of South Korea physical education teachers and their female secondary school students regarding girls’ physical activity.

Data was collected from teacher and student demographic questionnaires, semi-structured teacher and student interviews, and non-participant classroom observations, which were analyzed through thematic analysis (Given, 2008). Findings were presented in relation to the central research questions which examined teachers’ and students’ beliefs about girls’ physical activity, the function of gender, barriers to girls’ physical activity, and ways to motivate them to engage in more physical activity in physical education. Implications of ii these findings are described to address how girls often move away from physical activity for complex reasons related to teachers’ behaviors, the physical education curriculum, and class environment.

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Dedication

Dedicated to my parents Kim, Youngbok and Lee, Youngsoon, to my advisor Dr. Samuel

R. Hodge, and to my life mentor Yoo, Yon; thank you for helping me become who I am today.

오늘의 제가 저답게 살 수 있도록 낳아주시고 길러주신 부모님, 연구자로서 교육자로서 가야 할 방향을 가르쳐주시고 이끌어주신 지도교수님, 매일매일을 저와 함께 걸으며 포기하지 않고 “좋은 선생님”이 될 수 있도록 응원해주신 멘토 유연선생님께 이 논문을 바칩니다.

Acknowledgments

I cannot believe I am writing this page of my dissertation, and I still feel it is surreal. Although I have had lots of precious memories at The Ohio State University

(OSU), it was one of the toughest seasons of my life. Without these people, I am sure that

I could not achieve this goal. First, I would like to appreciate my “king advisor” Dr.

Samuel R. Hodge. Through him, I was able to experience “real education,” which not only expanded my knowledge but also my mind and my heart as we went to many different countries and conferences together. He has never pushed me, but I always have had a strong desire to follow and resemble him. I have posted on my desk that my goal is to become even half of Dr. Hodge for my future students. Also, although I have always been passionate about social justice issues in the past, Dr. Hodge taught me and showed me through his life the difference between fighting back and seeking real justice, which I will remember forever in my life. Second, I want to appreciate Dr. Sue Sutherland. Since

I came to OSU, I took her classes almost every semester, and her innovative teaching methods and care for students have shaped my vision for teaching and learning. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Donna Pastore for her ongoing support, teaching, and encouragement for my research and future.

I would like to expand my appreciation to my life mentor Yoo, Yon, who is a retired teacher after 33 years of working in public schools in South Korea and has known v me since my beginning as a PE teacher. I believe knowing and having her in my life is

God’s gift to me. She has influenced me so much not only in my teaching, but also in my life, showing me who I should be as an educator and a human being. I talked with her almost every day during my PhD season. Her encouragement, support, and love were unconditional, which gave me daily strength to overcome many obstacles during this tough journey. No matter where I go, I will never forget her love and am eternally grateful for her support. I hope I continually can learn and walk together with her.

Without her, it would have been impossible to finish my Ph.D. and be where I am now.

My appreciation extends to all Chungcheongnam-do teachers especially in

Cheonan school district in South Korea. When I visited my country during summer and winter vacations, many of the teachers I consider my brothers and sisters shared their stories with me and showed their high responsibility and love for their students, which has given me strong desire to be a good physical education teacher educator.

Also, I would like to thank my friend and colleague, Christian Martínez-Rivera.

Although our journey was tougher than others, because of that, I believe we could connect more deeply, and our experiences will probably help us to be better educators who are more inclusive of our future students. I sincerely believe he will have a great future, and I hope we can go on many adventures together.

I would like to also thank my American family, including my best friend. They have always supported my life being a foreigner in the U.S.; especially Mama Lynne has always prayed for me and encouraged me. My best friend, Tamara, and I have shared our

vi joy and pain and have grown so much together. I hope we can always encourage each other to never give up.

Lastly, I want to express my deep gratitude to my parents who raised me to be a strong woman. My dad always taught me to have big dreams, and he always believed I could become a strong female leader. Also, because of my mom’s deep sacrificial love, I can be who I am today.

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Vita

July 8, 1981……………………..Born - Seoul, South Korea

2004……………………………..B.S., Physical Education, Kongju National University, South Korea

2005-2007……………………....Physical Education Teacher, Coordinator of Student Activities, Dechun High School, Dechun, South Korea

2007-2010………………………Physical Education Teacher, Assistant Director of Athletics, Buldang Middle School, Cheonan, South Korea

2009…………………………….M.S., Physical Education, Kongju National University, South Korea

2013……………………………..M.S., Physical Education, Azusa Pacific University, California

2014……………………………..Department Chair of Physical Education, Dujeong Middle School, Cheonan, South Korea

2018-2020………………………Graduate Teaching Associate, Sports Fitness and Health Program, The Ohio State University

Publications

Kim, I., Oh, D., Kim, M., & Cho, K. (In Press). Teaching pickleball with in-depth content knowledge in middle school physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance.

Kim, M. (2020). Sociocultural issues in physical education [Book Review]. Sport, Education and Society, 25(3), 359-361. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322. 2020.1720926

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Kim, M. (Forthcoming). South Korean student-athlete academic satisfaction and future employment: An exploratory study. Sport in Society.

Xie, X., Ward, P., Oh, D., Li, Y., Cho, K., Atkinson, O., Higginson, K., & Kim, M. (Forthcoming). Preservice physical education teachers’ development of adaptive competence. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Kinesiology

Area of Emphasis: Physical Education Teacher Education

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii Dedication ...... iv Acknowledgments...... v Vita ...... viii List of Tables ...... xiii Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 Gap in the Literature ...... 4 Significance of the Study ...... 4 Purpose Statement and Theoretical Framework ...... 6 Research Questions ...... 7 Brief Explanation of the Methods ...... 8 Limitations of the Study...... 10 Definitions of Terms ...... 11 Chapter 2. Literature Review ...... 13 Overview ...... 13 PA Opportunities of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools ...... 13 Girls’ and Boys’ PA Behavior and Participation Rates in Secondary Schools ...... 21 Differences between Boys’ and Girls’ PA Behavior and Participation Rates in Secondary Schools ...... 25 PE and the Body...... 35 Personal Critique ...... 45 Recommendations for Addressing Gender Gaps in PA and Participation Rates...... 49 Literature Review Summary ...... 59 Theoretical Framework: Theory of Planned Behavior ...... 59 x

Chapter 3: Methods ...... 63 Research Design...... 63 Research Sites ...... 64 Participants and Sampling...... 65 Measures ...... 66 Procedures ...... 70 Perceived Benefits and Risks ...... 72 Data Analysis ...... 74 Researcher Subjectivity ...... 75 Trustworthiness ...... 77 Chapter 4: Findings ...... 79 General Overview of South Korean PE System ...... 79 Summary of Teachers’ Profiles ...... 83 Demographic Questionnaire Results...... 87 Hyunjae (PE Teacher) ...... 91 Haena (Student with High PA) ...... 102 Heeyoung (Student with Low PA) ...... 105 Hosung (PE Teacher) ...... 108 Hyorin (Student with Low PA) ...... 118 Hyobin (Student with High PA) ...... 122 Sangkyu (PE Teacher) ...... 126 Sanghee (Student with High PA) ...... 138 Seoyoung (Student with Low PA) ...... 143 Eunjoo (PE Teacher) ...... 149 Eunyoung (Student with Low PA) ...... 162 Eunae (Student with High PA) ...... 167 Inseol (PE Teacher)...... 173 Inhye (Student with High PA) ...... 182 Injoo (Student with Low PA) ...... 186 Wongil (PE Teacher) ...... 192 Wonjin (Student with Low PA) ...... 203 Wonae (Student with High PA) ...... 208

Findings Summary ...... 214 Qualitative (Thematic) Findings ...... 214 Research Question 1. Teachers’ Beliefs about Female Students’ PA in PE ...... 215 Research Question 2. Teachers’ Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers in PE ...... 223 Research Question 3. Teachers’ Beliefs about the Role of Gender in Students’ PA in PE ...... 230 Research Question 4. Teachers’ Beliefs about Motivating Female Students to Engage in PE ...... 234 Research Question 5. Students’ Beliefs about their PA in PE ...... 240 Research Question 6. Students’ Beliefs about their Barriers to PA in PE ...... 247 Research Question 7. Students’ Beliefs about the Role of Gender in Female Students’ PA in PE ...... 253 Research Question 8. Students’ Beliefs about Motivating Female Students to Engage in PE ...... 257 Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 261 Theoretical Framework and Discussion...... 261 Pedagogical Implications ...... 267 Limitations of the Study and Recommendations for Future Research ...... 273 Conclusion ...... 274 References ...... 276 Appendix A. Teacher Demographic Questionnaires ...... 285 Appendix B. Student Demographic Questionnaires ...... 287 Appendix C: Teacher Semi-Structured Interview Guide ...... 289 Appendix D: Student Semi-Structured Interview Guide ...... 292 Appendix E: Institutional Review Board Teacher Consent Forms ...... 295 Appendix F: Institutional Review Board Parent Consent Forms...... 305 Appendix G: Institutional Review Board Student Assent Forms ...... 314 Appendix H: Examples of Teacher Interview Data Analysis ...... 320 Appendix I: Examples of Student Interview Data Analysis ...... 322 Appendix J: Example of PE Class Observation Fieldnotes ...... 324

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List of Tables

Table 4.1 Teacher Profiles ...... 89 Table 4.2 Female Student Profiles ...... 90 Table H.1 Examples of Teacher Interview Data Analysis ...... 320 Table I.1 Examples of Student Interview Data Analysis ...... 322 Table J.1 Example of PE Class Observation Fieldnotes ...... 324

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Chapter 1. Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (2012), 170 million children globally are overweight; moreover, lack of physical activity is “the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality” (World Health Organization, 2019, para. 1). In particular, the

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2014) reported decreases in physical activity rates among 9th to 12th grade adolescents and indicated an obesity rate of 16.9% among adolescents (CDC, 2012). This rate is even more serious among female adolescents in the U.S., as Ogden et al. (2006) reported that 32% of adolescent girls are obese or overweight. This is alarming because data indicates that at least three out of every four obese teen becomes an obese adult, who is at greater risk for heart disease, stroke, and several types of cancer (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003).

The prevalence of obesity among Korean adolescents has also been increasing with 19% of boys and 9% of girls (Oh et al., 2019). Thus, it is crucial to prevent obesity in childhood and adolescence because it usually starts during these early years and continues into adulthood. Moreover, there is concern about depression and anxiety rates in South Korea, particularly, the high suicide rate of Korean teenagers (Oh et al., 2019).

Yet, regular physical activity has been found to be positively associated with psychological health among Korean youth and needs to be promoted more (Lee & Cho,

2014; Lee et al., 2019). 1

Despite the well-known holistic benefits of regular participation in physical activity researchers have found that secondary (middle school and high school) students in the U.S. and South Korea often participate minimally in physical activity. A high percentage of adolescents are less active than previous generations because of sedentary lifestyles (Blair et al., 2001; Mears, 2007; Oh et al., 2019), such as their high use of technology, which replaces valuable time that could be devoted to physical activity

(Janssen et al., 2004). This is a global issue as 80% of adolescents around the world do not meet the recommended PA guidelines (Hallal et al., 2013). Furthermore, research shows that physical activity rates tend to decline during adolescence, especially for females (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003). For example, when adolescents reach high school, researchers report that only 27% of females and 43% of males in the U.S. exercise for the recommended 60 minutes per day (Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011). Within the South Korean context, only 8.6% of boys and 2.8% of girls meet the recommended

PA guidelines (Oh et al., 2019). In addition, only 34.6% of students participated in PE for three days a week, which is the mandated amount of PE for the country (Oh et al., 2019).

Moreover, research indicates that girls’ physical activity rates, especially their levels of enjoyment and confidence in physical education during adolescence, influence their physical activity later in life (Davison et al., 2010; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015).

Girls often move away from physical activity and show reluctance to engage even though inactivity has negative health effects; yet the causes for this are “complex, and related to the social, cultural, and gender structure of society” (Garrett, 2004a, p. 223). In particular, research indicates that female students’ lack of physical activity may be due to bias in the

2 curriculum, teacher behavior and expectations, limited opportunity, hostile environments, and stereotypical roles being enforced in classes (Mears, 2007). In particular, gender stereotypes in society may limit girls’ decision making about sports involvement, such as pressures to conform to society’s norms of femininity, for example to be “passively beautiful” (Evans, 2006, p. 547).

Statement of the Problem

According to the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) America

(2016), the purpose of physical education is to “develop physically literate individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of helpful physical activity” (p. 14). Under Title IX provisions, schools are required to provide an environment that enables males and females to receive the same opportunities to participate in physical education activities (Carpenter & Acosta, 2005). Title IX (1972) is a “comprehensive federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity” (para. 1). In other words, no one should be excluded from participating in or benefiting from any education program or activity that is federally funded. Even though Title IX provisions may have granted girls and boys equal access to quality physical education, it did not solve the problem of gender inequity. The problem is that in reality, “girls receive an equal opportunity to ‘male’ physical education where they are considered less skillful, less physically able, and less interested” (Garrett, 2004b, p. 226). As a result, female students spend less time than males engaged in physical activity in physical education classes, which decreases their opportunity to develop their skills, which in turn, further discourages their physical

3 activity and limits their opportunity for learning (McKenzie et al., 2004; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015).

Gap in the Literature

Still, today, there is a lack of research conducted on female students’ physical activity in secondary schools (middle and high schools) in East Asian contexts, and in

South Korea in particular. There is a need to explore both teachers and students’ beliefs in order to shed light on how to better promote the physical engagement of all students.

Physical education teachers draw on their own identities and experiences when they teach students; thus, it is critical to explore how their beliefs may challenge or reinforce gender barriers in the physical education classroom (Rich, 2004). Furthermore, allowing female students to directly share their own experiences with physical education classes can allow teachers to learn from how girls negotiate their gender and physical activity in their daily lives (Stride, 2014). The current study seeks to yield meaningful insights for the South

Korean educational context and provide implications for physical education programs beyond the East Asian context. Moreover, the study aims to uncover salient insights about gender barriers that can inhibit girls’ physical activity participation, as well as reveal new ways to enhance the secondary school physical education curriculum.

Significance of the Study

Lifelong physical activity is essential because it leads to improved physical and psychological well-being (Verloigne et al., 2016). According to the CDC (2010), there were over 50% positive associations between physical activity and academic achievement, cognitive skills and attitudes, and academic behaviors. Moreover, lifelong

4 physical activity can prevent obesity and cardiovascular disease (Barnett et al., 2010).

Since research demonstrates that participation in physical activity may contribute to a higher overall quality of life, motivating all students to participate in regular physical activity is crucial. However, research shows that female students spend less time than males engaged in physical activity in physical education classes, which decreases their opportunity to develop their skills, which in turn, further discourages their physical activity (McKenzie et al., 2004). Moreover, when females become less active and successful in physical education classes, it limits their opportunity for learning

(Woodson-Smith et al., 2015).

Since students spend a large amount of their time at school each day, teachers, especially physical education teachers, potentially can have a huge influence on students’ physical activity (Gibbons & Humbert, 2008; Woodson et al., 2015). Research indicates that girls’ physical activity rates, especially their levels of enjoyment and confidence in physical education during adolescence, influence their physical activity later in life

(Davison et al., 2010; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). Research shows that females’ participation in physical activity dramatically drops from elementary school to middle school to high school (Chepyator et al., 2007). Thus, effective interventions are needed to increase female adolescent students’ physical activity. For example, schools should create positive learning environments for female students, develop effective teaching strategies, and understand female students’ attitudes toward physical education (Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). Furthermore, schools need to consider gender (Pauline, 2013) and ethnic

5 differences (Irwin, 2004; Suminski et al., 2002) when developing physical activity interventions for students.

Purpose Statement and Theoretical Framework

The purpose of this research study was to explore South Korean physical education teachers’ beliefs about female students’ physical activity participation in their courses. In addition, the researcher examined South Korean female secondary students’ beliefs about their physical education courses. This qualitative study utilized theory of planned behavior (TpB) to explore the beliefs of South Korea PE teachers and their female secondary school students regarding girls’ PA. First of all, employing TpB has enabled the researcher to interpret the beliefs of PE teachers on teaching female students by looking at three independent determinants of intention: (a) attitude toward the behavior, which refers in this case to their attitude toward teaching female students; (b) subjective norms, meaning how they perceive social pressure from significant others (e.g., colleagues, superiors, students, society, etc.) to teach in particular ways; and (c) perceived behavioral control, which refers to how easy or difficult they feel it is to teach female students (Ajzen,

1985, 1991, 2001, 2006). In this study, TpB’s determinants of intention were used to explain teachers’ will and motivation to teach female secondary school students in their physical education classes.

In a similar way, employing TpB has enabled the researcher to interpret the beliefs of female secondary school students through these same three components: (a) attitude toward the behavior, which refers in this case to students’ attitudes toward engaging in PA in their

PE classes; (b) subjective norms, meaning how they perceive social pressure from significant others (e.g., peers, teachers, family members, society, etc.) to engage in PA in PE in 6 particular ways; and (c) perceived behavioral control, which refers to how easy or difficult they feel it is to engage in PA in PE class (Ajzen, 1985, 1991, 2001, 2006). In this study,

TpB’s determinants of intention were used to explain students’ will and motivation to engage in the PE in their PE classes.

Research Questions

To achieve the study’s purposes, this study were guided by the following research questions:

1. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe about their female

students’ physical activity participation in their classes?

2. What barriers, if any, do South Korean physical education teachers believe

impact female students’ physical activity participation in their classes?

3. Do teachers believe students’ physical activity participation in school physical

education differ as a function of gender?

4. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe will motivate

female students to be more engaged in their physical education classes?

5. What do South Korean female secondary school students believe about their

physical activity in their physical education classes?

6. What barriers, if any, do South Korean female secondary school students

believe impact girls’ physical activity participation in physical education

classes?

7. Do female secondary students believe girls’ physical activity participation in

school physical education differ as a function of gender?

8. Do South Korean female secondary school students believe that girls can be

motivated to engage more in their physical education classes? If so, how?

Brief Explanation of the Methods

This study was situated in the qualitative research paradigm using an interviewing approach (Gay, 1996). The research sites were two public middle schools and four public high schools in urban cities in South Korea. The participants were six physical education teachers (two female and four male), which reflects the gender proportions of most secondary school physical education departments in South Korea, and 12 of their secondary school students (two from each teacher). The teachers were recruited through purposive sampling, more specifically, a combination of snowball and criterion sampling

(Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). In other words, the researcher started by recruiting teachers through the researcher’s professional network and then continued recruiting through word of mouth. The criteria for teacher participants was they had to be teachers in middle schools or high schools in South Korea and teach physical education classes with over four years of experience. Within the South Korean public school system, this is the requirement for teachers to advance from Level 2 entry status to Level 1 through additional certification by completing intensive professional development, which grants them both higher pay and greater autonomy with their curriculum.

The students were recruited from the teachers’ physical education classes through purposive sampling; that is, each teacher recommended one student with high physical engagement and one student with low physical engagement from their respective physical education classes (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). A demographic questionnaire was used

8 to ascertain relevant background information from the teachers and students who volunteered to participate in the study. However, the primary data sources were a series of semi-structured interviews with the teachers and students, as well as field notes drafted during the researcher’s non-participant observations. The interview guides and demographic questionnaires were prepared through a cross-cultural translation technique, which focuses on establishing relevance of an instrument to a specific cultural context

(Banville et al., 2000).

(Given, 2008).

To establish trustworthiness and credibility, thick rich data was collected by gathering the beliefs of both teachers and students and later using these data for triangulation purposes, which allows for cross-checking of information. The researcher conducted data triangulation by using data from the demographic questionnaires, a series of semi-structured interviews with each teacher, and field notes from classroom observations (Merriam, 2009). Moreover, the researcher utilized member checking to increase trustworthiness of the findings by providing the teachers the Korean interview

9 transcripts in order to check and clarify their comments (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). This helps establish trust that the findings are a true representation of the participants’ voices

(Petty et al., 2012b). Lastly, the researcher used peer debriefing, which means that a third party familiar with the research but not directly involved in the study checked the analysis and gave feedback to the researcher throughout the process (Gerdes & Conn,

2001).

Limitations of the Study

The researcher was a physical education teacher and department chair in South

Korea for over ten years, so she knows the research setting deeply; however, since this was an overseas study, it was challenging to spend extensive time in the field site for data collection. Nevertheless, three observations of each physical education class were done throughout the semester. This may be considered a limitation of the study because of lack of prolonged engagement in the field (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Gerdes & Conn, 2001).

Delimitations of the Study

There were several boundaries set by the researcher in this study. These delimitations include:

1. The study was restricted to secondary school physical education settings in

South Korea.

2. Only physical education teachers with over four years of experience were

recruited for the study because within the South Korean public school system,

teachers advance from Level 2 entry status to Level 1 after four years, which

grants them greater autonomy with their curriculum.

3. Only students in public middle school and high schools (between the ages of

13-16) in South Korea who self-identified as female were included in the

study.

4. Only students whose parents gave consent for them to be contacted were

recruited for this study.

Definitions of Terms

The following key terms are used throughout this study, so for clarity, they have been briefly defined below.

Gender refers to the social cultural meanings of masculinity and femininity as opposed to the biological differences (Andermahr et al., 2000). In other words, it is can be defined as the socially constructed patterns of behavior associated with being feminine or masculine and acknowledges the psychosocial and cultural dimensions of these identities (Gorely et al., 2003; Kirk, 2003).

Physical education in the South Korean context has the purpose of developing students’ physical, mental, and emotional strength in order to help students become good members of society (Kim, 2018). The physical education curriculum includes the following 4 components: (a) physical elements, such as bone and muscle development, heart and lung health, and disease prevention; (b) mental elements, such as emotional health and stability, stress relief, and grit; (c) socio-cultural elements, such as cooperation and participation with others; and (d) historical philosophical elements, such as the history of sport, Korean traditional games and physical activities, and nationalism (Cho &

Oh, 2014).

Physical activity refers to any kind of movement that expends energy and may

include recreational, fitness, and sport activities, as well as daily life activities

(Casperson et al., 1985; SHAPE America, 2016).

Physicality has been defined as how the body is experienced in and through physical activity (McDermott, 1996).

Sex can be defined as the biological differences between females and males

(Andermahn et al., 2000).

Surveillance: According to Foucault (1977), surveillance involves “a multiple, automatic, and anonymous power” and “a network of relations” as individuals are continuously supervising and being supervised (pp. 176-177).

Chapter 2. Literature Review

Overview

This chapter highlights the literature on: (a), physical activity opportunities of boys and girls in secondary schools, including middle and high school PE settings as well as mixed and single-gender PE settings (b), girls’ and boys’ physical activity behavior and participation rates in secondary schools, (c), differences between boys’ and girls’ physical activity behavior and participation rates in secondary schools, (d) physical education and the body, (e) personal critique, and (f) recommendations for addressing gender gaps in physical activity and participation rates. It concludes with a brief chapter summary.

PA Opportunities of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools

According to the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans report, adolescents should participate in a minimum of 60 minutes of physical activity every day and at a vigorous level for at least three days a week (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

[USDHHS], 2018). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2011) and the

Institute of Medicine (2013) have recommended that students in elementary, middle, and high school should all have physical education on a daily basis. More specifically, middle and high schools should provide students with at least 225 minutes of physical education per week (SHAPE America, 2016), and at least 50% of physical education class time 13 should be devoted to physical activity at a moderate-to-vigorous level of intensity (CDC,

2014). Furthermore, the physical education curriculum should include: “(a) lessons focused on motor skills, physical activity, and fitness assessments that are age and developmentally appropriate; (b) methods of teaching motor, movement, and behavioral skills that ensure basic skills lead to more advanced skills; and (c) student assessment plans to appropriately monitor and reinforce student learning” (CDC, 2014, p. 2).

Unfortunately, in 2011, only half of high school students attended physical education class (CDC, 2012). This rate is low because many high schools require only one semester of physical education, and they often give exemptions to students from physical education (CDC, 2014). Moreover, according to SHAPE America (2016), there is a wide discrepancy among states across the U.S. Although 80.4% of states require physical education in middle and junior high schools, less than a third (29.4%) require a specific amount of time per week or year. Similarly, 86.3% of states require students to take physical education in one or more high school grade, but only 12% of states require a specific amount of time per week or year. These gaps can “deprive students of instructional time that is critical for developing the motor, movement, and behavioral skills that are essential for the lifelong maintenance of a physically active lifestyle”

(CDC, 2014, p. 22). Therefore, it is crucial to look across the literature to better understand the experiences of secondary school students: including differences between middle and high school students, as well as mixed gender and single-gender settings. This may help illuminate changes that can be made to increase both female and male students’ physical activity engagement in physical education classes.

Middle School and High School PE Settings

Research on secondary school students have revealed differences among middle and high school students’ perspectives and experiences in physical education. Couturier et al. (2005) conducted a very large action research study in collaboration between 11 local urban schools and a nearby college including 5308 participants (Grades 6-12) to uncover the differences between what middle and high school students enjoyed about physical education classes, as well as their barriers to participation. In this study, the researchers discovered three primary sources of barriers: (a) curricular, (b) social, and (c) environmental. With regard to curricular barriers, both middle and high school students stated that they disliked when they did the same activities repeatedly every year, and some indicated that too much focus on fitness and competition discouraged their participation. The top social barrier among students was not wanting to go to their next class sweaty. Among environmental reasons for lack of participation in physical education was discomfort with changing clothes and showering in the locker room.

Couturier et al.’s (2005) study yielded insightful differences between middle and high school students. Overall, middle school students saw more value in physical education (as important as other subjects such as math and English), whereas high school students saw it more as an obligation. Their motivation also differed as middle school students emphasized the enjoyment of learning new games and activities, but high school students focused on the health benefits of physical activity. Their dissimilar goals also influenced their preferred activities in physical education classes. Middle schoolers rated swimming first versus high schoolers who rated swimming last. Middle schoolers ranked

15 fitness activities last, but high schoolers ranked this second. Furthermore, middle schoolers focused more on the social aspects of physical education and wanted to have more choice in their groups for physical activities; in contrast, high schoolers wanted more choice in the curriculum content. Thus, their research findings suggest that middle and high school students have different preferences, and if teachers are more aware of these discrepancies, then they can plan their curriculum better.

Whereas Couturier et al. (2005) focused on the different activity preferences and barriers to engagement of middle and high school students, Mears (2007) concentrated on the perspectives of young women in university as they reflected on their high school physical education experiences. In this quantitative study rooted in Social Learning

Theory and utilizing the Secondary School Physical Education Experiences Survey,

Mears (2007) assessed the relationship between the variety of activities included in the high school curriculum and young women in university’s physical activity rates and choice of activities. The study included 949 college women between the ages of 18-25 from three different universities. Individuals were not included in the study if they did not graduate from public high schools, were exempt from physical education classes in high school, or were university student-athletes or currently majoring in physical education.

Mears (2007) found that young women who completed high school physical education courses with a diverse curriculum reported significantly higher physical activity rates than those with lower curriculum diversity in their high school physical education experience. More specifically, young women whose physical education curriculum were

16 highly diverse indicated that they currently did cardiovascular exercise much more regularly than those with more limited physical education experiences in high school.

The top three high school curricular experiences focused on team activities, individual activities, and physical conditioning. The researchers found a gap between the types of physical activity offered in high school versus the physical activity patterns of the young women in university. Their high school curriculum focused on team sports, but this received the lowest participation rate among the young women in terms of their current physical activity habits. Instead, they were mostly engaged in cardiovascular endurance and muscle strength activities; thus, Mears (2007) suggested that individualized fitness curriculum may be of greater relevance to high school girls. This shift from competitive sports to lifetime activities may help to prevent high school students from discontinuing physical activity as they move on to university.

Mixed Gender versus Single-Gender PE Settings

After Title IX, many schools changed their physical education classes to mixed gender (often referred to as co-educational) settings in order to provide more equitable opportunities for both male and female students. In most public schools, the physical education classes are mixed gender, but many private schools offer single-gender physical education. However, the research shows mixed findings regarding the benefits of mixed gender versus single-gender physical education, as conflicting perspectives are found among students and teachers. McKenzie et al. (2004) discovered that compared to mixed gender classes, physical education classes with only females had more skill drills, which can help girls develop their confidence in their sports ability. On the other hand,

17 these classes that focused on skill drills included less game play, which reduced the intensity of students’ physical activity. However, mixed gender classes tend to focus on gameplay, so girls usually have low participation rates, so it is difficult to determine which setting is more supportive of girls’ physical activity.

Even though data has shown that students generally perceive the benefits of mixed gender settings as greater than single-gender classes in physical education because of gender socialization (Carpenter & Acosta, 2005; Hill & Cleven, 2005), it may not be as productive from an educational standpoint (Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). Many female students have stated they feel uncomfortable to participate in physical activities settings with boys (Cockburn, 2001), which naturally decreases their participation rate and motivation; especially female students’ participation rate gradually declines as they progress through schooling (Chepyator et al., 2007). Stereotypical role expectations also tend to be more intense in mixed gender settings (Constantinou et al., 2009), and females become less active and less successful in their physical education classes (Woodson-

Smith et al., 2015).

In recent years, there has been more consideration of the benefits of single-gender physical education settings for girls because they can offer much more interaction with teachers, which may increase female students’ overall opportunities to participate

(Hannon & Ratliffe, 2007). Olafson (2002) suggested that single-gender classes “might also provide some relief from the male gaze” as female students felt that their bodies were objectified by their male classmates (p. 72). An all-girls class with a female physical educator may help to emphasize the socially constructed nature of the gendered body and

18 alleviate some of the cultural pressure girls feels to match standards of femininity

(Olafson, 2002). Moreover, according to Derry and Phillip (2004), girls in single-gender classes had higher percentages of academic learning time, more positive learning experiences, and increased feedback from teachers. Moreover, teacher expectations are often higher in single-gender classes (Couturier et al., 2007), and female students may be more challenged athletically (Derry, 2002). Furthermore, even though mixed-gender physical education is generally preferred by both males and females, they may favor single-gender classes in some situations based on the specific content of the unit; thus, the answer may not be choosing one system but considering ways to integrate the two

(Woodson-Smith et al., 2015).

In Woodson-Smith et al.’s (2015) quantitative study utilizing a questionnaire to assess high school students’ attitudes toward physical education, the researchers’ purpose was to examine differences in girls’ perspectives if they were enrolled in mixed gender versus single-gender physical education classes in an urban region of North Carolina.

Most of the participants were in 9th grade, and the majority were White at the private school, whereas the majority were African American at the public school. From the results, both class types showed that students’ number one priority was playing games and having fun in physical education class. Basically, enjoyment is highly valued among students regardless of their educational setting. Also, most female students preferred the class setting they were used to, as girls enrolled in single-gender physical education classes indicated that as their preference, and girls in mixed gender physical education classes said that was their preference. Woodson-Smith et al. (2015) suggest that schools

19 should respect students’ choices, such as mixed gender class versus single-gender classes, and provide more elective courses to increase their physical activity rate. Regardless of the classroom setting, the key is that physical education classes should be focused on providing an inclusive, positive learning environment and offer various options for female students’ physical development whether they are in a mixed gender or single- gender class.

Whereas Woodson-Smith et al. (2015) looked at high school students’ experiences in mixed gender and single-gender physical education classes, Osbourne et al. (2002) examined the perceptions of middle school students who were participating in mixed gender and single-gender physical education classes. They conducted a qualitative study using interviews with 12 students (six boys and six girls) in 7th and 8th grade classes at a public central coast middle school in California. The students all had experience in both mixed gender and single-gender physical educational classes. First, students enjoyed the social interaction with the opposite gender in the mixed gender class, especially the opportunity to talk to one another and get to know each other. At the same time they disliked the lack of privacy they felt with the opposite gender, so even though both females and males indicated that they enjoyed the varied interaction in mixed gender settings, they liked that they could express themselves more freely and develop more personal relationships without worrying about the opposite sex when they were in single- gender settings. In terms of effort and cooperation, girls claimed that the boys were less cooperative, and the males complained that the girls put less effort. The boys and girls both communicated similar perceptions for the sports that they thought matched different

20 genders, including contact sports for males and flexibility and low intensity sports for females. The researchers explained that the students shared mixed feelings toward both mixed gender and single-gender physical education; thus, Osbourne et al. (2002) concluded that mixed gender versus single-gender settings is not the central issue.

Instead, students’ perceptions of the gender-appropriateness of different sports may influence their engagement more. Therefore, schools should be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each system and carefully consider their curriculum objectives to decide whether to choose to offer mixed gender or single-gender physical education.

Girls’ and Boys’ PA Behavior and Participation Rates in Secondary Schools

Regardless of the physical education setting, unfortunately, both male and female adolescents do not meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity (Wilkinson &

Bretzing, 2011). Although people often assume that students would enjoy physical education because of its emphasis on active play, research indicates that over 20% of students do not enjoy physical education because they feel marginalized and isolated in their physical education classes (Carlson, 1995). Both female and male students can experience alienation in physical education classes, and as a result, they often struggle to find meaning and enjoyment in physical activity. Thus, Carlson (1995) conducted a mixed methods study centered on listening to the voices of alienated students to better understand the reasons why they feel this way. Her research included four phases: (a) phenomenological in-depth interviews with two middle school students who disliked physical education, (b) structured teacher interviews with four middle and high school

21 physical education teachers, (c) a survey of 105 students across six grades levels in a combined middle and high school, and (d) student interviews with six alienated students.

Carlson (1995) found that all of the students wanted more control and more choice; however, alienated students felt they had no control. In particular, they felt trapped since they perceived they had naturally low sports ability and did not believe this was something that could be developed through practice and effort. Not only actual physical ability, but also students’ perception of their ability affects their physical movement, which could progressively lead to a negative cycle. Basically, when students believe they are not good at sports, then they do not want to participate in physical education class, which leads to lack of physical movement and reduced opportunity to develop skills. Moreover, alienated students also communicated that they disliked competition and preferred cooperative activities. When physical education settings concentrate on competition too much, then only the highly skillful students typically receive attention from their teachers, which can naturally intensify the alienation of students with lower skills. Furthermore, many students felt it was not purposeful to engage in their physical education classes because the activities were not related to the sports they were interested in or connected to the types of physical activity they imagined doing in their future.

More specifically, Carlson (1995) identified several different strategies used by students when they felt alienated in physical education classes: “(a) hiding disillusions,

(b) being a spectator, (c) becoming wallflowers, (d) faking, and (e) self-banishment” (p.

471). Basically, some students hid their dislike for physical education, others refused to

22 participate, others just tried to blend in or fake participation or illness, and some just did not come to physical education at all. Alienated students communicated that they felt physical education was not meaningful or purposeful for their lives. Furthermore, alienated students with the lowest skills felt the most separation from their peers, which negatively affected their sense of belonging. Thus, alienated students expressed a sense of powerlessness, isolation, and boredom in their physical education classes. Since lack of personal meaning exacerbates students’ low motivation to participate in physical education, the findings of this study suggest that teachers should help students find more meaning in their physical education classes, which can enhance their physical activity rates.

Research shows that male and female students’ experiences with physical education are highly influenced by their perception of the curriculum, teacher’s behavior, and the environment. In a qualitative study utilizing a demographic questionnaire and critical incident report, Luke and Sinclair (1991) explored the potential determinants of female and male students’ positive and negative attitudes toward school physical education as well as differences between those who elected to take physical education and those who did not. Their research took place at four large metropolitan mixed gender high schools in Canada and included 488 participants (233 males, 255 females) at Grade

11, which is the time when physical education classes became electives for students at these schools. Three main questions guided their research study. First, what factors in students’ experiences contribute to their development including positive and negative attitude toward physical education during K-10 physical education? Second, are these

23 factors different between males and females? Last, is it different for students who choose to take physical education as elective courses? The researchers selected five positive and negative attitude categories to assess students’ perspectives, including (a) curriculum content, (b) teacher behavior, (c) class atmosphere, (d) students’ self-perceptions, and (e) facilities. Also, they categorized participants into four different groups: males who elected physical education, females who elected physical education, and male and females who did not.

Their study yielded very interesting results. For instance, 51.5% of males elected to take physical education versus 32.2% of females. Nonetheless, the rank and order of determinants influencing students’ positive and negative experiences with physical education were really similar regardless of their gender. More specifically, both female and male students indicated that curriculum was the most crucial factor for positive and negative attitudes in physical education. Their perceptions were surprisingly similar despite their different backgrounds in physical education, since they attended different schools, with different teachers who used varied instructional methods in different settings. Both males and females ranked classroom atmosphere second most important for a positive experience with physical education. Enjoyment, fun, and freedom were associated with a good atmosphere. Teachers were ranked second for influencing their negative attitudes toward physical education, especially the methods of evaluation and lack of opportunity to participate in decision-making. On the other hand, the students appreciated teachers who had high expectations for them, encouraged them despite their ability, challenged them and gave them opportunity to learn. In terms of activity

24 preference, both female and male students liked team games and disliked running activities, especially long runs and fitness tests. One difference was male students liked learning new rules, techniques, and strategies to develop their knowledge of physical education, and females tended to enjoy aquatics more than boys. Overall, Luke and

Sinclair’s (1991) study revealed that male and female students value the same overall components when they participate in physical education.

Differences between Boys’ and Girls’ PA Behavior and Participation Rates in

Secondary Schools

Although Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 granted the right to equal educational opportunities for both females and males, females still often feel alienated in physical education classes as this class is still perceived to be a “male” subject (Constantinou et al., 2009). Research shows that physical education settings often favor boys’ activity preferences, and male students tend to have a higher perceived self- competence and greater self-efficacy than females (Solmon et al., 2003). Male students also usually perceive sports as more gender appropriate than females, and the literature suggests that teachers often have higher expectations and give more attention to boys

(Constantinou, 2008). Gender differences such as these are explored from both the teacher and student perspective across many studies.

As part of the same larger action research project discussed earlier, (Constantinou et al., 2009). examined gender differences among the 5308 participants from 11 local urban schools. Overall, their research findings suggested that boys are unintentionally privileged in physical education classes because they have a greater level of comfort with

25 the environment and curriculum than girls. First of all, they discovered a large gap between the activity preferences of girls and boys. The girls in this study preferred to work at their own pace and participate in cooperative activities, such as fitness and dance, more than the boys who expressed greater enjoyment and confidence in competitive sports. The biggest gender difference was related to environmental issues, which were a bigger barrier to girls’ participation in physical education classes. Females expressed much higher discomfort with bringing physical education clothes, changing clothes, showering, and going to class sweaty than male students. Thus, the researchers suggest that teachers and administrators need to consider both changes to the curriculum and adjustments to the physical education setting and class schedule in order to create a program and environment that supports both male and female students’ engagement.

Although physical education is a crucial component in young people’s education and holistic development, many adolescent girls become disillusioned with physical education, and research shows their engagement decreases even more as they enter high school (Chepyator et al., 2007). Thus, Gibbons and Humbert (2008) argued that teachers need to try to understand the experiences of female students in their early adolescent period so that they can try to meet their needs better, which can help to change the decline in physical activity engagement in high school years when the physical education classes often become electives. Therefore, Gibbons and Humbert (2008) conducted a qualitative research study including focus group interviews, individual interviews, and questionnaires to discover middle school girls’ physical activity preferences, uncover their barriers toward engaging in physical education, and explore their understanding of

26 how physical activity affects health. The research sites included five co-educational middle schools in western Canada, and the participants were 90 girls Grades 6 and 7. The researchers discovered that girls were dissatisfied with the physical activity opportunities offered in their physical education classes. They did not feel the physical activity variety and choice reflected with what they did outside of school; as one student expressed, “We do things I hate in PE…I do thinks I like after school and weekends…like dance and judo” (p.175). In addition, the girls felt that the physical activities in their physical education classes were not related to the exercise they would do later in life: “I don’t like basketball now, I’m not going to like it when I’m old, so why can’t I do something I might do when I’m old like swimming or aerobics?” (p. 176). Thus, the girls wanted a wider variety of physical activity opportunities in their physical education classes, including lifetime physical activities. Similarly, in their study of 801 9th grade students in

Southern California, Hill and Cleven (2005) found significant gender differences in students’ preferences for physical activities in physical education classes. For example, boys indicated more interest in contact sports, such as football and hockey, whereas girls expressed greater interest in individual sports, such as gymnastics and dance.

In addition, Gibbons and Humbert (2008) discovered that middle school girls wanted more practice time before they were evaluated on their skills, so they would have a higher level of perceived personal competence. In other words, they felt it was unfair that they were evaluated before they had enough practice, and they wanted more time to develop the fundamental skills of the sports activities before being required to apply them publicly. Moreover, the girls felt that their teachers chose physical activities that reflected

27 the boys’ interests rather than their own. They complained that teachers especially matched the preferences of the boys to avoid their misbehavior, which they perceived as very unfair and biased. They also claimed that the teachers overlooked the times when boys “ridiculed, harassed, and intimidated” them (p. 179). Thus, the girls wanted their physical education environment to be a safer, more supportive place for them to develop their skills and engage in a wide variety of physical activities that match their interests.

These studies and many others indicate a gender gap in students’ performance and teachers’ behaviors. However, the female students in Constantinou et al.’s (2009) study were always prepared and highly active in class, and the girls felt their teachers had expectations for all students in their class to do their best and actively participate. In their qualitative study based on observations, formal interviews with students, and informal interviews with teachers, Constantinou et al. (2009) investigated how White middle school girls in a midsize suburban middle school in the U.S. perceived their physical education teachers' gender-role expectations and how these perceptions affected the girls’ participation in and attitudes toward physical education. The findings in this study may be different from others because of individual factors since the female physical education teacher had taught at the school for 19 years, and the girls were recruited through convenience sampling, which may have attracted more participants who enjoyed physical education. The low skilled girls in this study did not feel alienated in class, and many of the girls in this study saw themselves as equally athletic and competitive as boys, expressing interest in playing contact sports, such as football and wrestling, if they had time and opportunity to be prepared. In addition, the girls perceived boys as more skillful

28 and aggressive, but they interpreted this positively because they felt the competitive nature of boys made physical education classes more interesting and fun. Thus, the girls wanted boys on their team because they felt this gave them more motivation to work hard and gave them a better chance to win the competition. Although the girls’ high perception of boys’ ability seemed positive, it still reflects gender-role stereotypes in the girls’ thinking.

In addition, the girls stated negative feelings toward physical education when they felt their learning environment was unsafe, such as when boys did not follow the rules of the game or disrespected the girls’ ability. Safety was the number one concern for girls and their parents in this study. It was a barrier for them to engage in contact sports, such as boxing and hockey, even though they expressed an openness to try these sports. It is interesting that the girls in this study perceived soccer as a “girlish” sport, so they wanted to compete against the boys since they believed they had a high chance of winning. This finding reinforces Kirk’s (2003) claim that gender stereotypes are socially-constructed, especially since other researchers have stated that soccer was perceived by girls as a masculine sport (e.g., Flintoff & Scranton, 2001). This shows that it is not the actual sport but students’ gendered perception of the sport that really influences their willingness to engage in it.

This is explored more deeply in Solmon et al.’s (2003) study where they discovered that perceptions of gender appropriateness and self-efficacy are the most crucial components to enhance students’ physical ability because these encourage students’ motivation for their physical movement, which naturally increases their

29 opportunities to participate in sports and physical activity. Through a mixed methods study rooted in self-efficacy theory, Solmon et al. (2003) investigated “the effect of beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability on competence beliefs in a physical education setting” (p. 264). The study was conducted at a major university in the Southeast with 432 university students (324 females, 108 males) who were enrolled in various kinesiology classes. Through a two-part questionnaire, students first reported their beliefs about hockey, such as their interest to learn the sport, their perceived current ability level, and their beliefs about the gender appropriateness of the sport. In the second part of the questionnaire, the students watched a specific hockey skill (the wrist shot) performed on video tape and indicated their perception of the task, such as if it was based on natural ability or could be learned through practice. In this part, the students were put into two groups, and one group watched an expert male model the task, and the other group watched an expert female perform the skill. Lastly, the students explained their ratings through a couple of open-ended questions.

The researchers discovered that most students perceived hockey as a male sport, but the specific skill (wrist shot) was considered gender neutral. Many girls perceived hockey to be a “very rough sport,” aggressive and violent, and thus, male-oriented

(Solmon et al., 2003, p. 273). When women believed hockey was a male sport, they also saw it as a more difficult sport and had less confidence they could learn the skills. Even though males and females both had interest in hockey, males had a higher perception of their current ability and confidence to learn the skills. Interestingly, the participants’ gender is what mattered the most in their perception of the skill performed in the video

30 tapes, not the gender of the expert demonstrating the skill. This was because students perceived the skill to be pretty easy, not involving power or strength. Thus, if the task was perceived to be simple, then participants believed it was gender neutral, and “even girls” could do it (Solmon et al., 2003, p. 272). Students also communicated that girls who had high physical performance were exceptions and used males as the standard for their explanations of these few girls who were successful.

Although both female and male students believed innate physical ability is important to have successful physical activity outcomes, students who believed that skills could be acquired through practice had more confidence than those who believed it was based on solely natural ability. However, males expressed higher confidence than females in their ability to learn hockey. The problem does not lie in females’ lack of innate physical ability; the key is students’ perception of gender appropriateness, which is directly associated with self-efficacy. Females who perceived hockey as a gender-neutral sport expressed greater confidence that they could learn how to play it than those who believed hockey was a masculine sport. Thus, females' perceptions about gender appropriateness of physical activity have an impact on their decisions to engage in physical activity. When females think an activity is for males, they are less likely to think they will be competent in the activity and invest less effort to engage in it. Many girls similarly see physical education classes to be for boys and feel they cannot succeed in it.

As part of a larger study on resistance to schooling, Olafson (2002) examined the specific barriers to physical education of ten girls in Grades 7 and 8 in two schools, one in a large western Canadian city and one in a smaller community. Her study was rooted

31 in a Foucauldian and feminist framework, which focuses on the relationship between power and resistance. From this perspective, power struggle is always present in schools, and one of teachers’ jobs is to reduce students’ resistance and avoidance to engaging in physical activity in physical education classes. By conducting 46 individual interviews and three focus groups, Olafson (2002) discovered that student’s resistance was more deeply related to the following: the curriculum and instruction, peer relations, and cultural messages about femininity. First, although curriculum should be supportive and inclusive of all students, students claimed that they disliked their physical education classes because there was too much emphasis on competitive sports, and they felt the physical activities were not relevant to their future life. They also felt teachers ignored their preferences and the difficulties they faced with physical tasks in class. Second, consciously or unconsciously, school culture reinforces dominant definitions of femininity and ways of being female. The female students hesitated to participate in physical education class because they felt embarrassed and constantly evaluated by others as the environment is very public with their bodies on-display. The male gaze made them feel very self-conscious about their bodies, especially when they were doing physical movement. The girls said they felt intense pressure to be good looking and be popular through the way they showed their bodies. Moreover, the teachers often divided students by gender, which made the girls feel naturally inferior because they did not think the teacher took into consideration their actual physical ability. Despite the strong resistance these girls expressed towards physical education, some mentioned enjoying physical activity outside of school, which means that there must be a problem in physical

32 education classes. It is concerning when “physically active girls refuse to participate in physical education classes” (Olafson, 2002, p. 69), so teachers should think deeply about how they can create a learner-centered curriculum that takes into consideration the barriers girls experience toward physical activity in physical education classes. Olafson

(2002) suggested that they involve girls in reforming the curriculum because this might increase their engagement in the class and lead to more enjoyment.

Whereas these studies focused on gender differences in physical activity behaviors from students’ perspectives, others look at teachers’ perspectives of gender in their physical education classes. Research suggests that physical education teachers’ perception of gender equity affects both boys’ and girls’ participation in physical education. In particular, one of the highest determinants for students’ engagement in physical education class is teachers’ behavior, such as the types of tasks they provide, their management skills, expectations of students, and the opportunities they give girls and boys. Thus, not only teachers’ content knowledge but also their beliefs and perceptions are really crucial to sustain students’ physical development. For this reason,

Griffin (1985) conducted a 3-month case study of three physical education teachers at a predominantly White middle-class middle school in a small New England town to identify their perceptions of and responses to what the author referred to as “sex equity problems” in their classes (p. 103). The teacher participants included: one male veteran teacher with 12 years of experience, one female veteran teacher with 20 years of experience, and one young male student-teacher. The research included class observations, informal discussions, and formal interviewing. Griffin (1985) explored

33 three teachers’ perception and responses through seven categories, which were

“awareness, dissonance, power, commitment, knowledge, action, and effect” (p. 103).

Griffin (1985) discovered that “though all three teachers were aware of sex equity problems in their classes, they differed in their sense of power to change inequitable student behavior and in the specific actions they took to address problems” (p. 103).

The teachers were aware of gender-related behavior, such as boys’ overaggressive behavior and domination in team games, as well as girls’ lack of skill and withdrawal in team games. However, the two veteran teachers blamed the students as the problem: boys who were “wimps” and girls who were “overaggressive” (Griffin, 1985, p. 105). By doing this, they expressed their belief that the students’ gender nonconforming behavior was the problem. On the other hand, the student-teacher had participated in an equity education course, and he thought the problem was the pressure to conform to gender stereotypes. In addition, the three teachers differed in their belief that effort could change gender-related student behavior: the student teacher believed he could make a difference, the male teacher was ambivalent about whether gender differences were the cause of student behavior, and the female teacher was cynical that things could ever change.

Moreover, they also differed in their sense of responsibility to address issues related to gender equity: the student teacher believed his actions were very influential in promoting equity, whereas the female teacher expressed resentment about having to teach mixed gender physical education classes, which she felt was an extra burden and responsibility.

Since she had taught physical education prior to Title IX, she was used to teaching in single-gender physical education settings, and she was confused and frustrated by the

34 change, which she did not see as beneficial. She felt single-gender physical education was more effective for students and was overwhelmed by the different preferences of her female and male students.

When looking at the teachers’ specific strategies for promoting gender-equity in their classes, the student-teacher had more effective methods based on what he learned in his university teacher preparation course. He was very deliberate about “how to put kids on teams fairly, how to get kids with lower skills to have as much time using the ball as the high skilled" (Griffin, 1985, p. 106). He also used inclusive language, made teams randomly or based on ability not gender, gave both male and female students leadership opportunities, and interacted with them in similar ways and amounts. In contrast, the two senior teachers often grouped students by gender-stereotyped ability rather than individual student performance and gave modified equipment to all girls without knowing their true ability. They also made rules that girls had to touch the ball before the team could shoot the ball, which assumes that all boys are better players than girls. Thus, this research indicates that giving teachers the opportunity to reflect and dialogue about gender equity problems can empower teachers to make a difference and give them strategies to address problems in class.

PE and the Body

As physical education settings are traditionally a very open environment, the body is often on display, which can make physical education a site of power and resistance for both teachers and students. Even though power plays a role in all school subjects, “the effects are magnified in physical education where the content of study is both about and

35 through the human body” (Webb et al., 2004, p. 209). Surveillance also has a strong influence in the physical education setting, particularly gendered surveillance, which is often referred to as the “male gaze” (Webb et al., 2004, p. 211). Students are often deeply impacted by the “gaze of others” as they feel they are being constantly evaluated by them, and by their own self-surveillance since they easily compare and judge their bodies to others (Garrett, 2004a, p. 225). The power of surveillance can be internalized and present in both mixed gender and single-gender physical education settings. For example,

Evans (2006) found that girls constantly compared themselves to their female classmates who they felt were watching them and evaluating their femininity. Even though there were no boys in this single-gender class, the girls still felt pressure to present their bodies in ways that would be considered beautiful to men. Moreover, teachers’ and students’ beliefs about the function of gender in relation to physical activity influences the teaching and learning of physical education. Physical skill and ability are traditionally the focus of physical education classes, and the primary way in which students demonstrate their learning. The danger is that this reinforces the gender binary (Azzarito & Solmon, 2006), which polarizes females and males and assumes they will match dominant gender roles, identities, and traits. Instead of challenging this and supporting students’ holistic development, the curriculum and pedagogy of physical educators often reproduce gendered discourses on the “ideal body.”

Physical education is a gendered space, and the ideologies, curriculum, and methodology reflect the larger gendered discourse found in sport and society. Some people have argued that physical education ideology which shapes the curriculum reflects

36 the values of rich, White, middle class males (Coakley, 1994). As a result, the physical skills related to power, speed, and aggression are often focused on, which are usually considered traditionally masculine traits in society. Even though physical education is focused on providing opportunities for all students to engage in physical activity, physical education curriculum can produce and reproduce gendered discourses about the body and movement, which can be limiting for young women’s physical identity and development. Therefore, even if schools claim they are providing equal opportunity for girls and boys to participate in physical education, this is often not true. In reality, “girls receive an equal opportunity to ‘male’ physical education where they are considered less skillful, less physically able, and less interested” (Garrett, 2004a, p. 226). Research shows that even if girls receive the same access to teaching expertise, curriculum, and resources, boys typically receive greater attention from their teachers in physical education class and dominate the playing time in sports activities (Wright, 1999). As a result of this inequity, instead of challenging gender dualism, girls are often viewed as “the problem,” due to a perceived lack of engagement and resistance to physical activity (Garrett, 2004a, p. 226).

The body gives meaning to experience and shapes identity, a person’s sense of self (Garrett, 2004). The view of the body as socially constructed instead of biologically defined has influenced the field of physical education. The body is understood as a site of tension where dominant gendered and racialized discourses intersect (McDermott, 2000).

This often leads to questions regarding the role schools have in giving meaning to bodies, including the kinds of bodies that are considered normal and who has the power to decide this (Wright, 2003). Moreover, within the physical education class, the body shapes girls’

37 and boys’ decisions to participate or resist physical education practices (Azzarito &

Solmon, 2006). Within physical education settings, boys and girls often strive for or against the cultural notions of the ideal feminine or masculine body (Garrett, 2004a). As a result, physical education becomes a place of power struggle as students “self-police and self-decipher their bodies” and negotiate themselves within “the hierarchy of the body”

(Azzarito & Solmon, 2006, pp. 201, 204). In particular, secondary school students have socially constructed beliefs about the gendered body related to shape and size, especially muscularity for males and slenderness for females, which can affect their engagement in different forms of physical activity (Kirk, Horloyd, & Gorely, 2003). Individuals’ sense of who they are is closely connected to their bodies (Garrett, 2004a). The “pursuit of the ideal body” and the pressure to conform to this dominant standard can lead to feelings of

“stress, anxiety, and guilt” as it is “an impossible or highly unrealistic task” for many people (Garrett, 2004a, p. 225). The ideal body is a “socially constituted notion of perfection,” and students’ happiness is often dependent on their “pursuit and attainment of that body” (Wright, 2003, p. 49). This pressure can be especially present in physical education settings because the body is how students express their learning, as well as how they are evaluated and organized into teams based on their physical ability (Wright,

2003). As a result, students are often deeply affected by both the “gaze of others” who they feel are evaluating them and by their own “surveillance” of their bodies, which they can easily feel are inferior to others (Garrett, 2004a, p. 225).

It is important to realize that physical education has both the potential to alienate or empower young women. Physical education provides a context where young people

38 have the opportunity to participate in a variety of physical practices that affect how they feel toward their bodies. If their experience is positive, then physical education settings can empower young women by fostering a physically active lifestyle, which can equip them to resist dominant gendered discourse that can be very limiting to females (Garrett,

2004a). In addition, if young women find pleasure in their physicality and develop a positive physical identity, this can lead to a long-term physically active lifestyle.

Moreover, as young women develop physical power and skill, it gives them the opportunity to challenge passive notions of femininity. Physicality, the way young women experience their bodies through physical activity (McDermott, 1996), can relate to access to social power. Gilroy (1989) argued that through positive experiences with their bodies, women can have increasingly more control over their lives. When women feel confident and skillful with their bodies, then they can feel empowered to make choices and resist the stereotypical roles expected of them by society if they want.

Therefore, physical education settings have the potential to empower young women by helping them become more aware of their bodies and to have more confidence in their physical potential.

In a qualitative ethnographic study, Azzarito and Solmon (2006) investigated how

28 high school students across four ninth-grade physical education classes in two different public schools identified themselves with body images in fitness and sport magazines and how their identification with these images impacted their participation and resistance to physical education practices in the United States. Through formal and informal student interviews, informal conversations with teachers, and non-participant

39 observations, they discovered two major themes from the study: the body as a site for both (a) compliance and (b) resistance. First of all, nine girls and 12 boys “identified with gendered notions of the body” that complied with the dominant discourse, which led to the perception of comfortable and “bad bodies” (Azzarito & Solmon, 2006, p. 209). On the other hand, six girls and one boy rejected dominant discourse on the gendered body by resisting these ideologies in their physical education class, which the authors call borderland bodies. In the compliance theme, students engaged in physical education practices when they felt it would help them “to maintain or to achieve the female slender body or the male muscular body” (Azzarito & Solmon, 2006, p. 209). Students whose bodies aligned with the dominant discourse communicated comfortable bodies because they held positive bodily self-concepts. In contrast, many students had internalized gendered ideals of the body and expressed dissatisfaction with their bodies, reflecting a

“bad body” image. For borderland bodies, some students rejected dominant gendered discourses about their bodies and did not view participating in physical education as a way to conform to these ideals (Azzarito & Solmon, 2006). Basically, they developed their own meanings about their bodies by resisting the ideologies of society regarding the ideal body for females and males. The biggest reason for resisting physical activity in physical education class was it did not match students’ preferences for physical activity outside of school. Azzarito and Solmon (2006) concluded that physical education programs should provide a variety of physical activity opportunities for both girls and boys and challenge dominant gender discourses. This ultimately can “help young people understand that being physically active is not a matter of performing ideal feminine or

40 masculine body shapes and sizes or muscularity to achieve happiness and ideals of success, but a means to feel empowered, positive, and healthy about the body and the self” (Azzarito & Solmon, 2006, p. 220).

Garrett (2004a) conducted a qualitative study exploring how 32 young women in their last year of school in Australia engaged with physical activity, as well as how the gendered discourses impacted their physical sense of selves. Through semi-structured interviews focused on gender, the body, and physical experience, Garrett investigated how the young women experienced physicality and challenged the dominant messages they received about their bodies and behavior. The girls claimed that in their early childhood experiences with physical education the boys were usually in control and most successful in the games they played, “thus perpetuating hierarchal arrangements around gender in the wider society” (Garrett, 2004a, p. 228). They also indicated that they did not feel confident in their skills to participate, and this gave them anxiety since the games were generally competitive and assumed children already possessed the skills to play.

Thus, the physical education activities favored boys who already had the opportunity to develop these skills outside of school. The girls also expressed fear about their body being “on show for public consumption,” which led some of them to feel inadequate and humiliated (Garrett, 2004a, p. 230). This study revealed that early physical education experiences generally did not help girls develop their physical skills enough, which led to loss of social capital that could come through being confident about one’s body. In secondary school physical education, the girls often complained that the boys dominated the game play and the teacher’s attention. However, some girls resisted the feeling of

41 inferiority and claimed that their ability was equal to the boys. Overall, the girls voiced multiple and changing experiences with their body and relationship with physical education. Some were satisfied with their bodies and felt that the physical education experiences equipped them with skills to use in physical activity outside of school or to maintain an ideal body image, generally considered a fit or slim figure. On the other hand, some of the young women negatively perceived their bodies and felt powerless and low social confidence. Therefore, some girls are “empowered through their bodies and others are held captive” (Garrett, 2004a, p. 232). Thus, Garrett (2004a) suggested that physical education practices should provide for multiple opportunities for students to be physical and challenge limiting gender discourses about the body, so that girls can develop a more positive sense of physicality and feel more empowered through their bodies.

Whereas Garrett (2004a) explored the experience of female students, Tischler and

McCaughtry (2011) examined the multiplicity of masculinities by conducting a qualitative study on the perspective of male students who felt marginalized in physical education classes. The central participants of the study were five boys from two different middle schools, and the research methods included class observations, conversations with physical education teachers, interviews with individual students, and small group work with the boys. The researchers discovered that socially-constructed beliefs about masculinity heavily influenced the boys who viewed being “strong, athletic, powerful, fit, and fast were essential to being perceived as doing boy right” (Tischler & McCaughtry,

2011, p. 41). Tischler and McCaughtry (2011) asserted that physical education settings

42 reinforce hierarchies of masculinities and can alienate some male students. With regards to content, the boys in this study felt marginalized and ashamed of their bodies during team sport activities. They shared that if non-sport physical activities, such as rock climbing, swimming, and biking, were included in physical education, they would perform better and feel better about themselves. They enjoyed these types of physical activity with their friends and family outside of school because they felt less pressure and safer in these environments. In terms of pedagogy, the physical education teachers focused on game play without teaching skills, so winning competitions was the primary objective. This type of teaching rewarded aggressive and highly skilled students, which further alienated the boys. What is worse is that the boys felt ignored, scolded, and mocked by their teachers who did not give them positive attention or protect them from other students who often bullied them. In their peer relationships, the boys were often ridiculed, laughed at, and pushed around by their classmates. Thus, they often hid their bodies, avoided physical activities, faked illness or injury, and found many ways to resist engaging in physical education classes. This study is important because it shows both female and male students are influenced by gendered discourses in society. As a result,

PE teachers should offer more diverse curriculum, give positive attention to marginalized students, and not allow any bullying among their students.

In contrast to the articles discussed above which focused on students, Webb et al.

(2004) conducted a qualitative research study on physical education teachers to examine how surveillance operates as a type of power and affects the physical education teachers’ lives. Their participants were nine physical education teachers: five females and three

43 males from eight schools in Australia and one female from a school in the United States.

They collected data through observations and teacher interviews and analyzed their data through constant comparative method. They discovered that surveillance works in complex ways and is multi-directional as teachers were both watching and being watched in their physical education settings. Surveillance can be defined as “a multiple, automatic, and anonymous power” that functions as “a network of relations” (Foucault, 1997, pp.

176-177). Webb et al. (2004) explained that surveillance includes three key features: (a) it works as a power to control human behavior based on the social norms, (b) it is internalized by people who begin to self-regulate their behavior based on those norms, and (c) it has the potential to be both oppressive and empowering (Webb et al., 2004). In their study, they discovered that the teachers used surveillance to monitor students but also felt the gaze on them too. In particular, they felt like their heads of department and colleagues were watching and evaluating them, as well as students and parents. Thus, surveillance has power from both the top down and the bottom up, as well as laterally.

Moreover, female physical education teachers mentioned the presence of the “male gaze,” which is “a form of gendered surveillance in schools, sport, and physical activity settings,” which can objectify women’s bodies (Webb et al., 2004, p. 211). Many of the teachers claimed feeling stress and anxiety from surveillance; however, one teacher resisted this interpretation and turned surveillance into a positive way to make change and get recognition from others. Thus, the researchers concluded that surveillance is a complex, multi-directional power that impacts teachers’ lives, but at the same time, teachers can exercise agency within this power network.

Personal Critique

Physical activity has uncontestable benefits for students’ physical, mental, and emotional development, especially adolescent season is a very crucial time to improve their physicality. However, female students’ physical activity rates are much lower than male students because there are many barriers that exist. Across the literature, it is clear that female students’ physical activity motivation progressively worsens from middle to high school and even into adulthood. For example, when middle school students have positive experiences in physical education, they want to participate in physical education classes more when they go to high school, which could enhance their physical activity in young adulthood too. That is why middle school season is very crucial for female students, because it lays a foundation for their physical activity in life. Physical activity also can reduce students’ risk for disease and decrease obesity rates. Interestingly, many girls play sports and have much higher physical activity rates outside of school than in physical education settings; even some females enjoy traditionally male-dominant sports, such as basketball and football, with friends and family members outside of school. Then why do female secondary school students resist physical activity engagement in physical education? Why is there such a large gap between in school and outside of school? Also, how can teachers encourage female students to have higher physical activity engagement during their early adolescence to prepare for their future lives? The main key is physical education teachers must be aware of gender stereotypes and gender equity problems in physical education.

After Title IX, most physical education settings changed from single-gender classes to mixed gender classes in order to give girls and boys more equal experiences.

The problem is the gender gap did not diminish rather mixed gender classes caused different problems and even added more challenges for female students. Throughout the extant literature, it is easy to see boys and girls have very different activity preferences in physical education, such as team sports versus individual sports and competition versus cooperative learning at their own pace. Also, teachers usually concentrate on high-skilled male students, which can make others, especially female students, feel isolated and marginalized. Based on physical education teachers’ perception of gender appropriateness, girls and boys get different opportunities and attention. For example, teachers often divide students into groups based on their gender, not based on students’ abilities. Also, they already assume that female students should be put in the “weaker group” before actually assessing their actual ability, which decreases female students’ motivation in physical education and can ignore their potential too. Moreover, the physical education environment is very different from other subjects because it is usually done in open spaces, so students constantly evaluate each other’s physical ability and their bodies are on display as well. This unique atmosphere could make female students feel more pressure if teachers do not care about individual differences. The purpose of mixed gender physical education is to provide both female and male students high quality physical education, which can give them similar opportunities to achieve their goals.

Unfortunately, the solutions that Title IX proposes for physical education only skim the surface of the problem and do not settle the dispute. Thus, physical education teachers

46 must be more reflexive about their own gender biases and keep a close eye on students to see if they are really receiving the same opportunities.

From previous research studies, it is apparent that middle and high school female students’ physical activity preferences are quite different. Middle school females are more affected by their peers and motivated by social interaction than high school female students. That is why it could be a good strategy if physical education teachers could provide them opportunities to work in small groups and have cooperative learning activities in physical education classes. Also, enjoyment is a very high value for students and affects their motivation, so teachers should think about how they can cultivate a fun atmosphere to support female students’ physical movement. On the other hand, high school female students care about their body condition more than middle school students, so even though they may feel more obligation to participate in physical education, their motivation is usually connected to their health. They are more mature than middle school students because they prefer to set their own goals and care about lifelong sports. For example, if the curriculum is matching what they think they will do in their future life, they will put more effort and want to participate well, but if not, they may easily think the program is meaningless. Thus, physical education teachers must consider high school female students’ preferences; especially, how it might impact their physical activity rates in adulthood too.

Teachers have a very significant role in students’ lives. Through teachers’ beliefs and behaviors, students’ lives can change for better or worse. Thus, physical education teachers must make changes to their physical education programs to include all students.

There are three specific components physical education teachers can address to be more inclusive of their female students. First, physical education teachers should consider female students’ activity preferences. They should also pay more attention to girls and have high expectations for their success. Many studies show that teachers’ expectations are really vital to increase students’ outcomes. Also, language has power, so teachers need to be more aware of their biased language use, such as phrases like “girl push-ups” and “you throw the ball like a girl.” These unconscious behaviors can increase female students’ reluctance toward physical education. In order to become more aware of teacher’s language use and behavior, teachers should help each other, such as by making critical friends and having more reflection on their teaching. Second, the physical education curriculum should be more diverse to promote female students’ engagement.

Even if they are the same gender, all girls are different, such as their backgrounds, perspectives, beliefs, and experiences, so teachers should not assume girls have the same ability and categorize them based on their gender for physical activities in class. Also, physical education teachers should consider creating a more “fun” program to address female middle school students’ intrinsic desire to enjoy their physical education classes and provide more individual fitness programs to match female high school students’ health goals. Also, teachers should consider including not only traditional team and competitive sports, but also individual sports and even outdoor sports to expand their physical education curriculum. To do so, teachers need specific training opportunities to develop their diverse teaching skills.

Last, based on research, female students are affected by the environment more than male students. Many females share their feelings of discomfort with changing their clothes and showering publicly. Although it may cost more, schools should modify their facilities as much as they can because through these changes, students could increase their physical activity, which means society could save costs by preventing risk of disease. Also, teachers should not allow boys to tease girls or accept their misbehavior and harassment. Physical education teachers are often too generous when boys have inappropriate actions. Providing a safe environment is a key part of teachers’ responsibility to include all students. Physical education is not a simple subject just focusing on teaching sports; physical education has the purpose of developing students’ holistic health outcomes. Therefore, physical education teachers also need many teaching tools, such as content knowledge, classroom management skills, making a safe environment, giving students more equitable opportunities, and having their own awareness of gender equity.

Recommendations for Addressing Gender Gaps in PA and Participation Rates

Although the purpose of Title IX was to prevent discrimination between males and females in education, if girls are not actually getting the same opportunity to develop their skills and become physically active individuals, then the results may be the same as before Title IX. Educators need to consider why Title IX exists, and for whom. If girls continue to feel marginalized in their physical education settings, then is this really progress? Across the literature, the importance of curriculum, teachers’ behavior, and the environment are stressed as key factors for influencing female secondary students’

49 experiences with physical activity in physical education classes. In consideration of these critical components, recommendations will now be articulated for how to reduce the gender gaps in physical activity and participation rates.

Curriculum

Overall, the literature suggests that curriculum is the most crucial factor influencing students' satisfaction with physical education, so teachers should identify the aspects of the curriculum that contribute to negative attitudes and build on those parts that are related to positive attitudes. Teachers usually have the ability to make curricular choices, so they should focus more on this part. Research suggests that students enjoy physical education when the curriculum is relevant to their lives and includes a variety of activities, as well as offers opportunity for individual choice and enjoyment. On the other hand, they dislike physical education when they view the curriculum as repetitive, boring, irrelevant, or too competitive (Couturier et al., 2005). In particular, female students stated that they especially disliked fitness tests and long runs in physical education classes, so physical education teachers need to find new ways to promote students’ fitness levels and endurance without hurting their overall motivation toward physical education, which ends up affecting their lifelong physical activity habits (Luke & Sinclair, 1991).

According to the findings of Mears (2007), it is crucial to provide girls with diverse curricular experiences in high school physical education in order to promote a more physically active lifestyle in their adulthood. Mears (2007) argued that diversifying the curriculum now can save society money later in health care costs, so it is worth the financial investment. Is it better for society to spend money to prevent disease or treat

50 disease? Diversifying the curriculum may be a valuable investment to save society money later in health care costs. Creating new curriculum to support females’ physical activity is necessary to promote their participation as they move forward in their education.

Felton et al. (2005) reported positive changes from efforts made to increase the physical activity of female students through the Coordinated School Health Program.

“Girl-friendly PE” curriculum included the seven following components: (a) opportunities for single-gender activities in class, (b) high physical activity, (c) the inclusion of non-competitive activities, (d) emphasis on lifelong physical activity, (e) focus on fun and enjoyment, (f) appropriate instructional methods, (g) and the inclusion of behavior skills. Woodson-Smith et al. (2015) similarly recommended that female secondary school students be given a choice to participate in mixed gender or single- gender physical education classes, and classes should be grouped by skill rather than gender to promote more skill development and increased physical activity levels.

Furthermore, schools should provide more physical education electives for juniors and seniors to continue being physically active. Physical education teachers can offer both traditional and non-traditional classes as elective courses then both girls and boys have choices to enjoy their classes freely.

Overall, physical education teachers need to make learning activities in class meaningful for all students by helping them to make connections between the content and their everyday lives. Solmon et al. (2003) suggested that teachers can highlight students’ positive experiences with physical activity, such as provide peer role models who are successful with sports to challenge students’ perceptions of gender appropriateness.

Teachers should also stress that tasks can be mastered through effort and practice when they introduce new activities in physical education classes. Although physical education teachers cannot change students’ perception of gender quickly, they can still take action to make a difference. First, the physical education curriculum should be connected to students’ lives because many girls complained that physical education is just for boys and not related closely enough to their lives. Second, most girls believe they do not have strength and power as much as boys, so physical education teachers should provide diverse curriculum which includes not only traditional team sports, but also individual and small group sports. Lastly, challenging students’ assumptions of gender- appropriateness is most crucial, because it is associated with students’ self-efficacy.

Certainly, it is not simple; the physical education environment is socially constructed and complex, so physical education teachers should share examples of many positive experiences with the sport to change their perceptions of gender appropriateness.

Carlson (1995) similarly found that when students find personal meaning, it leads to participation in physical education and identification with physical education, which cultivates a sense of belonging, success, and feeling of being in control. Carlson (1995) provided an alienation and nonalienation model in physical education setting, which is really crucial for understanding how students think and make meaning of their physical education. The model depicts how both extrinsic and intrinsic factors influence meaning making and can prevent or contribute to alienation. Extrinsic factors include “teacher personalities and behaviors, the curriculum, class environment, and out-of-school influences,” whereas intrinsic factors comprise of “physical ability, self-esteem, and the

52 student’s beliefs about what physical education should be” (Carlson, 1995, p. 473). With regard to these crucial factors, it is recommended that teachers provide various programs to expand students’ choices, especially many female students like individual sports and working at their own pace rather than team sports and exercising with their peers.

Moreover, teachers and educators should think about why students use various strategies to avoid participating in their physical education classes. Lastly, teachers, parents, and educators should give more consideration to students’ meaningful experience in physical education settings because when they find more personal meaning, it prevents alienation and promotes greater engagement in physical education, which increases students’ overall physical activity rates.

In light of the differences found between middle and high school students’ preferences, Couturier et al. (2005) suggest that teachers should adjust their curriculum to promote higher engagement in physical education classes. For example, they could move swimming to middle school and weight training/fitness to high school to better match students' activity preferences and promote their physical activity. Schools should also give students more choice when it comes to curriculum and activity groupings. In

Couturier et al.’s (2005) action research project, the faculty and public school teachers together developed and implemented a new physical education curriculum. The middle school curriculum included both traditional and non-traditional activities. The majority of the activities were team and individual sports or fitness-related. At the high school level, the curriculum was designed for students to choose from a list of traditional and non- traditional activities. They were required to take one wellness or fitness class each year,

53 and they could not select the same activity at the same level during their four years in the physical education program. These changes to the curriculum reflect the different age preferences found in their study.

Lastly, it is important to realize that recommendations for curriculum changes do not automatically lead to real changes in physical education settings (Gibbons &

Humbert, 2008). Schools must provide professional development opportunities and financial resources for changes in the curriculum to succeed. Also, teachers need to develop expertise in more areas such as dance, fitness, and cooperative activities to engage girls in physical education. However, these types of classes could reinforce gender stereotypes, so outdoor activities, such as kayaking, mountain biking, or climbing may attract a variety of students and communicate less gender stereotyping (Couturier et al., 2007). Lastly, Griffin (1985) suggested that physical education teachers should know why and how mixed gender physical education can be valuable for female students, and they need to be equipped to teach both genders. Teachers may not automatically understand the rationale or have motivation to teach physical education curriculum in mixed gender contexts, so teachers need to be equipped with specific strategies, so they feel more empowered to implement curriculum that supports the learning of both male and female students.

Teachers’ Behaviors

The research findings suggest that not only the curriculum, but also teachers’ behaviors need to be addressed in order to promote female secondary students’ engagement in physical education classes. According to Brown, Brown, and Hussey

(1996), many physical education teachers may genuinely believe that they treat students in inequitable ways, but “they unconsciously make inequitable gender-based statements”

(p. 19). Thus, they must make a conscious effort to change their behavior, especially how they talk to their students. Male students may dominate conversations, so teachers should be aware of this and do their best to offer girls and boys more equitable opportunities to talk in class. Also, teachers often give more attention to boys than girls, so Brown et al.

(1996) provided a few tips for how teachers can change this habit: (a) directly call on girls by name to encourage their participation, (b) make clear rules in the beginning of the year to prevent students from interrupting each other, (c) and allow more time for girls to share their thoughts before moving the discussion along. Moreover, when teachers give students compliments, they should give them carefully because teachers tend to give boys praise about their performance and girls about their appearance, which directly affects girls’ physical confidence in the physical education setting. Thus, teachers should set high standards for performance and point out the specific actions that female students are doing well in class, and if they praise a girl’s appearance, then they should also praise a boy’s appearance too. In addition, teacher should use gender-neutral language, instead of language that reproduces gender stereotypes. For example, teachers should refer to equipment by its size, such as a small basketball or large basketball, not a girls’ ball or boys’ ball, or simply provide one size for all students. Similarly, teachers should talk about exercises and physical tasks in gender-neutral ways, such as say bent-leg push-up and straight-leg push-up instead of girls’ and boys’ push-ups. When they give these

55 options, they should model both of them, so that boys and girls can each make the choice that is best for them individually, not based on their gender.

Similarly, Constantinou (2008) explained that most physical education teachers are not aware that they give students unequal practice opportunities and imbalanced feedback and attention. For example, they tend to give male high-skilled students more practice opportunities than others, which naturally increases their chances to improve their skills. Also, teachers’ different expectations affect the amount and types of attention given to students, which influences their motivation and learning outcomes. Consciously and unconsciously, teachers expect better performance from boys much more than girls, which decreases girls’ self-esteem and confidence. Moreover, when teachers select students to provide demonstration of a skill for the class, they choose boys more often than girls, which communicates to girls that they are inferior. Sometimes teachers have girls demonstrate a sports activity, but usually this is only when it is considered a traditionally feminine activity, which reinforces gendered norms. Thus, Constantinou

(2008) suggests that teachers plan the type of feedback they will give students ahead of time because a systematic approach may help them to have more equal interactions with all students. They also should use students of different skill levels to demonstrate tasks and have both genders demonstrate it so that all students can relate to the demonstrator.

This could also challenge their assumptions about the gender-appropriateness of certain sports. Furthermore, teachers can help encourage students to move beyond activities that they perceive as traditionally gender appropriate by deliberately having male teachers

56 demonstrate activities such as dance and female teachers instruct students on football skills. This can challenge students’ gendered assumptions and impact their self-efficacy.

In addition, teachers should give students enough time to develop their skills and use teaching strategies that include an effective progression of skill development, as well as interesting practice tasks (Gibbons & Humbert, 2008). Teachers may want to include single gender grouping within mixed gender classes, as well as use effective pedagogical techniques, such modified games in order to give students a greater chance to develop their skills and work at their own pace (Couturier et al., 2007). On the other hand,

Constantinou (2008) cautioned teachers not to group students by their gender or have them compete against each other. Instead, she suggested they should integrate genders to reduce segregation and make sure that students are grouped evenly by skill level and that no one student feels alone as the male or female student on a team. Teachers should also not allow students to ridicule one another, and misbehavior should not be tolerated.

Instead, teachers should use the physical education setting “to promote respect and personal responsibility among students in the class” (Constantinou, 2008, p. 30).

Moreover, even if teachers are aware of their biases and willing to change their teaching practices, it will take time, “patience, persistence, and repetition” to overcome their gender stereotypes of boys’ and girls’ physical activity (Griffin, 1985, p. 108). Becoming more equitable teachers requires “pre-class planning, in-class vigilance, and a willingness to intervene repeatedly to change inequitable student participation and interaction patterns” (Griffin, 1985, p. 108).

Environment

In addition to changing the curriculum and teacher’s behaviors, it is vital that teachers cultivate positive classroom environments where both girls and boys feel safe and supported to engage in physical activity (Gibbons & Humbert, 2008). According to

Couturier et al. (2005) and Couturier et al. (2007), even students who might normally enjoy physical activity, may resist physical education because of environmental factors, such as changing and/or showering publicly, uncomfortable weather conditions, limited time between classes, and safety issues. Couturier et al. (2005) asserted that physical education should advocate for appropriate class schedules to make it easier for students to change clothes and feel more comfortable going to class after physical education. Since these issues are barriers to engage female students in physical education, administers and teachers should make a better environment for them such as adjusting class schedule time and providing private showers (Couturier et al., 2007). Providing safer environments for all students should be the primary goal in physical education because peer behavior and teacher intervention can make physical education safe or unsafe both physically and emotionally. Effective communication and collaboration are also essential between teachers and students so that students of both genders have the opportunity to experience competition, success, and achievement in a safe learning environment (Constantinou et al., 2009). Lastly, since many researchers discussed how surveillance from peers was a barrier to girls’ involvement in physical activity in physical education classes, female students in Olafson’s (2002) study suggested that demonstrations of skills could be done in front of small groups instead of the entire class to reduce the power of the gaze. Also,

58 the participants recommended teachers allow students to make these small groups based on their friendship groups so that they would feel more comfortable and supported.

Literature Review Summary

A primary goal of physical education is to establish patterns of beneficial physical activity that can last for a lifetime (SHAPE America, 2016). Since adolescents enrolled in

Grades 6-12 spend at least 6-7 hours per day, 180 days per year at school, physical education programs should play a critical role in helping adolescents meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity (Education Commission of the States,

2011). Through physical education, all students should have the opportunity to participate in physical activity, develop the skills to participate in sports, and acquire knowledge about healthy living (Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). Research shows that effective physical education programs can increase students’ physical activity by providing a safe environment and give students the knowledge and skills they need to engage in physically active lives (Institute of Medicine, 2013). This cannot happen unless secondary school physical education programs make changes to enable both female and male students to have equitable, meaningful opportunities to engage in physical activity with high motivation, enjoyment, and success.

Theoretical Framework: Theory of Planned Behavior

In this qualitative study, the researcher utilized theory of planned behavior (TpB) to explore the beliefs of South Korean PE teachers and their female secondary school students regarding girls’ PA. TpB is a well-established theoretical model that has been used extensively to predict and explain human behavior, which is a very complex task, by

59 examining an individual’s intentions and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1985,

1991, 2001, 2006). In particular, this theory has been applied widely to the research of health behaviors (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015) and educational issues, particularly general physical education and adapted physical education (Rizzo & Columna, 2020;

Steward Stanec, 2009). TpB is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TrA) (Ajzen

& Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), which states that a person’s intentions to perform an action are determined by their attitude toward the behavior and the subjective norms. Both of these theories focus on the importance of intentions, which refer to

motivational factors that influence a behavior; they are indications of how hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert in order to perform the behavior. As a general rule, the stronger the intention to engage in a behavior, the more likely should be its performance. (Ajzen, 1991, p. 181)

However, the key difference between TrA and TpB is the inclusion of perceived behavioral control in TpB. Ajzen (1991) has argued that intention can only lead to behavior if the individual has control to perform the behavior; in other words, if they have actual control over their behavior. Thus, according to TpB, “people act in accordance with their intentions and perceptions of control over the behavior, while intensions in turn are influenced by attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioral control” (Ajzen, 2001, p. 43).

First of all, behavior is influenced by an individual’s attitude toward the behavior, which is called their behavioral beliefs. Attitude refers to an individual’s evaluation or judgement of a behavior as “good-bad, harmful-beneficial, pleasant-unpleasant, and likable-dislikable” (Ajzen, 2001, p. 28). In other words, attitudes reflect an individual’s

60 beliefs about the outcomes of a behavior, such as whether they think it will give them favorable or unfavorable results, positive or negative outcomes (Gutierres Filho et al.,

2013; Steward Stanec, 2009). For example, in the current qualitative study, attitudes refer to PE teachers’ positive or negative feelings about teaching female students and their evaluations of girls’ PA. It also refers to female students’ judgements of their PE classes and their self-evaluation of their PA participation in PE class.

Second of all, behavior is also shaped by subjective norms, which is referred to as normative beliefs. Subjective norms can be described as an individual’s perception of the expectations of important people in their lives toward the behavior (Rizzo & Columna,

2020; Steward Stanec, 2009). Basically, an individual’s behavior is shaped by their beliefs about how other people would judge their behavior. This includes their “perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the act” (Gutierres Filho et al., 2013, p. 590), as well as their belief about whether most people, or at least the people they value, will approve or disapprove of their behavior (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015). For example, in this current study, subjective norms refers to PE teachers’ perceptions of their colleagues’ approval or disapproval of their teaching methods. It also relates to female students’ concerns about their classmates’ judgment of their physical ability and expectations of their PA engagement based on gender norms.

Third of all, behavior is determined by an individual’s perceived behavioral control, which is called control beliefs. Perceived behavioral control “reflects how easy or difficult a person perceives performing a given behavior of interest” (Conatser et al.,

2002, p. 174). Their perception of the easiness or difficulty of performing a behavior is

61 related to the resources they have, their prior experiences, knowledge and expertise, as well as the opportunities they have (Ajzen, 1991). These beliefs include both “internal and external barriers that may hinder the behavior to be performed” (Steward Stanec,

2009, p. 257). Basically, even if an individual has a strong intention toward a behavior, there may still be factors beyond their control that influence their actual ability to do the behavior. Thus, perceived behavioral control includes concepts such as agency and self- efficacy, which focus on internal factors, as well as controllability, which acknowledges external factors (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015; Rizzo & Columna, 2020). For example, in this current study, the PE teachers’ perceived behavioral control is related to their beliefs about their actual ability to motivate female students to engage in PA and the factors that make this harder or easier to do. Similarly, it also refers to female students’ beliefs about their actual ability to engage in the PA in their PE classes, which would likely be related to both internal and external barriers, such as their confidence in their physical ability and the PE environment and curriculum.

Chapter 3: Methods

The purpose of this study was to investigate South Korean physical education teachers’ beliefs about female students’ physical activity participation in their courses. In addition, the researcher examined South Korean female secondary school students’ beliefs about their physical education courses. The aim of this chapter is to explain the methods that were used for this study, and it is divided into the following sections: (a) research design, (b) research site, (c) participants and sampling, (d) measures, (e) procedures, (f) perceived benefits and risks, (g) trustworthiness, and (i) data analysis.

Research Design

This study was situated in the qualitative research paradigm using an interviewing approach (Gay, 1996). Qualitative researchers believe that there are multiple realities that are socially constructed (Merriam, 2009). From this perspective, reality is subjective and interpreted through human experience (Petty et al., 2012a). Since this study was rooted in a qualitative research paradigm, the researcher sought to understand the multiple social constructions of meaning and knowledge (Petty et al., 2012a). Likewise, the researcher aimed to gather multiple views and insider perspectives based on the individual, subjective experiences of South Korean physical education teachers and their female secondary school students (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Petty et al., 2012a).

To support this overall goal, interviewing was considered a crucial qualitative data collection method to be used to build understanding of individuals’ unique experiences (Seidman, 2006). Moreover, in-depth, semi-structured interviewing allows the researcher to gain insight into “complex academic and social phenomena” (Sato &

Hodge, 2015, p. 210). In particular, interviewing physical education teachers allowed the researcher to gather data on what cannot be observed, such as teachers’ and students’ mental processes (e.g., their thoughts, feelings, intentions, beliefs, memories, and reflections), as well as past events and experiences (Patton, 2002). In regard to teaching physical education and their female students, in this study interviewing provided an effective way for “the teachers to reflect on and speak about specific situations, and to their beliefs, intentions and actual behaviors” (Hodge et al., 2018, p. 412).

Research Sites

The research sites were two public middle schools and four public high schools in urban cities in South Korea. The middle schools in South Korea consist of three grades:

Grades 7, 8, and 9, and have mandatory physical education classes at all grade levels three times a week for 45 minutes each. This is the same as other subjects, such as math,

English, and science. Both middle schools were co-educational, and the physical education classes were mixed-gender as well, but they occasionally offered single-gender activities during class. High schools in South Korea consist of three years: Grades 10, 11, and 12, and Grade 10 students (the participants in this study) have mandatory physical education classes twice a week for 50 minutes each. This is less time than other subjects in high school because more time is given to course content that is on the college

64 entrance exam. During Grades 11 and 12, physical education is offered as an elective.

One school site was an all-women’s high school, and the other three were co-educational high schools with mixed gender physical education.

Participants and Sampling

The participants were six physical education teachers (two female and four male), which reflects the gender proportions of most secondary school physical education departments in South Korea, and 12 of their female students (two from each teacher) in

South Korea. The teachers were recruited through purposive sampling, more specifically, a combination of snowball and criterion sampling (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002).

Important to know also, the researcher was a former physical education teacher in South

Korea for over ten years and used her professional networks to initiate the snowballing strategy. The criteria for teacher participants was they had to be teachers in middle schools or high schools in South Korea and teach physical education classes with over four years of experience. The teachers were verbally and in writing informed that their participation was voluntary, anonymous, and that they could withdraw from the study at any time with no impact on any prior or future relationship with the researcher or their schools. 12 female secondary school students were recruited from the teachers’ physical education classes through purposive sampling; that is, each teacher recommended one student with high physical engagement and one student with low physical engagement from their respective physical education classes (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). They were informed both verbally by their instructors, as well as in writing through a parental consent form and a student assent form that their participation in the study was voluntary

65 and that the researcher would use pseudonyms in all written reports. They were also assured both verbally and in writing that they could withdraw from the study at any time with no penalty on their grades or their relationships with their teachers or schools.

Measures

A demographic questionnaire was used to ascertain relevant demographic information from the teachers and students who volunteered to participate in the study

(Appendices A and B). The primary data source was a series of semi-structured interviews with the teachers and students and field notes drafted during the researcher’s non-participant observations. During the development of the research proposal and prior to data collection, all of the instruments used in this study (i.e., demographic questionnaire, interview guide) were translated from the original English version to the participants’ native Korean language using a cross-cultural translation technique

(Banville et al., 2000). This technique is a rigorous method to establish the relevance of the instrument to the cultural context. Specifically, for the current study, the first step was to translate each instrument (i.e., demographic questionnaire, interview guide), not necessarily literally, but according to the meaning of each statement. Then, the different translations were compared to the original to check for similarities. It is important that the instrument was then piloted with a sample of the target population. These individuals were asked to give feedback on the instrument about any wording or expressions that are unclear or uncomfortable to them. These suggestions were used to revise the instrument, as warranted. The overall goal of this approach is that translation should consider “the

66 uniqueness of the culture in which the questionnaire/inventory will be used” (Banville et al, 2000, p. 384).

In the current study, therefore the researcher, a native Korean speaker, along with a South Korean English secondary school teacher, both bilingual in English and Korean languages, individually translated the English versions to Korean and back translate

Korean to English. The translations were compared, and differences were discussed until agreement was established. This process enhances cultural relevance of the instruments; and in-turn, promotes trustworthiness of the study’s findings.

Semi-Structured Interviews

For the purposes of this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted using open-ended questions with a flexible order and wording, which allowed the researcher to be more responsive to each participant as new ideas emerged in the interviews (Merriam,

2009). The questions were derived from the literature on adolescents’ physical activity and gender differences in physical education. More specifically, a series of three face-to face semi-structured interviews (approximately one hour each) were conducted with the

Korean PE teachers in their native language, Korean, in order to explore their beliefs about female students’ PA participation in their PE classes. The interview guide included

14 questions (Appendix C): the first three questions focused on the physical education teachers’ personal experiences with and beliefs about physical education and sports.

Questions 4-14 focused on their beliefs about their students’ participation in physical education classes, as well as any possible gender differences in students’ engagement and their interactions with students. The same interview guide was used for each teacher’s

67 first interview, but different follow-up questions were used for the second and third interviews based on the content from the first interview and from observations. The interviews took place at the teachers’ individual schools in their individual offices at the end of the school day. Before conducting the interviews, the researcher was able to build rapport with the teachers by having lunch and coffee together for casual conversations and observing their classes a few times before starting the study.

In addition, one semi-structured interview (approximately 50 minutes each) was conducted individually with each of the 12 female secondary school students in their native language, Korean, in order to explore their beliefs about their PA participation in their PE classes. The interview guide included 15 questions (Appendix D). The questions asked students about their past and present experiences in physical education classes, including their beliefs about gender differences and their preferences, as well as their perception of the importance of physical activity in their lives. The same interview guide was used for each student’s interview but different follow-up questions as the conversations took place. The interviews took place at their parents’ preferred locations.

For the majority of the students, the interviews were held at their school sites at the end of the school day in an empty classroom, and some were conducted at local coffee shops near the schools. Before conducting the interviews, the researcher was able to build rapport with the students by sitting with them at lunch and having casual conversation, as well participating in their classes a few times before starting the study (e.g., observing and occasionally playing sports with them).

The semi-structured interviews were all audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded for emergent themes. The data were translated from Korean to English language, and a cross-language translation technique was used to ensure higher cultural relevance and promote trustworthiness (Banville et al., 2000). The researcher, a native Korean speaker, along with a Korean secondary school teacher of English, both of whom are bilingual in

Korean and English, individually translated the Korean data (e.g., interview transcripts) into English. The translations were compared, and differences were discussed until agreement was established. In addition, the researcher collected data (researcher field notes) through non-participant observations of several classes for triangulation purposes.

Non-Participant Observations

The researcher drafted fieldnotes using direct non-participant observations of the teachers and students at the various school sites. Three different observations were conducted of each teacher’s PE classes, and these were focused on the language and behavior of teachers and focal student participants (females with low and high PA).

Observations can be particularly descriptive in two ways: (a) they occur in a natural environment, and (b) researchers can have “firsthand encounter with the phenomenon of interest” rather than hearing about it indirectly through others (Merriam, 2009, p. 117).

More specifically, direct non-participant observation is a data collection strategy whereby the researcher does not participate in the activity being studied but rather she observes the participants unobtrusively within the setting and, as in this current study, she usually takes field notes (Patton, 2002). Lastly, the use of non-participant observations allowed the researcher to sit in a non-intrusive place (e.g., in this study, standing in the corner or

69 sitting on the bench) and observe the actions and interactions of the teachers and students in the physical education classes (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Fraenkel et al., 2012). By observing teachers and students in their natural setting (during their normal physical education class sessions), “the researcher makes no effort whatsoever to manipulate variables or to control the activities of individuals, but simply observes and records what happens as things naturally occur” (Fraenkel et al., 2012, p. 447). Fieldnotes from observation enables researchers to take detailed notes on “what they hear, see, experience, and think in the course of collecting and reflecting on their data” (Fraenkel et al., 2012, p. 512). Specifically, in this study, fieldnotes were taken by keeping an objective running record of what occurred in the class session in the left column with time stamps beside them, and then in the right column, subjective comments were noted

(e.g., questions to ask teachers in follow-up interviews, connections to the theoretical framework, etc.).

Procedures

To explore the research questions, the study was carried out in South Korea from

October 2019 to December 2019. The central participants were six South Korean physical education teachers and 12 female secondary school students. The researcher provided demographic questionnaires to the teachers at their school sites, which took approximately 10 minutes to complete, and then they were given back to the researcher on site after completion. Follow-up semi-structured interviews were scheduled individually with the teachers three times each for about 1 hour each. They were audio- recorded and transcribed. After transcribing the recorded data in the researcher’s private

70 computer, she has retained the data in a safely locked device in password-protected locked files on a computer, which only the researcher has access to. In addition, the researcher collected data (field notes) through non-participant observations of several physical education classes of each teacher for triangulation purposes, which did not add additional time to teachers’ normal schedules. More specifically, the researcher observed three classes per teacher (18 classes total) with brief 5-minute conversations with the teachers before and after the classes. All field notes written by the researcher based on the data are being stored in the researcher’s private computer locked file and in a backup file with all of the data saved. In order to protect the participants’ privacy, the researcher has used pseudonyms in all written reports.

In all, the study involved 12 female secondary school students who volunteered to take the demographic questionnaire and participate in semi-structured interviews after providing parental consent and student assent to participate in the study. To be more specific, the researcher emailed the parental consent form to the parents of the students directly, and they were asked to email the form back within one week if they were willing to allow their student to participate in the study. The researcher then emailed the student assent form and demographic questionnaires to the students whose parents gave parental consent for them to participate in the study voluntarily. The students were asked to email them back to the researcher within one week. The researcher deleted the emails from the Internet after downloading the files and saving them in a safely locked device in password-protected locked files on a computer, which only the researcher has access to.

All analytical notes written by the researcher based on the data are being stored in the

71 researcher’s private computer locked file. Data from semi-structured interviews have been analyzed. De-identified data will be retained after study completion for a period of at least five years per the policies of The Ohio State University’s Office of Responsible

Research.

In total, teachers invested approximately 4 hours and 40 minutes in the study: 10 minutes for the demographic questionnaire, 3 hours for the semi-structured interviews (1 hour each), 30 minutes total for conversations before and after the classroom observations (approximately 5 minutes before and 5 minutes after each of the 3 observations), and an additional 1 hour to member check the written summaries from the data. Students invested approximately 1 hour in the study: 10 minutes for the demographic questionnaire and 50 minutes for the semi-structured interviews.

Perceived Benefits and Risks

The researcher will now address the potential benefits and risks of this study which is focused on the beliefs of South Korean physical education teachers and students toward female physical activity. The researcher provided consent forms in Korean language for the teachers to sign before participating in the study (Appendices E-G).

These were provided in person at the school site, and then picked up one week later. The researcher also provided a parental consent form in Korean language for the female secondary students’ parents to sign to allow them to participate in the semi-structured interviews. There was also an assent form in Korean language provided for the students to sign individually if they chose to participate in the study. The researcher email the parental consent and student assent forms to the students directly, and they were asked to

72 email the forms back within one week if they wanted to participate in the study. The researcher then emailed the demographic questionnaires to the students who submitted the parental consent and student assent forms. The students emailed them back to the researcher within one week. The researcher deleted the emails from the Internet after downloading the files and saving them in a safely locked device in password-protected locked files on a computer which only the researcher can have access to. In each of these consent and assent forms, the purpose of the study, the research methods (open-ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and observations), and perceived risks and benefits were explained clearly in Korean language. The consent and assent forms also emphasized that the study is confidential and voluntary. Teachers and students could decide to participate if they chose, and if they decided not to, it would have no negative effect on them. They could also choose to participate, and later decide they did not want to continue. In order to protect the participants’ privacy, the researcher used pseudonyms in all written reports.

Minimal risk was perceived for this study. If participants had negative experiences in physical education, then the questions in the semi-structured interviews may have brought some discomfort to some students. However, this discomfort was minimized by careful wording of the interview guide, as well as assuring the participants of the anonymity of the data. In addition, since everything was submitted directly to the researcher by email, this protected students’ privacy which minimized concern they may have had regarding their participation influencing their relationship with their teachers.

Both teachers and students may indirectly have benefited from their involvement in this study because they can have the chance to reflect on their beliefs and experiences regarding female physical activity participation. Through this reflection, they may re- evaluate some of their beliefs. In addition, this study may provide valuable knowledge for educators on how to promote more engagement for female students in their physical education classes.

Data Analysis

The data collected from the teacher and student demographic questionnaires, semi-structured teacher and student interviews, and non-participant classroom observations were analyzed inductively and deductively through transcribing, translating, and then coding the data by categorizing it into themes that emerge. More specifically, the researcher prepared the interview data for analysis by transcribing and translating the audio-taped interviews. The data was translated from Korean to English language utilizing a cross-cultural translation technique (Banville et al., 2000) to ensure higher cultural relevance and trustworthiness of the data. The semi-structured interviews were coded and thematized potentially leading to recurrent themes drawing from a thematic analysis approach. With thematic analysis, researchers reduce and analyze the data by segmenting, categorizing, and summarizing it to represent the most significant concepts in the data set. It is a strategy focused on description and categorization where researchers search for patterns across the data set. It is important that the themes are distinct from one another, and researchers must provide textual examples of the themes

(Given, 2008).

More specifically, the researcher used the theoretical framework TpB to guide the coding of the interview data. Each of the teacher’ and students’ utterances were analyzed, and when appropriate, identified as reflecting attitude toward the behavior (positive or negative), subjective norms, or perceived behavioral control (easy or difficult), as illustrated in Appendices H and I (Tables H.1 and I.1). The observation fieldnotes, which included an objective running record of what teachers and students did during the class session and subjective comments noting questions and connections to the theoretical framework, were used to triangulate the data. These fieldnotes provided additional insight into the actual behavior of the teachers and students, as shown in Appendix J (Table J.1).

For instance, the researcher observed students’ avoidance strategies (e.g., going to the back of the line, changing partners, etc.) and teachers’ instructional practices (e.g., consistently asking male students only to demonstrate tasks and set-up equipment). In this way, the researcher was able to see how teachers’ and students’ behavior was similar to and different from what they shared in their interviews.

Researcher Subjectivity

This study was conducted by a researcher who was an elite athlete and has over ten years of experience as a secondary school physical education teacher and department chair in South Korea. The researcher had positive experiences with PE and competitive sports as an adolescent, and PA has played an ongoing central role in her life. Thus, she strongly believes in the holistic benefits of a physically active lifestyle. Accordingly, the researcher believes that girls should be more physically active and is committed to advocating for greater gender equity in physical education.

Based on the researcher’s ideological and philosophical beliefs, she is committed to social justice in physical education. She believes that power operates in the physical education environment in complex ways, which creates dominant and subordinate groups. Thus, she is concerned with the alienation and marginalization of students in physical education, which can exacerbate students’ resistance toward physical activity.

Therefore, she claims that physical educators have a responsibility to advocate for students’ rights to holistic physical development because the purpose of physical education is to foster all students’ physical literacy and lifelong enjoyment of physical activity. Moreover, the researcher believes that it is not enough for physical education to aim for equality because the same is not always fair. Instead, physical educators should strive for equity because sometimes providing different opportunities for students can actually bring more fairness. For example, physical educators should not focus on providing the same type and amount of opportunity for students to learn because then they may lose sight of their purpose of learning. Instead, they should focus on the quality of the opportunity they provide for students individually to accomplish their learning goals. Primarily, the researcher is passionate about women’s rights. Historically, most societies worldwide have been patriarchal, so education systems are largely male- dominated. This is especially true in the field of physical education where the teacher behavior, language, curriculum, environment, evaluation system, and pedagogy generally favor male students and exclude females. Therefore, the researcher wants to engage in research and teaching in physical education that promotes greater social justice and

76 gender equity. Importantly, the researcher is being transparent about her own ideologies that inform her research and seek to recognize how her biases inform the study.

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness is the criteria used for judging the rigor, credibility, and quality of qualitative inquiry. To avoid study bias, some important measures have been taken.

First of all, to establish trustworthiness and credibility, rich data was collected by gathering data on the beliefs of both teachers and students and later using these data for data triangulation purposes, which allows for cross-checking of information. Second, using data from the demographic questionnaires, semi-structured interviews with the teachers and students, and field notes from classroom observations, the researcher conducted data triangulation. Triangulation is a common procedure used to establish validity in qualitative inquiries (Merriam, 2009).

In addition, to increase trustworthiness of the findings, the researcher utilized member checking with the teacher participants of the study to enable them to check and clarify their comments (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). After analyzing and summarizing the findings from their demographic questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations, the researcher provided participants the Korean interview transcripts. This helps establish trust that the findings are a true representation of the participants’ voices (Petty et al.,

2012b). Lastly, the researcher used peer debriefing, which means that a third party familiar with the research but not directly involved in the study checked the analysis and gave feedback to the researcher throughout the process (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). More specifically, the researcher shared her findings and interpretations with a former

77 colleague in South Korea who is familiar with the PE system through weekly video chat throughout the data analysis process.

Chapter 4: Findings

In this chapter, the researcher first presents: (a) a general overview of South

Korean PE system, (b) a summary of the teachers’ profiles and units of analysis, (c) demographic results, and then (d) comprehensive articulations of the profiles of teachers and their female students. In the latter half of the chapter, the researcher presents the qualitative (thematic) findings gleaned from the face-to-face interviews with the teachers and students as well as her field notes generated from on-site observations.

General Overview of South Korean PE System

In contrast to the U.S., education in South Korea is centralized and governed at the national level by the Korean Ministry of Education (2015). Education is extremely prioritized in South Korean society, and South Korean parents are known to have exceptionally high commitment to their children’s education (Lee & Cho, 2014). In fact,

South Korea has received international praise for both its educational system and ranks very highly internationally for its quality of education with high rankings in almost all measures of national education (Lee & Cho, 2014). Korea public school system includes elementary schools (Grades 1-6), middle schools (Grades 7-9), and high schools (Grades

10-12).

Since education is highly valued in South Korea, it is also known to be extremely competitive both for students and those seeking to become public school teachers.

According to Lee and Choi (2011), “In South Korea, a teaching job is extremely

competitive to secure and highly attractive due to the securing it provides and the respect that traditionally accompanies this position” (p. 238). Thus, it is very challenging to get accepted into a teacher education program. Physical Education Teacher Education

(PETE) programs only admit students with both high academic and athletic excellence

(e.g., Korean SAT scores, an interview, and essay test, and as well as sports skills/fitness test). In fact, “because teaching PE is a highly competitive job, PETE candidates tend to have higher GPAs and SAT scores than other sport- or exercise-related majors in the kinesiology department” (Lee & Choi, 2011, p. 238). PETE programs are a minimum of four years long, including training in subject matter expertise and pedagogy. In contrast to U.S. PETE curriculum, South Korean PETE programs heavily emphasize activity content courses (e.g., high knowledge and ability in a wide range of specific sports) with less PE pedagogy and student teaching opportunities than in the U.S. curricular models

(Lee & Choi, 2011). Physical skills tests are administered along with the completion of the degree requirements in order for teacher candidates to graduate.

When students graduate from a PETE program in South Korea, they receive a teaching certification, and they receive a 7th-12th grade certification to teach at the secondary school level. However, they cannot seek employment in a public school unless they score within the top bracket of the National Teacher Employment Test, which is offered once a year only. This is an extremely competitive test, which “includes subject matter content and pedagogical knowledge, essay, and physical skill competency tests in addition to an interview and teaching performance evaluation” (p. 250). Because public school teachers are highly respected and have strong financial security in South Korean society, becoming a PE teacher is highly competitive and many individuals want to strive

for this position (Lee & Choi, 2011). However, in reality, the number of individuals who actually get jobs as PE teachers after they graduate is very low compared to the U.S. teacher workforce market. For example, in 2010, only 1 out of 35 teacher candidates passed the test to secure jobs as PE teachers in Seoul, the capital of South Korea (Seoul

Metropolitan Office of Education, 2010). Passing this test is the final screening, and those who pass the exam are hired, unlike the U.S. system where teacher candidates must apply for teaching jobs after graduation.

The PE curriculum in South Korea was first established in 1954 after the Korean

War ended by the Korean Ministry of Education. Since then, it has gone through seven reforms every six to eight years. At first, the PE curriculum was focused on “vigorous physical training for the sake of youth to strengthen the national military capacity” (Lee

& Cho, 2014, p. 526). Later, the curriculum shifted to a focus on health education, movement education, and physical fitness. South Korean PE curriculum has been continuously shaped by trends in the U.S. education system, so the reforms often reflect changes in North American schools. In the latest reform in South Korea, which was implemented in 2001 and updated in 2006, the PE curriculum shifted to a more differentiated curriculum, giving PE teachers greater independence and freedom to adapt their teaching to respond to their students and their specific learning environment (Lee &

Cho, 2014).

To provide a brief introduction to PE in South Korea, PE is required from 1st to

10th grade and then becomes an elective in 11th and 12th grade (Lee & Cho, 2014).

According to the Korean Ministry of Education (2015), in middle school (Grades 7-9), students are supposed to have at least 272 hours during these three years. During 7th and

8th grade, they attend PE classes three times a week for 45 minutes each time. They also should select a sports club to join once a week. In 9th grade, they attend PE twice a week and a sports club twice a week, which increases their level of freedom. These sports clubs are offered during the school day to increase students’ PA by allowing them to choose sports activities based on their preferences. Students are required to participate in sports clubs for an additional 136 hours across their three years. These sports clubs range from leisure activities to more intense competitive sports; they are sometimes taught by PE teachers and sometimes taught by outside instructors. (They are not considered components of the PE curriculum by teachers and students, so they are not included in the focus of the present study.) In high school, PE is only required in 10th grade, and students attend PE twice a week for 50 minutes each, but because of the high demands to prepare students for the Korean SAT exam, PE teachers often yield their class time to other school subjects so that students can have additional study time (Lee & Cho, 2014).

Despite the fact that PE is mandatory, from 1st to 10th grade, very few students receive their recommended PE time (Lee & Cho, 2014).

Moreover, according to the Korean Ministry of Education (2015), students in

Grades 7-10 should have PE experiences in five categories: (a) health (e.g., nutrition); (b) challenge (adventure and outdoor education); (c) competition (e.g., traditional team sports); (d) expression (e.g., dance); and (e) safety (e.g., CPR) across these three years.

However, in reality, most students do not receive teaching across all five categories because these are simply recommendations and not requirements. Thus, most teachers emphasize the content they are most familiar with, such as competition. This lack of accountability often leads to imbalance in the PE curriculum. Moreover, in the South

Korean public-school system, PE teachers are required to rotate to a new school every five years, and teachers often rotate more frequently than this for personal or professional reasons. Although the Korean government has this system to try to promote higher quality teaching and disrupt hierarchies within schools, it can also stop the continuity of teaching and learning. There is concern that the current South Korean public education system, as well as students’ parents, have stressed academic rigor without promoting students holistic well-being enough. This has led to low fitness levels and declining mental health (e.g., anxiety, depression, suicide) among secondary school students (Lee

& Cho, 2014). On a positive note, PE teachers in South Korea can play a significant role in changing this trend by promoting high PA engagement of their students.

Summary of Teachers’ Profiles

The six-physical education (PE) teachers in this study all taught in the same region an hour south of Seoul, the capital city of South Korea. Four of the teachers taught at different high schools, and two of the teachers taught at different middle schools. The high schools included one single-gender girls’ school, and three mixed-gender schools.

The middle schools were both mixed-gender. However, within the mixed-gender schools, many of the teachers still chose to do single-gender physical activities in their PE classes.

For this study, each teacher identified a female student with high physical activity (PA) and a second female student with low PA in their PE classes; and they became the focal student participants. The findings are presented for each teacher and her or his students in accord with the research questions articulated below and situated in the three components of theory of planned behavior (TpB) theoretical framework, which are: (a) attitude toward the behavior, (b) social norms, and (c) behavioral control.

1. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe about their female

students’ physical activity participation in their classes?

2. What barriers, if any, do South Korean physical education teachers believe

impact female students’ physical activity participation in their classes?

3. Do teachers believe students’ physical activity participation in school physical

education differ as a function of gender? If so, how?

4. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe will motivate female

students to be more engaged in their physical education classes?

5. What do South Korean female secondary students believe about their physical

education classes?

6. What barriers, if any, do South Korean female secondary students believe

impact girls’ physical activity participation in physical education classes?

7. Do female secondary students believe girls’ physical activity participation in

school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how?

8. Do South Korean female secondary students believe that girls can be motivated

to engage more in their physical education classes? If so, how?

Units of Analysis

The units of analysis for this study were: (a) PE teachers, (b) two of their female secondary school students (one with high and one with low PA), and (c) the school contexts. Each unit will now be briefly introduced, and more details of each participant will be provided in the following sections.

Unit 1. Hyunjae, a male PE teacher aged 32, had five years of experience at the time of the study: including two years at the middle school level and three years at the

high school level. He was teaching first-year students (10th grade) PE classes with an average of 30 students per class, and each class met two times a week for 50 minutes per day. Hyunjae identified Haena, a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with high PA, and Heeyoung, also a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with low PA. The school context was Jaesung High School, a mixed-gender high school, in a low-income community. Hyunjae shared that the school was considered low- achieving and most parents held blue-collar jobs. He also explained that most students planned to get jobs directly out of high school rather than going to university.

Unit 2. Hosung, a male PE teacher aged 33, had six years of experience at the time of the study: three years at the middle school level and three years at the high school level. He was teaching first-year students (10th grade) PE classes with an average of 30 students per class, and each class met two times a week for 50 minutes per day. Hosung identified Hyorin, a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with low PA, and Hyobin, also a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with high PA, and. The school context was Cheonggu High School, a mixed-gender high school, in a high socio-economic community. Hosung shared that the school was considered high- achieving and had excellent facilities and resources. He also explained that students’ parents generally had professional careers and were heavily involved in their students’ academics with the goal for them to get admitted into the top universities in the country.

Unit 3. Sangkyu, a male PE teacher aged 39, had 13 years of experience at the time of the study: five years at the middle school level and eight years at the high school level. He was teaching first-year students (10th grade) PE classes with an average of 28 students per class, and each class met two times a week for 50 minutes per day. Sangkyu

identified Sanghee, a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with high PA, and Seoyoung, also a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with low PA.

The school context was Ojong High School, a mixed-gender high school, which was located in an upper-middle class community. Sangkyu shared that the students’ parents made stable incomes with a wide range of jobs. Also, he explained that students had diverse academic and career goals: some intended to go into vocational schools after graduation, whereas others hoped to be competitive to get into good universities.

Unit 4. Eunjoo, a female PE teacher aged 31, had 7 years of experience at the time of the study: four years at the middle school level and three years at the high school level. She was teaching first-year students (10th grade) PE classes with an average of 28 students per class, and each class met two times a week for 50 minutes per day. Eunjoo identified Eunyoung, a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with low PA, and Euna, also a 16-year-old female high school student, as a student with high PA. The school context was Joosoo Women’s High School, an all-females high school, which was located in a middle-class community. Eunjoo described the school as very high achieving, and students’ parents had stable incomes and high academic goals for their daughters. She also shared that the school had a strong record of graduates getting admitted into the most elite universities and a tradition of producing high female leaders in society.

Unit 5. Inseol, a female PE teacher aged 44, had 16 years of experience at the time of the study: six years at the middle school level and ten years at the high school level. She was teaching 7th, 8th, and 9th grade PE classes with an average of 30 students per class, and each class met three times a week for 45 minutes per day. Inseol identified

Inhye, a 13-year-old female second-year middle school student (7th grade), as a student with high PA, and Injoo, also a 13-year-old female second-year middle school student

(7th grade), as a student with low PA The school context was Seoljang Middle School, a mixed-gender middle school (Grades 7, 8, and 9), which was in the suburbs of a big city in middle-class community. Inseol described the school as less academically competitive because the community had fewer afterschool academies than its neighboring cities.

Unit 6. Wongil, a male PE teacher aged 31, had 5 years of experience at the time of the study, all at the middle school level. He was teaching 7th, 8th, and 9th grade PE classes with an average of 28 students per class, and each class met three times a week for 45 minutes per day. Wongil identified Wonjin, a 13-year-old female first-year middle school student (7th grade), as a student with low PA, and Wonae, also a 13-year-old female first-year middle school student (7th grade), as a student with high PA. The school context was Wonbong Middle School, a mixed-gender middle school, which was located in a very high socio-economic community. Wongil shared that students’ parents were very highly educated, and the community had extensive sports facilities and afterschool academics.

Demographic Questionnaire Results

All of the teacher and student participants completed demographic questionnaires before the interviews were conducted. The results of the demographic questionnaires are summarized below. Table 4.1 displays the teacher profiles, including their gender, age, current teaching context, prior teaching experience, teaching load, and the gender distribution within their classes and class activities. The teachers’ ages ranged from 31 to

44 years old. They had between five and 16 years of teaching experience. All but one of

the teachers had taught at both the middle and high school levels. They taught between three to four PE classes per day with an average of 28 to 30 students per class. At all of the mixed gender schools the teachers reported having slightly more male students than female students in their PE classes and indicated that they did both mixed-gender and single-gender activities in their classes.

Table 4.2 displays the student profiles, including their age, current school context, year in school, their PA outside of school both with their family and friends, including the type and frequency. The high school female students were all 17 years old and in their first year (10th grade). They attended three PE classes per week for 50 minutes each. All of them indicated that they did some PA outside of school with their family and/or friends but with very different amounts and activities. The middle school female students were all 13 years old and in their second year (7th grade). They also attended three PE classes per week for 45 minutes each. All of them stated that they did some PA outside of school with their family and/or friends, but again the amount and activities varied widely.

Table 4.1 Teacher Profiles

e students estudents

gender activities in PE PE activitiesin gender

PE Teacher PE Gender Age Currentcontext teaching site School Yearsof experience PE teaching level atYearsthe MS of experience atlevel Yearsthe HS of experience Average classes of PE number per taught day Average classes of PE number per taught week AveragePE of per students number class Averageof mal number perclass PE Averageof female number students perclass PE %of mixed class %of single class Hyunjae M 33 HS Jaesung High School 5 2 3 3.5 16 30 17 13 60% 40% Hosung M 33 HS Cheonggu High School 6 3 3 3.5 16 30 18 12 50% 50% Sangkyu M 39 HS Ojong High School 13 5 8 3 15 28 16 12 30% 70% Eunjoo F 31 HS Joosoo Women’s High School 7 4 3 3 15 29 0 29 0% 100% Inseol F 44 MS Seoljang Middle School 16 6 10 3.5 19 30 17 13 40% 60% Wongil M 31 MS Wonbong Middle School 5 5 0 4 19 28 15 13 60% 40% Note. F = Female; M = Male; HS = High school; MS = Middle school

Table 4.2 Female Student Profiles

FemaleStudent Teacher PE Low/HighPA Age level School Yearschool in classes PE attended perweek of outside PA family schoolwith Frequencyweek per of Kind exercise member Family of outside PA friends schoolwith Frequencyweek per of Kind exercise Haena Hyunjae high 16 HS 1 2 Y 2-3 basketball, father Y almost weight training soccer everyday Heeyoung Hyunjae low 16 HS 1 2 N ------Y 2-3 swimming, bowling Hyobin Hosung high 16 HS 1 2 Y 1-2 badminton, mother, Y 3 dance walking brother Hyorin Hosung low 16 HS 1 2 some- every other badminton mother Y 1-2 dance times week Sanghee Sangkyu high 16 HS 1 2 not once a random father Y sometimes depends on my really month friends and my mood Seoyoung Sangkyu low 16 HS 1 2 N ------rarely 1-2x a walking, bowling month Eunae Eunjoo high 16 HS 1 2 Y 3 many sports, brother Y 2 badminton, badminton bowling, many games Eunyoung Eunjoo low 16 HS 1 2 Y every other walking mother Y 1 walking week Inhye Inseol high 13 MS 1 3 Y 2-3 walking, father, Y 2-3 badminton, dance brother table-tennis Injoo Inseol low 13 MS 1 3 Y 1-2 walking all Y Some- whatever my together times friends want Wonae Wongil high 13 MS 1 3 Y almost taekwon-do, father Y 2-3 taekwon-do, daily many sports badminton Wonjin Wongil low 13 MS 1 3 N ------Y 2 walking, badminton Note. HS = High school; MS = Middle school; Y = Yes; N = No

Hyunjae (PE Teacher)

Hyunjae, a male PE teacher aged 32, had five years of experience at the time of the study; that is, he had taught at the middle school level for two years, and the high school level for three years. He was currently employed at a mixed-gender high school where he taught 10th grade (first-year) students. Students attended PE for 50 minutes, two times a week. He taught 16 PE classes per week for an average of 3.5 classes per day. He said he had an average of 30 students in each class, with approximately 17 males and 13 females in each one. His classes were mixed-gender. He said that females and males participated in the same activity together for 60% of the class time, and 40% of the time they were in separate activities with their same gender.

An overview of Hyunjae’s beliefs about girls’ physical activity is presented in the following section. The first part explores his beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE classes (Research Questions

[RQs] 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Hyunjae’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes

(RQs 2 and 4).

Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Across Hyunjae’s interviews, he expressed that female students generally had high PA in his PE classes, and he communicated a very positive attitude toward teaching them. Moreover, Hyunjae continuously resisted the notion that students’ PA differed as a function of their gender. He explained,

Over my five years of experience as a PE teacher, among the girls, there are students with high PA and low PA, and also boys with high PA and low PA…I think 100% this is not based on biological sex. (Interview 1)

He emphasized students’ effort, attitude, and character as most important for their PA, not their physical ability:

I really don’t want to divide students into boys and girls, but the clear thing is it doesn’t matter boys or girls, when they have passion and have a better attitude toward their academics, then their physical activity is high. I think effort is the key. (Interview 1).

Hyunjae’s belief was that students’ general attitude toward their academics shaped their engagement in PE class. In other words,

if students want to get a high GPA and want to put their heart in school, then they put their effort in physical education, rather than a matter related to their gender. For example, a student who has high participation in English class, I highly expect that same student can have high participation in PE too. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

Similarly, when students did not participate well in his PE class, he also assumed it was not based on gender, but instead, related to their overall effort in school:

Not only girls, I always think about students who do not participate well. I wonder why they don’t participate. But again, I don’t think this is based on gender. When they don’t want to participate in my class, then I assume they don’t participate well in other classes too. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

He emphasized in his interview that “it’s students’ attitude and character that relates most to their participation” (Interview 1).

Hyunjae did indicate that he saw gender differences in students’ physical ability, but he valued students’ effort as more important for their engagement in PE. He explained that when he first started teaching, he thought boys were better at PE because they had higher physical ability: “I can’t say this is true for all sports, but on average, if we focus on physical ability, boys are better than girls. I think most people will agree with me” (Interview 3). However, his perspective changed after he started teaching and seeing how students’ effort made the most difference: “I realized that PE is not only based on physical ability. Physical ability and participation are different parts, so I

assume that girls also have high possibility to have high physical ability because their participation can be high” (Interview 1). He challenged the common assumption that boys have higher participation in PE classes. He raised the question: “Isn’t it our blind spot because a few boys are very good at sports, so we just assume that boys have high participation? But on average, if we calculate, at least in my experience, it’s not true”

(Interview 1).

His view of female and male students’ PA engagement in his PE classes seemed to be related to his understanding of the purpose of PE. He explained that “participation is more important than physical ability” (Interview 1), and “building physical ability is only part of PE” (Interview 3). Moreover, he explained: “for me, ALT-PE is important, but this does not mean that all students should achieve positive results or should have high physical ability, because ALT-PE includes students’ failed opportunities too”

(Interview 1). He emphasized that “gender is not an issue in PE because PE’s purpose is not only to build student’ physical ability but also their sportsmanship” (Interview 3).

He explained that “through sports and PE, I hope students can have ability to solve problems, even in their lives” (Interview 1). He used an example from a class activity:

Even in simple tasks, like hitting the target with a flying disk, students get easily frustrated when they miss the target. Then I challenge students to be patient. Through these small actions, I believe this is related to building patience. I mean, how much patience do we need in our lives? (Interview 1)

He also saw value in using competitive sports in PE class because he felt students can learn even through negative experiences. He explained,

when we compete with others, it can become too competitive and sometimes students fight and have jealousy. Students can have many experiences through this. But my point is these experiences are also important parts of students’ learning. Without these experiences, how can students know that these can be harmful for them? So, we shouldn’t deny students these opportunities. Instead, we should provide them the opportunity to learn what can be bad about

competition, then they can learn how to engage more positively. I believe that there are pros and cons about competitive sports. But the cons have potential to become pros. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

In other words, from his perspective, gender is not an issue in PE because the primary purpose of PE is not about building physical ability, but instead, to build PA and character.

Since Hyunjae had experience teaching at the both the middle and high school levels, he also shared some of his insights on the difference in students’ PA engagement in PE classes. He again explained, “I believe it is not based on gender issues about participation rate; students’ maturity influences their participation so much” (Interview

2). In his experience, he observed that middle school females had lower participation rates in PE than high school females. In his own words:

Basically, we don’t need to divide into two categories like male and female, but when students have maturity, they know PE is important so they participate in PE more than before. Basically, they think it is important because they know that PA will help their body condition and health. (Interview 2)

Moreover, he explained that since there is higher academic pressure in high school, students put more effort in PE because “they believe it will build their stamina, so they think it will help them be more successful in their studies” (Interview 2).

Overall, Hyunjae communicated high confidence and enjoyment in teaching female students. He seemed to like teaching females more than males because he thought their attitudes were better. He also shared that he highly valued building rapport and relationships with students and thought this was easier to do with his female students. Hyunjae felt that female students cared more about their relationship with their teachers than male students, and this high value for relationships helped his teaching and

their learning: “I think the reason why I enjoy girls is I also have the same value as them” (Interview 2). He explained,

For me, ironically, compared to boys, girls are much better because when I show care for girls, they usually care about my class. But boys, even if I care for them, some students care about my class, but some male students continue not to care. I guess I value building relationships so much with students, so that’s why teaching girls is easier for me than boys. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

He also felt the female students had better behavior in class which gave him a more positive feeling toward teaching them:

Let me be honest, although I want to be objective and fair to both boys and girls, I feel girls follow and agree with me more than boys, so I naturally feel close to girls more than boys. So, I usually enjoy girls more, which could lead me to give girls more feedback and put my effort even more to teach them than boys unconsciously. (Hyunjae, Interview 2)

Across his three observations, Hyunjae seemed to give female students’ more verbal and non-verbal feedback, such as smiling often, making jokes, and complimenting their high effort, as well as giving them high-fives and thumbs up. On the other hand, he had a more serious tone and was less friendly with the male students. His feedback was usually more technical and focused on their physical performance. He was also more critical of the male students when they did not follow directions or participate in his tasks, but he often let the female students rest or kindly encouraged them when they did not want to join an activity.

Therefore, although Hyunjae resisted the notion of gender differences in PA, there was still evidence of gender stereotyping and generalizing of female and male students in his language and behavior. For example, he assumed that “girls generally care more about their GPAs than boys” (Interview 2), so he claimed this led to their higher participation in PE than male students. He also generalized male students saying that they had more physical ability and opportunity to practice sports. He also assumed

they all wanted to “show off” to one another rather than include one another (Interview

1). Also, in observing his classes, only the boys were elected by their peers to be leaders, such as setting up equipment, leading all class warm-ups, and cool-downs. Also, he explained that he partnered female and male students sometimes because “girls often need help. I’m only one person, so I can’t manage and teach all girls” (Interview 3). This was based on his assumption that male students had higher physical ability than females.

For example, he explained, “If I made table tennis partners only among girls, how many times could they actually rally? Obviously, boys’ skills are higher than girls, so it would be better to help girls to have at least a taste of rallying” (Interview 3). Yet, in observing

Hyunjae’s class, when the students were in mixed-gender teams for table tennis, the male students sometimes changed partners when the teacher was not looking because they wanted to play with their friends. This often left the female students standing without partners while the teacher scolded the male students for not following his directions (Observation 3). In a follow-up interview, Hyunjae admitted that although he

“just wanted to help girls and believed that improving their skills might be helpful to engage more in PE,” it was possible that this situation could have made the girls feel more “uncomfortable” and “ashamed” because they received negative attention when a male classmate did not want to play with them (Interview 3).

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

In each of Hyunjae’s interviews he expressed difficulty figuring out what PE curriculum was best for his students and applying his knowledge of PE to his actual teaching practices. First of all, Hyunjae indicated that he felt trapped sometimes because students often resisted both traditional PE curriculum and new physical activities. On the

one hand, he communicated that he believed students were tired of traditional sports: “I think students don’t like traditional sports especially they were used it so much when they were in elementary and middle school” (Interview 2). He explained that as a student he was also used to traditional PE curriculum, but he recalled, “I was always wondering why we needed to learn the same things over and over” (Interview 3). After going to college and majoring in PETE, he felt more strongly that he wanted to move away from traditional PE curriculum:

I didn’t like to listen to people’s complaints and feel them looking down on PE. Many of my friends said their PE teachers just provided one ball and took the whole time in their classes just playing with it. I didn’t want to be that kind of teacher. (Hyunjae, Interview 3)

He shared that he wanted to “provide not only traditional sports and competitive sports, but also new sports like flying disc, bowling, target sports, pocketball, etc.” (Interview

2). Hyunjae explained further, “The reason why I wanted to provide this is students enjoy these sports outside of school. I want to teach students useful sports in their lives”

(Interview 2). Even though he expected students to enjoy new PE curriculum, he admitted that it was “not easy to teach new sports” (Interview 3). He had more experience with traditional sports both as a student and in his PETE program, and he clarified that students often resisted learning something that was unfamiliar to them, so it was hard to make changes.

Moreover, Hyunjae felt it was difficult to apply what he learned in his PETE program to his real teaching setting. He explained,

in my college, I learned so many theories, and especially I needed to pass the teacher’s exam to become a secondary teacher, but I realized that there is too much gap between teacher’s theories and the real teaching in PE. (Interview 3)

He said he had high goals for his classes because he wanted to apply what he learned in his PETE program to teach his students and make their experience better than when he was a student. However, he was disappointed by his results:

Unfortunately, I couldn’t make my goal even halfway….I repeat the same curriculum because when I provide various programs for them, they don’t want to learn them, especially in the beginning. They show a lot of frustration, so I just go back to the traditional curriculum. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

For this reason, he felt tension between his beliefs and his practices:

I believe I should respect what students want and match their satisfaction. I try to modify the curriculum to make it more ideal by providing more programs that are student-centered, but in reality, it’s hard. There are many students with misbehavior. (Interview 1)

Across his interviews, Hyunjae repeatedly shared the difficulty he had creating his curriculum and implementing it effectively. He also mentioned several times that he felt frustrated and a little insecure due to the gap between his PETE training and his experiences teaching. In his own words,

What we learned and our actual stadium is different. I already know various programs are really important for students’ development, but in reality, it is really hard to make various programs. I learned what I should teach during college, but when I became a teacher, it is really not easy to apply them to real settings. I think this is probably my ability problem. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

He also felt that “PE teachers’ standard is too low for their students” because “many teachers let students just sit on the bench because they were used to do that, but as you know, they know many theories and various curriculum” (Interview 3). Hyunjae repeatedly expressed that “many PE teachers, especially current teachers, have high knowledge and teaching skills through training and from the teacher’s exam, but PE still has not been changing” (Interview 3).

Hyunjae also expressed a strong preference for single-gender PE class settings because he felt they were “better for everyone” since they led to “much higher

participation and engagement” (Interview 1). In particular, when he taught all female students, he felt their PA was much higher because “they invite and include their peers who are not good at sports” (Interview 1). In his opinion, there were noticeable gender differences:

I think the girls are much better at being inclusive. The boys are not. They just want to show their ability. The girls prefer to help others who are not good at sports, so this also helps the whole class to be engaged. (Interview 1)

Although he favored teaching PE in single-gender settings, when observing his classes, all activities were mixed-gender. In a follow-up interview, he explained that it was complicated to manage single-gender activities and coordinate schedules with the other teachers, so he usually had to do mixed-gender activities (Interview 2). He felt the mixed-gender setting was a barrier for him because it was hard to balance giving individual feedback and paying attention to the whole group.

In Hyunjae’s interviews he also shared the barriers he believed prevented his female students from participating more in PE classes. In particular, he indicated that the girls who did not participate well usually complained about the weather and focused too much on their appearance. He explained, “when the weather is too hot or cold, they don’t like to be active; especially they don’t want to be sweaty because they do care about their appearance more than boys” (Interview 2). From his perspective, this was not an easy barrier to overcome: “I don’t think we can change this issue quickly especially our society is obsessed about beauty” (Interview 2). He explained that society’s notions of beauty were especially difficult in the PE setting because “most teen girls want to have white skin and be skinny, which are barriers in our field” (Interview 2). Although he believed that “the biggest barrier in PE class is girls too much care about appearance,” he shared that PE teachers could try to challenge female students’

assumptions of beauty by helping them to become “aware of a different side of beauty.

For example, students who have more muscles and tanned skin can be also beautiful”

(Interview 2).

Hyunjae also indicated that female students may have differences between their

PA inside and outside of school. In particular, he felt they may resist PA in PE because

“they want to be free but naturally they can’t be free in school because they need to follow the rules in school” (Interview 2). Outside of school, he assumed they could choose who they wanted to exercise with, but in school they usually did not choose their teams or partners. He felt this may impact their participation in PE because “peers are really important in adolescent season” (Interview 2). Hyunjae also shared about the importance of students’ leadership in PE class: “I think some students have high leadership and a positive attitude toward the class, then others follow. If not, then the opposite happens. Cooperation is really important in South Korea, particularly in PE”

(Interview 1). Although he stressed the importance of leadership and how it could influence the class in a positive or negative way, in his observations, he almost exclusively asked male students to assist him in class. For example, even when the equipment was not heavy, he usually asked male students to help set it up.

Hyunjae’s past experience working in an afterschool sports academy before becoming a PE teacher also shaped his view of his students and their PA. He explained that setting specific goals for students led to high engagement in PA regardless of their gender. More specifically, he shared,

So, when students had a specific goal, we didn’t have to think about their gender. Everyone worked hard. Boys and girls, everyone, engaged in our training system so well. I never thought girls were lower than boys, so I think if teachers can give students specific goals, particularly for females, it can be solved. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

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In general, Hyunjae’s main way of motivating all students was through building rapport and relationships with them. He claimed, “I think there is too much gap between students and teachers, so I think building relationships is important, at least more than people think” (Interview 3). By building relationships, he felt teachers could better align their curriculum and teaching with their students’ interests, which could motivate them to engage more in PA. However, he admitted this was not always easy to do. He explained: “In my experience, when I was not satisfied with my classes…then I couldn’t understand them…Students couldn’t trust me; I couldn’t trust them. Relationship is the main key in my classes. That is the biggest barrier for us” (Interview 1). Through communication and care, Hyunjae said he always tried to build a relationship with his students, especially those with low participation. He explained,

I ask him or her what is difficult for you, and why don’t you want to participate? Do you have some challenge in your life? Even personal things, I will ask. Then students usually put even better effort to participate in my class than before. (Hyunjae, Interview 1)

Although Hyunjae believed that positive teacher-student relationships could help students to have higher participation rates, he said he felt he was better at motivating female students than male students. He explained that he felt more comfortable communicating with female students, which he said was related to gender biases in

Korean society: “we have pressure that males should be males and females should be females, so as a man I think I’m not good at communicating with boys” (Interview 1).

He said he felt uncomfortable complimenting male students and explained, “That’s why sometimes I have conflict with boys much more than with the girls, ironically”

(Interview 1).

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Haena (Student with High PA)

Haena, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having high

PA in Hyunjae’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she exercised with her family 2-3 times per week. More specifically, she liked to play basketball and soccer with her father. Haena also said she did PA outside of school with her friends almost every day, in particular, weight training. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she wanted “to have a good shape and body like movie stars”.

An overview of Haena’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Haena’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Haena expressed high enjoyment in PA and a positive attitude toward her PE class because she felt confident playing sports. In particular, she said, “I really like soccer and futsal, so I usually play these sports in PE”. She explained that after finishing the class activities, the teacher usually let them do free play, and she always chose to play these sports with the boys. From Haena’s perspective, female and male students liked different types of PA activities, but she saw herself as the exception. Haena shared,

“I think I am number one as a girl, which makes me feel special. Even I can beat many boys”. Throughout her interview, she often communicated that she liked the attention

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and admiration she got from others for being a female who was good at traditionally

‘male’ sports. She explained,

Since elementary school, I think I was always the one person to play with boys. The reason why I like soccer and futsal is that I think most boys like these sports, so when I show them my skill, they respect me.

When students were practicing volleyball serves, it was observed that Haena was one of the only female students who chose to try serving from the baseline where most of the male students were serving, and they often stopped to watch her when she served

(Observation 2).

From Haena’s perspective, male students generally had higher physical ability than female students, and in her opinion, that is why they usually enjoyed PE more:

“Naturally boys are a little better than us. They run faster, jump higher, and have more power too”. She explained that her confidence in PA in PE was different if she was playing with male or female classmates: “With girls, I think I have 99% confidence, but with boys, maybe 70%”. Haena felt she was different from her female classmates because she said she never saw them play soccer and futsal. She said they “absolutely don’t like these sports…they don’t like movement because they are not good at playing these sports”. On the other hand, she thought they might like playing other sports like badminton.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Although Haena usually really enjoyed PE class, she said she did not like it when it was not active enough, such as flexibility activities or inside the classroom learning.

She really liked being active and was concerned, “If we just sit, we will gain weight and could be fat”. She believed the primary purpose of PE was to be physically active in

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order to be healthy and have a good appearance: “Most of the time, our teacher wants us to move and be active, which can help reduce our weight”. Thus, when the class activities were active, she felt motivated to participate in them, but when she thought they were too “inactive,” she lost interest. In addition, Haena said she did not like learning new sports because it was difficult for her and less fun. She explained,

Learning new sports is not easy. For example, I’m learning table tennis this semester, which makes me frustrated because it is my first time to learn this. I feel I’m behind others, so I just want to play soccer again.

This seemed related to the confidence and enjoyment she felt when she played familiar sports. She explained, “Maybe I want to play what I want. I already found my favorite sports, so why should I play different ones?”

Because Haena had higher physical ability than her female classmates, attention and praise from her peers and teacher gave her high motivation in PE class. She explained, “When I make a goal and my classmates cheer for me, that feels so good”. In

Haena’s case, praise from her former PE teachers influenced her experience in PE the most. In her own words,

I was good at sports since I was young, so PE teachers gave me lots of attention. Even they invited me to go to competitions and tournaments outside of school. Because of PE teachers’ attention and encouragement, I always want to put my effort in PE more and more.

However, Haena recognized that her female classmates had a very different experience in PE: “many of my classmates are not good at sports, so they just want to sit on the bench and cheer for others rather than move their bodies”. She believed that sports ability and peer groups were most important for female students’ PA in PE class: “When we feel close to someone in our class, then my peers usually want to participate in PE class more, but if we don’t have close friends, it is a little awkward”. Lastly, she

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recommended that PE teachers provide different levels and options for students in class.

She explained,

teachers usually create the same program for the whole group, but everyone has difference preferences. Not only boys versus girls. Even among girls, we are different. For me, I hated when the teacher put me on the cheerleading team at the beginning of the semester because I’m a girl. After I show my ability, they usually let me get out of there. They need to ask us what we like rather than just assume.

As this quote shows, Haena did not like it when teachers assumed what students would enjoy based on their gender because she felt she was often the exception.

Heeyoung (Student with Low PA)

Heeyoung, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having low PA in Hyunjae’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she did not exercise with her family. However, Heeyoung said she did PA outside of school with her friends 2-3 times per week, in particular, swimming and bowling. She explained that she exercised outside of school with her friends because she liked to hang out with them.

An overview of Heeyoung’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Heeyoung expressed a negative attitude toward PE and low confidence to perform well in PA. She explained, “It’s hard to participate in PE because I’m not good

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at sports”. She especially disliked taking fitness tests because they gave her “a lot of pressure and weren’t fun”. She explained, “As you know, since elementary school, we have 50m, long jump, long distance running, etc. Long distance running is my worst activity”. Although Heeyoung did not like PE, she admitted that it was valuable but insisted that testing was not necessary. In her own words, “I think it is quite important for our health, but I don’t think we need to do the fitness test each year”. Compared to her other classes, she said she could enjoy the social aspects of PE: “we normally just study in class when we come to school, but at least in PE class we can talk with our friends more and do some physical movement”. Heeyoung explained further, “We stay at our school a lot time, so I think it is important to have some physical activity even though I don’t like PE. If I didn’t have PE, I would probably not exercise at all”. Thus, even though she had a negative attitude toward PE because she felt she was not good at it, she still appreciated the opportunity to connect with her friends and believed that it was healthy for her to get exercise.

In terms of gender difference, Heeyoung believed that male students enjoyed PE much more than females: “They love everything, especially soccer”. She said that she thought gender impacted students’ PA in PE a lot. More specifically, she explained,

“Biologically boys are better than girls. I know a few girls are like boys, but mostly boys are better”. Heeyoung acknowledged that there were exceptions, but generally, she believed male students had more sports ability and liked PE more than female students.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated

(RQs 6&8)

Although Heeyoung generally disliked PE, she especially had a negative attitude toward outdoor PA. She explained, “I like indoor PE more because I hate the wind and

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sun. Especially during summertime, it is not easy to be active”. From her perspective, the weather was the biggest barrier to her PA. Heeyoung also strongly disliked having to change her clothes for PE class. She explained that the locker room was “too far” and

“super inconvenient”. Moreover, she shared, “I don’t want to take so much time to change my clothes. Not only me, many of my friends also complain about this, so we often put our sports clothes over our school uniforms”. She suggested that school should have the locker room closer to make it more comfortable for students.

In addition, Heeyoung shared that she liked PA outside of school more than inside of school because she felt less pressure to perform publicly in front of her peers.

She explained, “I don’t have high confidence in PE. That is why I hate it when the teacher asks me to do some performance in public”. She said her classmates did not tease her physical ability, but she still felt bad. More specifically she shared,

“Sometimes our PE teacher wants us do rotations, which means I need to show my physical ability in front of many others. I hate to do that. It makes me feel ashamed”.

Observation fieldnotes also supported her resistance to performing publicly because

Heeyoung lined up for a throwing accuracy test, but she kept moving to the back of the line so that she would not have to take her turn (Observation 1).

Outside of school she sometimes enjoyed PA with her friends: “That is different.

I can choose what I want at that time”. Her peers influenced her PA in PE class a lot:

“For me, when my close friends don’t come to school because of whatever reason, I don’t want to participate in PE. It is very uncomfortable, and I don’t know who I can play with”. She suggested that PE teachers should not push students to perform in public and let them choose who they play with more often. She explained, “maybe I like badminton, especially if the teacher lets us choose our partners, then I can enjoy it”.

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Overall, Heeyoung believed that her lack of sports ability was the main cause for her lack of PA in PE class. She did not want to imply it was her teacher’s fault:

Honestly, our PE teacher is really good. He always cares for us and talks with us. Probably, some part, is my own problem. I am just naturally not good at sports, which makes me have low motivation to participate in PE. I don’t think I can blame my teacher for everything.

As this quote shows, Heeyoung believed that even though her PE teacher was “really good,” she could not improve her ability in PE because she believed she was “naturally” not good at it.

Hosung (PE Teacher)

Hosung, a male PE teacher aged 33, had six years of experience at the time of the study; that is, he had taught at the middle school level for three years, and the high school level for three years. He was currently employed at a mixed-gender high school where he taught 10th grade (first-year) students. Students attended PE for 50 minutes, two times a week. He taught 16 PE classes per week for an average of 3.5 classes per day. He said he had an average of 30 students in each class, with approximately 18 males and 12 females in each one. His classes were mixed-gender, he said that females and males participated in the same activity together for 50% of the class time, and 50% of the time they were in separate activities with their same gender.

An overview of Hosung’s beliefs about girls’ physical activity is presented in the following section. The first part explores his beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research Questions 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Hosung’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’

PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research

Questions 2 and 4).

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Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Based on Hosung’s interviews, he expressed that female students had quite low

PA in his PE classes based on both their lack of effort and ability, and he shared that it was a struggle to motivate them, particularly when he first started teaching. First of all,

Hosung shared that his high passion toward teaching PE was shaped by his own love for sports and enjoyment of PE as a student. He said,

since I was really young, I was really good at sports and liked PE…. I really wanted to become a PE teacher, so I think I have put my effort in my classes as much as I can since becoming a teacher. (Hosung, Interview 1)

Hosung explained that as a student he went to an all-men’s middle school and high school and graduated from a teachers’ university, in which everyone in his program wanted to become PE teachers. Because of his personal background, he said, “I assumed everyone liked PE” (Interview 3), and he admitted that this made it hard for him to understand his female students’ resistance when he first started teaching. In particular, he shared,

I didn’t think deeply about girls’ PA until I became a PE teacher. That’s why it was hard to accept that many girls didn’t want to engage in PE, and it was hard to teach them when they didn’t want to move. (Hosung, Interview 1)

He later shared, “Honestly, I had culture shock because I didn’t expect that many girls wouldn’t want to participate in PE” (Interview 3). Moreover, he said he “struggled for a while with girls’ PA because [he] approached boys and girls with a similar curriculum, which was not working” (Interview 1). However, after a while, he said he “figured out

‘why’ and ‘how’” and it became “much better than before” (Interview 3). He shared,

I’m confident to teach girls now. Actually, I think I have high physical skills and ability, which matters as a PE teacher. Students usually respect me when I demonstrate my high skills. I can’t say all girls have achieved the goal that they need to achieve as high school students, but I’m sure they have improved their skills more than before. (Hosung, Interview 1)

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Thus, Hosung’s positive attitude toward teaching PE was shaped by his own positive experiences with sports and PE, and his confidence in teaching female students was also related to his physical ability. Yet, at the same time, his background experience also sometimes made it difficult for him to relate to his female students and their lack of engagement in his PE class.

Nevertheless, Hosung highlighted the holistic benefits of PE for both female and male students. First of all, he emphasized that school was a crucial place for students to get PA because of the large amount of time they spent there. He explained,

middle and high school students stay at school more than at home because of their academics, so PE class is very important during this season. You can think about it; if we don’t provide them high quality program, then they won’t have enough PA in their whole day. (Hosung, Interview 1)

Moreover, he believed that there were more than just physical benefits of PE: “middle and high school students are usually struggling about their identity, their future, their family, etc. Exercise helps to reduce their stress” (Interview 1). In particular, Hosung also believed that competitive sports were important in PE class even though he felt there was a gender gap in students’ effort and ability. He explained, “through competition, students can build not only skills, but also sportsmanship” (Interview 1).

He claimed that “cooperation and teamwork is not easy to teach without competition”

(Interview 1). Hosung emphasized that “when student know the deeper value of sports, they focus on the process rather than the results” (Interview 2). He gave an example that he really liked it when he saw his students reach out their hand to help an opponent who had fallen during a basketball or soccer game. He felt that even if they lost the game, competition allowed them to experience “the beauty of sportsmanship” (Interview 2).

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Although Hosung believed that competition was critical for students’ character development, he shared that it was not always easy to do in mixed-gender PE settings, so sometimes he divided the students into two groups to compete just with their same gender. He explained, “unfortunately, girls’ physical ability is not really enough to join the boys in gameplay” (Interview 2). However, he said he believed that female students also needed to learn many different sports and get the benefits of experiencing competition, especially because they had limited opportunity in the past. He assumed that female students had “low ability compared to boys” (Interview 2), because they

“didn’t have many opportunities to play sports or physical activity as much as boys, which led them to have low confidence and not enough experience to know their bodies” (Interview 1). He considered this a “bad cycle” because their lack of opportunity decreased their self-efficacy which inhibited their engagement in PA which again decreased their opportunity to build their skills and confidence (Interview 2).

Therefore, Hosung viewed students’ PA as very much related to their gender. He saw a gender gap not only in their ability but also in their participation, which he believed was related to gender differences in opportunity and social pressures. He believed that male students were given more opportunity for PA in South Korean context, and because of this increased opportunity, they could become more confident in their sports skills. For example, he shared,

since boys were young, they were used to playing sports and doing physical activity continually, such as soccer, basketball, baseball, even taekwondo. It is not just school programs, they get involved in many different programs too, such as afterschool activities, club teams, and even they choose to do exercise in their free time. (Hosung, Interview 1)

Hosung stressed that male students’ high physical ability was rooted in their greater familiarity with sports and PA, which gave them more confidence. He believed students

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developed different mindsets because female students made the assumption that “they are girls, so it is okay not to be good at sports, which is harmful to girls’ physical development” (Interview 1). Hosung also explained that this thinking was shaped by the different activities they were involved in since they were young. He gave the following example:

since girls were young, they played with dolls and went shopping, which is absolutely different than boys. Also, many teens are attending fan clubs for movie or TV stars, which is a trend these days. I think these different issues affect boys’ and girls’ different outcomes. (Hosung, Interview 1)

His concern was that the gender difference grew bigger as students moved from elementary to middle to high school and had a significant impact on female students’ physical development.

Hosung also perceived gender differences in students’ values and priorities in his

PE classes. He believed that female students were more focused on peer relationships and valued communication and a comfortable environment more than male students. He claimed, “I can’t say all girls are the same, but at least most girls care about their relationships more than their physical ability” (Interview 3). He emphasized the strong influence their peers had on their engagement in PA:

Their peers are everything for them. It is so different when they have active friends or not. For example, even if they think the activity is not fun for them, if their close friends want to participate, then they still want to do it. On the other hand, even if they want to participate in an activity, but no one else seems interested, then they easily give up. (Hosung, Interview 1)

Thus, from Hosung’s perspective, female students were “too sensitive sometimes,” so he put high effort to understand their emotion and keep a good relationship with them

(Interview 1). He felt that if their relationship was weak, then it was very hard to engage

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them in PE class again. In contrast to female students, Hosung believed that male students valued the activity and task more than relationships. In other words, he shared,

even if boys and I are not so close, boys want to play or be active when they like some sports, but for girls, even if they like some sports, if they feel uncomfortable with me or their peers, they usually resist engaging in PE. (Hosung, Interview 1)

This affected the type of feedback he gave his students. He explained, “boys are usually interested in achieving their goals and building their sports skills, so I usually provide them feedback at the technical level” (Interview 1). In contrast, he focused on trying to communicate well with girls to make them feel comfortable. In observing a gymnastics lesson in Hosung’s class, both his instructional approach and feedback to students was different based on their gender. For example, he divided the male students by ability onto three different mats but had all the female students on the same mat regardless of their ability. He also gave the male students more specific feedback on their form, but simply encouraged the female students to keep trying (Observation 1).

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

Across Hosung’s interviews he expressed the greatest barriers to female students’ PA was their lack of development of their physical abilities before entering high school and their generally low interest in PA. First of all, he indicated that female students had missed very crucial opportunities in elementary and middle school to develop their physical ability. As a result, he found it difficult to help them catch up on missing skills and to change the negative attitudes they had already developed toward

PA. He explained that “timing is really important” (Interview 1). More specifically he believed,

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young age is the key. Even if teachers provide the same curriculum or programs that can build their physical ability, it would be so different if they learned this in elementary school versus now. Honestly, high school is already late to start learning many sports. (Hosung, Interview 1)

His concern was that “when we become adults, it is not easy to learn new sports, both physically and mentally” (Interview 1). As a high school PE teacher, he felt that

“without basic skills, it is really difficult to learn sports that need advanced skills”

(Interview 3). He believed that male students had diverse experiences with sports when they were young than female students, so it created a big gap between genders when they reached high school. He was passionate about this point and brought it up in his interviews several times because he said his master’s thesis topic was related to secondary school students’ learning process, which included the developmental steps necessary for their physical ability. He stressed that “the main key is students should develop their physical ability in each season; then they can have high potential to have physical ability” (Interview 3).

However, Hosung clarified that “PE teachers’ job is really important” and

“students can still learn” even if they “missed their golden time to build their physical development” (Interview 3). By listening to students’ voices, even their complaints, he tried to make modifications to his sports activities in PE class to give them more confidence. For example, when the class was learning hurdles, “many girls were afraid of the height, so [he] reduced their height” and sometimes even removed the hurdles and replaced them with bands (Interview 2). He felt that even though this made the goal lower than what they were supposed to achieve at their grade level, he believed that

“through successful experience, many girls developed a more positive feeling toward the hurdle,” which was an important experience for their development (Interview 2). He

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insisted that making manageable goals for female students was very important because many are “missing successful experiences in sports and PE,” which affects their motivation to try (Interview 3).

Moreover, Hosung explained that female students became accustomed to lack of

PA and accepted this as normal as females. He was particularly disappointed when he felt that a female student had high potential in PE but chose not to engage in sports or

PA as much as her male classmates. He ultimately concluded that it was a “lack of curiosity and desire that leads to girls’ low PA and ability” (Interview 1). More than physical ability, Hosung believed this was related to students’ confidence and attitude.

He insisted, “They should be willing to be try; then their physical ability will naturally grow, which can lead them to know and play sports as well as boys” (Interview 3).

Although Hosung believed that male and female students had biological differences that affected their PA, he claimed this was “not a big deal” if they put their effort to learn

(Interview 1). If female students tried to participate, he felt he could make adjustments to support their learning. For example,

even if girls have their period, so they want to rest, it is okay because they can participate in PE more actively the next class. Also, PE teachers can adjust the distance when they kick the ball, if their power is not as much as boys. (Hosung, Interview 1)

His main concern was that female students were unfamiliar with sports and lacked interest, so it was difficult for him to explain more complex tasks. He said, “they can’t understand when I explain specific sports situations or physical skills that most boys understand such as techniques for spin kick, ball bounce, catching the ball, etc.”

(Interview 1). This lack of curiosity to learn and the gap in experience created a divide between female and male students and made it challenging for him.

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Because Hosung believed that female students were heavily influenced by their peers, he tried to motivate them by identifying a few female students who were leaders in their class. If he built a strong relationship with these leaders, he found that they could motivate the other girls to participate in PE. He said after trying this strategy, “their attitude dramatically changed” (Interview 1). He also provided other specific examples of ways he tried to relationally motivate female students, such as remembering their names and recognizing small things about them, such as a recent hair cut or an increase in an exam score. He explained, “I think these small actions mean a lot to them”

(Interview 1). He also tried not to push them, but instead made the class mood light, since he felt “many girls don’t know about their own body condition and ability” and

“they are not used to serious and intense sports” (Interview 1). Lastly, he encouraged them to make active friends because this would increase their PA.

Furthermore, Hosung believed the gender gap was a much bigger issue than just in the PE context as it reflected society. He felt that “this is quite a serious problem and one person cannot solve it” (Interview 1). He believed that the media had a big influence on female students’ PA because it “led students to try to be cool rather than focus on being healthy” (Interview 1). Also, he felt that “high school girls chase trends they see in

K-Pop, so appearance has become even more important them before” (Interview 1).

From his perspective, their focus on appearance was a barrier to their PA in PE class because “many girls don’t want to ruin their make-up and hairstyle from physical activity” (Interview 1). Hosung recognized that both female and male students were affected by trends in the media, but he pointed out that boys trends may actually promote their PA because “sports are part of their trends,” such as their fashion, role models, and entertainment (Interview 1). Knowing that female students were greatly

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influenced by the media, Hosung tried to use this to also motivate them to change their perceptions of PA. For example, he said that teachers could provide many examples of successful female athletes and give them many sources of information about their health, which they already cared about but had little information about. He believed that this was better than trying to pressure them to engage in PE class: “I don’t think we can change what girls like something, especially in my experience, if teachers or parents push them too much, students have even more desire for what they want” (Interview 3).

He suggested that PE teachers “respect what they like but introduce other sources or stories like Yeona Kim,” a famous South Korean ice skater who is known for both her high athletic ability and her beauty, to start “changing their attitudes little by little”

(Interview 3).

In addition to talking about the barriers that female students faced in PE class,

Hosung also talked about the challenges he personally encountered juggling many responsibilities as a PE teacher. He expressed frustration with the veteran teachers who he thought did not understand students well and did not put their effort to develop curriculum that would interest them. He said, “So far, I’ve never seen veteran teachers prepare for their classes, which doesn’t mean they don’t care about their classes, but it’s true they put their effort much less than us. Maybe they already know how to teach”

(Interview 2). This seemed to bother him for two reasons. First of all, he said students often complained to him about the veteran teachers who used “old style PE,” because students felt these teachers did not care about their preferences; instead “they just gave students a ball and made a competition” (Interview 2). He explained further, “If some students don’t want to participate in class, they usually just yell at students, which doesn’t work for students these days” (Interview 2). Hosung felt that students’

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complaints made sense: “Honestly, it is true they provide the same curriculum for all students and never change their teaching style” (Interview 2). Moreover, his frustration with the veteran teacher was related to being the “youngest in [his] department” because he had to “take care of many different responsibilities instead of them” (Interview 2). He explained that “preparing for [his] class was his priority” and he wanted to focus on his teaching more but found it difficult (Interview 2). In his own words,

I always prepare my class as much as I can. Although we should prepare class well, it is hard to put our time for our class because we have lots of different responsibilities such as taking students to school club competitions, participating in events, teachers workshops, etc. (Hosung, Interview 2)

Hosung admitted, “Well, this is our culture and probably they were like me when they were young, so I don’t think it is really unfair, but sometimes I’m frustrated because this system is not good for our students” (Interview 2). He explained further,

Honestly, I think I understand my students more than them but need to take on many different responsibilities. I wish our veteran teachers could either teach students better or take on more responsibilities so we can do a better job teaching them. (Interview 2)

As this quote shows, PE teachers who want to try innovative teaching methods may feel it is difficult to make changes because of their heavy responsibilities and resistance from veteran teachers.

Hyorin (Student with Low PA)

Hyorin, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having low

PA in Hosung’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she plays badminton with her mother almost every other week. Moreover, Hyorin said she did PA outside of school with her friends 1-2 times per week, in particular, dance. She explained that she exercised outside of school with her friends because her “friends wanted [her] to join their dance club”.

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An overview of Hyorin’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Hyorin’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Hyorin explained that mostly her past PE classes made her feel isolated because she feels she is not good at sports and cannot enjoy them. She shared that “PE teachers and classmate usually focus on students who are good at sports in my experience, so I couldn’t enjoy PE as much as others”. From these past experiences, she generally had an unfavorable feeling toward to PE, which has affected her attitude toward her current PE class as well. Hyorin also complained about her teachers high expectations in PE class, saying “their standard is too high for me”. Since she believed she has low skills and not enough confidence in PE, she has a negative attitude toward PA and is hesitant to engage in her PE class. At first, Hyorin expressed, “I don’t think PE is helpful to me because it is not matching what I want”. Nevertheless, she later said she believed PE is important, because PE helps to increase her movement, which could have a positive impact on her health. She mentioned that “without PE class, probably, my movement might be even worse than now”.

Another reason why she is has a negative attitude toward PE and is hesitant to enter into the physical activities is because she felt her PE teacher only listened to male students’ voices compared to female students. She explained that the boys “always want to play soccer, so our teacher always chooses this sport to make them happy. I want him

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to listen to our voices more and think about low ability students like me feel”. Even though Hyorin felt she had low sports ability, she expressed desire to learn other sports but complained that her teacher never provided what female students liked. Thus, she believed that ‘female’ sports were different than ‘male’ sports. For example, she said, “I want to learn Pilates…. I feel that’s more matching girls. I don’t want to have more muscles”. She resisted the idea of gaining more muscles because she associated being muscular with masculinity. In addition, Hyorin believed there were considerable gender differences in PE class. She explained that “gender is a huge thing in PE because boys usually have better skills and are more physically developed”. She believed that they had many natural advantages, such as “more power and stamina”. She said that girls have almost no advantages compared to male students, saying that “I think we have less power and are slower than them. I mean most girls. I know a few girls are crazy like boys”. Overall, she felt PE favored male students: “It’s kind of unfair because how can we win in their sports?”

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Hyorin believed that her low physical ability was her biggest barrier in PE class.

For this reason, she said she often resisted PA in middle school PA class. She expressed,

“I usually just sat and chatted with my friends when I was in middle school, but I know now I need to exercise”. She was used to having lots of “free time” in middle school PE, which became her habit. She shared, “I was surprised at first that I need to focus on sports when I came to high school…. My high school PE teacher doesn’t allow us to be rest, which is very different than my middle school PE teachers”. From observing her

PE class in a gymnastics lesson, Hyorin kept avoiding practicing the backward roll,

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which she seemed uncomfortable to try. Most of the time, the teacher was just watching the boys, so she kept avoiding her turn, and one female classmate helped her by taking her turn over and over again (Observation 1).

Although Hyorin sometimes wanted to participate in PE, the environment made her hesitant to participate. First of all, she expressed fear related to getting hurt: “I’m scared that people will kick the ball at me. Also, most outdoor sports make me stressed.

Even if I’m not playing soccer, sometimes the boys’ soccer ball hits me randomly. Our playground is too small.” Also, she said she doesn’t like outdoor sports, but her PE class is outside most of the time. From her interview, “I don’t like sweat and am tired when

I’m outside”. She said the feeling was worse when she had to go to class directly after

PE. However, the interesting matter is she joined an afterschool dance class that the school provides for students. She explained that although it is still at school, there were much less rules and students have more freedom, which helps her to be more active than in PE class. She expressed, “It is totally different because I don’t need to go to another class sweaty. I can go back home and take a shower after finishing dance class. Also, only a few people see my sweaty face”. Hyorin’s concern for her appearance was a barrier for her PA in PE class, especially because she was hesitant to “get sweaty” in front of her male classmates.

From Hyorin’s perspective, PA outside of PE motivated her much more and was better for physical movement and psychological health. She said, “although I got stress and pressure because of my low physical ability, the levels are totally different. They are my close people, so I can be freer and make mistakes”. She felt much more comfortable when she plays sports with her close people such as her mom and close friends. She thinks she can show her vulnerability and make mistakes because they are “safe people”.

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She expressed, “my close friend wanted me to join after school dance club, which gave me pressure but was better than I expected”. Without her close friend, she thought she never would have joined the dance club and would not have opportunity for movement.

Thus, she shared that these were positive aspects of having her friends and classmates encourage her to be more active although they often gave her pressure. Also, even though she got both pressure in PE and outside PE, she thought the level of stress and freedom were different. She shared, “actually, I sometimes skipped the dance practice, but my friend understood me most of time, but in PE, I should do it even if I don’t want to”. Hyorin felt that having an option made her feel less stress and more involved when she joined physical activities out of her own desire.

Overall, Hyorin’s low self-efficacy was the central problem to engage in PE.

Since she always has felt like she was a “low ability student” in PE, she has been hesitant to join PA both in school and outside school. She only wants to engage in PA with people she is close to because of her insecurity. When talking about her PE teacher, she shared, “I already have low confidence and ability, but he always tells us exercise and PE is important. I know it is important, so I’m frustrated about my ability”. She has implied through her emotion that she may want her PE teacher to help her to build her physical ability, so she can have more confidence with PA.

Hyobin (Student with High PA)

Hyobin, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having high

PA in Hosung’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she exercised with her family 1-2 times per week. More specifically, she liked to play basketball and walk with her mother and brother. Hyobin also said she did PA outside of school with her friends two times a week, in particular,

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dance. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she likes “spending time with [her] friends”.

An overview of Hyobin’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and The second part addresses Hyobin’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

In Hyobin’s interview she shared that she enjoyed PE and has a positive attitude toward her PE class because she likes exercise and building social relationships. She said she especially likes socializing with her friends and building relationship in PE. In her interview, she explained, “The biggest benefit of PE is I can exercise together with my classmates”. She preferred PA inside of PE class, because although she can exercise with her friends outside of school, there are much fewer people than in school. Also, when her friends and she meet outside, she shared that they often just hangout rather than doing actual physical activity. In her PE class, she continually can keep her values of building relationships and community with her classmates. In particular, she said,

I like playing tee ball, table tennis, and soccer because I particularly like playing with others. Through this experience, we can build our teamwork and can talk with our classmates who are even not close to us. I think this is good opportunity to be close to them.

Observation fieldnotes supported her relational approach to engaging in PE class because she was one of the few who wanted to practice volleyball passes with her classmates even though most female students chose to practice by themselves. She even

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made her own group to practice together until the teacher asked them to practice by themselves to build their accuracy (Observation 2).

Another reason she said she had a positive attitude toward PE was that her parents valued physical activity and physical education. She explained that they encouraged her that “even though we need to focus on study now, health is much more important for our lives later. So, physical activity is really important”. She believed that her PE teacher and class helped her to keep her PA level high and maintain her health.

Although Hyorin could exercise outside with her friends, she did not do it regularly because self-discipline was hard for her. Even learning dance from PE class continuously motivated her to do dance more outside of PE. For example, she explained that, “We also learn dance through PE, but I want to learn more and do more, so my friends and I joined the after school club team, which is really fun”. Thus, school PE influenced her PA not only in school but also outside of school.

Interestingly, Hyobin claimed that her effort in PE was very high, but her self- evaluation changed depending on who she compared herself to. At first she said,

“compared to other girls, I’m in the top layer. I mean, even without physical ability, I can confidently say my effort in PE is really high”. However, when she included male students in her assessment of herself, she said she was “maybe in the middle”. She believed that “most boys put their effort more than girls” in PE class. However, Hyobin adjusted her answer again explaining, “I think some boys don’t put their effort; it is true, but they are usually good at sports”. She primarily focused on the importance of PA and effort, but she also seemed to think that physical ability was related to both of these.

Hyobin claimed that boys had higher physical ability and skills compared to girls. For example, she sometimes played basketball with male students in middle school but felt

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there was too much gap between them now. She explained that “they are usually taller than me… It is too much now. I mean they are too much better than me”. From

Hyobin’s perspective, male students’ physical ability was generally better, but female students can still enjoy PE. She expressed that “boys’ skills are usually better than ours, but I think it’s fine because we can also enjoy sports and exercise”.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Although Hyobin expressed high enjoyment for PE, she resisted fitness tests because they were not connected to socializing with others. She shared, “I don’t like fitness tests such as long-distance running, push-ups, flexibility test, jump, etc. As I mentioned before, I like playing sports with others. I think that’s more fun”. Hyobin thought that exercise with others was both more enjoyable and more effective for her PA than the fitness tests. Another barrier she shared was that she did not want to participate in PE sometimes when she is on her menstrual cycle. She explained, “Sometimes when I have a heavy period, it is really uncomfortable to exercise. Also, when I run, sometimes, guys look at my chest. Then I don’t want to put my effort 100%”. Thus, surveillance from male students also made her feel hesitant to engage in PE at times. Moreover, she shared that since her PE teacher was male, she felt embarrassed to share her concern with him and assumed that he would not understand or be able to solve her worry.

Moreover, Hyobin believed that her classmates were affected by each other so much. For example, although she normally wants to be active, sometimes she felt it was awkward to be active because of her female classmates’ resistance. She explained that

“when even one of my classmates doesn’t want to participate in PE, then many students also don’t want to participate in PE. The interesting thing is the mood changes quickly”.

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The reason why even one person affects the whole class is she thinks many of her female classmates also do not want to participate PE class. She explained that, “even though I like movement and PE, I also don’t want to push them”. In addition, she stated that poor facilities also hindered female students’ PA in PE class. Hyobin mentioned that “although I like exercise and PE, it is hard to go to class sweaty. I think because of this reason, many students resist PE class as well”. Hyobin explained that female students often complained about the limited number of lockers and showers available.

Furthermore, Hyobin mentioned that her PE teacher’s gender biases also affected female students’ PA. She explained,

he treats girls and boys differently sometimes… He gives boys more attention and compliments. Not only these good things, he also usually gives boys more challenging tasks, which the teacher thinks they can handle, but we cannot. But some girls can and want to try those challenges as well.

As this quote shows, Hyobin wanted to be treated by her PE teacher the same as male students because she thinks some females like PE and exercise. That is why she felt teachers should not assume that female students cannot do more challenging activities in

PE class, simply because they are girls. She believed that more challenge could motivate them to try harder in PE class. Lastly, she shared that “we have lots stresses from our study, so I want at least PE class can give us some fun and some freedom”. She felt she and her classmates had too heavy pressure and responsibilities in school; thus, she believed that by providing a more social and enjoyable environment in PE, it could encourage students, especially females, to be more active.

Sangkyu (PE Teacher)

Sangkyu, a male PE teacher aged 39, had thirteen years of experience at the time of the study. He had taught at the middle school level for five years, and the high school

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level for eight years. He was currently employed at a mixed-gender high school where he taught 10th grade (first-year) students. Students attended PE for 50 minutes, two times a week. He taught 15 PE classes per week for an average of 3 classes per day. He said he had an average of 28 students in each class, with approximately 16 males and 12 females in each one. His classes were mixed-gender; he said that females and males participated in the same activity together for 30% of the class time, and 70% of the time they were in separate activities with their same gender.

An overview of Sangkyu’s beliefs about girls’ PA is presented in the following section. The first part explores his beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research Questions 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Sangkyu’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 2 and 4).

Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Throughout Sangkyu’s interviews he stressed his strong belief that all students benefited from single-gender PE settings, and he extensively described his efforts to make this possible because of the significant differences he saw between female and male students. Over Sangkyu’s several years of PE teaching experience at the secondary school level, he put a lot of effort to diversify his curriculum and continued to enjoy his teaching. He shared how his own experience with PA as a student led to him becoming a

PE teacher. When he was in elementary school, he was not great at sports, and even now he always felt “quite skinny compared to other PE people” (Interview 1). He explained,

“I still don’t have as much power as others, but through many experiences, I built my confidence in sports” (Interview 1). A close friend of his loved playing volleyball, so he

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used to play with him, and this gave him greater interest in PE, so he attended sports academies to learn many more sports, such as hurdle, gymnastics, and swimming, which he really enjoyed. When he went to college, he had experience with many competitive sports, such as badminton, basketball, and soccer. All of these experiences as a student strengthened his desire to become a PE teacher because he said, “I really want to give students many opportunities to enjoy sports as well” (Interview 1). However, he quickly noticed that “girls’ PA was much lower than boys’ PA, including physical ability, participation rate, excitement, and development” (Interview 1). He initially found it challenging to teach them, especially in a mixed-gender setting: “It’s really hard to provide curriculum for both them since their skills are so different; their expectations and satisfaction are also very different” (Interview 1). Thus, he continuously sought opportunity to learn how to provide better curriculum for them.

More specifically, Sangkyu was very committed to his professional development, especially because he wanted to improve female students’ experiences with PE. He was an active member of a PE professional development association and was passionate about improving the PE curriculum. He was also studying in a master’s in PE program, and he regularly consulted teaching blogs to get new ideas. Sangkyu talked most extensively about a professional development group he started after five years of teaching that focused on teachers cooperating together to build their teaching called “TTT,” which stood for “Team Teaching Teachers” (Interview 1). He shared that he “really wanted to develop [his] teaching,” and he discovered that “many other PE teachers actually care about their teaching and want to improve as well” (Interview 1).

He explained that anyone who wanted to develop their curriculum and pedagogy could

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join the team, and he was a leader of this group of around fifty teachers from the county.

Sangkyu shared about the big impact this team had on his teaching:

Honestly, I didn’t deeply think about girls’ PA before I became a member of TTT. Girls were not my main focus, and I just assumed that they were not very good at PE. However, through our meetings, PE teachers share and discuss their challenges, and many teachers struggle with female students’ PA. Through our discussions, I became aware of my students’ lack of physical movement and dissatisfaction with PE. It’s really important to learn and share, even our weaknesses with each other as teachers. (Sangkyu, Interview 2)

Sangkyu explained that he “always wondered how to motivate students who didn’t like

PE, and [he] realized that many girls didn’t like PE” (Interview 2). He brought his concerns and questions to his team and asked them about their experiences at their schools. He was surprised: “Other schools and teachers were really the same as me, so we started to figure out how we could help female students” (Interview 2). Together they decided that “separating girls’ and boys’ PE was necessary because when PE teachers focus on one gender, they can provide more opportunity for their students to engage in PA” (Interview 1). He shared this was “the right decision because many girls are satisfied in PE more than before when we had mixed-gender classes” (Interview 2).

Together the teachers tried to create “fun and diverse curriculum for girls” (Interview 3).

He explained,

New ideas are necessary to provide diverse curriculum for girls, and we need to know specific strategies for how other teachers solve problems when they struggle with girls. Having many ideas helps me innovate my curriculum for girls, and listening to many different cases is very helpful for me to motivate my teaching with girls as well. (Sangkyu, Interview 3)

Though this professional development group, Sangkyu increased his confidence to teach female students. He explained:

Now I’m quite confident. Not only students, but also teachers are the same. We need to have more experience to teach girls because even though many teachers know how they can teach, it is usually very different between their expectation

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of girls and in reality. Through building experience, many teachers can figure out how we can approach girls’ curriculum for their development. (Sangkyu, Interview 3)

An underlying assumption of Sangkyu’s teaching approaches and changes to the curriculum is that female and male students have significant gender differences that impact their participation in PA in PE class. He believed that the gap between female and male students was related to biological differences, as well as different social norms in society that affected their opportunity to engage in different types of PA. He explained,

I think gender influences all students’ PA. When boys start puberty, they want to play contact sports and masculine sports more than before because they want to show their power and masculinity. Because of these physical changes and psychological reasons, they usually try to join contact or masculine sports and activities such as soccer, basketball, taekwondo, etc. I don’t know how gender affects PA directly, but I’m sure that because of their gender, they have lots of different desires and pressures to be a man compared to a woman. (Sangkyu, Interview 2)

Although he believed that “PE is not just developing students’ physical condition and skills, it is still a really big part” (Interview 2). After puberty, Sangkyu believed that male students had greater advantages in PE class because “they can have more power and speed;” on the other hand, he thought “because of puberty, girls have many more barriers to engage in PE” (Interview 2). He believed female students’ PA was influenced both by biology and society: “Girls usually already have less PA experiences before puberty because of cultural reasons. After they have puberty, it became worse because their physical changes are not advantages in PE” (Interview 2).

He explained that these changes created bigger gender differences for adolescents: “I don’t know if it’s the changes to boys’ bodies or girls’ bodies that makes a bigger gap. However, it is a fact that boys’ and girls’ physical development during

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puberty naturally creates gaps between them” (Interview 2). He felt this impacted students’ experiences in PE, particularly in traditional PE settings, because “almost every activity needs power, speed, and high technique, which gives boys more benefits than girls” (Interview 2). He also added that male students enjoyed movement and being active more than female students both inside and outside of school, which he believed gave them naturally more opportunity to improve their skills and confidence in sports.

Sangkyu felt that diverse curriculum, particularly new sports, such as flying disc, frisbee golf, yoga, and bowling, really influenced female students’ PA engagement because

“without running and power, girls are similar to boys” (Interview 2). He believed that female students had “better flexibility and concentration than boys, which are also important aspects in PE” (Interview 2).

As already mentioned, Sangkyu strongly believed that single-gender PE settings were more effective for student learning. He shared that for the first three years of his teaching career, he “wanted to figure out how [he] could teach girls and boys together in

[his] class” (Interview 1). However, he quickly realized:

They are different because their satisfaction was totally different when I provided curriculum. When boys were satisfied, then the girls didn’t participate as much as boys. Also, if I provided better curriculum for girls, then the boys complained about the program because they got bored easily. That is why I tried to improve my curriculum separately for boys and girls. After 10 years, even though I’m not perfect, I’m sure it is better for boys and girls now. (Sangkyu, Interview 1)

He explained how he managed to teach single-gender PE classes in a mixed-gender school. Basically, he and one of his coworkers combined their classes and each took one gender instead of teaching them together. For example, one semester he would teach all the female students, and the next semester they would switch, and he would teach all the male students. Although he preferred to teach single-gender PE activities, he explained,

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“when I think gender doesn’t matter for their learning, then I set-up a mixed-gender class. Actually, sometimes boys and girls also liked mixed gender” (Interview 3). More specifically, he shared that when the unit was focused on new sports, students did not have much gaps based on their gender compared to when they were focusing on traditional sports. In these mixed-gender settings, students received the benefit of learning how to socialize and cooperate with one another despite their differences.

However, Sangkyu believed there were more disadvantages with mixed-gender settings because “many boys look down on girls and tease them, which hurts their confidence”

(Interview 2). Moreover, he felt it was much easier to build female and male students’ skills and keep them motivated in single-gender settings because it was easier to create a curriculum that matched their skill levels.

At the beginning of each semester, Sangkyu and his coworker would carefully design their curriculum together to reflect both female and male students’ activity preferences. They typically created “the same curriculum for both boys and girls but set their levels differently” (Interview 2). For example, when observing his class, he and his coworker were leading cooperative puzzle relays, and he was working with all the females and his coworker was with all the males (Observation 2). The relay was set-up quite similarly with the same basic rules and goals, but the distance between the puzzle pieces was much smaller for the females than the males. In other words, the task was adjusted to different levels of challenge for female and male students, who had to run farther to pick up the puzzle pieces. They included both traditional sports and more diverse physical activities in their curriculum. To illustrate, he shared that they would both have a basketball unit, but it was taught differently for female and male students:

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For boys, the lessons are very short for teaching dribbling and passing because they know these already and start to play games a little earlier than the girls. However, for girls, we usually explain each step like knowledge, rules, steps, jumps, even why we need to learn basketball. Many high school girls want to know about the advantages of specific sports before they care about learning them. (Sangkyu, Interview 3).

Thus, Sangkyu was not against using competitive team sports in PE class, but he felt the problem was that “we have been providing just those sports in PE, which takes away girls’ potential to develop their physical movement” (Interview 2). He insisted, “PE is not just about building students’ sports skills, but actually, enjoying many sports and being active is more important” (Interview 2). Sangkyu believed that all students could build their skills through competitive sports if they were taught in single-gender settings.

In his experience, students enjoyed the competition as long as the teacher helped them focus on their own performance rather than just the results. He explained, “I them to be aware of the dark side of sports…When we focus on just results, it causes many problems, such as sports gambling, manipulation, selfishness, sports violence, and loss of amateurism” (Interview 1). As a PE teacher, believed their role was very essential for students:

We should provide quality program and opportunity to build their skills as much as we can because it affects their confidence about their physical ability. After building their physical ability, even without the teacher’s guidance, they want to exercise and build their skills. I believe giving them desire to learn and do physical activity is the best way. When they taste the value of PA, then we even don’t need to worry about them anymore because they will exercise continually. (Sangkyu, Interview 1)

At the beginning and end of the semester, they would get students’ feedback on the curriculum, and although “it was not perfect for all students, their satisfaction increased

(Interview 2). Sangkyu claimed, “Of course, probably, girls enjoy many sports more now. Even with traditional sports, they may know what is beneficial about those sports.

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At least, they may understand why boys are obsessed about team sports, which is valuable, I think” (Interview 2).

Sangkyu believed that “most PE teachers know single-gender is better for students at least in PE,” and he “tried to convince many PE teachers to try it because

[he] saw many students enjoy PE more than before” (Interview 1). However, he admitted that some resisted this change because “obviously, it creates a lot of work and coordination for teachers” (Interview 1). He explained some of the steps involved in making this change to the structure of the PE class:

First, I need to find a coworker who believes single gender is better than mixed gender. Second, obviously preparation time takes much longer than by myself because we need to make sure we use similar teaching methods with our students. Third, the grading is very sensitive because even though my coworker and I have a similar vision, students sometimes complained about their grades from us. They think we grade differently, which is possible because we are different people and have our own subjective perspective, but we try hard to be similar. The last one is the principal needs to support our teaching methods. Even though we have our own freedom to create our curriculum, without the principal’s permission, it is impossible to use co-teaching with our students. (Sangkyu, Interview 1)

Sangkyu felt more comfortable teaching single-gender PE and found it easier than mixed-gender. Moreover, he strongly believed it was more effective for students learning because teachers could give them more opportunity to achieve their goals. He did not want any student to be left out, and he wanted them to build their confidence through successful experience with PA. This desire was reflected not just in his teaching but also in his research as a graduate student. He was doing his master’s thesis on female students’ satisfaction in PE, and in a survey, students reported that they enjoyed single- gender PE more than mixed-gender. He shared that his teaching and research created a good cycle as his teaching gave him ideas for his research, and his research findings helped him to deliver better curriculum for his students.

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Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

From Sangkyu’s perspective, female students’ greatest barriers to PA were lack of prior experience to develop their skills. He explained, “lack of girls’ physical opportunity affects everything. Because of their limited experience, girls don’t want to try to do new activities and have a lot of fear” (Interview 2). As a result, they often avoided performance in front of others and felt pressure from their peers. He shared, “I think it is a cycle that lack of physical experience leads to low confidence, which is really related to self-efficacy. I would be surprised if girls could enjoy PE within this traditional system” (Interview 2). Sangkyu was concerned that many female students skipped many crucial levels of physical development in their elementary and middle school years because of gender norms in society: “I think culturally, girls believe they don’t need to move, be active, and it’s okay even if they are not good at sports, simply because they are females” (Interview 3). He believed that PE teachers also reinforced this mentality without knowing it. He explained, “We are used to this culture, so probably unconsciously we treat students in different ways” (Interview 3). This was connected to his belief about the importance of single-gender PE:

Since I’m aware of that part, I try hard to treat girls the same, so even it’s possible to focus on girls more than boys. Again, that is why single-gender PE is much better for girls; no, no actually, for everyone—the teacher, boys, and also girls. As a teacher, we can focus on girls and their levels. Also, boys have specific preferences, which if they are in single-gender, they also can enjoy their PE time more. The most important thing is for girls they can enhance their level, which can directly affect their motivation as well. Why shouldn’t we try to do this? (Sangkyu, Interview 3)

Sangkyu was sometimes frustrated with veteran teachers who he felt resisted change and created more barriers for female students’ PA in PE class. In his “Team Teaching

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Teachers” professional organization group, he said, “honestly, most teachers are less than 40-years-old, which means veteran teachers don’t usually want to do team teaching” (Interview 1). He explained, “Basically, veteran teachers don’t want to go out of their comfort zone. Also, the desire and passion is much lower than younger coworkers, which shouldn’t be the case, but it is the reality” (Interview 1). Although he had thirteen years of experience, he felt his age placed him in the middle range at his school, so he did not consider himself a veteran teacher: “I still need to ask my older coworkers if I want to do something in my department” (Interview 1). He explained, “I think it is culture. We value age so much, so not only position, but also we need to think about age structure when we want to do something” (Interview 1). He felt this sometimes created tension between veteran and younger coworkers who wanted to change things to help students. He explained,

I mean I can’t say they are always lazy, but I think most veteran teachers have strong biases about girls and boys. Also, they think their teaching is effective for students, which might be true, but it can also create barriers because they tend to teach by themselves and not listen to other voices. Basically, they think their teaching is strong enough and don’t want to change it. (Sangkyu, Interview 2)

He was frustrated with this situation but also tried to understand the veteran teachers’ perspective as well:

It is hard. As you know although Korean PE has developed so much, we have been changing a lot. Every decade, we have changed our curriculum setting and method, so probably it makes veteran PE teachers tired. Also, after they got tenured, their job is kind of forever, so they stop learning and challenging their curriculum because anyways they will get the same monthly payment. (Sangkyu, Interview 2)

Thus, Sangkyu believed that students’ PE teachers as well as their classmates could be barriers to their PA in PE class. He shared that female students, in particular, were affected a lot by one another, not just in PE, but everyone. He explained,

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They usually stay at school most of the day, so they share many things with each other. Especially, in high school, they spend much more time with their peers than their families. Also, they are the same generation, which means their interests are also similar. (Sangkyu, Interview 1)

He believed that peer influence could be both a barrier and a motivation for students:

“When they have active friends, then their PA rate gradually goes up, but if their close friend doesn’t want to exercise, their PA also goes down” (Interview 1). Even within single-gender PE settings, he felt that “some girls still don’t want to move and don’t like

PE. The problem is they lead their friends to just hang out in PE class instead of actually participating” (Interview 3). Even though he tried to encourage them to participate more, he said this was still challenging at times: “I think some of it is natural; we also don’t like some subjects, so they might not like PE” (Interview 3).

Since Sangkyu had experience at both the middle and high school levels, he shared about how their motivation to engage in PA was different. He explained, “For middle school girls, they focus on having fun and socializing the most, but for high school girls, although many people resist PE, girls want to make sure to learn something in PE” (Interview 1). He believed that “students’ maturity matters for engaging in PE”

(Interview 2). From his perspective, high school females through about their future more: “They don’t want to waste their time…If the PE curriculum matches their future preferences, they will participate. If not, they won’t. That’s why we really need to know what they want” (Interview 2). Thus, he believed that PE teachers should consider students’ grade level and gender because this shapes their preferences for PA. In a single-gender PE setting, he believed he had more capability to motivate students, especially since they had many gaps in their skill development, he wanted to give them many opportunities for successful experiences with PA, so that they could build their

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confidence. He encouraged them to cheer for each other as they achieved their goals, because this also helped them to participate in PE more actively.

Sanghee (Student with High PA)

Sanghee, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having high

PA in Sangkyu’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she sometimes exercised with her father, but overall, she rarely played sports with her family. However, she did PA outside of school with her friends at least two times per week. She and her friends chose which sports to play each time depending on their mood and preference. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she liked to play sports that were related to her PE class.

An overview of Sanghee’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Sanghee’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Although Sanghee generally liked PA and PE class, she had an ambivalent attitude toward PE because she felt she learned the same program over and over throughout all of her education. She explained, “basically, we learned soccer, tee-ball, dodgeball, and basketball, since elementary to high school. I feel our skills have improved, but the programs are so similar”. She thought PE teachers’ curriculum was very similar although students’ skills and levels increased. Sanghee added her opinion about this,

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As I mentioned, our skills are obviously different than when we were in elementary school. Also, maybe a few programs have been added like rock climbing, bowling, table tennis, tennis, etc., but the reason why I feel it is similar is we play soccer, basketball, and dodgeball every semester.

She thought sometimes the curriculum or program changed a little bit, but the central tasks were usually focused on traditional sports, which made her bored and tired.

However, she tended to understand the PE teachers’ position, especially she mentioned about her current PE teacher in positive way. She shared, “I understand if PE teachers didn’t provide these sports especially soccer, I’m sure boys would complain so much…I think my PE teacher tries many activities and understands us much more than other teachers”. Sanghee strongly believed that male students preferred to have a narrow selection of sports rather than trying new sports.

Contrastively, when she had new sports or different activities, she had high desire to learn and engage in PE. For example, she said, “I don’t understand why boys like do the same activity and play the same sports over and over. For me, just seeing them play the same sports even makes me tired”. She preferred to learn new programs and try as many sports as much as she could, because she believed it could develop her physical ability. Moreover, when she observed her female classmate perform well, she wanted to learn the sport more strongly. She shared, “When I see my classmate who is good at sports, I feel she is super cool. Of course, I want to be like her”. She enjoyed learning new activities and tried to resemble her classmates who were good at sports, which influenced her to have a positive attitude and behavior in PE.

Based on her current PE teacher’s teaching philosophy and teaching practices,

Sanghee has been participating in single-gender activities much more than mixed-gender

PE activities, but they often still did traditional sports because of male students’ strong

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preference. She mentioned, “I understand why we learn those sports all the time because boys like them….Oh, it’s obvious they complain so much to our PE teacher. I think our teacher also feels pressure to please them because our teacher is nice”. She thought male students were used to playing competitive sports all the time in elementary and middle school, so they often showed negative emotion in when they had to participate in different programs in PE. Also, she mentioned about female students’ physical ability.

Although her PE teacher provided many different programs and often made single- gender activities, it was not so effective for girls because of female students’ lack of physical ability. She shared,

I’m okay to play soccer and basketball, just I don’t want to play with boys. I kind of like playing those sports with girls. I think the reasons why other girls understand learning the same sports is they don’t care which sports they learn. Basically, I think my female classmates are not so interested in PE anyways.

She thought many of her female classmates generally did not like PE because they were not used to playing many sports, which resulted in a gender gap in their physical development. Moreover, Sanghee believed male students had high physical ability and skills, so it was hard to join them, but she was not hesitant to play with them if she felt she did not have too much gap compared to them. For example,

boys’ skills are usually too good compared to me, but some sports like table tennis, I’m okay to play with boys…. If I’m good enough, then I kind of enjoy playing with guys, but if the opposite, I don’t want to play with them. I don’t want to be ashamed. Also, I kind of understand them. Probably it would not be so fun if they always need to teach me or care for me.

She thought gender mattered in PE because she strongly believed male students’ physical abilities were much better than female students, which affected students’ enjoyment: “Most boys are better than girls in PE, so they enjoy PE more. Although girls can enjoy sports and PE, I think gender difference matters for our physical ability”.

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Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Even though her teacher structured his PE class to have mostly single-gender physical activities to better support both female and male students’ preferences, Sanghee often felt the program was repetitive rather than learning new programs. For example,

“Oh, not only every year. Maybe almost every semester we learned the same curriculum. I think my teacher tries to teach us new tasks, but both boys and girls resist learning new programs”. She thought many of her classmates did not want to learn new activities; she explained that most male students wanted to play the same sports that they liked, and female students did not want to put their extra energy to learn new activities in PE class. However, she felt she was different because she enjoyed the opportunity to engage in new sports and activities. For example,

I don’t like dodgeball because it hurts when I get the ball, and I want to learn new sports. We always play dodgeball when boys played soccer since elementary school….I think many girls don’t care about playing dodgeball; even they prefer to play it because at least it is familiar to us.

Sanghee believed many of her female classmates did not care about PE, which was their biggest barrier to developing their skills. In addition, she thought there were power struggles when they have combined PE class for creating single-gender PA with other classes. She shared that,

It often awkward when we combine with other classes because we do not know each other well. Maybe our teachers think because we are the same gender, it is better for us, but actually, I prefer to be with my male classmates rather than be with students from other classes.

She thought that engaging in PE with unfamiliar students was not as much fun and sometimes difficult for their cooperation because she believed many female students were affected by their close friends so much. Since she had lots of PE classes in a

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single-gender setting, she felt pressure easily from students in the other classes. She expressed, “because I don’t know them well, I often feel uncomfortable. Even if we are outside, our class mood is often quiet”. Sanghee thought many female students did not know how they should act with the other classmates and did not want to perform in front of them. However, simultaneously, when other female classmates and their class had a good connection, most female students had synergy and enjoyed PE much more than with male students. Sanghee explained, “It is true that I enjoy playing many different sports with girls rather than boys. Even though it sometimes takes time especially in the beginning, the enjoyment and satisfaction are absolutely different than with boys”. She agreed with her PE teacher’s philosophy indirectly, which is that engaging in PE with students with similar skill levels can increase female students’ motivation, including hers.

Also, when she saw students who were good at sports or show high performance, she usually felt thrilled by them. She shared,

I think it is so cool when my classmate shows high performance. I want to learn more sports, so I usually look at students who are good at sports. I’m impressed by their performance and want to be like them.

Observing her classmate’s high performance and skills increased her motivation to engage in PE. Moreover, she had high desire to be involved in PE class when her female classmates wanted to join and learn PE more. From observing her PE classes, her enthusiasm and enjoyment were absolutely different between single-gender relay and mixed-gender relay tasks (Observations 1 and 2). For example, she ran faster with all females and cheered for her teammates louder with all females. In contrast, when she was with male students as well, she was quiet and had a serious expression on her face the whole time.

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Since Sanghee believed single-gender PA was more fun than mixed-gender, her female classmates’ participation affected her motivation as well. Lastly, she shared many times about the positive effect of her PE teacher’s advice and guidance. She mentioned,

I like when my teacher helps me person to person. Actually, he gives us lots of feedback during PE class, but I think it is very different when he gives us individual teaching and group advice. I would like to get individual feedback because then I could know what I should learn and fix specifically.

Since she had high desire to learn many sports and build her skills, her motivation went up when her teacher gave her specific feedback. Overall, although she enjoyed and liked

PE class generally, she also showed many frustrations about PE such as repetitive programs, gap in skills compared to male students, her female students’ low participation, and combined PE with other classes. Sanghee kept saying she liked her teacher and understood him but showed indirectly she was not satisfied with his teaching through her complaints about her current class.

Seoyoung (Student with Low PA)

Seoyoung, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having low PA in Sangkyu’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

In general, Seoyoung said she did PA outside of school rarely. She did not exercise with her family, and she usually went walking or bowling with her friends once or twice a month. She shared that she exercised outside of school with her friends because

“walking is easy, and I don’t want to be fat”. Moreover, she also explained, “my friends like bowling, so although I’m not good at it, I sometimes go with them”.

An overview of Seoyoung’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about

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her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Seoyoung’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Even though Seoyoung generally did not like PE, she learned many different physical activities in her current PE class, which led her to have a little better attitude than in the past. She explained that, “I learned many different sports through PE such as modified tee-ball, free gymnastics, rock climbing, and band games which are very different from my previous PE classes”. She thought most activities were a little different than when she was used, so she needed to put extra energy to learn them, but sometimes felt very excited to learn different sports. Also, through this process, she was aware that physical activity is important because she said, “I lost weight, which makes me so happy”. Seoyoung was overweight since she was really young and she gained weight in high school because of the sedentary lifestyle, so she was encouraged to lose weight from exercise in PE class.

However, she said that she was often uncomfortable to join class activities with female students from the other classes because she did have a relationship with them and did not want to show her performance in front of them. She expressed,

People shouldn’t gossip when we can’t show our performance enough as much as others….Yes, even though they don’t talk in front of me, I know they talk about my performance and body behind my back. Although I’m starting to lose weight, I’m still fat; so, I don’t want to exercise in front others, especially with other classmates.

She did not like the combined class because she felt other classmates gossiped about her, which affected her negative attitude toward PE. Because of this reason, sometimes she

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made excuses to avoid PE class like saying “I’m sick” or “I have my period”. Seoyoung thought her teacher could not understand her feeling toward her body and low performance, which made her feel even more isolated. She shared, “I know, I know… I can feel it. They just whisper about my body. Then I try to lose weight but don’t want to move at all. It’s a very bad feeling”. She not only had low confidence about her skills, but also her body, which affected her engagement in PE class.

Seoyoung believed male students’ physical abilities and understanding of sports was naturally higher than female students, which made her even more insecure. She explained, “They know how they can play many different sports and understand many types of sports’ rules. That is why they always want to compete with others. Not just me, many girls don’t like competitive sports.” She also thought female and male students’ preferences were different in PE. Based on her perspective, Seoyoung believed that male students had more advantages in PE class: “Depends on the person, but most of time, boys get more benefits to perform in PE, because obviously boys’ physique is better than girls”. She strongly felt that PE was affected by people’s physique so much, and she thought that normally male students have better physique than female students. She shared, “They are taller than us and have more power than us….Of course, every time!

They throw the ball farther and kick the ball stronger than us because they have better physiques”. From her perspective, it was obvious that PE was more for male students rather than female students because of biological advantages. Moreover, although she felt a little better in high school compared to middle school, male students still did not respect her. She said, “Oh, it is obvious. They often check my body and talk about my performance constantly…Boys action is obvious, and girls usually talk behind me. I feel they scan my body all the time”. Because of her insecurity with her body and a strong

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feeling of constant surveillance from her peers, her desire often dropped to join PE class, and she continuously try to avoid activities with her classmates.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Since Seoyoung did not have confidence about her physical ability and body, she often felt anxious to join PE class. Interestingly, Seoyoung said she only felt comfortable with her female classmates in her PE class, not with female classmates from other classes. She expressed,

I know why our teacher thinks single-gender is better, but I don’t think it is gender thing. Actually, other girls and boys are very similar to me. Anyways, I can’t be free in front of both of them, because I’m just close with the girls in my class. I know the others talk about my body constantly, but what can I do?

She believed her comfort and security were based on her relationships, not based on gender. Also, Seoyoung often got stressed to learn rules and know game strategies. She shared,

I don’t know, somehow my brain doesn’t work; it is very hard to learn. Boys are not always bad; actually sometimes, they help me to understand the rules, but it is very hard for me, especially when I need to play and understand them at the same time.

She felt sports rules were very complicated and hard for her to understand although her teacher and classmates explained them to her many times, which also decreased her confidence and made her discouraged about herself. This affected her preference about physical activities because she felt most team sports had complicated game rules, so she particularly did not want to play team sports. She shared, “Baseball and tee-ball are typical sports we usually play recently, but I can’t understand the rules. Probably my classmate especially boys think I’m stupid, because they taught me many times during

PE class”. Either ways, she got lots of pressure and stress when classmates taught her or

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neglected her because she felt she should know the rules. Even when her girl classmates knew the rules well, it gave her peer pressure too, which affected her self-esteem as well.

One of her highest barriers was she always felt her classmates evaluated her body. Seoyoung complained, “I really hate when people watch me especially when we take a fitness test. I don’t understand why my classmates are bunched together and watch others. I really hate those eyes”. Since increasing her sedentary lifestyle in her high school life, she gained so much weight, which affected not only her appearance, but also her confidence. She said,

Although I never liked movement, I was not so ashamed of my body until high school. It was okay in middle school; even I was not good at sports, but I really don’t want to show my fat body now.

Not only her classmates’ surveillance, but also her own dissatisfaction with her body made her hesitant to participate in PE. For the same reason, when she saw other female classmates’ bodies, she realized more that her body was different from theirs. She shared, “Many girls have beautiful bodies. That is why they are confident even if they are not good at sports”. Seoyoung believed female students care their body shape more than their physical ability. For example, she said, “Hyoyeon’s physical ability is not so high, but her body is beautiful, so she enjoys PE class a lot. Also, she is very popular because she is pretty”. As this quote shows, Seoyoung thought that female students’ appearance affected their peer relationships, which directly influenced their PE experience.

Since Seoyoung gained a lot of weight, she was concerned about her health and body shape, which made her more self-conscious in PE class, but this also drove her to move more than before because she wanted to lose weight and realized exercise was

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important. She explained, “I don’t want to be fat anymore, and exercise helps to lose my weight. PE class is helpful because I only exercise during PE. If I were not attending PE, probably I would not move the whole day”. Because of her academic intensity and lifestyle, without PE class, she believed she would not have opportunity for PA, so although she was stressed about her weight, it also gave her motivation to move her body. In addition, since she wanted to lose her weight, she tasted the benefit of exercise.

She expressed, “It takes so much my energy before starting, but when I start, it is not so bad as I expected…. Walking makes me feel calm and gives me peace”. Seoyoung sometimes enjoyed walking with her classmates because it could help her lose weight, and she did not feel pressure from others. She said,

Our classmates can be good and bad motivation because anyways we all are affected by each other so much. For me, when my close friend is not there, I really don’t want to join the class. Probably, most girls might be like me….A few of the girls in my class are not, but most of them are very nice, so we want to support each other. Honestly, that gives me a little pressure because I often don’t want to participate in PE. But I don’t want to be a problem for others. It is okay, even I just sit or stand to the side. I also want to help my class.

From observing her class, Seoyoung’s classmates insisted she join their team for a cooperative team puzzle relay, in which the team raced to run and put together pieces of a large puzzle (Observation 2). Although she initially said no to join their team, they insisted they needed another player. However, she never took her turn but instead stood to the side and clapped for others.

Seoyoung felt that female students were dependent on each other so much, so they could be a motivation to engage in PE. However, she felt that her teacher did not understand that her body and low ability affected her confidence a lot, even in single- gender classes. She explained that,

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Again, I’m not so comfortable with girls in other classes, but my teacher may think I should be okay, because I’m with girls. When we have mixed gender class like I’m with boys, our teacher usually cares for us so much, including me, but when we combine with other girls, he thinks I should work hard in PE.

Seoyoung thought she and her teacher had a gap about their expectations and perceptions in the PE setting, because her teacher’s behavior often changed when they were in single-gender versus mixed-gender class activities. Overall, Seoyoung believed her relationships with others were central to her comfort and feeling of safety in PE class, not their gender. She implied that her teacher did not fully understand students’ barriers and deepest emotions because her teacher put a lot of effort to prepare the PE class, but it was often not matching her desire and preference.

Eunjoo (PE Teacher)

Eunjoo, a female PE teacher aged 31, had seven years of experience at the time of the study. She had taught at the middle school level for four years, and the high school level for three years. She was currently employed at a single-gender high school where she taught 10th grade (first-year) students. Students attended PE for 50 minutes, two times a week. She taught 15 PE classes per week for an average of 3 classes per day. She said she had an average of 29 students in each class with all female students.

Her classes were single gender, so female students participated in single-gender physical activity 100% of the time.

An overview of Eunjoo’s beliefs about girls’ PA is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research Questions 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Eunjoo’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’ PA and

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how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 2 and 4).

Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Eunjoo’s beliefs about her female students’ PA were very much shaped by her past experiences as a student and a teacher in both mixed-gender and single-gender school settings. When Eunjoo was a student, she really enjoyed PE, and she wanted to become a PE teacher because she felt “society respects teachers in Korea” (Interview 1).

She also added, “I’m quite tall, so my natural body shape is also helpful for being a PE teacher” (Interview 1). Although Eunjoo was not an elite athlete, she had extensive experience with sports during her youth: “I had many experiences. I played rugby, basketball, handball, and badminton” (Interview 1). Eunjoo attended a women’s high school and throughout her public school years, she enjoyed sports and felt quite confident in her ability. However, when she went to university and majored in PE, she felt insecure about her sports skills for the first time. She shared,

Honestly, I thought I was good at sports until college, but many people were much better than me when I went to college. I mean, compared to my classmates, I was not so good at sports anymore, which was very hard for me at that time. But now I think this was a precious experience because I can understand my students more deeply. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

This experience gave her greater sensitivity to her students who lacked confidence in PE class. She reflected on her own struggles in university, and also remembered her many friends in middle school and high school who did not enjoy PE. This gave her passion to know her students and try to give them positive experiences in PE class. She explained,

I want to listen to their voices and give them the best PE experience. That is why I ask girls many times about my tasks and try to learn their preferences and reactions. Also, I graduated from a women’s high school, so I often reflected on my past time. For example, which teacher gave me good teaching and who did not, what was I sensitive to at that time, etc. It is helpful to me. The last thing is I

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try to learn from my colleagues. When my coworkers use a new strategy in PE, I want to see how it goes and learn from them. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

Eunjoo seemed to enjoy teaching female students, particularly in a single-gender environment. She said, “I have confidence now more than when I taught boys because I believe I understand them more than my male coworkers. Again, I feel I was exactly like them before” (Interview 1).

Eunjoo had prior experience teaching both at the middle school and high school levels and within mixed-gender and single-gender settings. She believed that students’ overall attitudes toward academics affected their participation in PE class. She explained, “In my previous experience in middle school, if someone has a high GPA but is not good at PE, still they care about PE. This attitude helps them put more effort to engage more in PE class” (Interview 2). However, she generally believed that high schoolers had higher maturity and independence:

The biggest difference is maturity. They know where they need to go and what they need to do, so it is possible to let them practice by themselves, but it was impossible to let students practice by themselves in middle school. Basically, active independent learning is possible in high school, but I need to control students’ behavior much more in middle school. However, I’m not sure every school is like my school because as you know my students have very high GPA scores. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Her school context was considered a high-academic learning environment, which she thought may be reflected in their generally good work ethic compared to her prior experiences in other schools.

In addition to comparing her experiences in teaching middle and high school students, Eunjoo shared her perspectives about single versus mixed-gender PE settings.

In Eunjoo’s experience, she saw that “girls move more and are more active in single-

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gender classes” (Interview 1). More specifically, she felt that this setting reduced their social pressure from their peers:

In my previous school [mixed-gender], the girls checked their appearance too many times, which was also a barrier in PE because they didn’t want to ruin their appearance. Here, even though they put their effort for their appearance, it is much less than before. I think boys are not here, so I think it became better. Moreover, many girls cannot control their bodies because of their lack of experience, which leads to fear of making mistakes in front of boys, but here, it’s much less than with boys. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Essentially, from Eunjoo’s perspective, female students felt less surveillance when they were in single-gender PE contexts. However, she shared that they still were self- conscious when their skills were lower than their peers:

Even though our school is single-gender, girls still don’t want to show their weakness. For example, one girl couldn’t control her body during PE class, which made other students laugh. After this class, she didn’t want to participate in PE for a while. I realized that I shouldn’t set those tasks as public performance. At first, I thought with the same gender would be okay, but some students were still sensitive. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

Despite the challenges Eunjoo still faced teaching female students in single-gender PE contexts, she found it easier to match their preferences with her curriculum in her current school setting. For example, she was able to choose familiar physical activities that they found “easy to learn and fun, which made them more active” (Interview 1). At the same time, she was able to provide them greater challenges as well that better matched their skill level. She explained, “Actually, I think girls like challenge because it means that they have enough skills to do harder tasks” (Interview 3). She shared that many female students were used to being given easy tasks because of their gender, and

“this doesn’t always feel good” (Interview 3). She believed that one of the greatest benefits of single-gender PE is that she could “challenge girls more freely compared to when they were boys” (Interview 3). Based on student feedback in course evaluations,

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she learned that “challenging tasks” often gave them “more significant feeling”

(Interview 3). Moreover, she explained, “As you know, when they are with boys, PE class is usually focused on boys, their interests and abilities. Even if boys or the PE teacher treat girls nicely, it’s not always a good feeling to participate in PE” (Interview

3).

Since Eunjoo believed that female and male students had different preferences, she appreciated that she could develop the curriculum more specifically for female students in her single-gender setting. She explained,

When teaching in middle school, I needed to think about both sides, so it was hard to make my curriculum satisfy all students. It’s not perfect now, but I think I’m able to give my girls a much better program because I can focus on them. (Eunjoo, Interview 2).

Lastly, Eunjoo felt more comfortable using physical demonstration to model new skills when she was teaching female students than in mixed-gender PE settings. More specifically, she shared,

When I taught boys, I couldn’t demonstrate many skills in front of them because I didn’t want them to look down on me. Actually, I worked in middle school, but I was still insecure, but here even with high school girls, I try to show my ability even if I’m not perfect. I saw there are many positive benefits when I try to demonstrate skills or participate together in class with girls. (Eunjoo, Interview 3)

She explained that she felt more insecurity with the male students even though “some girls have better skills than [her] about some sports” (Interview 3). She admitted, “I don’t know if this is my bias, but I believe girls are more mature than boys…Even if I show low ability here, I don’t think they will look down on me” (Interview 3). Thus, based on Eunjoo’s experience, she believed that her female students benefited more from single-gender PE, and she also felt more comfortable in this teaching setting.

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Overall, Eunjoo believed that there were strong gender differences in students’

PA preferences, prior experiences, and opportunities for skill development. First of all, she was concerned that female students lacked a basic foundation in PE. She explained,

many girls skip the levels they should learn in elementary school or middle school, but they didn’t learn these skills, so it’s really hard for them to play real sports in high school. I don’t think that girls are the problem; they skipped essential levels of development. That’s the real problem. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Eunjoo also believed that female and male students were biologically different, but she claimed that this did not make males better: “some part males are better; some parts females are better, but in PE, I personally think men have more advantages than women because they have more power and speed” (Interview 2). In addition to natural differences, Eunjoo also felt that male students had more opportunity than females for physical experience since they were young, which created a gap in their physical ability.

She thought this was related to society’s gender biases:

I think society pressure and expectation of men affects their preference. For example, the reasons why boys are obsessed with soccer and basketball is these sports are considered more aggressive and masculine than other sports. On the other hand, girls like ice skating and tennis more than other sports because these sports present femininity. I think somehow we are affected by culture and society even in choosing sports to engage in, which shapes our favorite sports differently. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Eunjoo also claimed that female students’ mindset was also a problem for engaging in

PA in PE because “they think it is okay to not be good at sports because they are girls”

(Interview 2). Moreover, she believed that teachers, especially veteran teachers, often reinforced this message to female students through their behavior in class:

They just let them just sit on the bench because they are the girls. As a female, this is very bad not only for their physical health, but also for their mental health. The ironic thing is many teachers criticize girls’ lack of physical activity, but then they neglect to give them physical activity opportunity in PE. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

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Not only among students, Eunjoo also saw gender differences among PE teachers. She explained,

In my experience, some friends preferred to have male teachers, some friends wanted to have female teachers. I think we have different strengths as male and female PE teachers. For example, in my school, three are male and two are female. When I see my male coworkers’ teaching, they focus on students’ skill development so much, but my female coworker and I want to make sure no one is left out in class. I’m not sure this is just my situation or a gender difference. For me, the reason why I prefer to teach girls rather than boys is I feel I can provide better curriculum and connect with girls more than boys. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

Eunjoo also believed that students’ gender influenced their experience with competitive sports. She acknowledged that there was a “risk to teach students competitive sports” (Interview 2), because “it is human nature; no one wants to lose, so competitive sports and physical activity can risk ruining students’ confidence emotion”

(Interview 3). However, she felt there was still value in competition in PE class:

I think through sports, they can learn what is competition. One of the reasons why I like PE is I think sports and our lives are very connected. We cannot always be happy, but we can learn grit through overcoming tough moments in competitive sports. (Eunjoo, Interview 2).

In other words, Eunjoo believed that competition in PE could reflect life beyond class:

I think not only in PE, students compete with others naturally, because society is like that. That is why I’m not just against competition, because in reality, students live in a competitive environment, so I think we need to teach students how to deal with this competitive environment rather than just avoiding competition. (Eunjoo, Interview 3)

Furthermore, she shared that she was surprised by many female students’ enjoyment of competitive sports in her current single-gender PE environment. She explained,

The interesting thing is I thought girls don’t like competitive sports, but many girls like competitive sports. I couldn’t see this when I taught in middle school. I don’t know if the reason is middle school versus high school or mixed-gender versus single-gender. I assume the second one because I was a girl who didn’t want to compete with boys but enjoyed playing with girls. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

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Eunjoo related her own experience with competitive sports as a student to try to understand her students and provide them positive learning experiences through competition. She explained that it “doesn’t feel good when we lose games,” and “it can be hard to accept our low skills because this hurts our confidence” (Interview 1).

However, she considered the opposite side too: “when we win, it can give us confidence too, so I think it is necessary to teach competitive sports, but it shouldn’t be the center of

PE class because the purpose of PE is not losing or winning” (Interview 1). In her experience, she saw students find enjoyment in competitive sports “even if they also got stress” (Interview 1). She believed that “teachers should keep teaching students that PE is not about winning and losing; movement and physical activity have natural value”

(Interview 3). She explained,

That is why I often demonstrate new skills to my students without perfect performance. I believe even though it is not directly teaching students the value of PE, students may know PE is not just about building physical skills through my actions. The interesting thing is when I show low physical skills or make mistakes, girls try to participate more in physical activity. I think this is very deep part of their mentality, because in my case, I also did not want to show my ability in front of people were really good at sports. (Eunjoo, Interview 3)

Generally, Eunjoo believed that female students could enjoy competitive sports in PE classes if they had the opportunity to build their skills and play in a safe, supportive environment. She explained, “Basically, girls don’t have enough opportunity to learn different sports, which is an obstacle to playing competitive sports as well” (Interview

3). However, she strongly believed that if female students were given more opportunity, they could learn and engage well: “Some students enjoy competitive sports, and some do not. The clear thing is girls are very similar to boys. Their lack of opportunity gives them low confidence, which makes them hesitant to play competitive sports” (Interview

3).

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In her class observation, students were playing soccer, and she commented afterwards, “As you saw, girls can enjoy competitive and even contacts sports, just like boys, if we carefully set-up PE for girls” (Interview 3). Interestingly, during the first observation, only one female student was wearing indoor soccer shoes in PE class, but during the second observation a few weeks later, six to seven students were wearing soccer shoes. When asked about this change in a follow-up interview, Eunjoo explained,

many girls expressed they didn’t have opportunity to learn soccer before, but now they a chance, and naturally when they become interested in some sports, they want to buy many things, like many boys wear soccer shoes even when they are not playing soccer. (Eunjoo, Interview 3)

She also added that many of her female students did not have prior experience with soccer, so they would kick the ball with their toe, and complained that it hurt. She had suggested they try soccer shoes, and many of her students seemed to follow this advice.

Moreover, she explained, “One more important thing is a few girls actually want to continually learn and participate playing soccer, so probably they think it is good investment to buy soccer shoes for their exercise” (Interview 3). However, she explained that even when female students wanted to play soccer, there was limited support for this:

“club teams, afterschool programs, and educational associations just focus on boys’ soccer competitions” (Interview 3). In her opinion, “I don’t think it is fair for girls because they can’t blame girls for lack of ability without giving them the same opportunity to learn” (Interview 3).

Overall, Eunjoo saw many students’ perspectives changed about soccer since the beginning of the semester, and this made her believe that “teachers shouldn’t assume that females like only certain sports” (Interview 3). For example, she opened a dance club during lunch time and expected many female students to be interested, but they

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weren’t because they preferred their free time with their close friends. This made her realize that teachers should see students as individuals: “students like dance, some students like soccer, some students like other sports” (Interview 2). Similarly, she also expected to have high attendance in her yoga class, but “many students didn’t like it and showed negative emotion toward the class” (Interview 2). This was surprising to hear and made her think “it’s possible that how we make the curriculum depends on our own biases” (Interview 2). She thought maybe the students were unfamiliar with yoga and this made them uncomfortable and resistant to try.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

As already alluded to, Eunjoo believed that the biggest barrier to female students’ PA were lack of opportunity to build their physical ability, which led to gaps in their skills, so she sought many innovative ways to try to motivate them and build their confidence in PE class. First of all, she believed it was all of PE teachers’ job to help students develop their skills:

In elementary school, PE teachers should teach students’ basic level skill, such as running, skipping, jumping, hitting, receiving, etc., rather than playing games. After these skills are learned, when students go to middle school, teachers can teach them how to use these basic skills to play games. Combination of skills and coordination is important in middle school. If we can help students learn these steps carefully, I believe many girls can enjoy physical activity and physical education, which will affect their PA in their future too. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Thus, Eunjoo believed that it was important that PE teachers should have “clear and specific goals” for female students at each stage of their development (Interview 2).

Moreover, they should not blame students as the problem “rather than seeking out the reason” when they resist PA (Interview 2).

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Although Eunjoo strongly believed that PE teachers should be invested in female students’ learning and help them catch up on their missing skills, this was often not easy for her because she felt she had to juggle many responsibilities as a PE teacher. She explained,

As you know, PE teachers have lots of responsibilities in South Korea, so sometimes I feel sorry to my students because my number one priority should be teaching, but I have limited energy. It probably depends on the person, but most of my colleagues also talk about this issue. Many people think our responsibility is too heavy, so class preparation time is not enough for our students. (Eunjoo, Interview 1)

She wanted to support students who were insecure in their skills, but she said, “it’s really hard to teach students who don’t have body coordination…I think I need to learn how to do this better” (Interview 1).

Eunjoo believed that the teaching style and mindset of veteran teachers also could be a barrier to female students’ PA, and she claimed that students cared more about teachers’ age than their gender. She said, “They prefer teachers who are young because then they think teachers can understand them more than veteran teachers”

(Interview 1). Moreover, she explained that “many older coworkers don’t care about the media and students’ preferences; however, they have so much experience, which I really think is important for students” (Interview 1). Her concern was that “veteran teachers don’t want to move as much as new and younger teachers, which affects students directly. It is possible they already know how to teach students, but I think we shouldn’t stop learning how to teach students better” (Interview 1).

Eunjoo believed that female students were influenced by their peers both in PE class and other PA activities. She explained that it was hard to anticipate what they would participate in because even when she created afterschool PA classes that matched

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their interests, they sometimes chose different programs than what she expected. She said, “They want to be in the same program with their friends and don’t like to attend different programs or be by themselves” (Interview 1). They were heavily influenced by their peers, both in positive and negative ways. For example, in small group activities, they sometimes disagreed and argued with each other. She explained, “One good and bad thing about single-gender PE is many students are active, which sometimes causes problems because many girls want to be leaders, so teaching them cooperation is sometimes a challenge for me” (Interview 1). One the other hand, she felt that peers could also motivate female students to engage more in PE class, particularly at the high school level:

Most high school students’ target is to go to a good college, so it is a little different than at middle school. For example, when they think PE is helpful for college, then they try to engage more even if their friends don’t engage in PE. (Eunjoo, Interview 2)

Eunjoo sought to encourage female students to help them gain more confidence. She also tried to make manageable goals for them because “after they get lots of successful experience, then they naturally want to try more” (Interview 1). She also tried to “care about their fears” (Interview 1). Based on her own experiences as a student in PE, she was “very afraid of high jump, but everyone gave [her] pressure to do it at that time”

(Interview 1). She said it was still a “horrible memory,” so she tried not to provide too high level of activities in her class, such as horse vaulting and pull-up bars, because she believed that “safety is the number one priority” (Interview 1).

Eunjoo tried to emphasize students’ enjoyment because “making PE fun keeps them active, which is related to their engagement in PE” (Interview 2). She also often explained to them the benefits of different activities and tried using the media to

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encourage them to be more physically active. For example, she would show them video clips, using their favorite movie stars, or TV stars. However, she was disappointed that even though they were interested in these stars, they were not very interested in their health or exercise. She clarified, “maybe my students think their lifestyle is too far from them, which probably gives them the feeling that it is unrealistic to be like them”

(Interview 2). She shared, “I’m still trying to build this part” (Interview 2). Another technique Eunjoo tried was playing music during PE class because she believed her students like music, and she could show interest in their lives and grow closer to them through this. She got this idea from a workshop where the instructor shared she used music to get kids’ attention, so she wanted to try this to improve the PE class environment. Her students were initially surprised, but they were excited to hear their favorite singer’s music. Sometimes this was a little distracting for them, so she mostly used music during their warm-up and cool-down time.

Overall, it was very important to Eunjoo to build relationships with her students.

She tried to talk to them more deeply and saw this change their attitude to participate in class. Even when the topic was unrelated to PE, she felt that listening to the voices, such as in her home room class, helped them feel close to her and trust her. She would share her own personal stories and examples to encourage them in their lives. Moreover, she tried to always be attentive to students’ needs. She explained,

I usually check something when students feel it is unfair or if they feel uncomfortable in class. When I was a student, I was quite hurt when teachers were unfair to all students, so I want to make sure I don’t do that. (Eunjoo, Interview 2).

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Lastly, she had a bonus point system where she rewarded students for asking good questions in class. She wanted to encourage them to be active learners and saw this increase their motivation to learn and participate.

Eunyoung (Student with Low PA)

Eunyoung, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having low PA in Eunjoo’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she exercised every other week with her mother. Also,

Eunyoung said she did PA outside of school, usually walking with her friends once a week. She explained that she exercised outside of school because her “friends want to walk together.”

An overview of Eunyoung’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Eunyoung’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Eunyoung generally had a negative attitude toward her PE class because she felt marginalized in her PE experience so far, due to unfair curriculum settings, teachers’ unequal attention, and unsafe learning environments. However, her current PE class had begun to change her perspective toward PE, because her teacher was providing her a more diverse program than before. For example, she said, “I learned many sports like badminton, volleyball, basketball, yoga, etc., which is very different from my previous experience in PE”. She still generally did not like PE and physical movement, but she

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was thankful she could have experience with many sports compared to before. She expressed, “I think my PE teacher knows us well, so she wants to give us our preferred sports rather than just soccer, which I appreciate it”.

Although she did not like physical movement, she still tried to learn sports and increase her movement because she thought PE is important. She explained,

I think it is important because without PE, I will not move my body at all. I know myself quite well. Even though I don’t like movement, I want to get the benefits of PA, so I think PE is necessary for me.

Since her school had high standards for students’ academic achievement, Eunyoung thought she needed to get high energy from PE class to maintain her rigorous academic schedule: “I think it is important for me. Even though I don’t like PA, it is necessary to have stamina to keep studying. I know that exercise helps to build energy and power”.

Including her, most of her classmates had very high goals to get good GPAs to go to competitive universities, so many of them were enrolled in extra classes that the school provided even though they were only freshman in high school.

Having a PE teacher who understood students more encouraged her to participate in PE class rather than just teach according to their own style. Eunyoung said she has improved her physical activity time in high school and even sometimes had desire to learn new sports. She explained, “Of course, learning new sports is not easy especially I don’t know many sports. However, my PE teacher explains well how we can deal with new sports, which helps me a lot”. Her previous PE teachers often assumed female students knew basic information and had basic skills, so they just taught sports at a high level, which gave her pressure in middle school. Also, in the past, she said many PE teachers just focused on male students or those who were good at sports, which reduced her desire to learn new sports even more.

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Since Eunyoung’s current high school is single-gender, she talked about her previous experience in mixed gender classes that normally had high gender biases in PE.

Although she learned many sports, she remembered that they played soccer much more than other sports because her teachers often provided soccer to please many male students. She shared, “My memory in my middle school PE was it focused so much on soccer. I learned different sports but can’t remember them exactly”. She shared that in her past experience in PE she often just sat on the bench and watched male students play, which naturally decreased her physical activity time and opportunity to build her skills and confidence. She even did not realize that this could be unfair for her or other female students until she experienced a single-gender PE class. Eunyoung thought PE was naturally male students’ subject because even if the teacher provided the same task for both female and male students, males became the “main actors” easily. She expressed,

boys know and are good at many sports compared to girls, so they lead class easily... Mostly we have our own tasks, but after finishing some activities, my PE teachers usually allow them to play what they want; then most girls become observers.

Eunyoung thought that the mixed-gender PE setting was naturally unfair for her and her female classmates. However, she admitted that these gender biases were not only PE teachers’ or male students’ fault, but also related to female students’ attitudes. She shared, “many of my classmates choose to rest or chat when we have free time in PE instead of doing activities like boys….even now, I often want to just sit and chat with my friends instead of learning sports”. Moreover, she thought that male students’ physical activity desire was much higher than females, and she believed that differences between female and male students’ desire and preferences created a big gap between

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them. For example, she claimed that males could naturally build higher stamina, have more interest to learn PE knowledge, and more opportunity to gain skills through their curiosity and practice time. She explained,

Yes, stamina is different. I feel boys never get tired. They always want to move, which is quite crazy to me…. Yes, we love chatting. We sit on the bench and talk with our friends whenever it’s possible in PE.

Thus, Eunyoung believed that gender differences greatly affected students’ preferences and their engagement in mixed-gender PE class.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Although Eunyoung acknowledged the importance of PA and PE, there were still many barriers that made her hesitant to engage in her current single-gender PE class.

First, she generally did not like physical movement, especially exercising outdoors. She explained, “I don’t like physical activity as much as others…I don’t like being outside…when the weather is hot or cold, it is miserable to me”. Also, because she had low physical ability and skills, she often felt sorry for her classmates when she made mistakes during small group activities or team competitions, which prevented her from joining in team sport activities. For example, she said, “I’m really bad at basketball, which affects my team’s result….I can feel they are not happy with my skills, which gives me lots of pressure, so I avoid the game as much as I can”. Eunyoung wanted to avoid team games primarily because she did not want to negatively influence her team with her low skills. She even had developed specific avoidance techniques:

I tried to avoid my team members’ eyes during the game; even though it is not perfect, it works. You know they cannot pass the ball to me if I’m looking at the ground. Also, I try to run to a different space away from my team members.

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Although she felt tired putting her energy to evade team sports, she thought was better than listening to her classmates blame her. Actually, during an indoor soccer class lesson, she kept avoiding getting passes from others. For example, she was observed running in a different direction from the person with the ball, keeping her back to her teammates, and rarely looking at them (Observation 2).

Moreover, Eunyoung complained about people’s judgement and surveillance.

She felt she already had low skills, but it became worse when people watched her. She explained,

Yes, even though my classmates are mostly nice, when we have a disagreement in a small group activity, they start to blame other classmates who have low skills like me…I don’t like it when people watch me while I exercise because then my performance becomes even worse. I have low confidence about my body and performance.

She felt lots of pressure when she participated in team or group activities. When her classmates’ blamed her for their lost points and games, she felt hurt and it ruined her confidence, which further decreased her desire to participate in PE. Moreover, she mentioned about biological barriers as well: “I usually a have heavy period and am usually sick, so I really don’t want to participate in PE when I have period”. Thus, not only one reason, she communicated multiple reasons and barriers for her resistance to

PE class. Despite these difficulties, even though she struggled in her PE class, she was willing to learn sports or activities if these were connected to her future life. Eunyoung shared,

I don’t like movement. I know this is my problem, but my frustration is I will not use most of the sports that I learned in PE classes in the future. It is first time that I kind of care about PE class since elementary school because my current PE teacher is different from my previous PE teachers. I think she provides more useful activities, and I feel she cares about what we want.

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Eunyoung believed that students’ experiences in PE and the quality of PE class depended on the PE teacher. She mentioned, “Even though I don’t like movement, my

PE teacher provides many different sports this year, which is interesting to me. I think

I’m a little better than before”.

Moreover, since it is not easy to exercise by herself, she thought it was helpful when someone pushed her to do PA. She explained, “It is important someone pushes me to move. I know physical activity is important for our health”. She liked walking sometimes outside of school because it gave her refreshment. She thought without team competition, she did not need to get pressure or stress from others but could get benefits from physical movement. Overall, Eunyoung experienced stress in PE for a long time, but fortunately, she improved her ability and perspective about PE in her current single- gender class because she implied that she was quite satisfied with her PE teacher’s teaching style and care. However, Eunyoung still complained about team competitions and surveillance in the PE environment, which she felt dramatically dropped her desire to engage in PE.

Eunae (Student with High PA)

Eunae, a 16-year-old female high school student, was identified as having high

PA in Eunjoo’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she said she exercised with her family two times per week. More specifically, she liked to play many sports, especially badminton with her brother. Eunae also said she did PA outside of school with her friends two times per week, such as badminton, bowling, and many other games. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she likes to “hang out with [her] friends.”

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An overview of Eunae’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Eunae’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Eunae enjoyed PA both inside and outside of school because she had confidence about her physical performance and was able to assist others as well. She shared, “I like

PE…. I think I have quite high confidence in PE because I like helping my classmates who are struggling in PE”. She not only enjoyed engaging in PE, but also through helping her classmates she built her skills more too. Also, she got good results in PE class, which enhanced her motivation to participate more. She explained, “I’m quite satisfied with my fitness test”. Although she shared that the fitness test made her tired, she was pleased with her results.

In addition, Eunae participated regularly in PA not only in PE class, but also outside of school. For example, she said,

I really liked playing badminton in middle school, so I even convinced my brother to join a badminton club together. He was not interested in badminton as much as me, but he tried to play with me a lot during my middle school season. Now, I like doing yoga with my friends. My PE is teaching us yoga now, and many of my friends also like it. So, we often do yoga together at my house or my friend’s house. I enjoy this time too.

As this quote shows, Eunae engaged actively in different forms of exercise outside of school.

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Moreover, since Eunae’s school emphasized high academic achievement, she thought PE class was even more crucial for her in her school environment because without PE class, students might just focus on their academic studies. She explained,

Without PE time, we are just sitting the whole day, which makes us gain weight and have low stamina. I think strong stamina is important in this season to keep studying hard. Also, I really like the feeling after moving my body, which also helps me to study continually.

Eunae thought physical movement and playing sports was really important especially during this “crucial season” because she believed exercise could give her energy and keep her focused on her goal.

However, Eunae complained that her PE teachers often assumed that female students were the same even though each one had different preferences. More specifically, she expressed, “I wish they could think about girls who like PE too. They usually just put us in one category, so I didn’t have lots of different experiences as much as I wanted”. From observing Eunae’s class, unlike most of her peers, she wore soccer shoes and seemed very involved playing indoor soccer with her classmates. She asked several questions to her teachers during the class as well (Observation 2).

Compared to Eunae’s previous PE teachers, she thought her current PE teacher provided lots of different programs and listened to students’ voices more, which strengthened Eunae’s positive attitude toward PE class. Since Eunae’s current PE class was single-gender, she felt she gained more knowledge than when she was with male students, because there was less gap between the students. She explained, “having the same gender classmates is really helpful because we have similar knowledge level about

PE. I think the teacher also teaches us more than when we are with boys”. She shared her current experience with gaining knowledge about PE. Before starting a class or

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having actual performance, her PE teacher taught the basic rules or information to the whole class, which Eunae thought was very helpful. Eunae compared this with her past experiences in PE, in which her PE teachers gave most of their attention to male students, so she claimed she did not have as many diverse experiences as she wanted.

She expressed, “PE teachers usually focused on boys more than us….PE teachers just have eye contact with boys and teach them way more than girls”. She believed that because male students had higher ability than most females, this made the center of attention in class, and made female students feel less important.

In contrast to her past PE teachers, Eunae was very pleased about her current PE teacher; especially she thought she could share many things with her because the teacher was the same gender. This made her feel more comfortable to share how she felt both physically and emotionally, particularly when she had her period. She explained,

“Having the same gender PE teacher is very helpful for me, because she understands us very deeply”. Eunae said that in the past she felt sometimes felt a little uncomfortable and awkward to share her emotion with her male PE teachers. However, Eunae wanted all of her PE teachers, including her current teacher, to encourage female students to be more active when they do not want to participate in PE. In her own words, “My teacher is too nice to us. She sometimes lets my classmates rest who are not good at sports, which affects the whole class’s mood. I hope she can push my classmates to move more than now”. She thought that when girls do not want to participate in PE class, it affected others negatively as well. Thus, she wanted her PE teacher to motivate the whole class more and give strong guidance for their PA engagement.

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Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Eunae thought that it was ironic that PE teachers really emphasized the importance of PA to students, but at the same time, they were “too generous” with female students. She claimed that PE teachers often neglected female students more than males. For example, she said, “Many times, I want them to push girls a little more rather than let us sit on the bench or whatever”. She believed many girls needed specific guidance how to move their bodies rather than just “free style” PA. She explained that since most female students do have many experiences with PA this makes them hesitate to participate in PE. Even more importantly, even if some female students want to participate in PE or be more active, she said they couldn’t because her PE class had a collectivist value. Eunae explained,

It is awkward to tell my teachers I want to do more because most girls don’t want to move, so if they know I told the teacher that I want to learn something, my classmates wouldn’t be happy. It is possible my desire is different from other girls because I like movement and PE.

Thus, she was concerned about the approval of her classmates so even though she was eager to do more PA in PE class, she felt hesitant to share this desire publicly.

In addition, although Eunae liked her current PE teacher’s teaching style and method, sometimes small group activities caused female students’ conflict. In her PE class, they often did small group activities and discuss strategies to build their skills, but sometimes they had power struggle with each other. She shared, “I don’t like the situation that sometimes we argue with each other too strongly, which makes our relationship bad”. Sometimes their disagreements became barriers for them in PE class, particularly in cooperative activities. Lastly, many of the female students were not

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serious about their warm-ups, especially when the teacher was not observing them.

Eunae believed warm-up time was essential for preventing injury, so she was frustrated by many classmates who wanted to skip this part. She shared, “I think warm-up time is really important, but most of my classmates don’t like it or know about it…. I don't want to get an injury especially high school season is very important”. She believed she needed exercise and movement for her heath but was afraid of getting hurt from not enough warm-up time.

Eunae believed that effective learning was balancing their own goals and having cooperation with classmates. She explained,

I like group jump-rope and yoga because I like that I can do both sports by myself and with my friends. When I learned jump-rope, I realized that cooperation is more important than individual skills…Also, we needed to have strategy to build scores, which was also a different experience than before…. For yoga, I feel overwhelmed by my academics, but it helps me to calm down my mind and heart. That is why I like both sports.

From Eunae’s current PE class experience, she found new sports that she enjoyed. She shared, “I liked more active sports before, but through this PE class, I realized I can also enjoy some stationary activities.” This diversity of PA gave her more motivation to engage in PE class. In general, Eunae thought that PE without male students was better for motivating females because there was generally too much gap between their abilities, which made female students easily discouraged. Also, she felt that females could get their teacher’s attention more when they were only with the same gender. She explained,

“I told you that teachers usually focus on boys, and I feel they don’t care enough about girls. Also, boys are too challenging for me, which made me discouraged to participate in PA in PE”. Although she enjoyed some physical challenge, it was different when males were there or not because she felt a lot of pressure from male students.

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Lastly, knowing the benefit of PA increased her motivation. She mentioned, “We have a sedentary lifestyle as students, but I don’t want to be fat…. Although I like to exercise generally, I don’t have time to move my body except in PE class”. Since she focused strongly on her academics and stayed most of the day at school, PE class was really significant for her health. She expressed, “even though I need to put my energy to attend PE class, actually I feel I can get some energy from movement. I believe I can build my stamina for my study from PE”. She thought most of her classmates stayed at school most of the day to achieve their academic goals, so she believed it was very vital to have high quality of physical education for their health.

Inseol (PE Teacher)

Inseol, a female PE teacher aged 44, had 16 years of experience at the time of the study; that is, she had taught six years at the middle school level and ten years at the high school level. She was currently employed at a mixed-gender middle school where she taught 7th, 8th, and 9th grade students. Students attended PE for 45 minutes, three times a week. She taught 19 PE classes per week for an average of 3.5 classes per day.

She said she had an average of 30 students in each class, with approximately 17 males and 13 females in each one. Her classes were mixed-gender. She said that females and males participated in the same activity together for 40% of the class time, and 60% of the time they were in separate activities with their same gender.

An overview of Inseol’s beliefs about girls’ physical activity is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research Questions 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Inseol’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’ PA

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and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions

2 and 4).

Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Across Inseol’s interviews, she expressed that female students had lower PA than male students, and their lack of confidence and skill development made it challenging for her to teach them. First of all, she said, “girls’ participation is much lower than boys…at least 2:8” (Interview 1). In general, she felt that “girls don’t have high desire to move and don’t want to participate in PE” (Interview 1), and their negative attitude toward PE was the most difficult aspect for her. The clash between her own positive experiences with PE and sports as a student and her female students’ resistance to PA also exacerbated the struggle she felt teaching them. She explained,

I like PE and have been good at sports since I was young. I mean at least I thought I was matching the PE subject…It means I was not only good at sports but also had high desire to learn, participate, and cooperate as well. I just liked PE and thought it was good for my life. (Inseol, Interview 1)

Moreover, she enjoyed competitive sports but believed her students lacked the maturity to engage in them, so she tried to teach PE without competition as much as she could.

She shared, “For me, personally, I like competitive sports because they are fun, but in my experience of over 15 years teaching in secondary school, they are not good for students” (Interview 1). Moreover, she clarified, “I don’t think they are ready to compete with each other. I don’t think competition is always bad, but without maturity, it has more disadvantages than advantages, so I try to teach PE without competition”

(Interview 2). In reality, Inseol found this difficult to do because her male students wanted to engage in competition, and she also admitted she felt competition was still good for students’ skill development. In her classroom observations, students did focus

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more on drills than game play, but they also played basketball matches during one class session (Observation 2).

Since Inseol had extensive experience at both the middle school and high school levels, she provided some comparison about female students’ PA in these two different settings. In general, she indicated that teaching middle school female students was especially challenging for her. She explained, “High school girls’ participation is a little better…. Maybe they are mature, so at least they know they need exercise” (Interview

3). Although she felt the gap between male and female students’ physical ability was bigger in high school, their maturity improved their attitudes and engagement in PE.

More specifically, she said that in high school “boys develop more muscles, which leads to more power, speed, and body coordination. However, because they all become more mature, some parts are easier than in middle school” (Interview 3). For example, she explained,

Boys skills are too high compared to girls so boys don’t tease girls’ performance; instead sometimes, they encourage girls try. Also, girls ask me to walk around the playground because they don’t want to be fat and want to exercise during PE class. (Inseol, Interview 3)

However, she felt it “impossible to expect that situation” at the middle school level because it was “really hard to encourage girls to move actively” (Interview 3).

Moreover, Inseol believed that students’ general attitude toward school was reflected in their attitudes toward PE class. She explained, “When we have teachers’ meetings, most teachers make common statements about their specific students. For example, when I think a student is good in PE, their attitude and behavior is usually good in other classes too” (Interview 3). She continued to share that PE was “a little

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different subject” because it is a “very public environment” but “still students’ attitude and behavior in school influences their participation in PE so much” (Interview 3).

With regards to gender differences, Inseol strongly believed that male students naturally had higher ability than female students and demonstrated greater desire and effort to engage in PE classes. She explained, “Biologically boys are much better than girls. Even though I’m teaching in middle school right now, I can see many gaps between boys and girls. When I taught in high school, it was even more than middle school students” (Interview 1). Inseol indicated that gender differences were not only rooted in biological differences but also differences in their opportunity: “As I mentioned, biologically boys and girls are different. Also, girls physical opportunity is much lower than boys in South Korea, which affects everything like students’ motivation, attitudes, and results” (Interview 2). More specifically, she explained:

Because naturally when we are born, males and females have different physical ability. But even beyond biological reasons, boys are used to using their bodies much more than girls, so they know how they can move their bodies and respond to different physical tasks. That is why when I explain the same thing in class, boys’ and girls’ understandings are totally different. For example, boys already have a lot of knowledge of PE and have desire to try performance more than girls. However, for girls, they often miss my point and are afraid of trying new performances. Basically, this is a bad cycle. (Inseol, Interview 2)

This gap in prior experience and understanding of PE was a big challenge for her. She explained,

Normally, boys want to do more competition and be more active, but for girls, I need to teach them step by step. The problem is when I teach them skills step by step, boys lose their motivation easily because they already know how to play. (Inseol, Interview 2)

Not only did Inseol feel that female and male students had different physical ability but also different preferences, and she perceived this as a difficulty for her teaching. She shared,

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Boys and girls preferences are very different, but if we focus on girls, it cannot work for the whole class. If we just focus on them, the other group will be neglected, which is the majority group. So even though it is sad, I think we need to manage the whole group instead of minority group. (Inseol, Interview 1)

Inseol believed that her responsibility as a PE teacher was to address the needs and desires of most of her students, and in her case, this meant matching the preferences of the male students. This tension was evident in her later interviews as well. She explained,

There are many differences in boys’ and girls’ PA, but it is not easy to provide different curriculum for them. I’m only one person, so although I do care about students so much, I need to manage the whole class instead of one or two individual students. Naturally, boys’ physical ability is high and their desire is high, so I need to match them rather than minority students. (Inseol, Interview 3)

At one point she exclaimed, “Hey, if I just focus on minority students, most students will be neglected by me” (Interview 3). Thus, in general, Inseol claimed that it was simpler and more enjoyable for her to teach male students than female students. She explained, “Boys actively move and want to learn many different skills in PE. That is why it is much easier to teach boys compared to girls” (Interview 3). Moreover, she admitted, “Listening to female students’ complaints is hard. It’s not easy to encourage them to join the activities in my class” (Interview 1).

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

As already mentioned, one of the biggest barriers to PA was female students’ lack of interest. For this reason, Inseol wrestled with which activities would promote female students’ engagement in PE class. On the one hand, she indicated that female students liked group activities because “at least they move” when they are with their peers (Interview 3). On the other hand, she felt they may prefer individual sports but did

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not think this was realistic to provide because of lack of equipment and space. She clarified,

It is really hard to provide students individual sports in South Korean PE setting. We don’t have enough time and the space is also limited. For example, based on a survey, many students want to go bowling, but the bowling alley is quite far from the school. We have only 45 minutes, so it is impossible to go there during PE class. (Inseol, Interview 3)

She explained further,

Also, the reason why I said group activity is better than individual activity in PE is at least, girls care about their classmates, so they want to participate with them. If I provide individual sports, they usually sit on the bench or do not participate in activity because no one argues with them. (Inseol, Interview 3)

As this quote implies, Inseol believed that her students, particularly females, were greatly influenced by their peers “more than their teachers” (Interview 2). For example, she shared, “It is a good thing when their close friends like PE or physical activity, then girls try to move more than even when I encourage them to be active” (Interview 1).

From her perspective, this was also related to gender differences. She shared,

Who they are close to is so important because their peers impact them even more than their teachers. Also, generally boys are affected by their peers who are good at sports, but for girls, the media or trends influence them more than someone who is good at sports. (Inseol, Interview 2)

She believed this was “why boys build their physical skills and try to move more than girls” (Interview 3). From her perspective, peer influence was complex because students’ friends could either lead to increased motivation to engage in PA or lack of desire, but also “if someone doesn’t like physical activity, it is not easy to make friends”

(Interview 3). Since Inseol believed that female students were especially impacted by their peers, she tried to use this to motivate them to engage more in PE class:

I think girls’ problem is they don’t care about PE and physical activity, so I think a little pressure is necessary. As I mentioned with you before, their peers have much more influence than me so using their classmates is not a bad idea for

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girls’ physical activity. But, again, they don’t care about their PA, so they need a little push from the teacher to move. (Inseol, Interview 3)

Inseol believed that students’ PA was also impacted by their family members. She explained, “It is a good and bad thing because when their families like doing activity together during the weekend, at least those girls don’t have resistance to physical activity. However, if their families are not active, it increases their sedentary lifestyle”

(Interview 3). Inseol repeatedly asserted that female students’ “lower desire and negative attitudes [were] big barriers” to the engagement in PE class (Interview 3). She tried to motivate them by participating with them, and she felt this was “better than without joining them” (Interview 1). However, this created other challenges:

But the problem is I can’t manage the whole class because I’m only one person. That creates safety issues because I can’t watch everyone. Also, students don’t all like it if I join them, especially some schools don’t have enough equipment; then I take their equipment and spot. (Inseol, Interview 1)

Thus, from Inseol’s perspective, motivating female students was a continuous challenge for her.

Inseol clarified, “even though I don’t want to focus on their skills, it matters for them to participate in PE.” (Interview 3). She believed there was a strong connection between physical ability, confidence, and students’ participation. For example, she explained, “Although physical ability is not everything, it affects students’ motivation and confidence so much especially because PE is a very public environment. Definitely, it is directly related to their participation because they feel like everyone can see them”

(Interview 3). Inseol asserted that

the purpose of PE is not only to display their physical abilities but also to learn how they can enjoy sports in their life. The problem is when students have low physical ability, then they don’t want to participate in PE. (Inseol, Interview 3)

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As these quotes show, Inseol felt that students’ resistance to PE was related to their lack of skill development, which made them feel more vulnerable in a public environment.

Because Inseol believed that it was very challenging to motivate female students due to their low physical ability and motivation, she strongly considered single-gender

PE settings as more effective than mixed-gender settings. She independently brought up this point across each of her interviews, which reflects her deep conviction. First of all,

Inseol felt that female students lacked skill development in their childhood period, which led to a big gap in males’ and females’ physical abilities. She said, “They need to develop their bodies at a well-timed occasion; I mean, during a critical time period”

(Interview 2). She went on to explain:

I believe students should develop and learn specific curriculum during each period. For example, for my girls, they should have already learned basic performance before coming to the middle school, but many students did not. So, it is hard to teach skills that they need to learn in middle school. Without jumping, running, skipping, etc, how can I teach them new sports that the Korean government wants me to teach them in middle school? (Inseol, Interview 2)

She expressed deep frustration with the mixed-gender PE settings because it was difficult to address female and male students’ different activity preferences and abilities.

She claimed, “When students do mixed-gender activities, both boys and girls are not satisfied with the curriculum because their preferences are so different” (Interview 2). In single-gender PE settings she believed she could address their different needs better, especially she wanted “to teach basic skills for girls to participate in middle school PE,” so she thought “single-gender is necessary” (Interview 3). She explained:

First, I would like to teach girls step by step. Actually, many girls don’t have even basic skills like throwing the ball, kicking the ball, hitting the ball, etc. They should have learned these skills before coming to middle school, but many students missed these basic skills. The problem is boys already know these skills and are usually ready to learn the next level. That’s why I said it is hard to have balance between boys and girls. Also, I would like to teach them knowledge of

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PE. Many girls don’t know the game rules and information too. Last one, changing their stereotypes is really important. Most girls think exercise or physical activity will build their muscles and make their bodies buff, and they don’t want that. I may put on a video or use classroom PE more than now, which may help to change their wrong information. That is why I mentioned single- gender class, in my experience, single-gender is much better for both boys and girls. (Inseol, Interview 3)

Inseol mentioned that she had “high confidence” as a PE teacher, but as these quotes have shown, she strongly believed that “mixed-gender classes are a barrier to teaching girls” (Interview 1). She claimed, “Probably I still could not motivate all girls but I’m sure it would be better than now. Because of mixed gender, I need to always modify the rules which is not easy” (Interview 1).

Inseol mentioned a few additional barriers to female students’ PA, including the

PE environment and media influences. She explained that “environment is more important than people think. Girls are affected by environment so much compared to boys such as weather, clean equipment, their partners, relationships, etc.” (Interview 2).

This was related to students’ social recognition at school. Inseol shared, “For example, someone who knows trends through the media will become popular, which gives her a voice in class” (Interview 2). She went on to explain that “Even if a girl who has high physical ability, she may be popular in PE class but not outside of PE” (Interview 2).

With regards to the media, Inseol asserted that “following trends is a big barrier these days” (Interview 3). She explained, “Students are affected by the media too much. That is a big barrier because they care about the media much more than school and teachers”

(Interview 3). This affected their engagement in PE because of students beliefs about their body image:

Because of media, girls don’t want to be sweaty or have muscles. They think thin is better and sweat ruins their makeup. Many PE teachers might agree with me that these days, the biggest barrier is girls’ mindset. They care about their

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appearance more than movement; they want to be feminine, to follow trends, etc. It is really hard to keep their motivation as a teacher (Inseol, Interview 2)

Inseol felt that the media was a particularly strong influence on this generations’ students:

It is totally different than when we were young. Media is everything. I'm not only a PE teacher. I’m a home room teacher too. If I don’t know movie or TV stars or trends that middle school girls like, then they don’t want to talk to me. They think I don’t care about them. (Inseol, Interview 2)

As this quote shows, Inseol believed that the media shaped not only female students’ engagement in PE but also impacted her relationship and rapport with them.

Lastly, Inseol explained that the Korean public school system also created some unique challenges for PE teachers because it is required that teachers rotate to a different school every four to five years. Thus, “every school has different barriers and environment…We need to know what students learned before we came, and what kind of facilities are available for students” (Inseol, Interview 2).

Inhye (Student with High PA)

Inhye, a 13-year-old female middle school student, was identified as having high

PA in Inseol’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of two times a week.

Outside of school, she exercised with her family 2-3 times per week. Inhye liked to play many sports with her brother and father; especially she often played the sports that she needed to prepare her skills for PE tests. Inhye also said she did PA outside of school with her friends 2-3 times per week, such as badminton, table-tennis, walking, etc. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she thought, “It is fun”.

An overview of Inhye’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her

PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

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Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Inhye’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Inhye displayed a positive attitude toward PE class and high satisfaction with her

PE teacher. She expressed, “I’m learning many sports and activities in my PE class, which I like”. She especially enjoyed playing badminton and table tennis, which she learned recently in her PE class. Also, Inhye generally expressed high confidence in physical activity and PE, which led her to engage in PE class more. She shared, “I’m confident about many sports because my dad taught me lots of different sports since I was young”. She explained that she liked playing many sports with her male classmates, which she thought continually built her skills. However, sometimes, she was frustrated by them because she felt they had more voice and power than her, especially she was usually the one or two females playing. More specifically, Inhye thought being the minority made it difficult for her to choose her preferred sports, and she felt she had to usually follow the male students’ decisions. She expressed, “I mean I like playing together with boys, but when we play with them, usually they want to do everything.

Also, when the teacher gives free time to play any game, boys usually choose whatever they want”. She felt she did not have the option to say no because the male students had their own culture with one or two of them having most of the power and the others

“have to just follow”. Thus, she encouraged her female classmates to join the games, but the situation was the same. She shared,

For example, before learning table tennis, we learned tee-ball. When we play together, boys just want to throw the ball most of the time and take the position where usually they get more balls. I didn’t have the opportunity to learn tee-ball

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as much as I wanted. Even my girl classmates have it worse, because they don’t care if they play or not, but I care.

Inhye often felt PE class was often uncomfortable and unfair, but she felt she did not have any other option especially she did not want to fight with male students. Although she was frustrated with many male students’ attitudes, she thought that generally male students’ ability was better than females. She explained, “Even though I complained about boys, they are much better than us. They know how to play many sports even without learning the skills from the teacher”. Inhye felt trapped many times, because without her male classmates, she did not have enough people to play with. She shared,

“One day, I just wanted to be with my girl classmates, but I didn’t have many activities as much as when I was with boys. So, I returned back to boys, because I like playing sports”. Although she liked her PE teacher, she complained about her teacher that she usually did not push female students to move enough. For example, in a basketball lesson, the teacher told the female students to practice two-hand shots, but Inhye chose to do one-handed shots like the male students because she said it would be better for her skill development (Observation 3). In this way, Inhye thought that her teacher provided many different sports, but her expectation was quite different between females and males. She mentioned,

When Jinsung missed the ball from pitcher, my teacher helped him so much about how he can hit the ball, but including me, when girls hit the ball even one time, she was just satisfied and gave us compliments. I think that is why my girls don’t put their effort in PE.

Inhye wanted her teacher to give female students more instruction and attention like the male students. For this reason, she thought that if the teacher taught female and male students separately, it would be better for her and her female classmates.

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Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

From Inhye’s perspective, male students’ teasing and bullying is one of the biggest barriers for female students to participate in PE more actively. Although male students did not tease Inhye, she often felt uncomfortable to watch female students being teased by male students. Inhye often ignored when male students pointed out other female students’ low physical abilities and often ridiculed them because she did not know what to do. She expressed, “Of course, our teacher usually judges boys’ actions when she sees them, but they never really change their behavior…When the teacher is gone, they tease girls even more….Most girls just ignore boys’ action instead of telling the teacher”. Inhye thought bullying and teasing influenced female students to be hesitant to join PE class. Even though she liked PE and playing sports with male classmates, her desire often dropped when her close friends did not want to participate in

PE. She expressed, “When they want to play sports, I want to participate it more, but if not, my desire is lower too”. She thought if her close friends could participate well and play sports with her, she would feel much better than playing with the male students.

She showed frustration with her female classmates:

I don’t know why they don’t like PE. I tried to help them many times, but it was not easy to encourage them. I want the teacher to help them. I want to play with them. Boys are not nice.

Because she is affected by her friends so much, she could not get enough personal fulfilment to be completely satisfied with her PE class.

Since Inhye was young, she was used to exercising regularly with her parents which impacted her awareness of the importance of PE. She shared, “I think it is very important….It is good for my health and helps me get a good mood….PE class

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encourages me to move my body and gives me joy”. From her experiences with her family, Inhye had her own passion and joy in physical movement, which helped her to engage PE class as well. Even though Inhye complained about her male classmates she often played with them:

Without boys, I don’t think I can play sports….It’s true that boys make class more fun and exciting. Although I like my girl classmates, they just sit and talk all the time during PE class….Playing with boys is annoying sometimes, and they often make me crazy, but I think because of them, I also enjoy PE.

Inhye was irritated with her male classmates, but simultaneously appreciated their effort, such as making the class mood light and fun, which she thought gave her high motivation to engage in PE. In addition, getting feedback and attention from her PE teacher increased her desire to be more deeply involved in PE class. She shared,

I don’t know… It is different. When the teacher helps me and sees me, I really want to show her my ability. It feels really good when she compliments my ability. I want her to see my performance more than now.

Inhye clearly pointed out that her PE teacher’s attention gave her high motivation, and she wanted to receive more direct instruction from her teacher. Lastly, because she liked being with her close friends, she really enjoyed helping and even teaching sports to them. She said “I’m not tired, yes, I really want them to learn and play with me. If so, it could be so fun. Maybe we can play against the boys”. Overall, Inhye expressed high desire to play with her female classmates but also was often disappointed with their passive attitudes.

Injoo (Student with Low PA)

Injoo, a 13-year-old female middle school student, was identified as having low

PA in Inseol’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of three times a week.

Outside of school, she said she walks once or twice a week with her family. Also, Injoo

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said she did PA outside of school with her friends twice a month because her friends want her to join them. Her friends usually choose what kind exercise they want to do together.

An overview of Injoo’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her

PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Injoo’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Overall, Injoo expressed a negative attitude toward PE class because she did not enjoy PA. She shared, “I learned many sports in PE class, but mostly I don’t like them….Nothing is fun. I don’t like movement, which makes me tired and I hate feeling sweaty”. She said she generally did not like exercise and lacked experience with physical movement, so it affected her attitude toward PE class as well. However, she was aware of how significant PE is because she often heard other people emphasize about the benefits of exercise. For example, she explained, “Even though I don’t like movement, I think it is important…People said it is important for our lives, and my parents think physical activity helps our health”. Although she consistently shared that she did not like PE and exercise, she was willing to listen to other people’s advice for her health, which could lead her to have a little better attitude when she participates in

PE. Moreover, she wanted to support her classmates and cared about her relationships with them, so she often joined activities with her classmates even if she did not like them. She expressed,

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I really don’t want them to think of me too much. Most of the time, I don’t want to move my body, but my friend often wants me to join their activities, so I often just do it. I don’t want to hurt their feelings and want to have good relationships with them.

Injoo’s high value for her peer relationships seemed to help her try to engage in PA in her PE class, despite her personal feeling toward exercise.

With regards to the role of gender, Injoo believed male students’ ability is naturally much higher than female students,’ especially she felt she never had “good ability” in her life, which she thought ruined her self-confidence. She communicated strong gender barriers in PE:

I think it is fact that boys have power and natural ability much more than us, which can probably build their skills. That is why compared to us, they like PE more than us….I don’t have confidence. Just look at them. See how much gap we have, but the teacher puts us together in the same activity. It’s torturous.

She wanted her PE teacher to care about this gap between female and male students and more deeply consider how some students who have low ability like her feel in class. She thought it was obvious that most boys enjoyed PE class much more than female students, which often made it an unfair environment for female students. For example, she shared, “Our teacher often talks about students’ attitude and behavior because I think she believes we should work hard like boys”.

Injoo shared that although her teacher did not directly compare female and male students, she believed that the teacher valued the male students more. For instance, when the teacher talked in public, she usually spoke to the male students and watched them much more than girls. In Injoo’s own words, “Oh, she teaches us the same as boys, but she always uses boys as examples of what is good and better”. From the observation fieldnotes, it was observed that Injoo’s PE teacher, Inseol, gave male students more compliments and talked to them more often than the female students during their

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basketball passing drills (Observation 2). Also, it was quite obvious that her teacher gave attention to the male students or students who were more active in PE compared to female students or students who were inactive. She let the female students rest many times and allowed them to chat with their classmates during PE class; however, she quickly scolded the male students if they were not actively engaged in the tee-ball games (Observation 1). Another big reason why Injoo did not like participating in PE class was because male students often teased her and her performance, which she said was a very hurtful experience. Many times, she told her teacher, but she claimed that they never changed their action. Injoo thought that sometimes the male students became a little better, but it was always just a temporary change. For example, she expressed:

Oh my gosh, they are crazy. Many boys tease me so much, but they just stop and sometimes are nice to me in front of the teacher, which makes me so crazy and angry…. I told my teacher many times….I think she doesn’t know exactly how bad boys are, and boys just change their action for a short time. So, I just gave up.

Moreover, Injoo thought that male students were often whispering and talking badly about her and her body, which decreased her desire to participate in PE even more. Thus, Injoo wanted her teacher to manage her male classmates’ misbehavior better and not allow them to tease others.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Injoo believed that there were no personal benefits to have PA in PE class for her; rather she thought it hurt her emotion and confidence so much. She complained, “I don’t understand why I need to have PE class….I know exercise is important, but I can do it with my family”. She often felt ashamed to show her low ability in front of her classmates. She said, “I hate that we sometimes have to show our performance in public,

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which makes me super stressed”. She had experienced many times the feeling of surveillance, which made her to hesitant to join activities and show others her skills. She often felt many people teased and judged her low performance, which caused her to avoid physical movement. Moreover, not only teasing, but also boys often looked down on her performance and even pointed out her body. She explained, “I even can’t pass the flexibility test, which most girls usually pass. I know they talk about me….Oh, it was obvious that one boy said, ‘you are not even a girl’”. Through her bad experience with these standard fitness test, she avoided showing her performance even in front of teacher. Injoo believed she was the lowest person in her class and felt even her close friends sometimes could not understand why she did not want to participate in PE. In addition, since she was young, she did not like exercise, which influenced her attitude and confidence in PE class directly.

Moreover, her teacher’s encouragement to be active also increased her stress level. She shared that, “I understand my teacher, but I seriously have no desire to move especially in PE class”. Injoo indirectly shared her emotion toward her PE teacher during the interview consistently; she did not want to be rude to her teacher, but she was frustrated with her PE teacher’s teaching style, especially her “pushing” and lack of management of male students’ behavior. However, compared to her past experience, she felt she had improved her perspective about PE because of her close friends. She explained, “Again, I don’t like PE. Actually, I don’t want to join PE class as much as I can, but because of my friends, I go. I do care about my friends”. Although Injoo did not like exercise in general, outside of the PE setting was a little better, because she could exercise with only her close friends. This made her feel more comfortable than when she had to show her low performance to others. Also, her family supported her to have basic

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movement such as walking and simple jump-roping. She shared, “I think having exercise with my family is worthier than having PE class, because my family knows me well, so they never push me. In school, sometimes, I have to do intense activity, which is mostly above my level”. Because Injoo thought that she didn’t have enough ability to do

PE, she was convinced that PA outside of school was much more helpful for her physical development. Even though her PE teacher always said participation and effort were more important, Injoo felt it was impossible to join PE with low physical ability because she always needed to show her ability publicly and often compete with others.

She said, “I’m terrified when I have to show my performance in front of many people….I often tell my teacher I’m sick or have a bad condition….I really don’t like

PE”. Injoo often made excuses not to participate in PE because her class environment gave her pressure. She often felt trapped:

I can make excuses to my teacher, but the problem is sometimes, my girl classmates want me to join their game because they don’t have enough members to play. I usually don’t want to join, but I feel pressure to, so I just stand there until they have finished.

She explained the system that many girls often wanted to get “free activity time” from their teacher. The teacher sometimes allowed female students to do their preferred games rather than teaching them specific tasks. Injoo mentioned, “my teacher may think all girls like free activity time, but actually I don’t like it”. She just did not want to break relationship with her classmates, but also did not want to join PE. Overall, there were many reasons Injoo did not want to participate in PE. The central reason was she felt PE was never welcoming to her, which intensified her resistance. Lastly, although she just complained directly about her classmates, especially males, she showed frustration with her teacher as well.

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Wongil (PE Teacher)

Wongil, a male PE teacher aged 31, had five years of experience at the time of the study. He had taught only at the middle school level for five years, and he was currently employed at a mixed-gender middle school where he taught 7th grade (first- year) students. Students attended PE for 45 minutes, three times a week. He taught 19

PE classes per week for an average of 3.5 classes per day. He said he had an average of

30 students in each class, with approximately 17 males and 13 females in each one. His classes were mixed-gender; he said that females and males participated in the same activity together for 60% of the class time, and 40% of the time they were in separate activities with their same gender.

An overview of Wongil’s beliefs about girls’ PA is presented in the following section. The first part explores his beliefs about female students’ PA and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research Questions 1 and 3), and the second part addresses Wongil’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 2 and 4).

Beliefs about Female Students’ PA and the Role of Gender (RQs 1&3)

Overall, Wongil was satisfied with his students’ participation rates in his PE classes. He felt that both female and male students could enjoy PE if the curriculum was diverse enough to match their different preferences and abilities. Wongil believed that students’ relatively high PA at his school was related to their family backgrounds and community environment. Since his school was located in a high socio-economic neighborhood, he shared that students had a lot of access to sports facilities outside of

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school and positive experiences with sports with their family members. For example, he said,

many of my students already have great experience about sports like joining club teams, watching professional games with their parents, etc. Even though it may not seem to directly impact students’ development, I think it is related to their mentality toward PA. (Wongil, Interview 2)

More specifically, he explained, “female students at my school have a good background like supportive families, stable finances, and a good living environment. Actually, many students have experience with afterschool sports” (Interview 3). Wongil believed that students’ family education shaped their mentality: “most of my students want to help others and have more patience compared to the other schools I have taught at”

(Interview 2).

As a former elite judo competitor, Wongil had high sports ability and enjoyed

PA throughout his life. He explained,

For me, when I was a student, I was really good at sports, so I thought it would be great to have a job related to this, so I decided to become a PE teacher, and I still really like my job. (Interview 1)

He later added that “honestly, teachers’ jobs are stable, so I thought, why not? I could make money and also do my favorite thing at the same time. One more thing is I really like teaching something to somebody” (Interview 2). Wongil shared that he actually did not have much experience as a student in PE. He explained,

I was an elite athlete from aged 14 to 22, so I mostly focused on my sport, judo, rather than participating in PE. It is a little sad system in South Korea because if we choose to be an athlete, we just need to focus on one sport rather than try other things like learning even other subjects. (Wongil, Interview 2)

Nonetheless, he had a positive feeling toward teaching PE because he enjoyed teaching judo and coaching teammates in lower grade levels for a long time before becoming a

PE teacher. Wongil found it fulfilling to see others learn and was also curious about the

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experience of non-athletes who he expected might feel different toward PE and PA. In his own words, “Since I didn’t have many experiences with PE, I always wanted to know how mainstream students thought about PA and PE, which is helpful for my teaching” (Interview 2).

Wongil showed humility and a desire to learn throughout his interviews. For example, although he had high physical ability as a former elite athlete, he stressed that this was not the same as teaching ability. He shared,

Honestly, I have confidence about my sports skills but still need to improve my teaching. I think many PE teacher are confused about this part. When they think they have high ability to play sports, PE teachers usually assume that they are good at teaching. (Wongil, Interview 2)

He emphasized that teachers’ preparation was more important than their sports skills:

“We need to have many things as PE teachers, but if I have to pick just one, I believe it’s teacher’s preparation…I feel it is absolutely different when I prepare my class or not”

(Interview 3). He believed his students also felt the difference: “Even though students don’t show it, they probably know if a teacher prepares for class or not. I think it is our integrity being a teacher. When we prepare well, it directly affects students’ learning outcomes” (Interview 3).

Wongil believed that students and teachers both valued physical ability too much in PE, “although most PE teachers know that PE is not only about building sports skills”

(Interview 2). However, Wongil also acknowledged that physical ability and teaching ability may be connected in PE because they relate to teachers’ confidence and students’ respect. He shared,

As a PE teacher, having physical ability is a benefit to teach students, such as getting students’ respect easily, showing high demonstration, seeing the deeper layer of students’ performance, and feeling confidence. Oh! I think this is most important part. When PE teachers have high physical ability, they easily can

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have confidence to teach students, which affects our actual teaching. My point is teaching students with confidence and without confidence is totally different. (Wongil, Interview 2)

Related to confidence, Wongil explained that it took time to feel confident teaching female students because he did not have a lot of prior experience with them before becoming a PE teacher. He explained, “Although I liked PE and sports since I was really young, I realized that I didn’t have lots of opportunities to teach girls. Through my experience, girls have different expectations and preferences” (Interview 1). Across all of his interviews, Wongil emphasized the importance of making the curriculum relevant to female students’ preferences, and he put great effort to do this.

One specific part of the curriculum that he discussed extensively was competitive sports. Although he grew up with competition being a huge part of his life and he “was just focused on wining” (Interview 1), he had mixed feelings about using competitive sports for students in PE. He believed that “PE shouldn’t just focus on competition” (Interview 1) because he perceived big gender differences with competition. He felt that male students had more opportunity than females to play competitive sports outside of school, so it was “difficult for girls to enjoy traditional curriculum” (Interview 3). Wongil claimed that students’ different preferences were related to their dissimilar prior experiences and gendered stereotypes in society, which usually led to gaps in their satisfaction with PE curriculum. He explained,

even if some boys don’t want to play with others because of their abilities they feel they should play. They don’t want to look like a ‘loser.’ I think this is a deep part of boys’ culture that when boys don't want to play or are not aggressive enough, then many boys feel they are not boys. That is why even if some boys are not good at sports, they still want to join competitive sports. For girls, they feel freer from this pressure because if they don’t want to play with others, they can choose not to participate in sports. (Wongil, Interview 1)

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In other words, he believed that “basically, many boys like competition and traditional sports, so they are satisfied. Even when some boys don’t like those sports, our culture leads them to join because they don’t want to be left out and isolated by their peers”

(Interview 3). Ultimately, he assumed that competitive sports were divisive because students who had high skill typically wanted the opportunity to “show their ability and got energy from their results” (Interview 1). These students enjoyed competitive sports, and it gave them high motivation in PE class. However, other students “got lots of pressure from competitive sports because everyone wants to win and don’t want to lose”

(Interview 1).

For these reasons, Wongil thought a lot about the role of competitive sports in

PE curriculum and said it was “very hard to solve” and he was “still figuring it out”

(Interview 2). More specifically, he explained,

my dilemma is making a fun and positive environment is very important, especially in middle school PE, so I feel sometimes it is necessary to provide competitive sports. However, most of the time, especially for girls, I usually try to provide a program. without competition because they don’t like it. (Wongil, Interview 2)

Wongil put a lot of effort to understand female students. He explained, “One time, I thought about their side, and I realized it would be impossible to like PE. You know, many of our PE teachers just provide the same curriculum every semester with traditional sports” (Interview 3). Thus, he wanted to make the curriculum more diverse and reflective of both female and male students’ preferences. More specifically, he prepared activities differently based on their level, gender, and group dynamics.

Although he generally used a similar curriculum for all students, he developed different evaluation standards for male and female students because he believed this was “much

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more effective for both boys’ and girls’ physical development” because he thought “it is obvious their abilities and preferences are different” (Interview 1).

Even though Wongil shared that he was sometimes “overwhelmed by many responsibilities” as a PE teacher beyond teaching his courses, such as many different administrative duties, he always tried to “focus on students first” (Interview 1). Many times, he talked about the importance of a professional development group that he was part of, which he felt was really helpful for him, particularly in teaching female students.

He explained that he joined a workshop team of eight members across the school district who met weekly and shared a similar vision for teaching. He shared,

We discuss our teaching and share our experiences, which gives me confidence to teach students, especially girls…After having conversation with them, I usually got some new ideas through reflecting on my teaching, which naturally helps me build the quality of my teaching and curriculum for girls. (Wongil, Interview 1)

Through listening to others’ experiences and sharing their challenges together, he developed a higher sense of confidence in teaching female students. This helped him to create a diverse curriculum to motivate both female and male students to participate in his PE classes.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

2&4)

Across Wongil’s interviews, he emphasized that female and male students had different preferences for PA and this caused challenges for PE teachers to promote their engagement. He was very aware of their barriers and deliberately tried to make the curriculum more diverse to motivate them all. For example, Wongil tried to incorporate many different types of PA in his classes, including many non-traditional sports because he wanted to introduce them to new things in middle school and reflect their different

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preferences. As an example, he included one contact sport and one cheerleading program in the same semester, and he explained,

Obviously, when we do contact sports, girls’ participation rates are low, but boys’ participation rates are lower in cheerleading classes. I think it is important that boys do not look down on girls as much as they do when we just use traditional sports in PE. (Wongil, Interview 2)

From observing a cheerleading lesson in his class, many male students resisted practicing their performance and even complained to the teacher that their leaders pushed them to practice more. Five leaders were female students, and only one male student was a leader in this activity, which shows students’ different interests because students selected their leaders in his class (Observation 2). Wongil tried to “make sure the curriculum was equal for boys and girls,” and he often asked the teachers in his workshop group for feedback before the semester started (Interview 2). He explained that this helped him to see his curriculum more objectively and make changes to make it better. He also created different evaluation forms for female and male students and tried to have them set their own personal goals as well. Although he admitted, “this makes me work more,” he believed that it was better for students (Interview 3). To clarify, he said,

“Even though many teachers are not aware of it, we often take away girls’ opportunities by not thinking about what they like to do and how they feel in our PE classes”

(Interview 3). He passionately shared, “I don’t want students to just learn PE…I really want them to enjoy PA throughout their whole lives. Then it’s necessary to listen to their different voices and provide them curriculum that matches them” (Interview 3).

By creating a more diverse curriculum with less competition and more opportunities for individual sports, he felt that this motivated female students to engage more in his PE classes. He explained, “I think giving many opportunities is most

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important because then students can obviously build their skills more, which can give them motivation to keep doing PA. That is why a diverse PE program is necessary to expand their experience” (Interview 1). When creating his curriculum, he included three key components:

First, enjoyment. I think girls care about enjoyment more than building skills. When they have enjoyment, they want to engage in PE more. Second, it should be related to their lives. This might be my bias that I think girls are mature than boys, so they want to know some activities are useful for their future. If so, their learning desire is very different. Last, less competition because most girls like cooperative activities, such as cheerleading and team jump rope instead of competitive sports, so I usually put these three components for my curriculum for female students. (Wongil, Interview 1)

In Wongil’s experience, “girls’ participation increased when we provided more individual sports” (Interview 3). He explained further that, “I believe that team and individual sports are important for both boys and girls…I complained about traditional sports because most PE teachers only use those sports. My point is we should provide other programs as well” (Interview 3). Wongil believed that female students “felt insecure about their skills when they are with boys,” but “when girls play with girls, many girls are very active and engage in PE so much” (Interview 2). He explained further:

I think they don’t want to look stupid…when they participate on the same team, they feel pressure to not make mistakes. Most boys are very competitive, which gives girls lots of pressure. Also, I learned that students usually can feel comfortable and have motivation when they have a partner who is similar to them. Boys’ abilities make girls feel overwhelmed, which naturally makes them hesitant to participate in PE. (Wongil, Interview 2)

Thus, he found the mixed gender PE setting to be a barrier for female students, in particular, because they felt more pressure and less confidence in their abilities.

Since Wongil believed that male and female students had biological differences that created “lots of gaps between boys’ and girls’ physical abilities” (Interview 2), he

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stressed the importance of having students make their own personal goals. He felt that puberty caused this gap between students in middle school, claiming that “boys’ bodies are more matching traditional PE than girls’ bodies,” and “when girls have puberty, it is kind of a barrier to be active, so naturally girls have more disadvantages than boys”

(Interview 2). He also said that male students had more practice time than female students: “For example, when boys have lunch break, or even a ten-minute break, they always want to move their bodies, but for girls, only a few do this” (Interview 2).

Wongil believed for “a few sports, boys can’t follow girls’ abilities like dance, cheerleading, flexibility, and jumpband,” and he explained this was because “girls put their time and energy to practice those activities more than boys” (Interview 2). Because of these gender differences, he tried to have students “achieve their own goals” and graded them “based on effort, passion, and attitude rather than on their physical ability”

(Interview 2). He explained, “That is why it is fair for everyone. It doesn’t matter who already had high skills or not. Based on their own base line, I want to see their progress and achievement rather than focus on the final destination” (Interview 2).

From students’ feedback and course evaluations, Wongil found that female students enjoyed individual sports in his PE classes because “many of them didn’t know they could achieve their personal goals, which makes them super excited and want to engage more” (Interview 3). He shared that female students liked this feeling of accomplishment and felt less pressure, as another student explained that “no one blamed her even when she made mistakes” (Interview 3). From observing his third-class focused on jump-roping, he provided two activities. First, all students did individual jump- roping, which provided them the opportunity to try to achieve their own personal goals rather than compete with others. The next activity was group jump-rope, which required

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students to have high cooperation. Although two groups struggled to jump together with rhythm and tripped on the rope, most students tried to help each other to increase their team score (Observation 3).

Thus, Wongil believed that female students could enjoy PE, and actually, he enjoyed teaching them too: “I get lots of positive energy from girls because they usually show their appreciation much more than boys, which makes me become a better PE teacher as well” (Interview 3). He felt that female students, “liked teachers’ attention and encouragement” and were motivated differently than male students (Interview 3).

For example, he discovered that male students loved it when he joined their physical activity: “When they play soccer, I can run and play with them; then they feel easily bonded with me” (Interview 3). In contrast, “with girls, it’s not so simple. I need to put more time and effort to be close to them. I need to explain more details and be careful with girls” (Interview 3). He also believed that female and male students responded to his efforts to help him differently because the female students seemed to get confidence and motivation when he helped them, but the male students preferred to be independent and were proud of themselves when they could compete without his support. By showing interest in female students’ lives, including “what they like or dislike,” this built their relationship, and Wongil believed that “relationships affect girls’ PA rates so much” (Interview 3). In his experience, “when they feel close with me, they join PE more actively, but if their mood is not good, then they just use excuses like ‘my stomach is uncomfortable’ or something like that” (Interview 3).

Based on Wongil’s deep reflection on his female students’ PA engagement, he found many ways to motivate them. Wongil explained, “they are affected by each other so much. It doesn’t matter which subject or task; girls usually want to work together

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especially with their close friends. I think girls value relationships more than boys”

(Interview 1). Since he believed they highly valued relationships, he tried to give them personal attention and learn about what they liked and disliked because this increased their desire to participate in his PE class. Also, knowing that they were affected by their peers so much, he tried to use this as a strategy to increase their engagement through small group and cooperative activities. He also tried to create more afterschool “sports clubs” for female students so they could increase their practice time. He explained that although the school district wanted to improve female students’ PA rates, it had not improved enough. Thus, he said, “I put more effort to make more girls’ sports clubs than boys’ clubs, and I observe them and take them to practice twice as much because I think they need my support more than the boys” (Interview 2).

Moreover, Wongil tried to motivate female students using the media to try to change their perspectives and attitudes toward PE. He felt that students had strong gender biases, and female students often said, “we are girls,” as excuses for why they did not need to be physically active (Interview 1). Moreover, he explained, “even some girls don’t feel comfortable with basic movement and have no information about PE.

Then it is important to show why PE and PA are important in their lives” (Interview 2).

Thus, he used examples of their favorite stars and successful stories to motivate them.

From his experience, female students were “more affected by visual content than verbal explanation” (Interview 2). He explained, “When I get their attention, and they start to know the importance of PA, then I usually go deeper, such as talk about how these examples relate to our PE class and their lives” (Interview 2). He tried to give them specific examples and guidance, and he felt this was successful method to motivate them. In other words,

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when we meet in class and just explain rules and knowledge, many students are not interested in PE because it doesn’t touch their hearts and is boring to them. That is why I can see their desire and attitude is totally different when I use these methods to help them achieve their goals. (Wongil, Interview 2)

Wongil believed that “middle school PE is really crucial because it is directly related to high school PE” (Interview 1). When he first became a teacher, he said he “felt hurt” by female students’ resistance to PE and “tried to push them to join the activities”

(Interview 3). However, he then “realized that a teacher’s push is limited, so we should make an environment that students can enjoy. Then they will have their own desire to be active, which is the key” (Interview 3). Thus, he tried to give female students “a taste of fun PE,” and then they can become “really active as much as boys” (Interview 3).

Wonjin (Student with Low PA)

Wonjin, a 13-year-old female middle school student, was identified as having low PA in Wongil’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of three times a week.

Outside of school, she said she did not exercise with her family, but Wonjin said she did

PA outside of school with her friends twice a week, particularly, walking at the park and playing badminton. She explained that she exercised outside of school because she liked

“talking with [her] friends”.

An overview of Wonjin’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Wonjin’s beliefs about the barriers that impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

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Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Although Wonjin thought physical education was an important subject, she expressed that she generally did not like physical movement, which led her to have a negative attitude toward PE. For example, she said, “I don’t like PE because I don’t like getting sweaty…I don’t want to be sweaty especially I need to sit in class after PE class.

That feels worse”. Most students do not take showers after finishing PE class in South

Korea, so Wonjin thought it was very uncomfortable to attend another class after engaging in PA. However, she mentioned about importance of physical activity, “it is very important…for my health and life”. She believes physical education and exercise are different, so even though she did not like to sweat at school, she tried to do regular exercise outside of school. For example, she explained, “I would rather do outside exercise than PE. That is why I got a monthly gym membership since last year”. Her parents encouraged her to do exercise more, so she followed her parents’ advice, which led her to attending fitness classes at the gym. She explained, “Well, it is okay, but compared to PE class, I think it is much better because the gym is very clean, and I don’t need to worry about others”. Sometimes she got pressure from her classmates that she should follow their direction and needed to put more effort to “please” them. Although she sometimes sounded like she was complaining about her PE class and her classmates, she showed appreciation for her PE teacher. She mentioned,

Oh, my teacher is very different. I mean most of my past PE teachers often scolded my performance and were not nice to me, but my current teacher always shows care and teaches us in a nice way. But I still don’t like PE.

Wonjin strongly believed male students enjoyed and excelled in PE more than female students. She shared, “Naturally boys love PE more than girls, because they were used to playing sports all the time. Maybe a few of my friends like PE, but they also not

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crazy like boys.” She thought male students had more opportunity to play many activities than female students. Those experiences led male students to have desire to compete with others because they thought they were good and wanted to show their performance publicly. She explained,

Oh, it’s obvious they think they are good. When we walk nearby them, their action becomes crazier. My friend thinks it is natural that when we are good at something, we want to show others. Maybe the opposite is true for me. I’m horrible at sports, so I don’t want to show others.

Wonjin had been struggling with her physical performance in PE for a long time, but she felt it improved a little bit because of her current PE teacher. She shared, “I really like that our teacher often divides us into two groups. I feel much more comfortable when I stay with my girl classmates”. Although she still said she could not enjoy PE class, she thought separate from male students was much better for her because she felt less stress and anxiety. However, she thought there are different gender issues in her PE class. For example,

Boys usually don’t support group activities when girls lead the team. They complained so much about practicing cheerleading. Actually, I also didn’t want to do it, but it was much better than other activities, and I wanted to support my friends. When they have their favorite sports, they are very active, but their behavior is totally different when they do our favorite sports.

Since her PE teacher often provided cooperative activities and teamwork games, Wonjin felt she could enjoy some parts, but she thought male students were the opposite. In her opinion, male students wanted to “just play soccer”. From her PE teacher’s diverse curriculum, female and male students sometimes had power struggle, and Wonjin shared that male students often teased and bullied female students. Wonjin explained, “Of course, their behavior is crazy. Although I didn’t do anything and was also not happy about practicing cheerleading more, they just yelled at me right after finishing class last

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week”. She thought male students’ dissatisfaction in PE led to bad behavior toward female students. Also, she insisted that most male students usually complained about class and their PE teacher when they had “girls’ PE”. She explained, “They think it is not so cool and fun. Actually, some male students pursued playing soccer instead of practicing cheerleading, but our teacher did not allow them to play. They become angry at us; they’re so bad”. She shared that it happened quite often, and some female students argued back at male students, which made their relationships even worse. When observing a cheerleading lesson, the male students complained multiple times that the female students wanted to practice the drills again, and Wonae turned her back to them repeatedly to ignore them (Observation 2).

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

There are several barriers that Wonjin shared made her feel hesitant to engage

PE. First, since she had little confidence in her physical ability, following teacher’s instructions was not so easy for her. She shared, “Even though I like my teacher, it is hard to keep following his direction because he always wants us to move”. She had generally low motivation in PE, so it was hard for her to keep positive energy toward

PE. Also, it always “ruined her confidence when she had to show her performance” in front of her classmates. She explained, “That is why I am always dependent on my friend because she gives me at least a safe feeling”. Having a close friend in PE class was very important to her, because Wonjin thought her friend could help protect her when she did not want to perform in front of others, especially in front of male classmates. In addition, an unsafe environment made her hesitate to participate in PE.

For example, she shared “sometimes boys just tease my ability because I’m not good at

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sports. I already feel insecure, so I naturally don’t want to play in school”. Although her current teacher provided many different programs compared to her previous teacher, she still had no confidence and often no desire to participate in PE. Teasing from male classmates affected her negative emotion toward PE as well. She shared that, “They are super annoying that they often kick the ball at girls…Many things, they laugh at me, look down on my performance, mock me, etc.”. She often felt she did not want to be with male students and wanted her teacher to manage their bad behavior more strictly.

Moreover, Wonjin talked about the differences between outside and inside PE.

She explained, “I don’t need to show my performance to my classmates, and I don’t need to do something if I don’t want to. No one teases me at the gym. Also, my trainer is handsome”. Even though she did not like movement, she wanted to do exercise because of taking care of her health. However, she insisted this did not have to be inside of PE because she could exercise outside of PE, which helped her emotion and made her feel much safer than in school. This was deeply related to her behavior and attitude toward

PA. Since she thought outside PE was better and enjoyed hanging out with her close friends, she had motivation to do PA outside of PE class more than at school. She expressed, “Oh, yes. I like playing sports outside of school because I can hang out with my friends. I mean when I go out, I can choose which activity I can do with my friends”.

Wonjin liked the freedom of exercising outside of school because she could have more choices and be with people she felt safe with. From her interview, she consistently talked about her PE teacher in positive way, which can give her better attitude in PE.

She shared that, “I don’t like PE generally, especially competitive sports, but my PE teacher provides many different programs that female students like, so I feel much better than before”. Although she still had a hard time in PE, compared to past experience, she

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felt much better when she participated in this PE class. Since her PE teacher put his effort and care for students, Wonjin expressed,

At least I’m thankful he lets me sit on the bench and tries to understand me. He never allows students to rest in his class, but sometimes allows me to rest. Because of him, I sometimes participate in class with a better attitude. I feel I also need to show him my appreciation.

Lastly, although Wonjin generally did not like PE, she still valued the opportunity to hang out with her classmates and see them regularly. She shared that, “I like being with my close friends, but outside of PE it is not easy to meet them. At least through PE class, we can naturally meet and hang out with each other”. Thus, she thought not only her relationship with her teacher but also her relationship with her classmates was very important because it impacted her motivation in PE class.

Wonae (Student with High PA)

Wonae, a 13-year-old female middle school student, was identified as having high PA in Wongil’s PE class. She attended PE classes an average of three times a week. Outside of school, she said she exercises and plays many sports with her family almost every day. More specifically, she likes to play Taekwondo with her father.

Wonae also said she did PA outside of school with her friends 2-3 times a week, in particular, Taekwondo and playing badminton. She explained that she exercises outside of school because she likes “playing sports and competing with [her] friends.”

An overview of Wonae’s beliefs about her PE class and female students’ PA in

PE class is presented in the following section. The first part explores her beliefs about her PE class and the role of gender in students’ engagement in PA in PE class (Research

Questions 5 and 7), and the second part addresses Wonae’s beliefs about the barriers that

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impact females students’ PA and how they can be better motivated to engage in their PE classes (Research Questions 6 and 8).

Beliefs about her PE Class and the Role of Gender (RQs 5&7)

Since Wonae was really young, she has always liked participating in physical activity and many different sports, which affects her positive attitude toward her PE classes as well. Her father has been working in a Taekwondo stadium over 15 years as an instructor, and she has very close relationship with her father. From her perspective, this has helped her to have a high amount of physical movement compared to her peers.

She shared, “Yes, I always like PE because my dad encourages me to exercise…. I’m so excited that when I have PE class”. She was used to moving her body so much since she was very young, and she has high confidence to learn many different physical activities and sports, which has directly shaped her positive attitude toward PE. Also, she believes

PE is really important for her health and mental strength. Because of her father, she knows not only how to do physical performance, but also has knowledge of physical movement. She explained, “My dad taught me how I can do Taekwondo and build my mental strength. I know when we have healthy body, it affects our mentality”. She believes having regular exercise and movement is important for her holistically. Also, she talked about the different advantages between outside sports and PE class. For example, she said, “Just for movement, I think outside of school is even better because we can build the specific skills that we want. But PE is more fun because I can see my classmates”. She enjoys playing sports and doing PA with her classmates, which is not easy to do outside PE. Particularly, she really likes team sports because she enjoys the social interaction and has high confidence in skills. She specifically shared her past experience:

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I really like dodge ball and team sports…. I feel good when I throw the ball, and team sports are fun…. Maybe 9 out of 10 times? I always throw the ball, because I like it and even if the ball is far from me, my team usually just gives me the ball to instead of them….Maybe they want to win the game. It is true I’m good at throwing the ball.

From observing her classes, it was true that many female students turned to Wonae for direction about what to during the activities in PE class. For example, in a jump rope lesson, Wonae was the leader of her team and counted “One, Two, Jump!” aloud to try to get more female students to jump together so their team could win more points

(Observation 3). Also, in a ‘rock paper scissor’ running game activity, Wonae cheered the most for her teammates and yelled out strategies much more than her peers

(Observations 1).

Wonae emphasized many times about the importance of PE and the enjoyment she felt in PE class. Just one part that she did not like in recent PE classes because she thought her teacher provided too many different “weird activities.” She shared, “I like traditional sports, you know… soccer, running, volleyball, and dodgeball, but my teacher teaches us some different sports. I do not like cheerleading. It is not so cool”.

She shared some frustration with gap between her recent PE curriculum and her past experience. Although she was learning many different sports and physical activities, she liked her elementary PE program more such as dodgeball, 50-meter run, etc., because she was used to those sports and knew how to do them well.

With regard to gender differences, Wonae shared that she believed female and male students have gaps in physical ability, and she claimed that female students do not like physical activity and PE as much as male students. She felt this led to a natural gap between female and male students’ abilities, but she also explained that her current PE teacher tended to include more physical activities that he thought female students might

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enjoy. Wonae explained, “I feel my teacher always provides some games and leisure activities rather than playing sports. I’m okay about this, but I want to play more sports”.

Because she had high ability and was used to many different traditional sports, she missed playing sports with her classmates and enjoyed these more than her current diverse curriculum.

Wonae believed male students had higher physical ability and were more aggressive than female students. She explained, “I think it is quite different. They are better than us and even crazier”. Although her PE teacher normally did not provide many competitive sports in his curriculum, such as soccer or dodgeball, students sometimes just played by their own rules when they had free time before the class or after finishing class. Then the male students usually were quite aggressive, such as in dodgeball Wonae said they threw the ball very strongly at female students. She expressed, “They are even crazier than me. They try to hit their friends’ face and some spots that hurt more”. Although it may have sounded like she was complaining about male students, she still thought playing with them was better. She shared, “Even though they are annoying, without them, it will not be fun as much as now. I like playing sports with boys”. Even though she has high confidence about PE and enjoys playing many sports with male students, her evaluation of herself compared to male and female classmates was different. For example, she said, “Yes, I have confidence, and I’m really good among girls. But with boys? Maybe I’m quite good”. She thought it was obvious that “her ranking” would change. She exclaimed, “Hey, boys are better than us. So, naturally my ranking is lower. I think it’s obvious”. Wonae had strong a hierarchy in her mind that males had higher ability than females and tended value physical skills much more than other aspect in PE. Wonae showed some frustration with her current PE

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system again she wanted to have more mixed gender activities than now. She explained that she did not have enough good partners when they participated in single-gender PA.

She shared, “I don’t understand why we have to divide into girls and boys separately.

With boys, it is much more fun; my girl classmates don’t challenge me enough”. Since she believed male students were better and had own self-confidence in sports, she strongly preferred to have mixed gender PA rather than single-gender.

Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers to PA and How They Can Be Motivated (RQs

6&8)

Since Wonae often felt her females classmates did not challenge her enough, she really wanted them to become more involved in PE than now. She that, “Of course, if my classmates were more active, I would enjoy PE even more than now”. Not only her female classmates’ physical abilities but also their attitudes often made her disappointed.

She said, “I don’t think my girl classmates want to move; they don’t seem to enjoy PE and are not interested in it at all”. She evaluates her female classmates’ attitude negatively toward PE, which affected her own desire to engage in PE class at times.

Another barrier she mentioned was the school’s lack of facilities. Although her school was quite new and had a good environment, Wonae felt there were always not enough facilities. For example, she said, “I wish we had more badminton courts than now. People need to wait a long time if we want to play badminton”. She wanted to practice badminton to build her skills, the lack of courts made her disappointed she had lunch or break time. Actually, she learned badminton through PE class and liked playing badminton with her friends; however, she felt it was not possible to play because too many people wanted to use the courts. The problem was that she had high desire to build her badminton skills right after learning badminton in PE, but the lack of facilities

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dropped her desire to improve her badminton skills continually. In addition, conflicts with her close friends made her very stressed. She mentioned, “It is not often, but we sometimes struggle about our communication; especially if something is related to our

GPA, we become very sensitive”. Since her current PE teacher often provided cooperative learning, students often needed to talk and work well with their teammates, but it sometimes caused conflict. She shared, “even choosing the music, my group has different opinions.” Those situations made her feel stress and seemed unnecessary to her, so she often tried to move far away from her group members when they had tension, which sometimes decreased her engagement in PE.

Nonetheless, Wonae generally expressed high motivation in PE class and attributed this to a few main sources. Since her father was a master of Taekwondo, she was used to doing regular physical activity more than others. She mentioned, “I’m so proud of my dad because he always shows me a great performance and tells me that having Taekwondo skills are very helpful for my future life”. Because she had a close relationship with her father who encouraged her to exercise regularly and taught her how important physical movement is, she often did exercise outside of school, which affected her engagement in PE class as well. Moreover, having specific goals increased her motivation because she shared, “Of course, my goal is getting black belt before high school…I know it is hard to get it, but that is why I really want to get it”. This specific goal made her to exercise more, so it helped her participation in PE also because development of her physical ability enhanced her confidence in class. In addition, although Wonae thought it was not right thing that many girls were dependent on her too much, she admitted that enjoyed their attention. For example, when they played any ball sport such as basketball and dodgeball, her classmates often quickly gave her the ball.

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She shared, “Maybe they want to win. I mean I’m better than them…If they want to build their skills, they should throw the ball, but honestly, I feel good when they give me the ball,” which increased her confidence. However, not only did she receive positive motivation from others, but also, she sometimes felt discouraged: “when my classmates don’t want to participate PE, it makes me lose motivation too”. Although she really liked physical movement and had lots of opportunity both inside and outside of school, she still indicated that she was affected by her classmates so much. Overall, having opportunity outside of school particularly through family involvement was really important for Wonae’s physical development, because from her diverse experience with

PA and the support of her father, she expressed high engagement in PE class and a strong commitment to PA.

Findings Summary

The findings chapter thus far has provided a general overview of the South

Korean PE system in order to give context to the PE teachers’ and their female secondary school students’ beliefs about girls’ PA. Teacher profiles and the demographic questionnaire results for PE teachers and their students have also been shared. Most importantly, this chapter has included a comprehensive overview of the findings of each teacher and their students, exploring their beliefs about girls’ PA, the function of gender, barriers to girls’ PA, and ways to motivate them to engage in more

PA in PE.

Qualitative (Thematic) Findings

This section now focuses on an overall discussion of the six PE teachers and 12 female secondary school students by interpreting the findings based on cross-case thematic analysis in relation to the central research questions. In other words, the main

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thematic categories found across the data will be explored according to each research question and situated in the three components of theory of planned behavior (TpB) theoretical framework: (a) attitude toward the behavior, (b) social norms, and (c) behavioral control.

Research Question 1. Teachers’ Beliefs about Female Students’ PA in PE

The first research question the study investigated was: What do South Korean physical education teachers believe about their female students’ physical activity participation in their classes? Overall, the PE teachers had divergent responses to female students’ PA participation in their classes. Three of the teachers (Hosung, Inseol, and

Sangkyu) stated that female students had low PA participation, but the other three teachers (Hyunjae, Eunjoo, and Wongil) were satisfied with their female students’ PA in their PE classes and communicated relatively high participation. More specifically, four major thematic categories in relation to this question were found as patterns across the data: (a) students’ ability versus attitude, (b) middle school versus high school PA, (c) single-gender versus mixed-gender PE settings, and (d) traditional versus diverse PE curriculum. Each of these thematic categories will be discussed to reveal how they informed teachers’ beliefs about female students’ PA in their PE classes.

Thematic Category 1. Students’ Ability versus Attitude

A major recurring thematic category was the tension between ability versus attitude in influencing students’ PA rates. The teachers who believed that female students’ PA was low (Hosung, Inseol, and Sangkyu) focused on female students’ lower physical ability compared to male students. They each mentioned that teaching females was challenging because of female students’ lack of prior experience with sports which resulted in lower skill development than their male peers. More specifically, they

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believed that female students were missing crucial steps in their physical development during earlier periods of their life, which created gender gaps in their ability as adolescents. These teachers emphasized physical ability for increasing engagement and confidence in PE class. It is possible that their focus on physical ability was connected to their own high sports performance. For example, Hosung’s confidence teaching PE was based on his own strong sports skills as an athlete, which helped him give high demonstration for his students. From both observing his class and interviewing him, it was apparent that he valued physical ability and supported his students to build their physical development through differentiated tasks based on their skill levels, which he believed enhanced students’ physical activity and motivation. Similarly, Inseol was an elite athlete and expressed deep frustration with female students’ lack of skills and negative attitudes toward PE. Although she shared that she cared about students’ participation and positive attitude in PE so much, she may not have been able to see how her traditional curriculum and pedagogical approaches could have contributed to female students’ negative attitudes toward PE. For example, she was observed to have male students only as leaders in the class and called on them only to set-up equipment even when it was not heavy equipment. These teachers’ emphasis on physical ability as the key to PA seemed to give them a greater preference for teaching male students. Both

Hosung and Inseol explicitly expressed greater confidence and enjoyment teaching male students because they believed that male students put more effort and had higher skills to engage in PE class.

On the other hand, Sangkyu believed that female students had low PA only in mixed-gender PE settings because they had much more limited experience with traditional sports than male students which created gender gaps. Within single-gender

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PE settings, he believed female students’ PA participation significantly increased because there was less gap between their skills and preferences. Hyunjae, Eunjoo, and

Wongil were satisfied with their female students’ PA in their PE classes and stated relatively high participation. Hyunjae strongly believed that effort was more important than ability in PE class, and he claimed that his female students had better attitudes which gave them higher participation than their male classmates. Moreover, he asserted that female students normally cared about their GPAs more than males, and their general attitude toward academics influenced their effort in PE class. Interestingly, Hyunjae believed it was a common misconception that female students had low PA. He explained that people focused too much on physical ability, and they assumed that when a few male students had exceptional skills that all of them had high PA, which he did not believe was true. He did not focus on results, and instead, he believed that students participation, including failed attempts, mattered more for their PA than their success rate.

Eunjoo and Wongil, in particular, believed that students’ educational and home environments influenced their engagement in PA in their PE classes. More specifically,

Eunjoo believed that her students had good attitudes in PE class because they were conscientious students in a highly academic high school. She thought most students cared about all of their subjects, which affected their attitudes in PE class as well.

Similarly, Wongil believed that his students’ PA was shaped by living in a high socio- economic community where they had extensive access to resources and exposure to sports outside of school, which he felt influenced students’ positive attitudes to learn many sports and engage in activities in PE class. Since they focused on attitude as the central component to PA, Hyunjae and Eunjoo, stated that they especially enjoyed

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teaching female students and had higher confidence teaching them than male students.

For Hyunjae, this was because he felt he could develop deeper relationships and better communication with female students, and for Eunjoo this was because she felt she could relate to them better since she was similar to her female students who sometimes felt insecure about their physical ability even though she liked physical education when she was a student.

Thematic Category 2. Middle School versus High School PA

Another major thematic category was how middle school versus high school settings affected students’ PA. All of the PE teachers except Wongil had prior experience teaching at both the middle school and high school levels, so they were able to share about their beliefs about female students’ PA in these two different settings.

Although the teachers believed there was a gender gap between female and male students’ skills in both settings, they said this gap progressively grew bigger in high school. At times, this created challenges for the teachers in mixed-gender PE settings in high school because female students had lower skills, familiarity, and confidence with different types of PA than their male classmates. However, all of the teachers with experience at the high school level indicated that it was much easier to teach female students in high school because of their increased maturity. For example, the high school female students had higher awareness of the benefits of PA for their health, so they chose to engage in PE more even if their skills were low or the activities did not always match their preferences. Also, there is increased academic pressure in high schools in

South Korea since students spend much more time at school and are preparing for rigorous college entrance exams. The PE teachers shared that female high school students believed that PA could help their academic success by decreasing their stress

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and increasing their stamina. Lastly, in contrast to middle school students who were more focused on socializing in PE, high school students were more independent and serious about how PE related to their lives beyond school.

Thematic Category 3. Single-Gender versus Mixed Gender PE Settings

The most prevalent thematic category gleaned from the data was how single- gender versus mixed-gender PE settings impacted female students’ PA. It is significant to note that this was not a question directly asked in the interview guide, but each participant independently brought up this topic continuously. Five of the PE teachers were currently teaching in mixed-gender PE settings. Eunjoo was the only one currently teaching in an all-women’s high school, but she had formerly taught at a mixed-gender middle school. Inseol was currently teaching at a mixed-gender middle school, but she had taught at an all-women’s middle school at the beginning of her teaching career.

Despite their different teaching experiences and contexts, all six PE teachers believed that single-gender PE settings were better for both female and male students, and they showed strong preference to teach single-gender PE.

First of all, the PE teachers believed that in single-gender PE settings there was less gap between students’ skill levels and less conflict in their activity preferences. As a result, they insisted that female and male students had higher engagement and satisfaction with PE in single-gender settings. In particular, Hosung and Eunjoo both expressed that competitive sports were particularly problematic in mixed-gender settings because male students had much higher familiarity with these sports outside of school which gave them stronger skills, as well as higher knowledge of the game rules and strategies. This could decrease female students’ participation rates in mixed-PE classes focused on gameplay. Moreover, the PE teachers believed that in single-gender PE

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settings, they could give greater attention and feedback to female students and provide them more opportunity for skill development to gain confidence in their abilities, as well as take more time to build their foundational understanding of new sports. As a result, they felt that females could enjoy and benefit from competitive sports with less pressure and less surveillance from their male peers.

The PE teachers’ personal experiences as students seemed to shape their beliefs about female students’ PA in single-gender versus mixed gender PE settings. For example, Eunjoo attended a women’s high school as a student and really enjoyed engaging in this PA setting where she felt more freedom and confidence in her PA. As a result, she believed she could relate to her female students and make them feel more comfortable in her single-gender PE setting. Moreover, she thought she could provide them more challenging tasks that ultimately gave them greater confidence in their abilities. Based on her interview and observation, her students were successful at challenging tasks and exhibited motivation to achieve their personal goals. On the other hand, Hosung attended an all men’s middle and high school as a student and found it initially quite confusing and disappointing that female students’ resisted PA in his PE classes. He was at first overwhelmed how to motivate both female and male students together since their preferences and abilities seemed so different to him. Since many female students had not achieved significant levels of physical development before coming to the high school, he strongly believed single-gender PE was better to increase their physical skills to reduce the gap between female and male students. Inseol was formerly an elite athlete and taught at an all-women’s middle school at the start of her career and had a positive experience teaching in this environment. This may be why she

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expressed the deepest frustration with teaching mixed-gender PE and disappointment with female students’ resistance.

Wongil and Sangkyu were both very innovative in their teaching in order to deal with the tension they felt between single-gender and mixed-gender PE. For example, although Wongil wanted to do single-gender PE, he found it hard to do in reality because of the complicated logistics of making this change. Thus, instead of changing the setting, he chose to change the curriculum to create more balance between female and male students’ preferences and create separate evaluation systems for them to reflect their different skill levels. By diversifying the curriculum be sought to promote students’ engagement in PA. On the other hand, Sangkyu made the most drastic change by actually creating separate classes for female and male students in co-teaching PE with his co-worker so each teacher could focus on one gender and teach the same curriculum but at different skill levels. Thus, although all of the PE teachers expressed high preference for single-gender PE settings, they responded to this in different ways.

Thematic Category 4. Traditional versus Diverse PE Curriculum

An additional prevalent thematic category was traditional PE versus diverse PE curriculum. The PE curriculum was a controversial topic among the participants because they often felt tension between providing traditional sports and new diverse physical activities. On the one hand, students were familiar with traditional sports, but they were also sometimes tired of them because they dominated their prior curriculum, so they saw them as repetitive and boring. On the other hand, when the teachers tried to provide new curriculum to trigger students’ motivation and create less gap between genders, many students also resisted learning something new. In particular, Hyunjae showed his emotion through interview that he often felt trapped about what curriculum to choose, so

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although he wanted to diversify his curriculum and apply the innovative teaching methods he learned his PE program, he often found it is very difficult to do.

When speaking about traditional PE curriculum, overall three of the six teachers

(Hyunjae, Hosung, and Eunjoo) focused on the value of competitive team sports for students’ holistic development. For example, Hyunjae believed that students could learn and grow even through negative experiences and emotions in competitive gameplay, such as the disappointment from losing a game or jealousy of another player’s high ability. Likewise, Hosung believed that competitive sports were beneficial for students’ character development, but he clarified that this was more effective in single-gender settings where their skills were more similar. Eunjoo similarly believed that although competition should not be the center of PE, competitive sports could be advantageous in single-gender settings because they reflect life in real society. In her class observation, it was true that many female students seemed to enjoy not only individual sports, but also traditional sports. For example, in indoor soccer, which is typically considered a “male sport” in South Korea, many of her female students engaged actively and developed their skills so much. On the other hand, Wongil and Sangkyu intentionally sought to create more balance between team sports, individual sports, and cooperative physical activities in creating a diverse curriculum for their students.

Lastly, Inseol believed that middle school students, in particular, were too immature for competitive sports, but she felt trapped because male students complained when she tried to reduce competition in her PE class. From her second interview, she showed her frustration that she considered her students’ voices carefully, so when she provided individual sports for increasing female students’ physical activity, she expected female students to like and follow her curriculum more than before. However, the reality

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was the same as before, which was they still did not want to put their effort and had a passive attitude toward to PE continually. Thus, Inseol thought providing team sports was better for students, because most male students liked team sports, and although female students could feel pressure from their teammates, through this pressure they usually moved more, because they did not want to be bad members of their teams. It might be true and work if teachers just focus on students’ physical activity rates, but PE teachers need to think about students’ lifelong habits. Using peer pressure to increase students’ physical activity will most likely only help temporarily; without intrinsic motivation, this method could lead to worse PA later in students’ lives because they may resist physical movement more from these negative experiences.

Research Question 2. Teachers’ Beliefs about Female Students’ Barriers in PE

The second research question the study investigated was: What barriers, if any, do South Korean physical education teachers believe impact female students’ physical activity participation in their classes? The PE teachers identified similar barriers across their interviews, and four major thematic categories in relation to this question were found as patterns across the data: (a) mixed-gender settings and traditional PE curriculum, (b) lack of experience with PA both inside and outside of PE, (c) people and relationships, and (d) society and the media. Each of these thematic categories will be discussed as potential barriers to female students’ PA participation in their PE classes.

Thematic Category 5. Mixed-Gender Settings and Traditional PE Curriculum

Although these two thematic categories have been discussed already in relation to teachers’ general beliefs about female students’ PA, they were also the most dominant barriers PE teachers talked about across their interviews. The PE teachers believed that mixed-gender PE settings, and especially the traditional PE curriculum within them,

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were a big barrier for female students to engage in PA because of gender differences in skills, knowledge, expectations, and PA preferences. For example, Hosung believed that the skill gap between female and male students in mixed-gender PE led to dissatisfaction among students because it was difficult to make the physical activities match both of their levels at the same time. He was concerned that female students easily could feel isolated in traditional PE curriculum in mixed-gender PE because their male classmates were much more familiar with these sports and had higher skill levels. Inseol similarly believed that female and male students’ preferences, skills, and familiarity with many sports were too different, which made it too challenging to engage both of them in mixed-gender PE settings. Since male students enjoyed engaging in the PA in her PE class more, she felt she had to focus on their interests since they were the majority who put their effort in class. This could further marginalize female students, since they may not receive as much attention and feedback from Inseol and then have even less motivation to engage in PE. Wongil felt that traditional PE was a barrier for female students because of their gap in skills, so he tried to diversify the curriculum and include new physical activities, but he said this sometimes created a new barrier as students often resisted learning new things as well.

Moreover, the PE teachers emphasized that within mixed-gender PE settings female students felt more social pressure and surveillance from their male peers which caused them to resist engaging in PA. This discomfort to participation in PA with male students in consistent with the literature, suggesting that female students feel freer within single-gender settings. For example, Eunjoo shared that female students focused too much on their appearance and were afraid of making mistakes in front of male peers more than when they were only with females. For this reason, they resisted engaging in

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physical activities is mixed-gender PA settings to avoid shame because of gaps in their physical ability. Moreover, Eunjoo believed that it was challenging to adapt the tasks to an appropriate skill level for female students in mixed-gender PE so too many PE teachers gave females very easy tasks. She believed this also created more barriers for females because it reinforced their low confidence in their ability and decreased their motivation. On the other hand, if the tasks were too hard, then female students felt the goals were not manageable, and this also gave them less successful experiences with PA which could again diminish their engagement in PA. Sangkyu similarly believed that female students had less opportunity to engage in PA within mixed-gender PE, and he said they felt more pressure when they had to publicly perform in front of their peers.

Since PE is much more of a public environment than other school subjects, the PE teachers insisted that this created barriers for those with less skills, which they assumed were mostly females. Overall, they felt that mixed-gender PE settings created a bad cycle that made female students less confident and more resistant to PA because it gave them low self-efficacy and dissatisfaction with PE classes.

Thematic Category 6. Lack of PA Experience Inside and Outside of PE

A related major thematic category emerged from the data was that of female students’ lack of PA experience inside and outside of PE. The PE teachers generally believed that female students did not have enough opportunity to develop their skills and knowledge about PA and that this created big barriers for their engagement in PE class.

Hosung emphasized that female high school students were missing their golden season of opportunity to develop their skills during elementary and middle school. Eunjoo,

Inseol, and Sangkyu all talked about how this lack of experience during significant developmental stages made female students afraid of making mistakes and avoid public

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performance. This not only affected their physical ability but also their understanding of

PA and sports. For example, Hosung believed that female students generally lacked curiosity which he felt was an important component for building intrinsic motivation to engage in PA. A few of the teachers (Hosung, Inseol, and Wongil) pointed out that female students did not understand the basic rules, strategies, and techniques of sports, so this lack of foundational knowledge was also a barrier beyond their skills. Lastly,

Wongil emphasized that some female students did not understand the importance of PA and PE, which was an essential starting point to engage with PA.

Thematic Category 7: People and Relationships

Another major thematic category gleaned from the data was how different people and relationships were potential barriers to female students’ PA, including their families, classmates, and teachers. Inseol mentioned that if female students’ families were sedentary outside of school, then this decreases their overall PA rates. More so than families, the PE teachers talked about how female students were heavily influenced by their peers, particularly during adolescence. For example, Sangkyu shared that students’ negative attitudes affected each other’s PA engagement because if their friends did not like the physical activity, then they also resisted it. Hyunjae explained that female students focused heavily on their social relationships and only wanted to be partners or teammates with their friends, so they often complained and resisted PA if they were not close to their classmates. Eunjoo shared that within her single-gender setting, female students sometimes disagreed and argued with each other in cooperative physical activities, which took away from their PA time. Moreover, in contrast to most mixed- gender settings, female students had increased opportunity to take on leadership roles, which was an advantage of the single-gender setting, but also female students often

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fought over who should be the leader, which led to conflict during physical activities.

Within the mixed-gender setting, Hyunjae explained that male students often showed frustration with female teammates and partners and avoided playing sports with them, sometimes changing partners behind the teacher’s back. This could lead female students to feel more public shame and rejection which could become a barrier to their PA engagement as well.

In addition to peers, teachers themselves can also be barriers to female students’

PA. Three of the six teachers talked extensively about their frustration with veteran teachers, and they claimed that these teachers resisted changing their ways of teaching and curriculum, so this created more resistance among female students. For example,

Hosung emphasized that female students really valued having good relationships with their teachers, and if they did not feel close to them, they did not want to participate in class. He felt that veteran teaches did not care about female students preferences and just continued with traditional PE curriculum because they did not want to put in additional time to prepare new lessons. Eunjoo complained that veteran teachers perpetuated the cycle of low PA because they criticized female students’ lack of PA but then did not give them enough opportunity to engage in it. For example, she said they often let them sit on the bench and observe rather than participate in activities simply because it was less energy for them. She also felt they were not aware of students’ interests both inside and outside of PE class, such as what was going on in the media, which made it difficult for them to relate to their students. Moreover, she said they did not do as much physical movement with their students, so she felt this also hurt their motivation to participate.

Lastly, Sangkyu also explained how the age hierarchy in South Korean culture and within the PE department also made it challenging for younger teachers who wanted to

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innovate their curriculum because they felt resistance from the veteran teachers who just wanted to keep everything similar to what they were used to. Thus, various people and relationships also can be barriers to female students’ PA in complex ways.

Thematic Category 8. Society and the Media

The final thematic category that emerged as a barrier for female students’ PA was gendered norms in society and the media. For example, Hosung believed that female students were heavily influenced by trends, especially from K-Pop (Korean popular music). More specifically, Hyunjae claimed that female students received messages from society that beauty equaled “skinny” and “light skin.” They both explained that cultural assumptions for femininity did not match the PE setting and led to female students’ resistance. In particular, Hyunjae, Hosung, and Inseol all shared that female students did not want to get too hot or sweaty because they thought this would mess up their hair and makeup, ruining their beauty. Thus, hot weather and exercising outdoors was a barrier for females more than males because of their concern for their appearance. This is consistent with the findings in the literature that suggest many environmental barriers prevent female students’ PA. Inseol specifically discussed how the media was a big topic of conversation among female students, and they did not want to engage with their teacher if their teacher did not know what was going on in the media. Moreover, she believed the media strongly influenced female students’ perceptions of their body image, which she also felt did not align with PE settings. For example, she said female students did not want to “get buff” through PA, so they resisted PA that they thought would build their muscles. Hosung thought that female students had lack of opportunity to engage in PA since they were very young because of the gendered norms in society; for example, he said that most girls grow up playing with

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dolls and going shopping rather than playing with sports. These assumptions may not only reflect cultural norms but also his own gender biases.

In addition, Eunjoo believed that society put pressure on males and females to engage in different sports. For example, she said that society expected males to play sports such as soccer and basketball which were considered more aggressive and masculine, and females were expected to play sports such as skating and tennis because they were considered more feminine. These cultural assumptions of gender appropriateness could be barriers for female students to engage in PE (Solmon et al.,

2003), especially with traditional PE curriculum. Eunjoo also explained that teachers often assumed that female students would like sports that were considered feminine, such as dance and yoga, but in her experience, they often resisted these new activities.

Thus, she felt that teachers’ biases could also be barriers to their engagement in PA.

In addition, many of the PE teachers (Hosung, Eunjoo, Wongil, and Sangyku) also expressed that because of society and the media, too often both teachers and students assumed that it was normal and acceptable for females not to be physically active simply because they were females. For example, Eunjoo and Sangkyu both explained that many female students had low expectations for themselves because they thought it was okay not to be active or good at sports simply because they were females.

Both Wongil and Sangkyu mentioned puberty as a barrier for female students’ because they believed that puberty caused physical changes that led to bigger gender gaps between female and male students. They both explained that puberty gave male students more power and speed which gave them advantages in PE class. Their perception of puberty as a barrier to female students’ PA reflects their own gender biases. Instead of

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blaming females for natural changes that occur in their bodies, they should consider how the PE curriculum needs to change so that female students are not disadvantaged.

Research Question 3. Teachers’ Beliefs about the Role of Gender in Students’ PA in PE

The third research question the study investigated was: Do teachers believe students’ physical activity participation in school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how? The PE teachers’ beliefs about how gender influenced students’

PA were varied and complex. The two major thematic categories that emerged were: (a) biological gender differences that impact students’ natural ability, and (b) socially- constructed gender differences that affect students’ opportunity and experience. These two thematic categories will be discussed to reveal how they reflect teachers’ beliefs about the role of gender in students’ PA in their PE classes.

Thematic Category 9: Biological Gender Differences

A major thematic category was biological gender differences between female and male students, which most PE teachers believed shaped their natural ability in PE, and as a result, affected their PA participation in different ways. Hyunjae was the only teacher who resisted the notion that PA differed based on gender. He insisted that both female and male students had high and low PA depending on their general attitude toward school and their specific effort in PE class. Although he said that male students usually had higher ability than female students in PE, he claimed this was not the same as high PA because he believed that PE is not based on ability, but instead, participation.

As a result, his perspective was that all students, female and male, could have high PA in PE if they put their effort and had positive attitudes to try. Nonetheless, it was apparent in his classroom observations that he believed female students were weaker

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physically because he assumed they needed help from male students in the PA tasks, and he only appointed males as leaders and asked for their help with warm-up and cool- down, as well as setting up equipment. Thus, even though he resisted the notion of gender differences impacting PA, his thinking and actions still reflected gendered assumptions of students based on their biological sex. Similarly, Hosung believed that biological differences impacted students’ PA, but he minimized the significance of these. He emphasized that if students put their effort to engage and learn, these differences did not matter in PE class because he could make modifications to support their learning. He stressed the importance of effort because this could gradually help students to build their physical ability no matter what their starting point was.

Eunjoo and Sangkyu both claimed that female and male students were biologically different, and in PE settings, they believed that males had more advantages than females based on their natural characteristics. Because they both believed there were significant gender gaps between female and male students based on biological differences, they both preferred to teach in single-gender PE settings. In Sangkyu’s case, even though he was teaching in a mixed-gender school, he put so much time and effort to redesign his teaching approach and curriculum to provide single-gender PE. He explained that males were better at PA that related to power, speed, and high technique, but he felt that females were better at PA that required flexibility and high concentration.

In single-gender PE settings, he felt there was less gap between students’ natural abilities, which could increase their PA participation rates.

Inseol and Wongil expressed strong beliefs in the influence of gender on students’ PA. Similar to others, Inseol believed that male students naturally had higher physical ability than females because of biological differences. She explained that this

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difference impacted everything in PE class because it gave male students higher motivation, better attitudes, and more positive results than female students. In her experience, male students showed higher desire to engage in PA and put more effort in class. Wongil also believed that biological differences created big gaps between female and male students’ physical abilities, and he claimed that this was more dramatic after puberty. As a result, he believed it was fairer to evaluate students differently, so he created different assessment standards for females and males. Although he did this to bring more equity to his class, it also reflects strong gender binary assumptions in his thinking because he assumed all males were similar and all females were similar in their natural abilities.

Thematic Category 10. Socially-Constructed Gender Differences

Another major thematic category was socially-constructed gender differences between female and male students, which most PE teachers believed shaped their PA engagement. All six of the teachers agreed that cultural norms in society impacted students’ prior experiences with PA and led to significant gender differences in PE. First of all, Hosung shared that there were significant gender differences in students’ past opportunities to engage in sports, which impacted their skill development, familiarity with different types of PA, participation rates, and confidence in PE class. He also felt that this resulted in gender differences in students’ values and priorities in PE class. For example, he believed that female students cared more about relationships, communication, and a comfortable environment in PE class, whereas male students focused more on the task and activity. He believed these differences were primarily shaped by gendered social norms and gaps in their exposure to PA during their childhood. In a similar way, Eunjoo believed that female and male students had strong

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gender differences in their prior experiences and opportunities for skill development which resulted in very different PA preferences in PE class. For this reason, she believed that single-gender PE settings were more effective for students because teachers could better accommodate their different preferences.

Likewise, Inseol believed that students had different opportunities since they were young to engage in PA. Because she felt that male students had more chances to move their bodies and become familiar and confident with PA, she claimed they developed higher knowledge of PA, more enjoyment in competition, and greater willingness to try new activities. In contrast, in her experience, females often misunderstood the point of different physical activities, were afraid, and complained a lot about trying new things because of their lack of skill and confidence as a result of missed opportunities in their childhood and early adolescence. She also explained that female and male students valued different things in their peer relationships which impacted their PA in various ways. For example, she said that the male students who were good at sports were popular in class, and this encouraged male students to choose active friends and become more active as well. In contrast, among female students, the popular ones were those who knew the media the most and followed the social trends.

This standard for popularity often discouraged their PA engagement in PE class.

Sangkyu believed that students had different preferences based on pressure in society to be masculine and feminine. For example, he explained that male students wanted to engage in contact sports to show their power and enjoyed playing sports such as soccer, basketball, and taekwondo because these were considered aggressive and masculine. As children, he believed that female students had less PA experiences because of cultural norms for their gender, so he thought that gaps in opportunity was

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the root cause of their skill difference. However, after puberty, he believed that this gap widened because of developmental changes to their bodies. Wongil also discussed how students’ past experiences and gendered stereotypes in society influenced their PA preferences. He explained that female students preferred individual sports and personal goals because they felt less social pressure to perform well than in team sports. He shared that male students felt increased social pressure to participate in PE class simply because they were male, which may give them additional stress but also could impact their PA engagement in positive ways. Because he believed that female and male students had different experiences that shaped their preferences and abilities in PE class differently, he tried to diversify the curriculum to reflect their distinctive strengths. For example, he included cheerleading and jumpband because he felt females were better at these activities, and contact sports which he felt males were better at. He tried to create a diverse curriculum that was more inclusive of all students. His assumptions, like the other PE teachers, reflected strong gendered notions of different physical activities.

Research Question 4. Teachers’ Beliefs about Motivating Female Students to

Engage in PE

The fourth research question the study investigated was: What do South Korean physical education teachers believe will motivate female students to be more engaged in their physical education classes? The three major thematic categories that emerged were:

(a) close teacher-student relationships, (b) curricular and pedagogical changes, and (c) use of the media. These three thematic categories will be discussed to reveal how they reflect teachers’ beliefs about motivating female students to engage more in their PE classes.

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Thematic Category 11. Close Teacher-Student Relationships

A prevalent thematic category found across the data was the importance of close teacher-student relationships for female students’ motivation to engage in PA in PE class. Four of the PE teachers (Hyunjae, Eunjoo, Wongil, and Hosung) heavily stressed this point across their interviews. These teachers believed that building a close relationship with their female students based on strong communication, care, and trust was essential to motivating them to participate in their classes. For example, Hyunjae explained that by building rapport with students he could listen to their concerns, and this allowed him to communicate more care for them and align his curriculum better to match their interests. He and Eunjoo both stressed the importance of building trust between teachers and students as the central component to a positive relationship. For example, Eunjoo said she tried to deeply listen to students and share her own personal stories and examples in order to build their trust in her. By showing that she wanted to know them and respond to their needs, she felt their attitudes toward PE class improved, and they put more effort to participate in class. Wongil similarly shared that in his experience, when students felt close to him, they were more physically active in class, so he put his time and effort to give them personal attention in order to build their relationships. He believed that by listening to female students’ voices he could learn more about the PA they enjoyed outside of school, and this helped him to make the curriculum inside of class more relevant to their lives.

Hosung talked most extensively about the various ways he tried to motivate female students. For example, he tried to remember all of their names and recognize small things about them to show he cared about them. He also attempted to make the class mood light to reduce their social pressure and motivate them without pushing

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them. Moreover, since he believed that female students were heavily influenced by their peers, he encouraged them to make active friends because this would naturally help to increase their PA levels inside and outside of school. More specifically, he believed the female students’ relationships with their peers could lead to strong resistance or high engagement with PA. Thus, he intentionally tried to build a good relationship with female students who were leaders among their peers because he believed they could influence each other more powerfully than he could. By having a good relationship with them, they developed more favorable attitudes toward PE, and then their participation positively influenced their peers. In Hosung’s interviews, he shared that his female students were often very emotionally sensitive, so he put high effort to understand how they felt and keep a good relationship with them. For example, in observing his classes, he regularly encouraged female students based on their effort on tasks. In contrast, he more often gave technical feedback on male students’ performance. Hosung’s words and actions reflect both his own gender biases in the different type and quality of feedback he gave students, as well as his high effort to try to communicate with female students in order to make them feel more comfortable in class.

Thematic Category 12. Curricular and Pedagogical Changes

Another major thematic category was the various curricular and pedagogical changes all of the teachers made to try to increase female students’ PA in their PE classes. First of all, Wongil and Sangkyu both focused on diversifying their PE curriculum in order to motivate female students to have higher engagement. More specifically, Wongil included many non-traditional sports and new physical activities to try to create a more balanced curriculum and reduce the gap between male and female students. In order to incorporate both of their preferences in the curriculum, he also tried

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to have less competitive and more individual sports. In his experience, female students preferred individual sports because they could build their skills and confidence by seeking to achieve their own personal goals with less social pressure. He also tried to make the PE experience more enjoyable for female students by including more cooperative activities and relating the experiences to their lives. Sangkyu also changed his curriculum to match female students’ skill levels and preferences so that they could have more successful experiences with PE. In his case, he restructured his curriculum to offer single-gender PE because he thought this was better for both female and male students’ motivation. He especially believed that female students needed to taste success with PA in order to have greater self-efficacy, which would lead to deeper intrinsic motivation. Lastly, he encouraged students to cheer for one another so that they could create a positive community and enjoyable environment for learning.

Several of the teachers also talked about the importance of making manageable goals for female students and encouraging personal goal-setting. For example, Wongil had students set their own goals for improvement, and he graded them based on their effort, passion, and attitude rather than on their physical ability. In other words, he used their own baseline ability to track their progress and achievement, which he believed led to higher motivation. He also used different evaluation forms for female and male students since they had different levels of familiarity with PA before coming to his class, which he believed would motivate students through increased fairness. Hosung talked about modifying tasks and having an effective progression of activities in order to give female students more opportunity to increase their skills and confidence with PA. For example, by lowering the hurdle height for female students, he tried to give them more positive experiences to achieve their goals at an appropriate skill level.

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Eunjoo also tried to make challenging yet manageable goals for female students in her single-gender PE setting. She believed this gave them naturally higher desire to try tasks. She tried to create an inclusive, fun environment where no one was left out by caring for their fears and focusing on student safety rather than risky PA. At the same time, she believed that too often teachers made the tasks too easy for females in PE class, which she believed demotivated them. Thus, she chose challenging activities that were appropriate for their skill level because she believed this affirmed their capability to do hard tasks, which ultimately could give them greater confidence and a feeling of significance. She also used physical demonstration to motivate female students.

Interestingly, she believed that even when her physical ability was not high on a particular task, this ironically motivated them even more because then they felt less shame and took more risks to try to learn new PA. Lastly, Inseol believed it was easier to motivate female students in single-gender PE settings, because as others have mentioned, teachers could focus on teaching skills at their exact level, which could give them more confidence and motivation to engage in PA. However, in her current mixed- gender PE setting, she said it was very challenging and she felt very limited in the ways she could motivate female students because of the big gaps in their skills, effort, and interest.

Thematic Category 13. Use of the Media

The last thematic category was use of the media, which was discussed earlier as a potential barrier to PA, but it was also used as a source of motivation as well. Four of the teachers (Hosung, Wongil, Eunjoo, and Inseol) mentioned in their interviews that since female students were heavily influenced by the media, they tried or wanted to try to use it to motivate them to engage more in PA. First of all, Hosung said he provided

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examples of successful female athletes to try to respect female students’ interests and at the same time challenge their gendered assumptions. For example, he would share stories about Yeona Kim who is a very famous Korean ice skater known both for her beauty and athleticism in order to change their images about engaging in PA. Wongil similarly tried to incorporate students’ favorite stars and successful stories to motivate them. He believed students were influenced more by visual content than verbal, so he tried to get their attention through media sources about these famous people, and then they would discuss the importance of them and relate their experiences to their own lives. Eunjoo similarly tried this approach to motivate students through showing video clips of their favorite movie and TV stars, but she found that this did not lead to higher

PA among her students because they felt these celebrities’ lifestyles were too different from their own, so they did not represent realistic role models. Instead, she found that playing music they liked in the background during warm-up and cool-down time showed interest in their lives, increased their energy, and led to a more upbeat class environment. Lastly, Inseol also brought up that if she were teaching in a single-gender

PE setting she would like to use videos more to try to change female students’ wrong information and challenge their stereotypes of females and PA. She also stressed the importance of knowing about the media because she explained that students assumed teachers did not care about them if they did not know about things they were interested in. This could create distance between teachers and students and lead to resistance toward PA. This belief implies that Inseol assumed that when teachers know about the trends in the media, this could increase students’ motivation to engage in PA in PE class.

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Research Question 5. Students’ Beliefs about their PA in PE

The fifth research question the study investigated was: What do South Korean female secondary school students believe about their physical activity in their physical education classes? Overall, the female students with high PA had positive attitudes toward PE class and exhibited confidence in their physical ability and enjoyment with

PA both inside and outside of school. On the other hand, the female students with low

PA had negative attitudes toward PE class, low confidence in their physical ability, and mixed feelings toward PA both inside and outside of school. More specifically, three major thematic categories in relation to this question were found as patterns across the data: (a) traditional versus diverse curriculum, (b) the influence of social relationships, and (c) inside versus outside of school PA. Each of these thematic categories will be discussed to reveal how they informed students’ beliefs about their PA in their PE classes.

Thematic Category 1. Traditional versus Diverse Curriculum

A major recurring thematic category was the tension between traditional versus diverse curriculum, which was discussed earlier with the teachers but was also prevalent across the student data. Female students with high PA tended to enjoy traditional curriculum much more than those with low PA. For example, Haena, Wonae, and

Hyobin all shared that they really liked participating in team sports in PE class. They had confidence in their skills with these sports and enjoyed competition. Haena especially enjoyed playing futsal and soccer with male classmates because she got attention and respect from her peers because of her high ability. On the other hand, she did not like trying new types of PA because she already had confidence in her favorite team sports that were part of the traditional curriculum. Wonae similarly had very high

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confidence in her physical ability, as well as high knowledge of sports. She especially enjoyed competing in team sports in PE class because she felt she was good at them, and her classmates often passed her the ball, which gave her the feeling of significance.

Although her teacher Wongil provided a diverse curriculum, she said she did not like trying new types of PA because she felt they were “not cool.” Hyobin also had high PA in PE class, but she did not see herself as highly skilled in sports. Instead, she believed her high effort and enjoyment in physical activity was what made her exceptional. She enjoyed competitive sports such as soccer, table-tennis, and tee ball because she liked that they gave her the opportunity to both exercise and socialize with others.

Sanghee, Eunae, and Inhye all had high PA in PE class, but they each emphasized their preference for a diverse PE curriculum. Sanghee said she did not like it when the curriculum was repetitive with the same traditional sports each semester, which she believed reflected male students’ preferences, so although she had high PA in

PE class, her attitude was quite ambivalent toward it. She wanted to learn many new sports because she believed this would increase her physical ability, which was important to her. Inhye and Eunae also talked about how much they liked learning many different sports in PE class. Inhye generally enjoyed playing sports with her male classmates in PE class because she liked the challenge and had confidence in her sports skills. However, she felt she was always the minority among the males, and this gave her less influence when decisions were made on her team. On the other hand, Eunae appreciated that in her single-gender women’s high school setting her teacher Eunjoo provided them more knowledge and rules about the sports they were playing, which she felt helped her develop her skills as well. She had high confidence in her physical ability and enjoyed helping others, which also helped her increase her skills in PE class.

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Whereas the female students with high PA expressed confidence and enjoyment in PE class and half of them enjoyed traditional sports, the female students with low PA expressed particularly low confidence and strong dissatisfaction with this type of curriculum. Instead, they showed higher preference for diverse curriculum, particularly individual sports. Many of them found it difficult to participate in team sports because they felt they were not good at them. For example, Heeyoung said she felt too much pressure and shame with traditional curriculum because she did not know how to participate in these activities well. Hyorin similarly shared that her lack of physical ability made her feel isolated and hesitant to engage in PE. She said she never enjoyed

PE in the past because her teachers always focused on students who were good at sports, especially male students in competitive sports. She felt the standard was too high for her, and this gave her low confidence. Injoo showed the strongest dislike for PA in PE class because she said never had high ability or confidence in her body. She also felt that

PE was always above her ability which made it impossible for her to enjoy it and gave her a strongly negative attitude toward her PE class regardless of the type of curriculum.

Eunyoung similarly had a negative attitude toward PE because she felt marginalized in her past PE classes. She felt that traditional curriculum was often unfair for female students who had less experience with these sports outside of school.

However, in her current all-women’s high school, her attitude toward PE was starting to change because she felt her teacher Eunjoo provided a diverse curriculum which made her feel less pressure and more enjoyment. In particular, she shared that her teacher provided more of her preferred sports, such as yoga, badminton, and volleyball, and she felt more confident because they learned the skills step by step. She said she especially liked learning new sports because her teacher did not assume they already knew them,

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so this helped her to build her confidence more than in the past when her mixed-gender

PE classes focused on team sports. Similarly, Wonjin and Seoyoung generally had negative attitudes toward PA in their PE classes, but they shared appreciation for how their current teachers Wongil and Sangkyu had more diverse curriculum and often offered single-gender PA in class. This made them feel a little more confident than doing traditional sports in mixed-gender activities. In particular, Seoyoung shared that since she was overweight this gave her low confidence and stress in team sports, but her attitude toward PE class had improved a little bit because through physical movement, she had lost a little weight which gave her some excitement to learn new sports to improve her health.

Thematic Category 2. The Influence of Social Relationships

The second major thematic category was the influence of social relationships on female students’ attitudes toward and engagement in PA in PE class, especially their family and friends. In particular, female students with low PA rarely exercised outside of school with their family members. Half of them stated they never did PA with their family members (Heeyoung, Seoyoung, and Wonjin), and the other half infrequently did

PA with them, such as every other week (Hyorin, Eunyoung, and Injoo). Interestingly, those who did do some exercise with a family member most often mentioned going walking or playing badminton, in particular, with their mothers. In contrast, many of the female students with high PA stated regularly participating in many different sports outside of school with their family members, especially with their fathers or brothers.

More specifically, four out of the six female students with high PA shared that they engaged in PA with their fathers (Haena, Sanghee, Inhye, and Wonae), and three of them mentioned their brothers (Hyobin, Eunae, and Inhye). The frequency and type of

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PA differed significantly among them. For example, Haena played basketball and soccer with her father 2 to 3 times per week, and Wonae played many sports as well as trained in taekwondo daily with her father who was a master of the sport. Eunae shared that she had convinced her brother to join a badminton club together with her, and they played together three times a week. These findings suggest that engaging in PA with family members, particularly male family members, may have a strong influence on female students’ PA in PE class.

Although female students with low PA generally did not exercise much with family members outside of school, most of them did indicate that they did engage in some PA with their friends, ranging from a couple of times a week to a couple times a month. Even though the majority of them did not like physical movement in general, they said they enjoyed the social aspect of exercising with their friends outside of school, particularly with non-traditional sports, such as walking, dancing, swimming, bowling, and badminton. They usually said they chose these physical activities because their friends wanted to do them, and they liked hanging out and chatting with them.

Thus, their choice of PA was not based on their enjoyment of these particular activities, but instead, was influenced by their desire to be close to their friends. On the other hand, female students with high PA generally exercised more regularly with friends outside of school. They seemed to be both motivated by the social aspects as well as by their own enjoyment in the specific physical activities. For example, Haena mentioned exercising almost every day with her friends as they liked to do weight-training together, and

Wonae practiced taekwondo and played badminton with her friends 2-3 times per week.

In general, even though the frequency was higher, the types of PA did not differ much

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between the female students with high PA and low PA, as both mentioned enjoying dancing, going bowling, and playing badminton with friends.

Thematic Category 3. Inside versus Outside of School PA

The third major thematic category was female students’ attitude toward inside versus outside of school PA, which was also related to students’ perception of the value and importance of PA and PE. In particular, female students with high PA generally had positive attitudes toward PA both inside and outside of school, and they saw connections between the activities across these two settings. First of all, female students with high

PA believed that physical movement was very important, and PE was very valuable from their perspective because it helped them to be more physically active. Students shared various benefits of PE, including physical and social, such as getting healthy and having a better appearance (Haena) and building teamwork and new friendships through

PA (Hyobin and Wyonae). More specifically, although Hyobin enjoyed PA outside of school, she preferred PA in PE class because she felt it was more social and easier to have self-discipline. She also appreciated her teacher’s encouragement to have high PA to maintain their health. In addition, Eunae stressed the importance of PE because of the academic benefits it provided her; she felt PA gave her a break from her sedentary lifestyle as a student and helped her build stronger stamina for her studies, which was very important to her in her highly competitive high school.

Moreover, students with high PA also emphasized how their school PE helped them with their PA outside of school. For example, Hyobin said that through her dance class at school, she was motivated to join a dance club outside of school. Similarly,

Inhye shared that through learning different sports in her PE class, she experienced joy and improved mood and health, which led her to enjoy these same sports outside of

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school too. Sanghee also shared that her exercise her with father and friend each week was usually related to whatever they were learning in her PE class. In these ways, female students with high PA showed high value for their PE classes and strong connections between the PA they did inside and outside of school.

In contrast, female students with low PA generally expressed more positive feelings toward PA outside rather than inside of school, and often felt like the two were very disconnected. Although overall the female students with low PA did not like to engage in PE class, all but one of them (Injoo) still believed PE was important for their lives. Similar to the female students with high PA, most of them felt it was important to have physical movement during the school day because it was a healthy break from their studies. They expressed that it was important for their physical health and their academics, and they acknowledged that without PE class, they would have little to no regular exercise. For example, Hyorin shared that even though her PE class did not match her PA preferences, she thought it was good for her health. Injoo was the only student with low PA who claimed that she did not think she needed PE class because even though she heard movement was important from her teachers and parents, she felt

PE class gave her less motivation and confidence in PA. In other words, she felt the environment was unsafe and reduced her overall motivation for PA, so she did not see value in her PE class. Both Injoo and Wonjin shared that they preferred PA outside of school because they felt more comfortable emotionally and physically. For example,

Wonjin enjoyed regular exercise at community gym because she felt it was a clean environment away from the surveillance and pressure of her peers (and she thought her trainer was handsome). Therefore, female students with both high and low PA generally agreed with the importance of PE for their holistic health, but students with high PA had

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a more positive attitude toward PA in class, and those with low PA had a more positive attitude toward PA outside of class.

Research Question 6. Students’ Beliefs about their Barriers to PA in PE

The sixth research question the study investigated was: What barriers, if any, do

South Korean female secondary school students believe impact girls’ physical activity participation in physical education classes? Female students with high and low PA identified many barriers to their PA. More specifically, four major thematic categories in relation to this question were found as patterns across the data: (a) environmental barriers, (b) physical barriers, (c) curricular and pedagogical barriers, as well as (d) social barriers. Each of these thematic categories will be discussed to reflect students’ beliefs about their barriers to PA in PE.

Thematic Category 4. Environmental Barriers

Another major thematic category, particularly across female students with low

PA, was environmental barriers to their engagement in PA in PE class. Almost all of the female students with low PA identified the weather and outdoor PE as a big barrier to their participation. They shared that they did not like the sun or wind (Heeyoung), too hot or too cold temperatures (Eunyoung), and especially they did not like to get sweaty

(Hyorin, Injoo, and Wonjin). In particular, they did not like to have to go to their next classes sweaty. Hyobin, a student with high PA, also shared that going to class sweaty was an inconvenience, but this concern was only raised by one student with high PA compared to the several who talked about it with low PA. Lack of facilities was also mentioned by a couple of students but in different ways. Heeyoung, a female student with low PA, explained that the locker rooms were too inconvenient to change their clothes for PE, so many of the female students in her class put their sports clothes over

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their school uniforms to save time and energy. This complaint relates more to comfort, whereas as Wonae, a student with high PA, shared that there was lack of sports facilities

(not enough badminton courts to practice their skills), which relates more directly to PA.

Thus, students shared various environmental barriers, and these concerns came mostly from students with low PA.

Thematic Category 5. Physical Barriers

An additional major thematic category that was present, especially among female students with low PA, was physical barriers to the PA engagement in PE class. Many of the female students with low PA considered their lack of physical ability and gaps in their skill development to be their greatest barrier in PE. For example, Heeyoung shared that she blamed herself for her frustration with the curriculum because she did not know how to do these tasks well. Hyorin similarly said her low physical ability and negative attitude toward sports caused her to resist PE because she did not have confidence, and she did not want to build her muscles because this did not match her image of beauty.

Eunyoung explained that she especially resisted competitive team sports because she felt too much pressure and did not want to be a burden to her teammates because of her lack of skills. Injoo emphasized that PE was often above her ability, which gave her low desire to put her effort in class. In addition, a few female students, Hyobin (high PA student) as well as Seoyoung and Eunyoung (low PA students) all mentioned that their menstrual cycle was a barrier to their PE engagement because they felt less energy and more uncomfortable with PA during these times. Overall, female students with low PA shared more physical barriers to PE than those with high PA because of their lack of confidence in their physical ability.

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Thematic Category 6. Curricular and Pedagogical Barriers

In addition, another significant barrier to female students’ PA was curricular and pedagogical barriers in their PE classes, especially related to their teachers’ gender biases and assumptions. Unlike environmental and physical barriers which were most common among female students with low PA, this last barrier was most prevalent among female students with high PA. Female students with high PA complained that their teachers’ choice of PA, task levels, attention, and feedback reflected too much gender bias and assumption. Because these female students enjoyed PA and had confidence in their abilities, they were frustrated when their teachers generalized their interests and abilities by separating students based on their gender, since they thought they were exceptions to the gender norms. For example, Haena complained that she hated being put in the female students’ group to do cheerleading activities because she preferred playing competitive team sports with her male classmates. Wonae similarly did not like single-gender PE activities because she felt they were not challenging enough. She said that male students put more effort and had more skills, so it was more fun for her to compete with them. Eunae similarly wanted her teacher to push female students to try harder. She pointed out that it was ironic that PE teachers criticized female students for having low PA but were “too generous” with them by allowing them to rest and observe too often instead of participating. Likewise, Hyobin complained that her teacher gave more attention and challenging tasks to her male classmates. She felt this was unfair because she wanted them to treat female students the same. Easy tasks did not motivate her; she wanted her teachers to treat female students the same as male students and have higher expectations for their participation and performance. Finally, a couple of students with low PA (Hyorin and Injoo) both shared that they wanted their

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PE teachers to listen more to female students’ voices and preferences, because they felt that their teachers chose to please male students by matching their preferences simply to keep them happy and avoid misbehavior, which is consistent with the findings in the literature.

Thematic Category 7. Social Barriers

The last and most prevalent thematic category gleaned from interviews with students was social barriers students faced in PE class from their peers. First of all, all of the female students with low PA shared that surveillance, especially from male peers, gave them stress and pressure in PE class. It is important to note that Hyobin, a student with high PA, also shared this same concern: even though she had confidence in her physical ability, she felt uncomfortable that male students observed her body too closely. Moreover, she felt hesitant to share her discomfort with her teacher because he was also male. Discomfort with the public environment of PE was a prevalent topic raised by especially by students with low PA; in particular, public performance in PE class gave them shame and was a source of high anxiety for them. Heeyoung and Hyorin both shared that even though their peers did not tease them, they felt pressure to perform well and since they did not have confidence, they used avoidant strategies instead, such as moving to the back of the line so they never had to take their turns. They felt safest when their friends were with them because they would help them hide, so when they did not come to class, they also did not want to join PE. Even within single-gender PE contexts, Seoyoung similarly shared that she would say she felt sick to avoid PE class if she felt uncomfortable engaging in the activities, and Eunyoung also talked about feeling ashamed of making mistakes and wanting to avoid people’s judgement.

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Other female students with low PA communicated not only surveillance, but also teasing and bullying from both male and female students because of their low physical ability in PE class. For example, Seoyoung felt high stress about her body because she was overweight and often compared herself to her female classmates who were

“beautiful and popular.” This gave her greater dissatisfaction with her body and ability, especially when her male classmates teased her performance and female classmates gossiped about her. She felt pressure and frustration not just with physical performance, but also with learning the rules of the sports games, because she felt “stupid” when she could not understand what was going on, especially if her female classmates seemed to know how to play. Wongjin complained that she hated to show her poor performance in front of others, especially her male classmates, who would tease her and laugh at her.

She also said that they often blamed female students and had bad attitudes and behavior when they were not doing their preferred sports. Since her teacher Wongil tried to diversify the curriculum and provide PA that related to both female and male students’ interests, this sometimes backfired on the female students because male students took out their dissatisfaction on their female classmates.

Injoo also shared that she felt high stress when she had to show her skills in front of others because male students often pointed at her body and teased her for her low performance. She expressed that they ridiculed her even more when she was not successful at tasks that they considered “feminine,” such as a flexibility test, (a male student said to her, “you’re not even a girl.”). Thus, she felt that she not only failed at traditionally “masculine” tasks, but even the physical activities that female students were assumed to be good at. In fact, fitness tests came up several times across the student interviews as a particularly strong source of stress for students, especially those

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with low PA (Heeyoung and Seoyoung), because they felt increased pressure and eyes on them when they were assessed. (Interestingly, Hyobin, a student with high PA also shared her dislike for fitness tests, but this was not because of fear of surveillance, but instead, simply because she thought these times were less social and fun times in PE class.) Eunae, also a student with high PA, shared concerns about male students teasing and bullying female students with low ability when she was in a mixed-gender middle school. She explained that they never bullied her because she had high ability, but she did not like that they bullied her friends. Thus, both female students with low and high

PA expressed concerns about surveillance, bullying, and teasing in their PE classes, particularly, from male students.

However, students with high PA brought up a few additional social barriers they experienced in PE class. In particular, female students who enjoyed PA in PE class felt frustrated with their female classmates’ resistance. For example, Hyobin complained that when they did not want to participate, it changed the class mood and affected others negatively. Eunae similarly explained that she was irritated that her female classmates did not take PE seriously, resisted warm-up time which she felt was important for preventing injury, and gave her social pressure to resist PE with them. In other words, she explained that because of collectivism in her class, she felt that if she was too enthusiastic about PA, it would make her peers unhappy with her and hurt their relationships. This dynamic made her feel trapped because she wanted to engage in PA but also wanted to keep peace with her classmates, who sometimes felt pressure from her high participation. Inhye also wished her close female friends would have more desire to participate in PE class. She complained about her male classmates’ “annoying” attitudes, but at the same time, she felt she had no option but to play with them because

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without them, she had no one to challenge her. In the same way, Wonae wished her female classmates would try harder in PE class because their poor ability and negative attitudes caused conflict when they were on the same team or doing cooperative activities together. Thus, female students with high PA considered the resistance of their female classmates a barrier to their enjoyment in PE class.

Research Question 7. Students’ Beliefs about the Role of Gender in Female

Students’ PA in PE

The seventh research question the study investigated was: Do female secondary school students believe girls’ physical activity participation in school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how? Female students with both low and high PA all agreed that gender significantly influenced students PA in PE class. The two major thematic categories that emerged across the student data regardless of their PA rates were: (a) biological differences and (b) male students as the benchmark. These thematic categories will be discussed to uncover students’ beliefs about how gender shapes students’ PA in PE.

Thematic Category 8. Biological Differences

A very strong thematic category across the student interviews was that there are biological differences between female and male students, and these differences give male students significant advantages in PE class. Female students with high PA and low

PA all agreed that male students naturally have higher physical ability than female students. For example, Haena explained that male students generally “run faster, jump higher, and have more power,” and Seoyoung asserted that male students had better physiques because they have more height and power to “throw farther and kick harder.”

Both Hyorin and Eunyoung claimed that male students had higher stamina than female

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students and rarely get tired. From the female students’ perspectives, the belief that male students had higher natural ability led to many different implications. For example, the students assumed that because male students had higher ability, they also had more opportunity to engage in sports, which gave them more knowledge of PA than female students. For example, Seoyoung believed that male students’ increased ability and familiarity with diverse sports gave them a better understanding of the rules and strategies, which she felt obviously would increase their confidence in PE. Several students (Haena, Sanghee, and Heeyoung) also claimed that because most male students had more confidence in PE, they naturally enjoyed it more than female students. Thus, the overall belief female students seemed to have is that natural ability leads to increased knowledge, which gives male students greater confidence and more enjoyment in PE.

Female students with low PA and high PA all voiced the same basic belief that biological differences existed between male and female students, which gave male students’ higher natural ability for PA than female students. However, their attitudes toward this gender gap differed in some ways. In general, students with low PA felt this made PE unfair. For example, Hyorin complained that female students did not have many advantages in PE class, and she exclaimed, “How can we win in their sports?”

This question reflects her belief that PE was a male-dominant subject that excluded female students based on their gender differences. In addition, Hyorin, Seoyoung, and

Wonjin (students with low PA) also emphasized that gender differences in PE led to different PA preferences, and they believed that their PE classes usually matched male students’ preferences, which were usually competitive team sports, so they also thought was unfair to them. From these examples, it is clear that female students with low PA had negative attitudes toward the gender differences they saw in PE class.

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Although the female students with high PA similarly believed that there were biological differences and male students had naturally higher ability, they had different attitudes about this. For example, even though Hyobin she felt that male students usually had both higher ability and greater effort in PE class, she stressed the importance of effort. In her case, she believed that even though her ability was not as high as male students, her effort was equal, so she could enjoy PE as well. In addition, Wonae explained that even though she thought male students were naturally better than female students, she enjoyed playing with them because of their high ability. She felt this was challenging and exciting for her. These examples show that female students interpreted gender differences in different ways based on their confidence in their physical ability and their attitudes toward PA.

Thematic Category 9. Male Students as the Benchmark

Another robust thematic category found across the student interviews was that they believed male students were used as the benchmark in PE. For example, female students regardless of their own PA engagement emphasized that female students with high ability and high PA were exceptions to the norm. For example, Haena and Hyobin

(high PA students) considered themselves exceptions when they described gender differences in PE. When Haena described female and male different PA preferences, she then emphasized how much she loved playing soccer with her male classmates, which she thought was unusual compared her female friends. In addition, although Hyobin did not see herself as exception in her sports skills, she thought she was different from her female peers because of her exceptional effort and enjoyment in PE. Likewise,

Heeyoung and Hyorin (low PA students) shared about big gender gaps in PE, but both of them mentioned that there were a few female students that were exceptions. By

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positioning female students who had high physical ability and high PA as exceptional, this reinforces the assumption that male students were the standard for their comparisons

Moreover, when female students with high PA were asked about their confidence in PE class, they changed their self-evaluations depending on who they compared themselves to. For example, Haena said that she had 99% confidence compared to other female students, and 70% compared to males. Wonae said she was

“very good” compared to females but “quite good’ compared to males in her PE class.

Lastly, female students communicated that their PE teachers often used male students as the benchmark to evaluate their ability and participation in class. Eunae insisted that teachers had different standards for male and female students, invested more time in their learning, and gave them more challenges than female students. Eunyoung shared that in her past mixed-gender PE experience, her teachers focused mostly on male students who were good at sports and often allowed female students to observe and cheer for male students during game play, which she later realized led to loss of opportunity to participate in PA and develop her own skills. Furthermore, Injoo directly argued that her PE teachers used male students as the standard and criticized female students for having worse attitudes and behavior than them. She complained that her teachers valued male students more, used them as examples for model performance, as well as gave them more attention and praise. These examples together show that PE settings often favor male students’ preferences, and both teachers and students typically use males as the benchmarks to judge students’ PA participation and performance in PE class, which is consistent with the extant literature.

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Research Question 8. Students’ Beliefs about Motivating Female Students to

Engage in PE

The eighth research question the study investigated was: Do South Korean female secondary school students believe that girls can be motivated to engage more in their physical education classes? If so, how? The two major thematic categories that emerged across the student data in response to this last question were: (a) more attention and feedback, and (b) more choices in PE. These two thematic categories will be discussed to explore students’ beliefs about how female students can be motivated to engage more in their PE classes.

Thematic Category 10. More Attention and Feedback

The primary thematic category found across the data related to this research question, particularly among female students with high PA, was that they felt highly motivated to engage in PE class when they received attention and feedback from their teachers and peers. Almost all of the female students with high PA mentioned this in their interviews. For example, Haena explained that she received positive attention from her PE teachers since she was young, and this increased her skills and confidence in PA.

She also shared that her PE teachers and classmates often cheered for her when she made goals in class, and this gave her a lot of excitement and desire to work harder in

PE class. Lastly, she said that she really liked feeling respected by her male classmates and often chose challenging tasks to prove her ability to them. Similarly, Sanghee shared that when her close friends in PE class cheered for her, this gave her high motivation.

She also mentioned that she liked it when her PE teacher gave her individual, specific feedback because this helped her improve her skills. Likewise, Inhye explained that when her teacher paid attention to her and complimented her performance, this gave her

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desire to shower her ability more. She especially appreciated it when her teacher gave the female students more guidance and direction because she wanted everyone to work hard in PE class since she enjoyed PA. Moreover, although Wonae already had high personal motivation for PA, especially it was her goal to get a black belt in taekwondo before high school, she also said that her classmates’ attention motivated her to continue building her skills. Lastly, Eunae pointed out that in her single-gender PE class, she really liked that her teacher was able to give students more attention, and they could ask questions more freely. As these examples illustrate, female students with high PA found strong motivation from the attention and feedback they received from their teachers and peers. In contrast, female students with low PA often talked about attention in a negative way because they related this to the pressure they felt to do public performance. Thus, this specific source of motivation may be most related to the fact that female students with high PA had more confidence in their physical ability and enjoyment of PE class, so they especially valued attention and feedback from others.

Thematic Category 11. More Choices in PE

Another major thematic category found across the data was that female students wanted more choices in PE because they felt this would give them more enjoyment with

PA. The students talked about choices in various ways. Students with low PA mainly talked about choice in terms of who they played with and the type of physical activities they did in PE class. For example, Heeyoung wanted teachers to let students choose their partners in sports activities because she thought this would be more comfortable and fun for them. Hyorin and Wongjin both also talked about feeling safer exercising with friends because they felt freer to make mistakes with close people. Seoyoung,

Eunyoung, and Wongjin all mentioned that they found it more exciting to learn new

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sports because then the teacher explained more of the skills and knowledge to them.

They felt their teachers did not assume they knew the basics, and there was less gender gap between their familiarity and ability with diverse curriculum, which gave them more desire to try. Lastly, Hyorin emphasized that she wanted to learn about sports she liked to do outside of school, such as Pilates, and she believed this would motivate her to engage more in PA in PE class. As these examples show, female students with low PA primarily focused on social and curricular components when they identified ways PE teachers could better motivate female students.

A couple of female students with high PA (Sanghee and Eunae) also discussed their desire for diverse curriculum in PE class because they liked the opportunity to develop their physical ability more. However, an interesting difference was that female students with high PA focused mostly on wanting more choices in terms of challenge in

PE class. Because they had greater confidence in their physical ability and often felt that their PE teachers gave female students too easy tasks, they argued that PE teachers should not assume their level or preference based on their gender. For example, Hyobin claimed that challenging tasks could motivate females to try harder and make the PE environment more exciting. She wanted her PE teacher to treat females the same as males and not assume they could not do hard tasks before letting them try. Similarly,

Haena wanted her PE teacher to provide different levels and options for students to freely choose so that they could decide based on their own ability and interest, not their gender. Lastly, Sanghee shared that she was excited when she saw her female classmates have high performance and participation, so seeing them succeed on a challenging task gave her more motivation to improve her skills. Therefore, female students with high PA generally believed that if their PE teachers gave them more choice, particularly in terms

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of the level of difficulty of tasks, this would give them greater motivation to engage in their PE classes.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate South Korean PE teachers’ beliefs about female students’ physical activity participation in their courses, as well as South

Korean female secondary school students’ beliefs about their physical education courses.

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the overall findings in relation to the theoretical framework, provides pedagogical implications, addresses limitations of the study, and concludes with recommendations for future research.

Theoretical Framework and Discussion

In this study, the researcher used TpB to explore the beliefs of South Korean PE teachers and their female secondary school students regarding girls’ PA. Using TpB enabled the researcher to examine teachers’ and students’ intentions situated in three independent determinants: (a) attitude toward the behavior (behavioral beliefs), (b) subjective norms (normative beliefs), and (c) perceived behavioral control (control beliefs). Each of these components were evident across the data set and are discussed next.

Teachers’ Beliefs

The PE teachers’ behavioral beliefs can be explained through their attitudes toward teaching female students and their evaluation of girls’ PA. The six teachers’ communicated and exhibited different attitudes across the interviews and observations.

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Some of the teachers had very positive attitudes toward teaching female students, which was related to their enjoyment in teaching them. When teachers communicated favorable experiences teaching female students, they also seemed to be much more proactive and invested in promoting female students’ PA. For example, Hyunjae said he liked teaching female students more than male students; from his prior experience, students’ PA engagement was not based on their gender or skills, but instead, based on their attitude and effort. He intentionally showed care and listened to the female students because by building strong relationships with them, he saw positive outcomes in their PA engagement. In contrast, when PE teachers expressed dislike for teaching female students and made negative judgments of their PA, they seemed to take less action to change their curriculum, teaching approach, and/or environment to promote female students’ PA. For example, Inseol and Hosung both had exceptionally high physical ability and expressed frustration, confusion, and disappointment teaching female students because of their resistance to the curriculum, which is consistent with the literature that teachers who had positive schooling experiences in PE often see girls as the problem (e.g., Rich, 2014).

Even though Inseol and Hosung made some modifications to try to engage female students, they still focused almost entirely on traditionally curriculum with competitive sports at the center. Thus, the PE teachers’ different behaviors were influenced by their positive or negative expectations of the outcomes of teaching female students (Gutierres

Filho et al., 2013; Steward Stanec, 2009).

In addition, the PE teachers’ normative beliefs can be understood by looking at their subjective norms. The PE teachers’ expectations of what others would think and do

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influenced their own intentions and behaviors in both positive and negative ways. First of all, the PE teachers felt social pressure and judgment from veteran teachers to keep the curriculum the same. These older teachers held more power than them based on Korean culture’s age hierarchy, and they often resisted change (Lee & Cho, 2014). Second of all, they often talked about their colleagues as both sources of resistance and support, which shows that they were influenced by other teachers’ approval or lack of approval of their teaching approaches (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015). For example, Wongil and Sangkyu both discussed the important role their professional development groups played in providing them feedback and support to promote female students’ PA; for example, by diversifying the curriculum or creating single-gender PE class sessions. They mentioned both the resistance they felt from some colleagues who were unsure and hesitant about these changes, as well as the deep support and encouragement they received from those who shared the same vision. Third of all, the PE teachers frequently talked about societal norms when they discussed gender differences and gaps between female and male PA participation in their PE classes. They typically considered these gendered assumptions about femininity and masculinity as barriers to female students’ PA. Thus, these three normative beliefs shaped the PE teachers’ intentions and actions.

Further, the PE teachers’ control beliefs can be seen through their perceived behavioral control, which includes their self-efficacy and controllability (Montaño &

Kasprzyk, 2015; Rizzo & Columna, 2020). The teachers expressed a wide range of ease and difficulty when talking about teaching female students (Ajzen, 1991). They also explained their confidence or lack of confidence based on different internal and external

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factors (Steward Stanec, 2009). For instance, Hyunjae communicated high confidence teaching female students based on his belief that he could motivate them by building strong communication and rapport with them. As another example, Hosung’s perceived behavioral control was rooted in his own physical ability, which shaped his belief that through high physical demonstration he could help female students improve their physical ability. In addition, Eunjoo strongly believed she could understand her female students and encourage them to engage in PA in her PE classes based on her shared prior experiences in PE as a non-athlete. On the other hand, sometimes the teachers talked about their lack of actual ability to engage female students in PA despite their intention to motivate them. For example, Inseol talked about female students’ resistance based on their lack of skill development as an external barrier that made it too hard for her to motivate them. Thus, the teachers with higher perceived behavioral control had stronger intentions to engage female students in PA, and their actions reflected this sense of agency and control.

Students’ Beliefs

Female secondary school students’ behavioral beliefs can be explained through their attitudes toward their PE classes and their self-evaluation of their personal physical ability. Although almost all of the students perceived PE as beneficial for their health, their specific evaluation of their PE classes was strongly related to their judgment of their own skills. Students with high PA generally had very pleasant experiences with PE and expressed that PE was a very likable class for them (Ajzen, 2001). They had strong intention to put their effort to increase their skills through active PA because they

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believed that their engagement in PE would lead to favorable results based on their prior successful experiences (Gutierres Filho et al., 2013; Steward Stanec, 2009). On the other hand, students with low PA communicated very negative attitudes toward their PE classes and PA engagement. For them, PE was associated with very unpleasant experiences of feeling ashamed of their lack of skills, and they anticipated negative outcomes even if they put their effort. In other words, their evaluations of their PE classes were significantly shaped by their own personal judgment of their physical ability, and this greatly affected their behaviors in PE class. Overall, female students’ evaluation of their PE classes was affected by whether or not they believed it was a relevant, inclusive, and safe environment for their PA. This finding is consistent with the extant literature

(Carlson, 1995; Constantinou et al., 2009; Gibbons & Humbert, 2008; Olafson, 2002;

Solmon et al., 2003).

Moreover, female secondary school students’ normative beliefs were reflected in their subjective norms. In particular, female students were influenced by significant people in their lives, such as their family members and classmates. First of all, their family members seemed to impact their PA for better or worse. For example, female students who exercised regularly outside of school with their male family members, such as their fathers and/or brothers, had stronger intentions to engage in PA in their PE classes. Their family members had high expectations for their PA and gave them positive approval or encouragement for their PA (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015). On the other hand, female students who rarely or never engaged in PA with their family members outside of school had low participation in their PE classes because these significant

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people in their lives did not promote their PA (Rizzo & Columna, 2020; Steward Stanec,

2009). Second of all, students’ PA engagement in their PE classes were strongly influenced by their peers’ approval or lack of approval (Montaño & Kasprzyk, 2015). For example, female students with high PA developed high desire to put their effort in PE classes when their peers cheered for them and praised their high physical performance. In contrast, other female students resisted PA in PE class when they felt strong surveillance from their classmates or experienced teasing and bullying from others because of their low sports skills and knowledge. Lastly, both female students with high PA and low PA shared that they were influenced by societal norms, which gave them pressure to behave in certain ways based on their gender. This finding expands the current literature on perceptions of gender appropriateness and how this influences students’ PA engagement

(Olafson, 2002; Solmon et al., 2003; Woodson-Smith et al., 2015). For instance, female students with low PA often resisted physical activities if they felt these were not feminine. Thus, female students’ normative beliefs, which were shaped primarily by their family members, classmates, and societal norms, greatly influenced their intentions to engage or not engage in PE classes, which led to very different behaviors from female students with high and low PA.

What's more, the female secondary school students’ control beliefs can be understood through their perceived behavioral control. There were apparent differences between female students with high PA and low PA with regards to how easy or difficult they felt their PE classes were (Conatser et al., 2002). Those with high PA generally had high self-efficacy because they believed they had the ability to succeed in their PE

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classes, which connects with other related work on self-efficacy (e.g., Pauline, 2013;

Solmon et al., 2003; Verloigne et al., 2016). Based on their prior experiences, knowledge, and more extensive opportunities inside and outside of school for PA participation with friends and family, they had a stronger sense of internal ability to engage in PA in PE

(Ajzen, 1991). On the other hand, female students with low PA frequently talked about both internal and external barriers that caused them to believe they could not successfully engage in PA in PE class (Steward Stanec, 2009). Internal barriers included low physical ability and lack of familiarity with the rules and strategies of different sports, which gave them very low confidence and desire to put their effort, as well as curricular and environmental barriers (e.g., teasing, bullying, traditional sports curriculum, etc.).

Essentially, female students’ belief that they had the physical ability, as well as the real opportunity, to engage in PA strongly shaped their intentions and actions in different ways.

Pedagogical Implications

The major findings of this study suggest that PE teachers need to closely examine their own behavior, curriculum, and classroom environment in order to better promote female students’ PA participation in their PE classes. By listening to both teachers’ and students’ voices, as well as making connections to the extant literature, specific pedagogical implications have been identified and will be discussed in the next section of the chapter.

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PE Teacher Behavior

The results of this study reinforce the literature that suggests that female secondary school students’ PA participation is influenced by their PE teachers’ behavior, including their communication, attention, and feedback. The teachers in this study emphasized the importance of building good relationships with their students in order to encourage their PA participation. More specifically, by looking at the examples of study participants: Hyunjae, Hosung, and Eunjoo, PE teachers can use both verbal communication (e.g., remembering students’ names, recognizing small things about them, using humor, showing interest in their lives beyond the classroom, sharing personal stories and examples, etc.) and non-verbal communication (e.g., smiling, high-fives, thumbs up, etc.) to establish stronger rapport with their students.

Moreover, several female students (e.g., Eunae and Inhye, high PA) in this study shared strong desire for their PE teachers to give them more attention and feedback because they felt that male students received much more of their time and focus. This is consistent with the literature that PE teachers may unconsciously give different amounts and quality of feedback to students based on their gender. For example, PE teachers, both in this current study and in the extant literature, often give more specific feedback to male students on their performance and technique and too often give female students praise based only on their appearance and effort (Brown et al., 1996; Constantinou, 2008).

Instead, PE teachers need to provide more equitable feedback, greater practice opportunities, and higher expectations for all of their students (Brown et al., 1996; Derry,

2002; Constantinou, 2008).

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The female students with high PA in this study (e.g. Haena and Eunae) argued that their PE teachers should not make assumptions about their abilities and preferences based on their gender. Through PE teachers’ language and behavior, they may unintentionally strengthen gender norms that inhibit female students’ PA participation in their classes. In fact, Constantinou (2008) has pointed out that PE teachers need to be more cautious about what sports skills they ask students to demonstrate so that they are not reinforcing gendered assumptions of femininity and masculinity. Also, PE teachers too often have male students demonstrate skills for the class, using them as the benchmark which can make female students feel inferior (e.g., Injoo, low PA student).

Instead, they should have both female and male students demonstrate skills, including those with high and low performance.

What is more, female students in this current study (e.g., Hyobin, Eunae, and

Inhye - high PA students) claimed that PE teachers should not permit girls to be passive, to sit and observe others play. They wanted their teachers to more actively encourage their female classmates to participate in PA with them. One of the ways, PE teachers can do this is by using their peers to help them motivate each other through small group and cooperative activities (e.g., Wongil, PE teacher), as well as encourage students to be physically active with their friends inside and outside of school (e.g., Sangkyu and

Hosung, PE teachers).

PE Curriculum

Findings in this study also support the extant literature that indicates female secondary school students’ PA participation can be enhanced through more diverse PE

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curriculum models that encourages greater choice and challenge for students. Many of the Korean PE teachers and students in this study emphasized that new sports and physical activities helped to motivate students. Couturier et al. (2005) and Mears (2007) both highlighted that it is important for PE teachers move away from repetitive, irrelevant curricular activities and provide more diverse experiences that can promote students’ physically active lifestyles. For example, teachers in this current study (e.g., Hyunjae and

Wongil, PE teachers) both emphasized the importance of including physical activities that reflect students’ PA preferences, especially what they enjoy doing outside of school, as well as life-long sports that can encourage their PA beyond their PE classes (Solmon et al., 2003). Many of the female students (with both low and high PA) in this study shared this same perspective. They said that trying new sports was exciting to them (e.g.,

Sanghee, Seoyoung, and Eunyoung). In particular, through new sports, they felt they could develop different skills, and they appreciated that their PE teachers did not assume they knew the basic rules and strategies, so this made them feel less of a gendered gap with male classmates.

In addition, PE teachers should provide challenging curriculum for female students even if some of them have gaps in their skill development. They should make manageable goals for students so they can experience success (e.g., Hosung, PE teacher), but they should not make tasks easy, which can demotivate female students from putting their effort in PE class. As Eunjoo claimed, PE teachers need to give female students challenges because then they feel more significant, and it can lead to a real increase in confidence. Female students, especially those with high PA, also argued that PE teachers

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should provide different levels and options for students in classes to freely choose based on their own preferences rather than on their gender (e.g., Haena, high PA student). In addition, PE teachers can group students by skill level rather than by gender and intentionally create a balance of ability on teams (Constantinou, 2008).

Lastly, PE teachers may benefit from regular communication and collaboration with their colleagues in order to reflect on their curriculum and work towards improving it. In Wongil’s experience, meeting weekly with a workshop team allowed him to share new ideas with others on how to improve his teaching and curriculum for female students. He was able to modify his curriculum to better reflect female students’ PA preferences by sharing his concerns and getting feedback and input from his colleagues.

Similarly, Sangkyu was able to design single-gender PE classes through his professional development group, where teachers helped each other revise their curriculum to make it more enjoyable and relevant to female students. Thus, PE teachers should find and make opportunity to dialogue and support one another as they seek to promote female students’

PA participation in their PE classes.

Classroom Environment

Findings in this current study also echo the literature that suggests that female secondary school students’ PA participation is strongly impacted by the classroom environment. The PE teachers in this study emphasized that creating a fun environment helped to reduce students’ anxiety and increased their enjoyment with PA (e.g., Wongil and Eunjoo). Female students with high and low PA also shared their desire for a sociable, fun environment (e.g., Hyobin and Heeyoung), but more of them stressed the

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importance of a safe environment. Female students shared that those with low PA were often bullied, teased, ridiculed, and gossiped about in their PE classes (e.g., Inhye,

Seoyoung, Injoo, and Wonjin). It is crucial that PE teachers help students feel safe and supported in their classes (Gibbons & Humbert, 2008), and they should not tolerate misbehavior or disrespect to others (Constantinou, 2008). Moreover, many female students who felt they had low physical ability expressed high anxiety about having to do public performances in PE classes (e.g., Heeyoung, Seoyoung and Wonjin). Since many students felt heavy surveillance because of the public environment of PE where they felt their bodies were on display (Garrett, 2004a; Olafson, 2002; Webb et al., 2004), it is important that PE teachers recognize this barrier and try to reduce it. For example, they could have students do demonstrations in small groups rather than in front of the whole class (Olafson, 2002), or the teacher could move around the class while all students perform a task rather than individually assessing their skills.

Lastly, since female students, particularly those with low PA, frequently talked about socio-cultural barriers to their PA (e.g., not wanting to go to their next classes sweaty and the discomfort associated with changing clothes), PE teachers should consider ways they can reduce these hindrances. For example, they can try to advocate for more time between classes, better locker rooms, and indoor exercise facilities when the weather is too hot or cold (Couturier et al., 2005, 2007). By carefully considering how the classroom environment affects female students, PE teachers can increase their comfort and safety, and this can ultimately lead to higher PA engagement.

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Limitations of the Study and Recommendations for Future Research

Understanding PE teachers and female students’ beliefs about girls’ PA participation is a complex process. This study has yielded valuable insights, but there is more that needs to be done to explore this topic further. One of the limitations of this study is that the six PE teachers were recruited through purposive sampling, including criterion and snowball sampling. Because the researcher used her professional network to start the recruiting process which continued through word of mouth, this naturally may have attracted PE teachers who were already deeply committed to their teaching and concerned with promoting their female students’ PA. Thus, the beliefs and behaviors of these particular teacher participants may not reflect the average PE teacher in South

Korea. In addition, only one of the teachers was currently teaching in a single-gender high school, whereas the others were all in co-educational school contexts. As a result, this may be a limitation of the study, since it would be helpful to have more balance of perspectives and experiences. Moreover, the female participants included one student with high PA and one with low PA from each teacher, which emphasized the differences in their beliefs about their PE classes and their PA engagement. These students may not represent the typical female students’ perspectives and experiences; so, in future studies, researchers may want to include female students with average PA as well.

Nonetheless, this study is very meaningful and relevant, with strong practical implications for PETE programs. Regular PA is crucial for people’s holistic health (Blair et al., 2001; Mears, 2007; Verloigne et al., 2016). Yet, the PA rates of adolescents is alarmingly low, particularly among female students (McKenzie et al., 2004; Neumark-

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Sztainer et al., 2003; Wilkinson & Bretzing, 2011). The purpose of PE is to “develop physically literate individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of helpful physical activity” (SHAPE, 2016, p. 14). PE programs should and can play a significant role in promoting lifelong PA, but many students are missing out, not just female students. Thus, this study should be replicated in the future with different teaching contexts, age groups, and student populations to uncover teacher beliefs about other marginalized students who have low PA rates, such as students with disabilities, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and English language learners. Ultimately, all students deserve high quality PE, which means they need to have inclusive, equitable opportunities to engage in PA in their PE classes.

Conclusion

The purpose of this research study was to investigate South Korean PE teachers’ beliefs about female students’ PA participation in their courses, as well as female secondary students’ beliefs about their PE courses. Research shows that females’ participation in PA dramatically drops from elementary school to middle school to high school (Chepyator et al., 2007). Since students spend a large amount of their time at school each day, teachers, especially PE teachers, potentially can have a huge influence on students’ PA (Gibbons & Humbert, 2008; Woodson et al., 2015). Research indicates that girls’ PA rates, especially their levels of enjoyment and confidence in PE during adolescence, influence their PA later in life (Davison et al., 2010; Woodson-Smith et al.,

2015). There is currently a lack of research conducted on female students’ PA in secondary schools in East Asian contexts, and in South Korea in particular. In this study,

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the researcher has addressed this need to explore both teachers and students’ beliefs in order to shed light on how to better promote the physical engagement of all students. It is clear that the current study has yielded significant insights for the South Korean educational context and provided implications for PE programs beyond the East Asian context.

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Appendix A. Teacher Demographic Questionnaires

Demographic Questionnaire for Korean Physical Education Teachers

1. What is your gender?

2. What is your age?

3. How many years have you taught secondary school PE?

4. How many of these years were at the middle school level?

5. How many of these years were at the high school level?

6. How many PE classes do you teach per day on average?

7. How many PE classes do you teach per week on average?

8. What is the average number of students in your PE classes?

9. On average, how many boys are in your physical education classes?

10. On average, how many girls are in your physical education classes?

11. On average, for what percentage of your physical education class time, do boys

and girls participate in the same activity together?

12. On average, for what percentage of your physical education class time, do girls

and boys participate in the separate activities only with their same gender?

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한국 체육교사를 위한 배경적 질문

1. 당신의 성별은?

2. 당신의 나이는?

3. 선생님의 중등교사로서의 경력은?

4. 선생님의 중학교 티칭 경력은?

5. 선생님의 고등학교 티칭 경력은?

6. 선생님의 하루 평균 수업 시수는?

7. 선생님의 주중 평균 수업 시수는?

8. 선생님 체육수업의 평균 학생 수는 얼마입니까?

9. 선생님 체육수업의 평균 남학생 수는 얼마입니까?

10. 선생님 체육수업의 평균 여학생 수는 얼마입니까?

11. 평균적으로 선생님 체육수업에서 남학생과 여학생들의 함께 참여하는

신체활동은 어느정도 되나요?

12. 평균적으로 선생님 체육수업에서 남학생과 여학생들의 따로 참여하는

신체활동은 어느정도 되나요?

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Appendix B. Student Demographic Questionnaires

Demographic Questionnaire for Female Secondary School Students

1. What is your gender?

2. What is your age?

3. What is your grade level?

4. What is the name of your school?

5. What is the name of your PE teacher?

6. How many PE classes do you attend per week on average?

7. Do you exercise outside of school with your family?

a. If so, how often?

b. If so, what kind of exercise do you usually do outside of school?

c. If so, with which family members?

8. Do you exercise outside of school with your friends?

a. If so, how often?

b. If so, what kind of exercise do you usually do outside of school?

287

한국 중등학교 학생들을 위한 배경적 질문

1. 학생의 성별은?

2. 학생의 나이는?

3. 학생의 학년은?

4. 학교 이름을 얘기해주세요.

5. 학생의 체육선생님 이름을 얘기해주세요.

6. 학생의 주중 체육수업 시수는 얼마나 되나요?

7. 학생은 학교 외 가족들과 신체활동을 하나요?

a. 만약 그렇다면, 얼마나 자주 하나요?

b. 만약 그렇다면, 어떤 종류의 운동을 주로 학교 밖에서 하나요?

c. 만약 그렇다면, 가족 구성원 중 누구와 하나요?

8. 학생은 학교 외 친구들과 신체활동을 하나요?

a. 만약 그렇다면, 얼마나 자주 하나요?

b. 만약 그렇다면, 어떤 종류의 운동을 주로 학교 밖에서 하나요?

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Appendix C: Teacher Semi-Structured Interview Guide

Interview Guide for Korean Physical Education Teachers

1. Did you enjoy PE as a secondary student? Why or why not?

2. Why did you decide to become a PE teacher?

3. Did you play competitive sports in the past? If so, which sports? For how long? At

what level?

4. Describe the participation of boys and girls in your physical education classes.

5. Are there differences in the participation of boys and girls in your classes? If so,

describe how they differ.

6. When are the girls most engaged in class activities? When are they least likely to be

engaged?

7. In what ways do you think about promoting girls’ participation in your classes?

8. Describe the techniques you have used to motivate girls in your physical education

classes. Why have you selected these techniques, and how successful do they seem to

you?

9. Sometimes girls do not participate in physical education class activities as much as

boys. Is this true in your experience? Why or why not?

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10. What do you think are the biggest barriers to boys’ and girls’ physical activity

participation during physical education classes? Do girls and boys face the same

barriers to participation?

11. What elements do you believe are most important to teach physical education well?

Why?

12. When you teach both female and male students, do you think you ever have bias

toward male students using them as the standard even without intention?

13. Do you think there is a difference between the rapport you have with girls versus

boys? If so, describe how your rapport with students differ.

14. Do you believe that if you made class activities based on individual sports instead of

team sports, the girls in your classes would participant more? If so, why or why not?

290

체육교사를 위한 인터뷰 가이드

1. 선생님은 중, 고등학교때 체육을 좋아했나요? 그렇다면 왜 그런가요? 그렇지 않다면 왜 그렇지 않은가요?

2. 선생님은 왜 체육교사가 됐나요? 3. 선생님은 스포츠팀에 참여한 경험이 있나요? 만약 그렇다면 무슨 스포츠를 했나요? 얼마나 오랬동안 참여했나요? 그리고 어느정도 레벨이었나요?

4. 선생님의 체육수업의 남학생과 여학생 참여도를 설명해주세요. 5. 선생님의 남학생과 여학생의 체육수업 참여도가 다르다고 생각하나요? 만약 그렇다면 어떻게 다른가요?

6. 여학생들은 언제 가장 체육 참여도가 가장 높은가요? 그리고 언제 가장 낮은가요?

7. 선생님은 여학생 체육수업 참여를 위해 특별히 어떤 노력을 하나요? 8. 선생님은 여학생 체육수업 참여를 위해 어떤 동기유발 방법을 사용하나요? 왜 그런 동기유발 방법을 사용하나요? 또한 얼만큼 성공한다고 생각하나요?

9. 가끔 여학생들은 남학생 만큼 체육수업 참여하지 않습니다. 이것에 동의하나요? 그렇다면 왜 그렇고 아니면 왜 그렇지 않다고 생각하나요?

10. 선생님은 왜 체육시간 여학생 또는 남학생 참여율이 저조하다고 생각하나요? 남학생과 여학생의 저조한 참여율의 이유가 같나요?

11. 체육을 잘 가르치기 위한 가장 큰 요소는 무엇이라고 생각하는가? 왜 그렇게 생각하나요?

12. 혼성학급 티칭 시 본인도 모르게 기준을 남학생들 위주로 잡는것이 아닌가? 13. 선생님은 같은 성별의 학생과 다른 성별의 학생과의 래포나 유대감이 차이가 있다고 생각하나요?

14. 선생님은 팀스포츠가 아닌 개인스포츠로 선생님의 체육시간 교육과정을 구성했을때 여학생 참여도가 높아질거라고 생각하나요? 그렇다면 왜 그런가요? 그렇지 않다면 왜 그렇지 않나요?

291

Appendix D: Student Semi-Structured Interview Guide

Interview Guide for Female Secondary School Students

1. Describe your experiences as a student in physical education.

2. What about PE classes do you like most; and why?

3. What about PE classes do you like least; and why?

4. How important do you think being physically active is for you?

5. How helpful do you think physical education is for you?

6. What barriers, if any, do you believe interfere with your physical activity

participation in your PE classes?

7. What kinds of physical activity do you enjoy most?

8. What kinds of physical activity do you think male students enjoy most?

9. To what degree, if any, do you believe a student’s gender plays in her or his physical

activity participation in school physical education?

10. What influence, if any, do you believe your classmate have on your participation in

physical education classes?

11. Who has had the most influence on your experiences in physical education? How

have they influenced you?

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12. How confident do you feel when you are in PE classes?

13. What concerns, if any, do you have about participating in PE classes?

14. What is most challenging, if anything, about participating in PE classes?

15. What can teachers do to help motivate you and other girls to engage more in PE

classes?

293

한국 학생(체육)를 위한 인터뷰 가이드

1. 학생으로서 체육수업을 경험한것들을 설명해주세요. 2. 어떤 체육수업 (프로그램, 종목) 이 가장 좋은가요? 왜 그런가요? 3. 어떤 체육수업 (프로그램, 종목) 이 가장 싫은가요? 왜 그런가요? 4. 학생은 신체활동이 얼마나 중요하다고 생각하나요? 5. 학생은 체육수업이 학생의 신체활동에 얼마나 도움이 된다고 생각하나요? 예) 밖에서 활동하는 신체활동과 학교에서 하는 체육수업의 차이.

6. 학생의 신체활동이나 수업참여에 있어 어떤것들이 장애나 간섭 (불편함)이 될까요? 예) 남학생들의 놀림, 시선. 선생님의 잘하는 학생들만 집중하는 수업, 신체적 불만족.

7. 학생은 어떤 신체활동을 가장 좋아하나요? 8. 학생이 생각하기에 남학생들은 어떤 신체활동을 좋아하는거 같나요? 9. 학생은 성별에 따른 차이가 체육수업 활동에 영향을 미친다고 생각하나요? 10. 학생은 또래에 의해 체육수업 참여도나 활동이 영향을 미친다고 생각하나요? 11. 학생은 신체활동이나 체육수업등에 누가 가장 많은 영향력을 주었나요? 12. 학생은 체육수업을 참여할 때 얼마나 자신감이 있나요? 여자애들중에서? 13. 학생이 체육수업 참여할 때, 어떤 것이 또는 어떤 것들이 좀 더 고려되어야 될까요?

14. 학생은 체육수업에 참여할 때, 어떤것이 가장 큰 어려움인가요? 15. 여학생들의 보다 높은 체육수업 참여도와 질을 높이기 위해 선생님이 어떤것을 좀 더 보완하고 도와줄 수 있을까요? 만약 있다면 구체적으로 설명해주세요.

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Appendix E: Institutional Review Board Teacher Consent Forms

The Ohio State University Consent to Participate in Research

Study Title: Korean Physical Education Teachers’ Beliefs about Girls’ Physical Activity Participation

Researchers: Dr. Samuel R. Hodge, Mijoo Kim

This is a consent form for research participation. It contains important information about this study and what to expect if you decide to participate. Your participation is voluntary. Please consider the information carefully. Feel free to ask questions before making your decision whether or not to participate. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form and will receive a copy of the form.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate Korean secondary school physical education teachers’ beliefs about their female students’ participation in the physical activity of their courses. In addition, the researchers will examine Korean female secondary students’ beliefs about their physical education courses. The researchers seek to achieve these objectives by exploring the following research questions:

1. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe about their female students’ physical activity participation in their classes? 2. What barriers, if any, do South Korean physical education teachers believe impact female students’ physical activity participation in their classes? 3. Do teachers believe students’ physical activity participation in school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how? 4. What do South Korean physical education teachers believe will motivate female students to be more engaged in their physical education classes? 5. What do South Korean female secondary school students believe about their physical activity in their physical education classes? 6. What barriers, if any, do South Korean female secondary students believe impact girls’ physical activity participation in physical education classes? 295

7. Do female secondary students believe girls’ physical activity participation in school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how? 8. Do South Korean female secondary students believe that girls can be motivated to engage more in their physical education classes? If so, how?

Procedures/Tasks:

To answer these research questions, the study will be carried out in South Korea at the secondary school sites of the participating teachers. The participants will be six physical education teachers and 12 female secondary students will be recruited for the study. During the time period of December 2018 to May 2020, the researcher will collect data from the participating teachers through the following methods: (a) demographic questionnaires, (b) 3 individual semi-structured interviews, and (c) 3 classroom observations. The demographic questionnaire for the Korean secondary school teachers will include 12 demographic questions related to their background in physical education. The researcher will administer the demographic questionnaires to teachers at their school site, which will take approximately 10 minutes to complete, and then they will be given back to the researcher on site after completion. Follow-up semi-structured interviews will be scheduled individually with the teachers three times each for about 1 hour each. They will be audio-recorded and transcribed. After transcribing the recorded data in the researcher’s private computer, the researcher will retain the data in a safely locked device in password-protected locked files on a computer which only the researcher can have access to. In addition, the lead researcher (data collector) will collect data (researcher field notes) through non-participant observations of 3 classes for triangulation purposes. All field notes and analytical notes written by the researcher based on the data will also be stored in the researcher’s private computer locked file. In order to protect the participants’ privacy, the researchers will use pseudonyms in all data sheets or written reports.

Lastly, a demographic questionnaire with 8 questions related to students’ background in physical education and physical activity, as well as a semi-structured interview consisting of 15 questions will be administered to secondary school female students focused on their experiences, beliefs, and attitudes towards their physical education classes. 12 female secondary students (6 teachers, 2 students each) will be given the opportunity to take the demographic questionnaire and participate in semi-structured interviews if parental consent and student assent has been given to participate in the study. The lead researcher will email the parental consent and student assent forms to the students directly, and they will be asked to email these forms back within one week if they want to participate in the study. The lead researcher will then email the demographic questionnaires to the students who submitted the parental consent and student assent forms, and interviews will be set up at a time and location according to the parental preference. It will take approximately 1 hour for the students to complete the questionnaires and interviews with no identifiable information on them. The students will email them back to the researcher within one 296

week. The data collector will delete the emails after downloading them and store them in a safely locked device in password-protected locked files on a computer which only the data collector can have access to. All analytical notes written by the researcher based on the data will also be stored in the researcher’s private computer locked file. Data from background questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and field notes will be analyzed. De-identified data will be retained after study completion for a period of at least five years per the Ohio State’s Research Data policy.

In terms of the potential benefits of the participants, both teachers and students may indirectly benefit from their involvement in this study because they can have the chance to reflect on their experiences and beliefs about female physical activity. Through this reflection, they may rethink some of their beliefs and behaviors, which could yield new insights into promoting higher engagement of female students in physical education.

Duration:

This research will be conducted in South Korea at the secondary school sites of the participating teachers from December 2018 until May 2020. In total, it is anticipated that teachers will invest approximately 4 hours and 40 minutes in the study: 10 minutes for the demographic questionnaire, 3 hours for the semi-structured interviews (1 hour each), 30 minutes for the classroom observations (approximately 5 minutes before and after each of the 3 observations), and 1 additional hour to member check the written summaries from the data. It is anticipated that students will invest approximately 1-hour total in the study.

You may leave the study at any time. If you decide to stop participating in the study, there will be no penalty to you, and you will not lose any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. Your decision will not affect your future relationship with The Ohio State University.

Risks and Benefits:

During the research, the participants might feel uncomfortable sharing their beliefs, if they have had negative experiences in physical education. However, this discomfort will be minimized by careful wording of the interview questions, as well as assuring the participants of the anonymity of the data. Nevertheless, through this research, both teachers and students may indirectly benefit from their involvement in this study because they can have the chance to reflect on their experiences and beliefs regarding female physical activity. Through this reflection, they may rethink some of their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, which could yield new insights into promoting higher engagement of female students in physical education.

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Confidentiality:

Efforts will be made to keep your study-related information confidential. However, there may be circumstances where this information must be released. For example, personal information regarding your participation in this study may be disclosed if required by state law. Also, your records may be reviewed by the following groups (as applicable to the research):

• Office for Human Research Protections or other federal, state, or international regulatory agencies; • The Ohio State University Institutional Review Board or Office of Responsible Research Practices;

Incentives:

There will be no incentives or compensation to participate in this research study.

Participant Rights:

You may refuse to participate in this study without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. If you are a student or employee at Ohio State, your decision will not affect your grades or employment status.

If you choose to participate in the study, you may discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits. By signing this form, you do not give up any personal legal rights you may have as a participant in this study.

An Institutional Review Board responsible for human subjects research at The Ohio State University reviewed this research project and found it to be acceptable, according to applicable state and federal regulations and University policies designed to protect the rights and welfare of participants in research.

Contacts and Questions: For questions, concerns, or complaints about the study, or you feel you have been harmed as a result of study participation, you may contact Mijoo Kim at [email protected].

For questions about your rights as a participant in this study or to discuss other study- related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1- 614-688-4792.

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Signing the consent form

I have read (or someone has read to me) this form, and I am aware that I am being asked to participate in a research study. I have had the opportunity to ask questions and have had them answered to my satisfaction. I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.

I am not giving up any legal rights by signing this form. I will be given a copy of this form.

Printed name of subject Signature of subject

AM/PM Date and time

Printed name of person authorized to consent for Signature of person authorized to consent for subject subject (when applicable) (when applicable)

AM/PM Relationship to the subject Date and time

Investigator/Research Staff

I have explained the research to the participant or his/her representative before requesting the signature(s) above. There are no blanks in this document. A copy of this form has been given to the participant or his/her representative.

Printed name of person obtaining consent Signature of person obtaining consent

AM/PM Date and time

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오하이오주립대학교 연구 참여 동의서

연구제목: 여학생 체육시간 신체활동 참여율을 토대로 한 한국 중등체육교사와 학생들의 관점 분석

연구자들: Dr. Samuel Hodge, Mijoo Kim

이것은 연구참여요청에 대한 동의서입니다. 참여하기전에 어떤 연구인지 어떤 예상을 하는지를 알아야 합니다

참여자는 자발적인 참여로 이루어집니다. 참가자의 자발적인 참여를 적극 고려해야 하며 참여를 하든 그렇지 않든 참가자의 의지로 이루어집니다. 만약 참가자가 참여를 선택할 경우, 사인 후 복사본을 가지고 있기 바랍니다.

목적: 체육시간의 여학생 참여율을 토대로 한국 중,고등학교 체육 교사들의 가치관을 연구합니다. 나아가, 한국 중.고등학교 여학생들의 체육시간에 대한 가치관을 연구합니다. 이 목적을 토대로 다음과 같은 연구 질문을 하게 됩니다. 연구 질문 (1): 한국 중등 체육교사들은 그들의 수업에서의 여학생 참여율에 대해 어떻게 생각하고 있나요? 연구 질문 (2): 중등학교 여학생들의 수업참여율에 대한 체육교사들의 생각과 체육시간에 여학생들이 가장 어렵다고 생각하는 부분은 무엇일까요? 연구질문 (3): 한국 중등 체육교사들은 성별이 체육시간에 미치는 영향이 있다고 보나요? 만약 그렇다면 어떤 영향이 있나요? 연구질문 (4): 어떤 방식의 동기유발과 가치관으로 선생님들은 체육시간에 여학생들이 보다 즐겁고 적극적으로 체육수업에 참여하도록 하고 있나요? 연구질문 (5): 중등학교 여학생들의 체육시간에 대한 생각은 어떤가요? 연구질문 (6): 중등학교 여학생들의 수업참여율에 대한 그들 본인의 생각과 여학생들이 체육시간에 가장 어려운 부분은 무엇일까요? 연구질문 (7): 한국 중등학교 여학생들은 성별이 체육시간에 미치는 영향이 있다고 보나요? 만약 그렇다면 어떤 영향이 있나요? 연구질문 (8): 한국 중등학교 여학생들은 체육시간에 보다 적극적으로 참여할 수 있다고 생각하나요? 만약 그렇다면 어떻게 하는게 좋을까요?

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절차/방법:

이 연구는 한국 중등학교 체육교사들의 현재 근무지를 통해 이루어질것입니다. 최대 6 명의 중등 체육교사와 12 명의 중등학교 여학생들이 참여자가 될 것입니다. 2018 년 12 월부터 2020 년 5 월까지가 연구절차의 시기가 될 것입니다. 다음은 연구 방법에 대한 설명입니다: 3 가지 연구방법은 (a)참여자의 기본이 되는 배경적 질문과 (b) 1:1 인터뷰방식으로 진행됩니다. 1:1 인터뷰는 3 차례에 걸쳐 진행됩니다. (c) 마지막으로 3 회에 걸쳐 수업참관을 하며 기록합니다. 설문방식은 12 가지의 배경적 정보와 관련된 질문으로 구성됩니다. 연구자는 설문지 질문을 체육교사에게 제공하고 최대 10 분의 시간 동안 참여자의 기본이 되는 배경적 질문지를 작성합니다. 완성된 질문지는 다시 받도록 합니다. 그 후 연구자는 연구목적에 따른 다음 인터뷰를 준비하고 세번의 인터뷰를 하게 됩니다. 각각 1 시간 정도의 시간을 소요합니다. 인터뷰 동안 녹음이 진행되며 녹음은 각각 글로 기록됩니다. 글로 기록된 정보는 개인 컴퓨터에 따로 저장이 될 것이고 패스워드를 통해 안전하게 보관될 것입니다. 또한 연구자는 보다 높은 타당성과 근거를 위해 3 회의 수업참관을 하고 기록합니다. 이외 노트기록등 어떤 참여자의 기록도 연구자의 개인컴퓨터에 안전하게 보관 될 것입니다. 참여자의 프라이버시를 위해 참여자 이름은 다른 이름을 사용하게 될 것입니다.

덧붙여, 학생 설문방식은 8 가지의 기본적 배경이 되는 질문을 시작으로 일대일 인터뷰를 합니다. 인터뷰는 여학생들의 체육수업에 대한 가치관을 중점으로 15 가지 질문에 대한 답을 자유롭게 하는 방식입니다. 6 명의 체육선생님들의 각자가 담당하는 2 명의 여학생들에게 학부모의 동의서 및 학생동의서를 연구자가 직접 이메일을 통해 학생들에게 전달하게 되고 학부모의 동의 및 학생 중 동의한 여학생들만 연구에 참여하게 됩니다. 이메일로 학생에게 직접 전달된 동의서는 1 주일 후 연구자에게 학생이 직접 이메일을 보내게 되고 동의한 학생들에 한해서만 연구자가 기본적 배경이 되는 질문을 이메일로 다시 보내고 또 받게 됩니다. 인터뷰는 학생의 학부모가 원하는 시간과 장소에 맞춰 인터뷰가 진행이 되고 기본적 배경이 되는 질문지를 포함해서 인터뷰까지의 연구는 최대 1 시간 동안 이루어 질것입니다. 작성된 설문지는 1 주일 후 연구자에게 다시 보내집니다. 회수된 연구지는 연구자의 개인컴퓨터에 안전하게 보관될 것입니다. 또한 이메일을 통해 받은 이메일은 학생들의 정보보호를 위해 모두 지웁니다. 학생들에게 주어진 배경적 질문, 제약없는 설문, 인터뷰등의 연구기록은 참여자에 의해 분석될 것입니다. 오하이오 주립대학교의 데이터 정책에 따라 개인정보를 제외한 모든 자료는 5 년동안 보관 됩니다.

이 연구를 통해 참여한 한국 체육교사들은 체육수업에 대한 자기성찰을 할 수 있는 기회가 제공될 것이고 학생들은 간접적 체육 수업참여 연구를 통해 본인 스스로 생각해 볼 수 있는 기회가 될 것입니다. 또한 이를 토대로 다시 한번 체육교육을 생각하며 발전 할 수 있는 기회가 되길 바랍니다. 특히 여학생 체육 발전에 도움이 될것이라 기대합니다.

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연구시기:

연구는 한국 체육교사들과 여학생들을 대상으로 2018 년 12 월부터 2020 년 5 월까지 됩니다. 중등체육교사들은 전체 4 시간 40 분 정도로 연구에 참여하게 됩니다 (10 분 배경적 질문, 3 시간 1:1 인터뷰(각 1 시간) , 30 분 수업참관에 관련된 의견 (수업전, 후 최대 5 분 각각 수업참관에 관련된 의견). 또한 1 시간 정도는 체육교사와 연구자의 설문 결과에 대한 확인 절차 작업을 거칩니다. 학생들은 최대 1 시간 동안 기본 배경이 되는 질문 및 제약이 없는 설문방식으로 연구에 참여합니다.

참여자가 참여를 원하지 않을 경우는 언제나 포기할 수 있으며 오하이오주립대학교를 포함해 그 어떤것으로부터의 부당한 결과도 없습니다.

위험요소 및 혜택:

연구에 참여하는 동안 과거나 현재, 만약 체육시간에 대한 좋지 않은 기억이 있다면 참여자는 불편할 수 있습니다. 그러나 최대한 참여자의 불편을 해소할 수 있도록 할것이며 그렇기 때문에 본인의 이름을 사용하지 않을것입니다. 단점이 있음에도 불구하고 이 연구를 통해 참여한 한국 체육교사들은 체육수업에 대한 자기성찰을 할 수 있는 기회가 제공될 것이고 학생들은 간접적 체육 수업참여 연구를 통해 본인 스스로 생각해 볼 수 있는 기회를 통해 여학생 체육발전에 기여할 수 있기 때문에 혜택이 주어질 것이라 기대합니다.

기밀 유지:

기록된 연구는 기밀 유지에 최선을 다할 것입니다. 하지만 부분적인 공유는 피치 못할 부분입니다. 예를 들어, 어떤 법적인 절차나 공공기관에서 참여자의 정보를 물었을때. 또한 참여자의 데이터를 다음과 같이 검염할때입니다: • “Office for Human Research Protections” or 국가나 인터네셔널 기관 • 오하이오주립대학교의 리서치 검열기관

보상: 이 연구는 자발적 연구로서 어떤 인세티브나 보상이 없습니다.

참여자의 권리: 참여자가 참여를 원하지 않을 경우는 언제나 포기할 수 있으며 오하이오주립대학교를 포함해 그 어떤것으로부터의 불이익은 없습니다. 만약 참여자가 오하이오 주립대학교 학생이나 교직원일때 성적관련이나 다른 부당한 처우는 없습니다. 사인을 하더라도 참여자의 권리 및 혜택이 절대로 거부되지 않을것입니다.

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오하이오주립대학교 연구관행감독부는 사람에 관한 연구에 대한 모든 책임을 집니다. 연구관행감독부는 연구자의 프로젝트 검열을 통해 연구가 진행될 수 있도록 증명했습니다. 미국정부와 대학교의 법에 따라 참여자의 권리를 보장할것을 증명했습니다.

연락처 및 질문: 이 연구에 관하여 질문이나 염려하는 점 또는 불만이 있으시면 Mijoo Kim at [email protected]. 으로 연락하시기 바랍니다.

연구에 참여하는 참여자의 권리에 관하여 질문이 있으시면 책임있는 연구관행감독부(Office of Responsible Research Practices) Ms. Sandra Meadows, 전화 1-614- 688-8641 로 전화하시기 바랍니다. 이 번호로 전화하여 연구진이 아닌 타인에게 연구에 관한 불만을 접수하셔도 됩니다.

연구 참여 동의서를 위한 사인

여기에 서명함으로써 귀하는 연구에 관한 내용을 설명받았음을 인정하시는 것입니다. 궁금한 점을 물어볼 기회를 가졌어야 합니다. 이 연구에 참여 결정 전에 모든 질문들에 대한 설명을 받았어야 합니다.

여기에 서명한다고 해서 법적 권리를 포기하시는것이 아닙니다. 이 동의서의 사본을 받게 되실것입니다. 또한 연구의 내용을 요약한 내용도 받게 되실 것입니다.

Printed name of subject Signature of subject 피험자 이름 정자 사인 AM/PM Date and time 날짜와 시간

Printed name of person authorized to consent for Signature of person authorized to consent for subject subject (when applicable) 증인 이름 정자 (when applicable) 증인 서명

AM/PM Relationship to the subject 관계 Date and time 날짜와 시간

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연구자

저는 참여자가 사인을 하기 전에 연구에 관한 설명을 했습니다. 동의서에 관한 어떠한 부분도 설명하지 않은것이 없습니다. 복사본은 참가자에게 드립니다.

Printed name of person obtaining consent 연구자 Signature of person obtaining consent 연구자 사인 이름

AM/PM Date and time 날짜와 시간

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Appendix F: Institutional Review Board Parent Consent Forms

The Ohio State University Parental Permission For Child’s Participation in Research

Study Title: Korean Physical Education Teachers’ Beliefs about Girls’ Physical Activity Participation

Researchers: Dr. Samuel R. Hodge, Mijoo Kim

This is a parental permission form for research participation. It contains important information about this study and what to expect if you permit your child to participate. Your child’s participation is voluntary. Please consider the information carefully. Feel free to discuss the study with your friends and family and to ask questions before making your decision whether or not to permit your child to participate. If you permit your child to participate, you will be asked to sign this form and will receive a copy of the form.

Purpose:

The purpose of this study is to investigate Korean secondary school physical education teachers’ beliefs about their female students’ participation in the physical activity of their courses. In addition, the researchers will examine Korean female secondary students’ beliefs about their physical education courses. The study seeks to achieve these objectives by exploring the following research questions:

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5. What do South Korean female secondary school students believe about their physical activity in their physical education classes? 6. What barriers, if any, do South Korean female secondary students believe impact girls’ physical activity participation in physical education classes? 7. Do female secondary students believe girls’ physical activity participation in school physical education differ as a function of gender? If so, how? 8. Do South Korean female secondary students believe that girls can be motivated to engage more in their physical education classes? If so, how?

Procedures/Tasks:

To answer the research questions, the study will be carried out in South Korea at the secondary school sites of the participating teachers. The participants will be six physical education teachers and 12 female secondary students recruited for the study. During the time period of December 2018 to May 2020, the researcher will collect data from the participating teachers through the following methods: (a) demographic questionnaires, (b) three individual semi-structured interviews, and (c) three classroom observations.

In addition, a student background questionnaire with 8 questions related to students’ background in physical education and physical activity will be given to students. Also, a semi-structured interview consisting of 15 questions will be administered to secondary school female students focused on their experiences and beliefs about their physical education classes. 12 female secondary students (6 teachers, 2 students each) will be given the opportunity to take the demographic questionnaire and participate in semi- structured interviews if parental consent and student assent has been given to participate in the study. The lead researcher will email the parental consent and student assent forms to the students directly, and they will be asked to email these forms back within one week if they want to participate in the study. The lead researcher will then email the demographic questionnaires to the students who submitted the parental consent and student assent forms, and interviews will be set up at a time and location according to parental preference. It will take approximately 1 hour for the students to complete the questionnaires and interviews with no identifiable information on them. The students will email them back to the researcher within one week. The data collector will delete the emails after downloading them and store them in a safely locked device in password- protected locked files on a computer which only the data collector can have access to. All analytical notes written by the researcher based on the data will also be stored in the researcher’s private computer locked file. Data from background questionnaires, semi- structured interviews, and field notes will be analyzed. De-identified data will be retained after study completion for a period of at least five years per the Ohio State’s Research Data policy.

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Duration:

This research will be conducted in South Korea at the secondary school sites of the participating students from December 2018 until May 2020. It is anticipated that students will invest approximately 1 hour total in the study.

Your child may leave the study at any time. If you or your child decides to stop participation in the study, there will be no penalty and neither you nor your child will lose any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. Your decision will not affect your future relationship with The Ohio State University.

Risks and Benefits:

During the research, your children might feel uncomfortable sharing their beliefs if they have had negative experiences in physical education. However, this discomfort will be minimized by careful wording of the interview questions, as well as assuring your children of the anonymity of the data. Your child may indirectly benefit from their involvement in this study because she can have the chance to reflect on her experiences and beliefs regarding physical activity. Through this reflection, they may rethink some of their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, which could yield new insights into promoting higher engagement of female students in physical education.

Confidentiality:

Efforts will be made to keep your child’s study-related information confidential. However, there may be circumstances where this information must be released. For example, personal information regarding your child’s participation in this study may be disclosed if required by state law. Also, your child’s records may be reviewed by the following groups (as applicable to the research):

We will work to make sure that no one sees your questionnaire responses without approval. But, because we are using the Internet, there is a chance that someone could access your online responses without permission. In some cases, this information could be used to identify you.

Incentives:

There will be no incentives or compensation to participate in this research study.

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Participant Rights:

You or your child may refuse to participate in this study without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. If you or your child is a student or employee at Ohio State, your decision will not affect your grades or employment status.

If you and your child choose to participate in the study, you may discontinue participation at any time without penalty or loss of benefits. By signing this form, you do not give up any personal legal rights your child may have as a participant in this study. An Institutional Review Board responsible for human subjects research at The Ohio State University reviewed this research project and found it to be acceptable, according to applicable state and federal regulations and University policies designed to protect the rights and welfare of participants in research.

Contacts and Questions:

For questions, concerns, or complaints about the study, or you feel your child has been harmed as a result of study participation, you may contact Mijoo Kim at [email protected].

For questions about your child’s rights as a participant in this study or to discuss other study-related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1-614-688-4792.

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Signing the parental permission form

I have read (or someone has read to me) this form and I am aware that I am being asked to provide permission for my child to participate in a research study. I have had the opportunity to ask questions and have had them answered to my satisfaction. I voluntarily agree to permit my child to participate in this study.

I am not giving up any legal rights by signing this form. I will be given a copy of this form.

Printed name of subject

Printed name of person authorized to provide Signature of person authorized to provide permission permission for subject for subject

AM/PM Relationship to the subject Date and time

Investigator/Research Staff

Printed name of person obtaining consent Signature of person obtaining consent

AM/PM Date and time

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오하이오주립대학교 학생 설문조사에 대한 부모님 동의서

연구제목: 여학생 체육시간 신체활동 참여율을 토대로 한 한국 중등체육교사와 학생들의 관점 분석

연구자들: Dr. Samuel Hodge, Mijoo Kim

이것은 학생 연구 참여에 대한 부모님의 동의서입니다. 참여하기전에 자녀가 어떤 연구에 참여하는지 어떤 예상을 하는지를 숙지하여야 합니다. 자녀는 연구에 대해 자발적으로 참여합니다. 참가자의 자발적인 참여를 적극 고려해야 하며 참여를 하든 그렇지 않든 참가자의 의지로 이루어집니다. 만약 자녀가 연구에 참여를 하길 바랄경우, 사인 후 복사본을 가지고 있기 바랍니다.

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절차/방법: 이 연구는 한국 중등학교 체육교사들의 현재 근무지를 통해 이루어질것입니다. 최대 6 명의 중등 체육교사와 12 명의 중등학교 여학생들이 참여자가 될 것입니다. 2018 년 12 월부터 2020 년 5 월까지가 연구절차의 시기가 될 것입니다. 다음은 체육교사에 연구 방법에 대한 설명입니다: 3 가지 연구방법은 (a)참여자의 기본이 되는 배경적 질문과 (b) 1:1 인터뷰방식으로 진행됩니다. 1:1 인터뷰는 3 차례에 걸쳐 진행됩니다. (c) 마지막으로 3 회에 걸쳐 수업참관을 하며 기록합니다.

학생 설문방식은 8 가지의 기본적 배경이 되는 질문을 시작으로 일대일 인터뷰를 합니다. 인터뷰는 여학생들의 체육수업에 대한 가치관을 중점으로 15 가지 질문에 대한 답을 자유롭게 하는 방식입니다. 6 명의 체육선생님들의 각자가 담당하는 2 명의 여학생들에게 학부모의 동의서 및 학생동의서를 연구자가 직접 이메일을 통해 학생들에게 전달하게 되고 학부모의 동의 및 학생 중 동의한 여학생들만 연구에 참여하게 됩니다. 이메일로 학생에게 직접 전달된 동의서는 1 주일 후 연구자에게 학생이 직접 이메일을 보내게 되고 동의한 학생들에 한해서만 연구자가 기본적 배경이 되는 질문을 이메일로 다시 보내고 또 받게 됩니다. 인터뷰는 학생의 학부모가 원하는 시간과 장소에 맞춰 인터뷰가 진행이 되고 기본적 배경이 되는 질문지를 포함해서 인터뷰까지의 연구는 최대 1 시간 동안 이루어질 것입니다. 작성된 설문지는 1 주일 후 연구자에게 다시 보내집니다. 회수된 연구지는 연구자의 개인컴퓨터에 안전하게 보관될 것입니다. 또한 이메일을 통해 받은 이메일은 학생들의 정보보호를 위해 모두 지웁니다. 학생들에게 주어진 배경적 질문, 제약없는 설문, 인터뷰등의 연구기록은 참여자에 의해 분석될 것입니다. 오하이오 주립대학교의 데이터 정책에 따라 개인정보를 제외한 모든 자료는 5 년동안 보관 됩니다.

연구시기: 연구는 한국 체육교사들과 여학생들을 대상으로 2018 년 12 월부터 2020 년 5 월까지 됩니다. 학생들은 전체 1 시간 정도 연구에 참여하게 됩니다.

자녀가 참여를 원하지 않을 경우는 언제나 포기할 수 있으며 오하이오주립대학교를 포함해 그 어떤것으로부터의 부모님 및 자녀의 부당한 패널티는 없습니다.

위험요소 및 혜택: 자녀가 연구에 참여하는 동안 과거나 현재, 만약 체육시간에 대한 좋지 않은 기억이 있다면 자녀는 불편할 수 있습니다. 그러나 최대한 참여자의 불편을 해소할 수 있도록 할것이며 그렇기 때문에 본인의 이름을 사용하지 않을것입니다. 단점이 있음에도 불구하고 이 연구를 통해 참여한 한국 체육교사들은 체육수업에 대한 자기성찰을 할 수 있는 기회가 제공될 것이고 여러분들의 자녀는 간접적 체육 수업참여를 통해 본인 스스로 생각해 볼 수 있는 기회를 통해 여학생 체육발전에 기여할 수 있기 때문에 혜택이 주어질 것이라 기대합니다.

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기밀 유지:

자녀들의 기록된 연구는 최선을 다해 기밀 유지 할 것입니다. 하지만 부분적인 공유는 피치 못할 부분입니다. 예를 들어, 어떤 법적인 절차나 공공기관에서 참여자인 자녀의 정보를 물었을때. 또한 참여자의 데이터를 다음과 같이 검염할때입니다: • “Office for Human Research Protections” or 국가나 인터네셔널 기관 • 오하이오주립대학교의 리서치 검열기관

우리는 당신의 허락없이는 설문지에 관한 어떠한 답변을 그 누구도 보지 못하게 할 것입니다. 그러나 인터넷을 사용해서 설문지를 주고 받는만큼 누구가가 당신의 허락없이 온라인을 침범해 당신이 답한 설문지를 보고 당신의 정보를 통해 당신이 누구인지를 알 수도 있습니다.

보상: 이 연구는 자발적 연구로서 어떤 인세티브나 보상이 없습니다.

참여자의 권리:

부모님과 자녀가 연구에 대한 참여를 원하지 않을 경우는 언제나 포기할 수 있으며 오하이오주립대학교를 포함해 그 어떤것으로부터의 불이익은 없습니다. 만약 부모님이나 자녀가 오하이오 주립대학교 학생이나 교직원일때 성적관련이나 다른 부당한 처우는 없습니다. 사인을 하더라도 부모님과 자녀의 권리 및 혜택이 절대로 거부되지 않을것입니다.

연락처 및 질문: 이 연구에 관하여 질문이나 염려하는 점 또는 불만이 있으시면 Mijoo Kim at [email protected]. 으로 연락하시기 바랍니다.

연구에 참여하는 자녀의 권리에 관하여 질문이 있으시면 책임있는 연구관행감독부(Office of Responsible Research Practices) Ms. Sandra Meadows, 전화 1- 614-688-8641 로 전화하시기 바랍니다. 이 번호로 전화하여 연구진이 아닌 타인에게 연구에 관한 불만을 접수하셔도 됩니다.

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자녀의 연구 참여 동의서를 위한 부모님 사인

여기에 서명함으로써 귀하는 자녀의 연구 참여에 관한 내용을 설명받았음을 인정하시는 것입니다. 궁금한 점을 물어볼 기회를 가졌어야 합니다. 자녀가 이 연구에 참여 결정 전에 모든 질문들에 대한 설명을 받았어야 합니다.

Printed name of subject 피험자 이름 정자

Printed name of person authorized to provide Signature of person authorized to provide permission for subject permission for subject 보호자 이름 정자 보호자 사인

AM/PM Relationship to the subject Date and time 날짜와 시간 피험자와의 관계

연구자

저는 참여자가 사인을 하기 전에 연구에 관해 피험자인 학생과 보호자에게 설명을 했습니다. 동의서에 관한 어떠한 부분도 설명하지 않은것이 없습니다. 복사본은 참여자인 자녀나 보호자에게 드립니다.

Printed name of person obtaining consent 연구자 Signature of person obtaining consent 연구자 사인 이름

AM/PM Date and time 날짜와 시간

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Appendix G: Institutional Review Board Student Assent Forms

The Ohio State University Assent to Participate in Research

Study Title: Korean Physical Education Teachers’ Beliefs about Girls’ Physical Activity Participation

Researchers: Dr. Samuel R. Hodge, Mijoo Kim

• You are being asked to be in a research study. Studies are done to find better ways to treat people or to understand things better. • This form will tell you about the study to help you decide whether or not you want to participate. • You should ask any questions you have before making up your mind. You can think about it and discuss it with your family or friends before you decide. • It is okay to say “No” if you don’t want to be in the study. If you say “Yes” you can change your mind and quit being in the study at any time without getting in trouble. • If you decide you want to be in the study, an adult (usually a parent) will also need to give permission for you to be in the study.

1. What is this study about? This study will research both Korean physical education teachers’ beliefs and female students’ beliefs about girls’ physical activity in PE classes. The purpose of this study is to learn about your beliefs and experience in your physical education classes.

2. What will I need to do if I am in this study? If you choose to participate in this study, you will be asked to take a background questionnaire and participate in an interview which include questions about your experiences in your physical education classes and questions about your beliefs toward being physically active during the classes. The background questionnaire will be emailed to you directly by the researcher. You will email these forms back to the researcher, and your emails will be deleted after the data is collected to protect your 314

privacy. The researcher will use this information to learn more about how physical education teachers can support female students to enjoy their physical education classes more.

3. How long will I be in the study?

The background questionnaire and interview will take no more than 1 hour of your time and will be emailed to you to complete at home and emailed back to the researcher. I will interview you at a time and place your parents choose.

4. Can I stop being in the study?

You may stop being in the study at any time. You can freely choose to participate or not participate in this study. It will have no negative effect on you, your relationship with your teacher, school, or the researcher.

5. What bad things might happen to me if I am in the study?

You may feel a little uncomfortable sharing your beliefs if you have had negative experiences in physical education classes. However, the interview questions have been designed carefully to help you feel more comfortable, and you can choose to share as little or much as you want. Also, you do not need to feel concerned that your beliefs may influence your relationship with your teachers because I will not use your real name when I write when I learn from you, so all your answers are anonymous. Also, everything will be submitted directly to the researcher by email to protect your privacy.

6. What good things might happen to me if I am in the study?

This study may indirectly benefit you because you can have the opportunity to reflect on your experiences and beliefs about physical education classes. This study gives you the chance to share your ideas, which may have positive effects on helping future teachers make physical education classes a more enjoyable experience for female students.

7. Will I be given anything for being in this study?

You will not be given anything for being in this study, but your participation is very much appreciated.

8. Who can I talk to about the study?

For questions about the study you may contact Mijoo Kim at [email protected]. To discuss other study-related questions with someone who is not part of the research 315

team, you may contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1-800-678-6251.

Signing the assent form

I have read (or someone has read to me) this form. I have had a chance to ask questions before making up my mind. I want to be in this research study.

AM/PM

Signature or printed name of subject Date and time

Investigator/Research Staff

I have explained the research to the participant before requesting the signature above. There are no blanks in this document. A copy of this form has been given to the participant or his/her representative.

Printed name of person obtaining assent Signature of person obtaining assent

AM/PM

Date and time

This form must be accompanied by an IRB approved parental permission form signed by a parent/guardian.

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오하이오주립대학교 연구 참여 동의서

연구제목: 여학생 체육시간 신체활동 참여율을 토대로 한 한국 중등체육교사와 학생들의 관점 분석

연구자들: Dr. Samuel Hodge, Mijoo Kim

• 학생은 연구 참여에 관한 질문을 받게 됩니다. 이번 연구는 보다 나은 이해와 도움을 줍니다. • 이 동의서의 설명을 통해 학생은 연구에 참여를 할것인지 아닐지를 결정할 수 있습니다. • 학생은 연구 참여를 하기 전에 질문을 할 수 있습니다. 충분히 생각하고 가족이나 친구들에게 조언을 구하시길 바랍니다. • 이 연구에 참여하지 않아도 됩니다. 만약 참여를 한다고 했다가 나중에 참여를 하지 않고 싶으면 중단하더라도 어떠한 불이익은 없습니다. • 만약 연구에 참여한다고 결정을 한다면, 보호자의 동의서가 필요합니다.

1. 이것은 무슨 연구입니까?

이 연구는 여학생 체육시간 신체활동 참여율을 토대로 한 한국 중등체육교사와 여학생들의 관점을 분석하는것입니다. 이 연구의 목적은 여러분의 체육시간을 통한 경험을 토대로 그동안 배웠던 체육수업과 다른 성별에 따른 어려움 및 영향을 고려한 학생들의 직접적인 소리를 듣는것에 있습니다. 그를 통해 여학생 참여율을 높이고 동기유발을 할 수 있는것이 이번 연구의 주안점입니다.

2. 만약 연구에 참여하게 되면 무엇을 해야 하나요?

만약 학생이 이번 연구에 참여하게 될 경우, 학생은 연구자와 일대일 인터뷰를 합니다. 또한 통계자료 집계를 위한 배경정보에 관한 답을 합니다. 이 때 개인의 어떠한 개인정보 누출은 없을것입니다. 여학생들이 체육수업시 그들의 경험들과 의견, 태도등을 자유롭게 답하게 됩니다. 기본적 배경 질문지는 연구자가 학생 개개인의 이메일을 통해 직접 전달합니다. 답변시 이름은 개인의 정보보호를 위해 생략합니다. 설문이 끝난 연구지는 학생이 연구자에게 이메일을 통해 직접 전달합니다. 연구자가 설문지를 받은 후 학생들의 정보보호를 위해 받은 이메일은 모두 지웁니다. 연구자는 학생들의 설문지를 토대로 어떻게 하면 체육선생님이 학생들을 서포트할 수 있을지 또 동기유발 할 수 있을지를 연구하게 됩니다.

3. 연구는 얼마나 걸리나요?

인터뷰 및 학생의 기본적 질문지는 1 시간 안에 이루어질것이며, 질문지는 이메일을 통해 학생에게 전달되고 학생의 가정에서 설문을 실시한 후 다시

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이메일을 통해 연구자에게 전달됩니다. 인터뷰는 학생과 학부모가 원하는 시간과 장소에 맞춰 진행될 것입니다.

4. 연구를 중단할 수 있나요?

언제든지 참가자는 연구를 중단할 수 있습니다. 참가자는 자유롭게 참여하고 또 중단할 수 있으며 체육선생님과 학교, 그리고 연구자로부터 어떠한 불이익을 받지 않습니다.

5. 연구에 참여할 경우, 어떤 불상사가 있을 수 있나요?

연구에 참여하는 동안 과거나 현재, 만약 체육시간에 대한 좋지 않은 기억이 있다면 학생은 불편할 수 있습니다. 그러나 최대한 참여하는 학생의 불편을 해소할 수 있도록 할것이며 그렇기 때문에 본인의 이름을 사용하지 않을것입니다. 또한 연구에 관련된 질문지는 이메일을 통해 연구자에게 직접 전달되어 학생의 개인정보보호를 할 수 있도록 할 것입니다. 인터뷰는 학생의 편안한 환경과 개인정보 보호를 위해 본인의 이름이 아닌 가명으로 사용하게 될 것입니다.

6. 연구에 참여할 경우, 어떤 혜택이 있나요? 이 연구를 통해 참여한 학생들은 체육 수업참여에 대해 본인 스스로 생각해 볼 수 있는 기회를 간접경험을 통해 여학생 체육발전에 기여할 수 있고 학생의 아이디어와 의견을 나눌 수 있는 기회를 제공하기 때문에 미래 체육교사가 되려고 하는 선생님들의 수업 발전에 큰 도움이 될 것입니다.

7. 연구에 참여할 경우 보상은 어떤게 있나요? 이 연구는 자발적 연구로서 어떤 인세티브나 보상은 없지만 자발적인 참여에 깊은 감사를 드립니다.

8. 누구와 이번 연구에 대해 얘기할 수 있나요? 연구에 관한 어떤 질문이든 이곳으로 연락주세요. Mijoo Kim at [email protected].

만약 연구외 다른 질문이나 연구자외 연락을 하고 싶으면 이곳으로 연락을 주세요. 책임있는 연구관행감독부(Office of Responsible Research Practices) Ms. Sandra Meadows, 전화1-614-688-4792로 전화하시기 바랍니다.

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학생 참여 동의서

나는 이 동의서를 (대리인을 통한 읽음) 읽었습니다. 나는 연구에 참여하기 전 질문을 할 수 있는 기회가 있습니다. 나는 이 연구에 참여를 원합니다.

AM/PM Signature or printed name of subject 참여자의 Date and time 날짜와 시간 사인이나 이름정자

연구자

Printed name of person obtaining Signature of person obtaining consent consent 연구자 이름 연구자 사인

AM/PM

Date and time 날짜와 시간

이 동의서는 IRB 보호자동의서와 반드시 함께 제출되어야 합니다.

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Appendix H: Examples of Teacher Interview Data Analysis

Table H.1 Examples of Teacher Interview Data Analysis

Speaker Utterance Attitude Attitude Subjective Behavioral Behavioral Notes (positive) (negative) Norms Control (easy) Control (hard) Eunjoo I have confidence teaching her prior high self-efficacy girls more than boys experience because I believe I gives her high She also attended understand girls more than confidence to single-gender middle my male coworkers. I was teach girls school and high school exactly like them when I (similar context as was a student. students).

Inseol The weather affects the girls negative many external Maybe because she was a lot. Too hot, too cold, too experiences barriers, such as an elite athlete she has windy…Oh my gosh, they teaching girls the weather and even more frustration always complain. Even PE because of students lack of and disappointment many tasks they say are too their frequent skills with girls. Ironically, difficult. I don’t know how complaints despite her high to please them. Basically, it physical ability, she has is really hard to motivate low confidence to them. engage them in PA.

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Sangkyu Basically, veteran teachers Veteran This is related to don’t want to go out of their teachers Korean age hierarchy comfort zone. The problem don’t and can discourage and is I still need to ask these approve of frustrate teachers who older coworkers if I want to changing the want to try innovative do something new in my curriculum curriculum department. But they don’t want to change anything. Hyunjae I feel girls follow and agree Positive Female students’ good with me more than boys, so experience behavior in class gives I naturally feel closer to teaching him a positive attitude girls than boys and enjoy girls because toward teaching them teaching them. they have high effort and good attitudes

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Appendix I: Examples of Student Interview Data Analysis

Table I.1 Examples of Student Interview Data Analysis

Speaker Utterance Attitude Attitude Subjective Behavioral Behavioral Notes (positive) (negative) Norms Control (easy) Control (hard) Injoo Nothing is fun. I don’t like strongly negative attitude toward movement, which makes me dislikes PE the curriculum and tired, and I hate feeling outdoor environment sweaty. Seoyoung I don’t know, somehow my she has low lack of confidence not just brain doesn’t work; it is very self-confidence in her physical ability but hard to learn. Boys are not and feels it is also in her knowledge of always bad; actually, too difficult for PA. sometimes they help me to her to learn how understand the rules, but it is to play sports very hard for me, especially when I need to play and understand them at the same time.

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Eunae Many girls may agree with afraid her surveillance me that people watch our peers will performance all the time. I judge her PE is a public think we are quite sensitive environment about this. Also, when I feel somebody watches me, I can’t do my performance as much as I can because it makes me nervous and I don’t want to look stupid in front of them. Wonae PE is good for my health, and likes PE positive attitude toward it is so fun. and thinks PE, enjoyment it’s important Haena I think I’m number one as a high confidence being exceptional as a girl girl, which makes me feel in her physical makes her feel significant special and even I could beat ability many boys.

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Appendix J: Example of PE Class Observation Fieldnotes

Table J.1 Example of PE Class Observation Fieldnotes

PE Teacher: Hosung Date: 10/8/19 Time: 9:00 – 9:50am Grade: 10th grade (Mixed gender) Topic: Gymnastics (with mats)

Time Running Record Notes 9:00 Students line up and teacher calls a One boy seems to be the leader in this few boys to prepare the mats. While class, and the teacher immediately teacher and a few guys prepare mats, asks other boys to help. one guy leads other students to run two laps and stretch together. The equipment is not heavy. Do only male students usually assist the teacher with set-up? 9:07 Teacher explains about today’s tasks. He warns students about their attitude and risk of injury. “As you know mat exercise has high risk for injury, so please don’t play with your peers and concentrate during the performance.” He explains three performances, which are forward roll, backward roll, and rolling forward with legs outstretched. He continued to explain, “try all of these first, but for girls, if it is too hard He already expected that girls will for you, then you will just do forward have lower ability than boys. He and backward rolls. Does it make already assumed that the task could be sense?” “Before we start, I want you to hard for girls. do extra stretches today. Follow me.” The teacher leads more stretches and helps students who are not good at them. 9:15 The teacher shows all three performances and explains how students can do them. While he explains them, students make a circle 324

and observe his performance. Many Divided groups based on gender not students seemed impressed by his on physical skills. performance. The teacher makes four groups, which includes 2 boys groups Do the students like this? and 2 girls groups. He told them to each use a different mat and start forward rolling first. He corrects a few Boys want to go to the upper level boys who already want to try to do tasks quickly. backward rolling and forward rolling with stretch legs. After practicing forward rolling, he blows a whistles Girls try to do backward rolls but and changes to backward rolls. Most have difficulty. Is it natural they have girls can’t do backward rolls, so the more fear with this task? teacher helps both girls’ groups to teach them more. 9:35 He tries to change to forward rolls Make groups based on success with with outstretched legs with only one the first task....but girls are still in one mat among the four mats. He selects group. Some girls more successful students who are able to do both than others, but he still seems to forward and backward rolling and assume their skills are the same. makes one group. He points out one mat and says, “Okay, these boys will Why didn’t the teacher continue to practice forward rolls with help the girls increase their outstretched legs and the other mat confidence with backward roll rather will continually practice both forward than joining the boys’ group? The and backward rolls.” He tells girls to first boys’ group already seemed to do only backward rolls. He joins the enjoy their performance and have first group who are focused on forward high ability. rolls with outstretched legs. Are the female students satisfied with this task? Do some want more challenge?

9:40 During the practice, one boy comes to the teacher and asks to join the first group from second group. Teacher says, “okay, show your performance The boy seems proud of his first.” The boy shows forward and performance and is satisfied with his backward rolls quite well. The teacher result. allows him to join the first group. After this, many boys want to join the first group, so the teacher says, “I will check all of your performances after 5mins, so don’t visit me now. You can prepare to show me forward and backward roll and then all we will move on to the next task.”

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9:45 The teacher walks around all the mats, Hyorin seems to feel very awkward and many girls still struggle with doing the backward roll. She kept backward roll. Hyorin (low PA avoiding her turn by moving to the student) keeps avoiding backward roll. back of the line, and one girl helps her A few boys are also struggling with to avoid her turn. backward roll. Three of the boys have improved their performance and are Among the boys, only five are left out allowed to join the first group by from the first group, which might give teacher. them insecurity. Girls seem to be fine because no one moved to the first group, which means there is a lot of gap between boys and girls. 9:50 The teacher blew the whistle and everyone gathered together. He told the students, “Today you all did a good job.” Then he asked the same boys to clean up the mats, and students left the class.

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