STRUGGLING WITH SIMULATIONS: DECODING THE NEOLIBERAL POLITICS OF DIGITAL GAMES by David Thomas Murphy Master of Arts, Cinema and Media Studies, York University, Toronto, Ontario, 2008 Bachelor of Arts combined honors, Media, Information, and Technoculture and Film Studies, Western University, London, Ontario, 2005 A dissertation presented to Ryerson University and York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the program of Communication & Culture Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2016 © David Murphy, 2016 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION FOR ELECTRONIC SUBMISSION OF A DISSERTATION I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this dissertation. This is a true copy of the dissertation, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I authorize Ryerson University to lend this dissertation to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I further authorize Ryerson University to reproduce this dissertation by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I understand that my dissertation may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract Struggling with Simulations: Decoding the Neoliberal Politics of Digital Games Doctor of Philosophy (2016) David Thomas Murphy Communication and Culture Ryerson University and York University As a creative industry currently rivalling film and television, digital games are filled with a variety of political tensions that exist both between and within particular works. Unfortunately, internal discrepancies are often dismissed as indicators of political ambivalence, or treated as formal flaws that need to be overcome. To address this gap, this dissertation draws from game studies, media studies, and political economics to investigate the contradictory relationships between popular games and neoliberalism, specifically in relation to playful forms of resistance and critique that emerge during gameplay. Part I develops this study’s methodology by drawing from corresponding uses of assemblage theory, specifically articulated in Ong (2006, 2007), Lazzarato (2012, 2015), and Gilbert’s (2013) control society approaches to neoliberalism and Taylor (2009), Pearce and Artemesia’s (2009) digital ethnographic approaches to play. Derived from the French agencement, assemblage theory emphasizes heterogeneous relations in constant states of becoming that are understood as being real. Part II implements the aforementioned methodology by examining some of the most popular gaming franchises produced to date, with each demonstrating emergent political correlations and dissonances springing from relationships between different ludic and narrative components. iii BioShock (2007–2013) and Red Dead Redemption (2011) are narratively structured by neoliberal discourse, yet each storyline fails to correspond with the resistant political logic embedded in their respective rule systems. Conversely, Call of Duty (2004 – present) attains a high level of political cohesion that does not result in a better playing experience, as much as it contributes to conflicts amongst publishers, developers, and fans. Finally, Minecraft (2009– present) provides a fascinating example of a game that representationally reinforces neoliberalism while simultaneously affording the creation of new digital objects, including objects that give players the opportunity to understand and appreciate the computational infrastructures that a neoliberal emphasis on source code takes for granted. This dissertation, as a result, charts the growing connections between emergent gameplay and new forms of resistance and critique—connections that contribute not only to game studies, but also to the study of digital media and the interdisciplinary study of neoliberalism. iv Acknowledgments The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the support of many friends. To begin, I need to thank Janine Marchessault who suggested that I try game studies. Her prediction was correct, as a burgeoning field of interdisciplinary inquiry has grown vastly over the last few years. Jennifer Brayton set this dissertation on the course that it would follow. Her warmth, passion, and enthusiasm continues to serve as an inspiration. No one had more input on this work than Bruno Lessard, who pushed it both conceptually and stylistically. I am proud to be one of the first of what will undoubtedly be many scholars shaped by his passionate dedication. Jennifer Jenson and Paul Moore also made insightful suggestions that tied the chapters together. Last, but not least, I would like to thank Skot Deeming for listening to my sleep deprived rants, Tess Jewell for providing a careful copy edit, and my mother for always believing in me—even when I doubted myself. v Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Frank Murphy vi Note on Terminology Throughout this dissertation, the terms “game,” “gaming,” and “digital game” will be used interchangeably to refer to digital games. vii Table of Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..…. iii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………..... v Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………….. vi Note on Terminology………………………………………………………………………….... vii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………..viii List of Figures…............................................................................................................................ ix Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….……… 1 Part I: Struggling with Simulations Chapter 1: Controllers and Contradictions: Using Assemblage Theory for Utopian Game Criticism…………………………………………………………………………………………. 17 Chapter 2: Untangling Neoliberalism: A Literature Review……………………………………. 28 Chapter 3: Hybrid Moments: Ludonarrative Dissonance and Assemblage Theory…………….. 50 Part II: Decoding the Neoliberal Politics of Digital Games Chapter 4: From Cynicism to Grace: Control and Freedom in the BioShock Franchise……....... 66 Chapter 5: Devils, Delusions, and Discordances: Red Dead Redemption’s Dance with Debt…………………………………………………………………………………………….... 94 Chapter 6: Battle on the Metric Front: Call of Duty’s Neoliberal Fog of War………………….125 Chapter 7: Water, Sand, and Boolean Logic: The Politics of Minecraft……….……………….156 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………....179 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………….186 viii List of Figures Figure 1. Ludonarrative dissonance……………………………………………………….. 3 Figure 2. BioShock concept art depicting the city of Rapture…………………………….. 69 Figure 3. The city of Columbia, as depicted in BioShock Infinite’s concept art………….. 71 Figure 4. US coverage of the gaming industry in the midst of the global economic downturn................................................................................................................................ 72 Figure 5. A still from the in-game promotional trailer that welcomes players to Rapture…….......................................................................................................................... 79 Figure 5. A little sister that players can choose to harvest or release………....................... 80 Figure 7. BioShock’s happy ending, where the little sisters escape………………………. 82 Figure 8. Eleanor’s optimistic outlook from BioShock 2’s happy ending………………… 86 Figure 9. Concept art from BioShock Infinite…………………………………………….. 87 Figure 10. A smashed statue of Zachary Comstock, courtesy of the Vox Populi………... 89 Figure 11. Zachary Comstock being drowned by Booker…………………………………. 91 Figure 12. A screenshot from Red Dead Revolver………………………………………… 99 Figure 13. The sprawling dessert of Gaptooth ridge……………………………….. ……... 100 Figure 14. Concept art from Red Dead Redemption………………………………………. 101 Figure 15. John Marston riding into the sunset……………………………………………. 108 Figure 16. John Marston deliberately ignoring a preacher’s colonialist views……………. 109 Figure 17. An in-game map showcasing Red Dead Redemption’s unlockable territories…………………………………………………………………………………… 111 Figure 18. Bonnie McFarlane asking John Marston to repay his fifteen dollar debt……… 112 Figure 19. John Marston’s rag-tag posse preparing to storm Fort Mercer………………… 113 Figure 20. John Marston shaking hands with Luisa Fortuna………………………............. 116 Figure 21. Dutch’s gang ambushing Marston……………………………………………… 118 Figure 22. An unfriendly stranger greeting Marston with a rifle…………………………... 120 Figure 23. Billy’s decomposing wife, Annabel……………………………………………. 121 Figure 24. Federal Marshals dueling with Marston………………………………………... 122 Figure 25. Edgar Ross watching Marston die……………………………………………… 123 Figure 26. Jack Marston confronting Edgar Ross…………………………………………. 124 Figure 27. Activision’s internal ranking of Infinity Ward Employees…………………….. 132 Figure 28. A screenshot of a leader board taken from Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare….. 133 Figure 29. Russian Forces distributing weapons outside Stalingrad………………………. 134 Figure 30. Tanya Pavelovna……………………………………………………………….. 136 Figure 31. Sam Rivers……………………………………………………………………... 136 Figure 32. The Russian army storming the beach at Stalingrad…………………………… 137 Figure 33. A surrendering German soldier moments before his execution………………... 138 Figure 34. Al Fulani’s Execution…………………………………………………………... 140 Figure 35. Alex Mason confronting Fidel Castro………………………………………….. 142 Figure 36. The collectivist conspiracy: Castro, Menendez, and Steiner, a former Nazi…... 143 Figure 37. A still from the promotional trailer for