The Effects of Old Age Grants on Poverty Alleviation in Dutywa in Eastern

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THE EFFECTS OF OLD AGE GRANTS ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN DUTYWA IN EASTERN

CAPE OF SOUTH AFRICA

BOMKAZI LINDI

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE MASTER’S DEGREE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE (MSW)

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

UNIVERSITY OF FORT HARE

SUPERVISOR

MISS V.P.P. LUPUWANA

2018

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I, LINDI BOMKAZI, hereby declare that this research report is the product of my own work, and that, where I have used the ideas and words of others, I have referenced these correctly. I also declare that as advised by my Supervisor, MISS V.P.P. LUPUWANA, the responsibility for referencing correctly and completely is mine.

Signed…………………….. Date: ………………….

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my late Granny, my mother, Nomsa Zililo, and my daughter,

Nkilitha Lindi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deepest appreciation to various people who, during the preparation and conducting of this study, were prepared to help, guide and support me to complete this research successfully.

I wish to thank Our Heavenly Father who gave me the wisdom, strength to conduct and complete this study, without His will and grace, all my efforts would have been in vain.

A Word of gratitude also goes to Ms V.PP. Lupuwana, my supervisor, for her guidance and assistance. She has been a source of inspiration through hard times. Dr Ajiboye Oyeleke: for your supervision and academic support that you gave me, without you I wouldn’t have gone this far. You made me strong and very courageous in striving for success.

My sincere gratitude to Dr.J. Mkhize for editing my work.

To my Supervisors B. Jubati and N. James in The Department of Social Development-

Idutywa, thanks a lot for your understanding and efforts towards the completion of this study. I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to the Lindi and Zililo family for their prayers and invaluable support throughout.

A special thanks to my daughter Nikilitha Lindi, it was really not easy for you my angel.

Lastly, to my respondents for being available, without them this study would not have been a success.

iii

ABSTRACT

Old age grant was designed to reduce level of poverty in South Africa and according to

SASSA (2016), there are 28 981 beneficiaries of old age grant in Dutywa. The study seeks to investigate the effect of old age grant on poverty eradication programme in Dutywa community in Eastern Cape. Three objectives were set for the study that include: to find out the influence of old age grant on poverty alleviation; to examine the challenges faced by old age grant beneficiaries in fighting poverty; to explore coping mechanisms available for old age grant beneficiaries in fighting poverty; to find out if there are any other support services put in place by professionals or agencies such as Social Workers, Nurses, Educators and

Traditional leaders in fighting poverty. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to collect data from respondents. A sample of seventy (70) respondents for quantitative approach and sixteen (16) participants for the qualitative approach were purposively selected for the study.

The results reveal that old age grant gives beneficiaries an opportunity of spending, which in turn sustains impoverished and vulnerable communities. In this way, the old age grant strengthens existing, deep-rooted informal social protection systems and social networks. In the case of Dutywa community, this is seen in instances where beneficiaries of the old age grant enable many rural grandmothers to take care of their grandchildren and afford beneficiaries’ necessities. It was concluded that old age grant has positively reduced poverty in Dutywa community of Eastern Cape though it does not meet all their necessities.

Appropriate recommendations were made in the study.

Key Words: Old age grant, Poverty, Alleviation and Programme

LIST OF ACRONYMES USED IN THE STUDY

OAG Old Age Grant SASSA South African Social Security Agency

HIV Human immune Virus

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

STATS SA Statistics South Africa

CPRC Chronic Poverty Research.

RSA Republic of South Africa

UN United Nations

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents. DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ...... i DEDICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv LIST OF ACRONYMES USED IN THE STUDY ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS...... vi CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY...... 1 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...... 7 1.4 MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………………………………………………..8 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS...... 9 1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES...... 10 1.5.1 Main aim of the study ...... 10 1.5.2 Specific objectives of the study ...... 10 1.6 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY ...... 10 1.7 DELIMINATION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY ...... 11 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 11 1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS (MAJOR CONCEPTS OF THE STUDY) ...... 11 1.10 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ...... 13 CHAPTER TWO ...... 14 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 14 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 14 2.2.1 Empowerment Theory ...... 15 2.2.2 Social Contract Theory ...... 18 2.3. POVERTY AMONG ELDERLY ...... 20 2.3.1 The poverty line approach ...... 22 2.3.2 Subjective lines ...... 23 2.4 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 25 2.4.1 Women ...... 25

2.4.2 Children ...... 26 2.4.3 Youth ...... 27 2.4.4 Disabled ...... 27 2.4.5 The elderly ...... 27 2.4.6 Families living with AIDS ...... 27 2.4.7 Developed countries ...... 28 2.4.8 Developing countries ...... 29 2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF POVERTY ...... 31 2.5.1 Hunger and malnutrition ...... 31 2.6 CAUSES OF POVERTY ...... 32 2.6.1 History ...... 32 2.6.2 War and political instability ...... 33 2.6.3 National Debt ...... 33 2.6.4 Discrimination and social inequality ...... 34 2.6.5 Vulnerability to natural disasters ...... 34 2.7 INFLUENCE OF OLD AGE GRANT ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION ...... 35 2.8 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO POVERTY AMONG THE BENEFICIARIES OF OLD AGE GRANT ...... 35 2.9. CHALLENGES FACED BY OLD AGE GRANT BENEFICIARIES IN FIGHTING POVERTY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38 2.8.1 Elder abuse ...... 39 2.8.2 Food Security and Nutrition ...... 41 2.8.3 Shelter ...... 42 2.9 COPING MECHANISMS AVAILABLE FOR OLD AGE GRANT BENEFICIARIES IN FIGHTING POVERTY...... 42 2.10 LEGISLATION AND POLICY ...... 43 2.10.1 BILL OF RIGHTS OF THE CONSTITUTION...... 44 2.10.2 SOCIAL ASSISTANCE ACT 13 0f 2004 ...... 44 2.10.2.1 Objectives of the Act ...... 44 2.10.3 Implementation of the Older Person’s Act, No 13 of 2006 ...... 45 2.11 SUPPORT SERVICES PUT IN PLACE BY PROFESSIONALS OR AGENCIES SUCH AS SOCIAL WORKERS, NURSES, EDUCATORS AND TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN FIGHTING POVERTY...... 46 2.12 EFFECTS OF POVERTY AMONG ELDERLY SOUTH AFRICANS ...... 49

2.13 GAPS ...... 50 2.14 CONCLUSION ...... 51 CHAPTER THREE ...... 52 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 52 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 52 3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM AND APPROACH ...... 52 3.3RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 53 3.4. POPULATION AND RESEARCH DOMAIN ...... 54 3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES ...... 55 3.6 SAMPLE SIZE ...... 56 3.7 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ...... 57 3.7.1 In-depth-interviews ...... 57 3.8. DATA ANALYSIS ...... 58 3.9. TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE STUDY ...... 59 3.9.1 Credibility ...... 59 3.9.2 Transferability ...... 61 3.9.3 Dependability ...... 61 3.9.4 Conformability ...... 62 3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ...... 63 3.10.1. Anonymity and confidentiality………………………………………………………………………………..63 3.10.2. Informed consent ...... 64 3.10.3 Avoidance of harm ...... 65 3.11. PILOT STUDY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..65 3.12. CONCLUSION ...... 66 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 67 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS ...... 67 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 67 4.2.ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONDENTS’ BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION ...... 68 4.3 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH QUESTION ...... 73 4.4 PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS ...... 77 4.4.1. Demographic information of participants of qualitative research…………………………….77

4.4.2. Main Themes and categories………………………………………………………………………………….78 4.4.3. Main Theme 1 Challenges that are faced by beneficiaries of Old Age Grant on poverty alleviation ...... 79 4.4.4. Sub theme 1 support given by grandmothers to their children who gave birth while they were teenagers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..80 4.4.5 Main Theme 2 Coping mechanism available for old age grant beneficiaries: in cases where the grant is not enough ...... 82 4.4.6 Sub theme 2 support by churches, neighbours, loan sharks and children that are willing to help the elderly………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83 4.4.7. Theme 3 Support services available for beneficiaries of old age grant from professionals, agencies or relatives in fighting poverty ...... 84 4.4.8. Sub theme 3 support and services rendered by NGOs and community leaders………..85 4.5 CONCLUSION ...... 88 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 89 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 89 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 89 5.2. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ...... 89 5.3. CONCLUSION ...... 91 5.4 IMPLICATION OF FINDINGS FOR SOCIAL WORK POLICY PRACTISE ...... 93 5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON THE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY ...... 93 5.6 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES ...... 94 REFERENCES ...... 96 APPENDICES ...... 106

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher will give the full background of the study, statement of the problem, aim and objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitations and scope of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms and the organization of the study.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Post-apartheid South Africa has achieved significant political transformation since 1994 with regards to incremental improvements in social services. According to the South African

Social Security Agency (SASSA, 2008) in the last decade, the South African government has implemented numerous poverty alleviation measures, one of which is social assistance

(SASSA, 2008). The current social assistance programme was not designed with specific exit strategies for beneficiaries, other than a change in their living circumstances and the income levels of the old age grant recipients. Social assistance at present consists of a non- contributory system of social grants, financed entirely from government revenue (SASSA

2008). Section 27(1) (c) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (RSA 1996) stipulates that everyone has the right to access to social security, including appropriate social assistance for those who are unable to support themselves.

Poverty alleviation and the elimination of inequalities created during apartheid lie at the centre of development policy in post-apartheid South Africa. This commitment is reflected in the various anti-poverty policies, programmes developed and implemented to meet the

objectives of the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) of 1994. Under the RDP umbrella, poverty alleviation was addressed from a multi-dimensional perspective.

There are some various pillars of a retirement funding system which were identified by the

World Bank in 1994, these included: public benefit programmes which were funded by the government and aimed at wealth redistribution (Willmore and Bertucci 1999); mandatory savings (for instance, retirement funds sponsored by private companies); and voluntary savings (World Bank, 2008). The social old age grant constitutes the first pillar and serves as the major source of income for more than 75% of the elderly population in South Africa. The old age grant comes in the form of central government administered monthly payment of

R820 ((Terence, P. & Bell, 2015). The second pillar in South Africa includes the different pension fund schemes associated with the formal sector occupation either in the private or public setting. The Pension Funds Act of 1956 codifies the second pillar of the retirement funding system.

South Africa is living in a time when one quarter of the world's population lives in extreme poverty, when 1.2 billion people have no access to drinkable water and 2 billion live without electricity. The wealthier countries of the world, including our own, have a responsibility to assist those who are in dire need of basic resources like: food, clean water, medicine and health care (Statistics SA, 2011).

Along with other religious human rights and relief service groups, the Reform Movement has worked hard to fight against cuts in development and humanitarian assistance for developing countries.

The historical approach to social security in South Africa has been one of meeting the needs of the white minority (Triegaardt, 2005). Social security for the elderly began with the Old

Age Pensions Act of 1928, which explicitly excluded most black South Africans (Triegaardt,

2005). In the past, our efforts have been geared toward securing substantial levels of aid for developing nations, particularly in Africa.

When South Africa became a democratic country in 1994, policies and programmes were developed to address the social injustices that black people were subjected to, such as poverty. In light of this factor the first task of the newly elected democratic government was to review the social grants policies that were already in place.

The new South African government committed itself to removing racial barriers in terms of many of its social benefits programmes. The Constitution stipulates that all South Africans should be treated fairly and equally, irrespective of the race, colour and ethnic groups

(Constitution, 1996).

By 1995, all individuals in need were more or less receiving the same grant level per beneficiary. This investment in the people of South Africa was well worth it in ensuring a better quality of life than anyone would have experienced without access to a grant, as well as the assistance given in terms of access to health services and education and nutrition.

South Africa’s social grant network has since grown to be among the largest in the developing world and, for this financial year, the scheme’s expenditure is projected to reach

R145-billion (Coetzee, 2013).

The system first launched non-contributory old-age pensions followed by programmes for disabled and poor parents followed by the introduction of a limited system of contributory unemployment insurance. In part, this system was deracialized in the 1940s but it wasn’t until the end of apartheid that the racialization of social assistance was completely abolished with respect to old age pensions and access to social assistance as a whole

(Seeking, 2008).

Today, South Africa’s social assistance system is accessible to more beneficiaries than ever.

The government has significantly increased its spending on social grants from R16, 027 million (2.05 billion USD) in fiscal year 1998 to R71, 161 (9.81 billion USD) in FY 2009 (Van

Der Berg & Siebrits, 2010). Today, one quarter of the population receives Old Age Grant, and this number is continuing to grow. Prior to the late 1990s, the government offered social grants only to Children (individuals under 14) and seniors (65 and over); this left an enormous gap in which the majority of the population did not have access to government assistance. This assistance gap closed in the 1990s as a result of a shift in the direction of the

ANC social policy in terms of which an emphasis on reconstruction and redistribution was replaced by a vision of social policy that is responsive to both the constraints of limited resources and the need to achieve higher rates of economic development (Powell &

Hendricks 2009). This indicated a major ideological shift in the objective of social welfare in

South Africa and opened the system to a large demographic population that previously lacked access. Today, more South African citizens than ever are recipients of social assistance (Terence, P. & Bell, 2015).

The number of grants available and the scope of assistance offered to South Africans have expanded from offering grants to just children and older persons, to the introduction of three coverage areas: childhood, working age, and old age. The assistance system is currently comprised of the following grants: Child Support Grant, Care Dependency Grants,

Foster Care Grants, State Disability Grant, and the Old Age Pension Grant.

The reduction (eradication) of mass poverty, inequality and conditions of underdevelopment is a widely accepted indicator of social progress in the dimensions of social welfare, health, education, housing, urban and rural development and land reform.

Social welfare is thus a process of planned social change designed to promote people’s welfare in conjunction with a comprehensive process of economic development (RSA 1997).

Historically, the uptake of old age grant was constrained by the complexity of the application process and onerous documentation requirements. This meant that many of those eligible for old age grant were not receiving it. Uptake was also complicated by the fact that the Department of Social Development responsible for administration of the grants had inadequate capacity. In recognition of these constraints, the government endeavoured to simplify the grant administration process by establishing SASSA, an agency that is responsible for administering social grants. The Department of Social Development retained responsibility for policy development. SASSA has a legislative mandate that is based on the

Constitution, and has been responsible for administering social security grants since 2006.

Being an agency rather than a government department means it has a number of

discretionary powers: such as that of being able to set salaries outside of government- determined limits.

This gives it greater flexibility in addressing the problem of acute skill shortages that so bedevils government departments. SASSA has also introduced a range of accountability measures including internal audit processes, regional audit steering committees and a fraud prevention strategy all of which have enjoyed considerable success having led to thousands of successful prosecutions and to the repayment of grants claimed fraudulently (SASSA,

2008).

Meanwhile although the existence of a rights-based system should reduce opportunities for discretionary access to grants and promote accountability, problems such as arbitrary decision making continue within SASSA (Lund et al, 2008). The Department of Home Affairs which is currently responsible for providing documentation is considered a major limiting factor in the further extension of grant uptake. Recognising this constraint, SASSA is developing plans to provide a ‘one-stop-centre’ for benefit claimants with links to the

Departments of Health, Home Affairs, etc. Once in place applicants will have to see only one official, resulting in major efficiency gains for both the state and the applicant. This system is not yet fully operational: a lack of institutional integration is currently still making the process of claiming benefits a major hurdle for poor people without documentation.

Zastrow (2008), states that poverty leads to despair, low self-esteem and stunted growth including physical, social, emotional and intellectual growth. Most of the elderly people

depend on the old age grant because they lack opportunities to advance themselves socially and economically.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In South Africa, the old age grant was meant to feed or maintain only one person - the beneficiary, but there are so many mouths fed by the grant due to poverty, unemployment as well as the dependency syndrome (Mase, 2008; Dimhairo, 2013). According to SASSA

(South African Social Security agency) report that, there are about 28 981 beneficiaries of old age grants in Idutywa. Even though there beneficiaries, there is still a shocking rate of families under stress and poverty. The utilization of old age grant are such numbers of is mostly seen being spent on substance abuse and other immaterial things. Because of the low level of education/illiteracy amongst beneficiaries, they have poor planning and budgeting. Therefore, the researcher in this study explored and investigated the effects of old age grant on poverty alleviation in Dutywa (Eastern Cape Province).

Kulusopa, Dick and Osei-Boateng (2012) are of the opinion that in the rest of the world,

African societies have traditionally relied on the extended family system that took great responsibility of caring for children, the aged and the infirm. In the era of globalization and urbanization, the extended family system has weakened considerably and is no longer capable of shouldering that burden. At the same time modern forms of social protection introduced in many African economies have excluded large proportion of the population in need of such protection. This is explained by the exclusive reliance on contributory social

insurance, social security and pensions as the mechanism for delivering social protection

(Kulusopa, Dick and Osei-Boateng, 2012).

Mbhashe Final reviewed integrated development plan (2016-2017) posit that Mbhashe

Local Municipality has total population of 254 909 with a household of 60 124 resulting a household size of 4.24 according to the 2011 Stats SA Census. This indicates that Mbhashe has an increase of population and household by 1 537 (1%) and 6 925 (13%) compared to

2001 Stats SA Census resulting a reduction in household size from 4.76 to 4.24.

An analysis on 2011 Stats SA Census shows that a bulk of 52% of population is children (age

0-19). About 8% falls in pension group (age 65 +) whilst 40% is at economically active ((age

20-64). This clearly indicates that 60% population is dependent on 40% of youth, which highly demands further consideration of capacity and skill development of the youth population.

1.4. MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY.

The researcher is motivated in conducting this study based on the experience in working with communities where most members are beneficiaries of the Old Age Grant. The South

African Government has played a vital role in utilising a tax payer’s money, financed through general tax revenue to develop the country. During the past 10 years, the researcher has been working in a set-up or environment with people in need of care and protection, many of whom are poverty stricken, amongst them are beneficiaries of old age grants which is awarded to men and women of 60 years and above .

The motive is to find out about the problems from their own perspectives so that they can be empowered. Patel (2005) emphasized that strengthening community networks, building of trust, co-operation in programmes of community care and support are important goals to be striven for when dealing with such situations. Strong community networks, combined with local economic development initiatives and strategies, could improve the situation of old age grant to some degree of self-sufficiency rather than relying on grants.

World Bank (2011) report that It is increasingly clear that old age grant can also mitigate the negative impact of shocks on the elderly and their families and those they are used by older people to promote the well-being of all family members, particularly children.

1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

1. What influence does old age grant have on poverty alleviation?

2. What are the challenges faced by beneficiaries of old age grant in fighting poverty?

3. What are the coping mechanisms available for old age grant beneficiaries?

4. Are there any other support services put in place by professionals or agencies such as

Social Workers, Nurses, Educators and Traditional leaders in fighting poverty?

1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES

1.5.1 Main aim of the study

The aim of this research was to explore the effects of old age grant on poverty alleviation in

Dutywa in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

1.5.2 Specific objectives of the study

1. To find out the influence of old age grant on poverty alleviation.

2. To examine the challenges faced by old age grant beneficiaries in fighting poverty.

3. To explore coping mechanisms available for old age grant beneficiaries in fighting

poverty.

4. To find out if there are any other support services put in place by professionals or

agencies such as Social Workers, Nurses, Educators and Traditional leaders in

fighting poverty.

1.6 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

Hopefully, the study will be important to other researchers, as there were identified gaps from previous research; other researchers will use the study as a reference for further investigations on the study. Policy makers will be able to rectify the mistakes when developing new policies as well as allocating funds in order to avoid the dependency syndrome. In social work practice, people will influence dependants to find their own jobs as they are reluctant since they depend on old age grant. The community will be given feedback on the findings of the study so as to better change their living conditions and improve their understanding of how they do things.

1.7 DELIMINATION AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY.

The study focused on the effects of old age grant on poverty alleviation in Dutywa in the

Eastern Cape Province.

The majority of families in the area solely depend on old age grant for survival. They have insufficient means to make ends meets and are living under undue hardship.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Mbhashe Municipality is made up of three areas i.e. Dutywa, Elliotdalle and Willowvalle in which the researcher was unable to reach the two (Willowvalle and Elliotdalle). The researcher focused in Dutywa surrounding areas and comprised of 27 wards.

Weather was a contributing factor in conducting this study since other areas are difficult to reach, especially in rainy days.

The unavailability of participants, lack of interest in participating in the study and others withholding the information were some of the additional limitations of the study.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS (MAJOR CONCEPTS OF THE STUDY)

Old age grant

A non-contributory grant paid to people who are 60 years and above (SASSA, 2013).

Social security

SASSA (2013) defines Social Security as a programme in which government provides money to people who are unable to work. SASSA further explains that in South Africa, Social

Security comprises social grants that are non-contributory and income tested benefits provided by the government.

Poverty

A state or condition in which a person or community lacks financial resources and essentials to enjoy a minimum standard of life and wellbeing that’s considered acceptable in the community. According to the World Bank (2011), poverty is deprivation in well –being and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity.

Poverty Alleviation: According to Kessy and Tostensen (2008), poverty alleviation refers to the aims to reduce the negative impact of poverty on the lives of poor people, but in a more sustainable and permanent way than poverty relief programmes. It includes the state’s social grants programmes which alleviate the impact of poverty for many people.

Beneficiary

The Department of Social Development (2009) describes a beneficiary as a person benefiting money or benefit from the state.

Effect

Effect means something that is produced by an agency or cause, result, consequences or actual achievement of final result (Moller, 2011).

Income

Money that individuals or business receive in exchange for providing a good, service or through investing capital (World Bank, 2011).

Protection

By protection is meant the state of being kept from harm or loss (R.S.A, 1997).

Programme.

Planned series of future events or performances

Household

Those who dwell under the same roof and compose a family or a social unit of those living together in the same dwelling are referred to as a household (Stats S.A, 2011).

1.10 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY

The dissertation followed this structure:

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background

This chapter presented introduction, background to the study, the problem statement, aims and objectives, research questions, significance of the study, delimitations and scope of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms, and organization of the study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter is composed of Theoretical framework, Literature, Conclusion and Gaps in literature.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology This chapter is composed of Research design, Study area, Research paradigm, Research approach, and Population, Sample and sampling strategy, methods of data collection / instruments, Data analysis, Ethical issues and Conclusion

Chapter four: findings

In chapter four findings are presented and analysed.

Chapter five: discussions, conclusions and recommendations.

In this chapter discussion, conclusions and recommendations are discussed

CHAPTER TWO

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a discussion of the literature that is relevant to this study and a conceptual outline of the theoretical models that are appropriate and viewed as supportive in achieving the aim and objectives of the study.

It aims to provide the reader with a critical discussion, review of literature, theoretical framework, conclusion as well as gaps identified and will be based on the information that other researchers contributed towards the study of explaining the effects of Old Age grant on alleviating poverty in

Dutywa. De Vos, Strydom, Fouche & Delport (2005) affirms that reviewing Literature is important as an excellent source for selecting or focusing on a topic, as it reduces the chances of selecting an irrelevant or outdated topic/focus by investigating what has already been done in a particular problem area.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

According to Creswell (2011) theories serve different purposes in the three approaches inquiry. In quantitative research they provide a proposed explanation for the relationship among variables being tested by the investigator. In qualitative research they may often serve as a lens for the inquiry or they may be generated during the study. In mixed methods studies, researchers employ them in many ways, including those associated with quantitative and qualitative approaches.

A theoretical framework is important not only to understand the phenomena under investigation but also to have an empirical understanding of the factors underlying the phenomenon under the study (Babbie, 2010). This research used two theories: the empowerment and Social contract theory:

2.2.1 Empowerment Theory

Empowerment has been defined as "the process of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities to increase their personal, interpersonal, socioeconomic and political strength and to develop influence towards improving their circumstances” (Zastrow, 2008). One of the reasons for attending to client's strengths is that many clients need help in enhancing their self-esteem. Many have feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy, a sense of being a failure, a lack of self-confidence and self-respect. As noted in (Zastrow 2008), that low self- esteem often leads to emotional difficulties and withdrawal to help clients to view themselves more positively, social workers must first view them as having considerable strengths and competences.

The majority of old age grant recipients lack confidence in themselves and have feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy as a result of poor or lack of education (Ndlovu, 2009). They need to be viewed within this frame of reference in order to start to intervene. Social workers must ask what strengths the client has and how the client has overcome obstacles in his life (Early and GlenMaye, 2000). The emphasis should be placed on the client's strengths, resilience and coping style with a clear focus on client's ability to succeed.

The elderly need to be empowered with skills, knowledge, confidence so that they can bring change to their existing problem. The purposes of social security are to help people while equipping them with the skills that will develop them to produce or provide for their own families. It is also the responsibility of the government to make sure they equip the elderly with knowledge based on all the services that are provided by the government and all the criteria are that are used. The danger of ignoring these dimensions that people might feel that others gain favour at their expenses, they might also believe that they do not have chances to be included in the decision making. Beales (2012) illustrated that empowerment links to inequality because inequality tends to become more pronounced at both ends of the life course. The negative impact of inequality is a barrier to reducing absolute poverty and hinders the fulfilment of a variety of human rights including the capacity to be heard.

Empowerment also determines ability to extend opportunity and to enhance capabilities.

The government can help them develop greater knowledge of community facilities, new developments in the community and the operation of relevant government departments. In the activities of elderly centres and elderly hostels, community visits can be arranged.

Competitions and games involving the collection of community information and community news can be organised in order to make elderly people more aware about what is happening around them.

Beales (2012) clarifies that service providers can take more initiative in getting information about community activities, community resources and creating opportunities for elderly people to participate in activities like making cultural attires, beads, fun fairs and health talks or family festivals. People need to be empowered social and economically to meet

their daily needs, one of the factors that contributes to poverty among the elderly people is lack of income, it is therefore very important for the government to look into the economic empowerment of the elderly people.

According to Beales (2012) economic empowerment is thought to allow poor people to think beyond immediate daily survival and to exercise greater control over both their resources and life choices which are:

The first is a materialist one; those with higher income are able to purchase better food, better housing, live in safer environments and have better access to health care.

The second emphasises behavioural or lifestyle factors, such as smoking, diet, alcohol consumption and appropriate use of health care, which may vary with cognitive skill and access to information.

The third places emphasis on psychosocial factors such as empowerment, relative social status and social integration, including exposure to stresses that may result from low status and low autonomy in important arenas of life, such as work reduced capacity to earn a personal income and contribute to the household income even indirectly has clear implications for dignity and empowerment, of the person and within the family. This means:

Elderly are supported by their families in terms of food and shelter, the fact that they do not have their own resources may affect their autonomy and capacity to exercise choice and lead to them being seen potentially as a burden. The fact that the elders have no muscles to sustain themselves through working probably also with poor history of work in the country facing unprecedented unemployment rates or under- employment which left them without accumulated wealth or property for longer period of time before they become elders.

Unsustainable pension money that hardly can make the elderly to cope with the capitalist economic which fluctuates and leads to unprecedented economic contradictions and uncertainties, making elders to be dependent upon the government pension without any means to enhance their lives.

2.2.2 Social Contract Theory.

According to Scott (1994), social contract theory was developed in the 17th, 18TH and 19th centuries and the theorists such as Grotius, Hobbes argued the existence of a social contract and of natural rights. Social contract can be defined as either a hypothetical or an actual agreement between a society and its government (Cottingham, 2008). This contract is the basis of society’s moral decisions and stances. Social contract theory raises the possibility that the need for social order and a number of specific inherent constraints provide society with a natural basis for morality. It is an implicit agreement among the members of a society to co-operate for the sake of social benefits, for example, by sacrificing some individual freedoms in return for state protection. Social contract theory became popular as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of a government towards its citizens in respect of providing for services such as offering social protection. It argues that there is a natural need for members of a society to reach some sort of agreement to treat each other with basic respect and follow specific basic rules. Society finds it advantageous to form a social contract as a basis for life in general and moral judgements in particular

(Cottingham, 2008). For the purposes of the study, this theory is seen as appropriate in the context of eradicating poverty by creating and maintaining a just social contract.

According to the Chronic Poverty Research Centre (CPRC, 2008), a social contract exists when political and social institutions are arranged to ensure a distribution of public goods and services that contributes to fairness in society (CPRC, 2008 :). Hickey (2007) argues that the notion of a social contract can relocate social protection to fall within a project of redistributive justice which is, arguably, required to underpin a long-term attempt to overcome chronic poverty. Redistributive justice refers to the equalisation of property and wealth ownership by direct political influence. Redistributive justice includes taxation designed to redistribute wealth from one group to another, land reform and other means to promote equality.

Result over equality of opportunity: This approach is frequently associated with Marxism, socialism, or the transition from an aristocracy or another form of oligarchy to more broadly based government; in the case of South Africa, it refers to a transition from an oligarchy to a democratic, developmental state. The realisation of the social contract between the states and its citizens relies on the ability of the state to respond to its citizens’ needs. In the context of the research, the government’s ability to provide social assistance through the administration of the Old Age Grant affects the ability of the rural poor to address the poverty that affects their livelihoods. The effects of the Old Age Grant are therefore described below.

2.3. POVERTY AMONG THE ELDERLY

Poverty is an important universal human problem. This is evident from its position on the world development agenda e.g. the Millennium Development Goals.

Poverty is an important, universal human problem. This is evident from its position on the world development agenda e.g. the Millennium Development Goals. “To ensure credible, effective action in addressing in poverty and inequality, information on the poverty situation is required on a regular basis. Information of this type is the key to the policy development cycle when evidence-based decision-making is practised in setting poverty reduction strategies” (Naidoo, 2011).

May (2008) describes poverty as a world-wide phenomenon that also permeates the fabric of South African society. “Poverty can be defined as the inability to attain minimal standards of living, measured in terms of basic consumption needs or the income required to satisfy people” (Naidoo, 2011).

United Nations (2011) emphasised that “poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity”. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to; not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.

World Bank (2011) affirms that poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life. Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative (the latter being actually an index of income inequality).

Absolute poverty is a kind of poverty that occurred in a country where people residing in that country could not afford to send their children to school, pay for a daily bread or rent.

Most importantly, they cannot afford to pay for their daily needs at any particular point in time. In South Africa 45% of the population live in absolute poverty and this comes to approximately 18 million people (Fosu, 2015). In contrary to this, Nicolson, (2015) emphasised that 20.2% of people in South Africa are living in extreme poverty increases to

21.7% with approximately 12 million people. There are gender spatial age and racial dimensions of poverty. Many women, particularly single heads of households are affected by poverty (Naidoo, 2011). Statistics South Africa (2011) indicated that in South Africa approximately 14.3 million children (75%) live in poverty, of these 14.3 million children approximately 11 million live in extreme poverty. Seven out of 10 poor people in South

Africa live in rural areas (Statistics South Africa, 2011).

the objectives of the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) of 1994. Under the

RDP umbrella, poverty alleviation was addressed from a multi-dimensional perspective. This is in keeping with the understanding that poverty is multi-dimensional and that those living in poverty are vulnerable to deprivation in several dimensions. Since 2004, government has indicated its intention to establish a poverty line as the basis for presenting indicators of poverty in monetary dimensions (Statistics South Africa, 2008).

Swanepoel (2011) elaborates that poverty is a relative term because it can be used either to describe the situation of an individual, family or a whole community or society. Zastrow

(2008) looks at the effect of wealth and poverty as the economic differences between the rich and the poor, and the middle class have profound effect of lifestyle, attitudes toward others and even attitudes towards oneself. Not all people are equally poor, the level of ill being differ between individuals, communities and countries.

2.3.1 The poverty line approach

There are two main types of poverty lines. The first, a relative poverty line is simply determined from a cut-off point in the welfare distribution, such as the income or consumption level below which say 30 per cent of the population is located (Statistic South

Africa, 2011). Alternatively, it might refer to a cut-off point such as one-half the median income. This approach to setting the poverty line is attractive in that it is both simple and transparent and it is quite functional in terms of identifying a population sub-group upon which to focus attention (Statistics South Africa, 2008).

There are two principal disadvantages to this approach; however, a first relative poverty line is not terribly useful if one wants to monitor poverty over time or space. There is always a bottom-line 30 per cent of the population even if living standards for the whole population have risen over time (Statistics South Africa, 2008).

Similarly, this approach does not allow for comparisons of poverty across regions. Secondly, the relative poverty is essentially quite arbitrary. It is not clear why poverty should be defined in terms of one percentage point instead of another – and what percentage point is settled upon can have a bearing on the characteristics of the population subgroup designated poor. An absolute poverty line is explicitly linked to a specific welfare level.

Anchoring the poverty line in this way allows one to make comparisons over time or across groups. Most countries that have officially recognized poverty lines define these in an absolute sense interpreting them as a fixed standard of living. Particularly in developing countries, the notion of some level of living below which one can considered poor is an absolute sense (as opposed to being disadvantaged relative to the rest of society).

2.3.2 Subjective lines

The subjective poverty approach differs from the previous two in that it considers that people’s perception of what constitutes the minimum necessary household budget is the best standard of comparison for actual incomes or expenditures. In this approach, a survey of a representative sample of the population is carried out to gauge the opinion of the population in order to define the poverty line (Rio Group, 2009).

This is typical of low-income countries e.g.in Sub-Saharan Africa and middle-income countries where inequality is high e.g. South Africa and some Latin America economies.

With regard to relative and subjective poverty lines Rio group (2009) argues that: “whilst the ethical basis for policy prescription based on analysis of absolute poverty lines is reasonably clear this is not so for either subjective or relative poverty lines. Whilst subjective and relative assessments have uses it is absolute and objective poverty lines that provide relevant information for poverty reduction policy development deals with the alleviation or the eradication of poverty.”

Poverty is inter-related to other problems of under development in rural and urban communities and can be very different. In urban areas people often have access to health and education, but many of the problems caused by poverty are made worse by things like overcrowding, unhygienic conditions, pollution, unsafe houses etc.

In the view of the researcher, in many communities of Dutywa where the study was conducted, people are having poor access to education, health and many other services.

Townsend (2009) transformed the conception of poverty, viewing it not simply as lack of income but as the configuration of the economic conditions that prevent people from being full members of the society (Ferragina,2016). Poverty reduces the ability of people to participate in society, effectively denying them full citizenship (Marshall, 2008; Bergh and

Nilsson, 2014). Given that there are no universal principles by which to determine the minimum threshold of participation equating to full membership of society, (Townsend,

2009) argued that the appropriate measure would necessarily be relative to any particular cultural context. He suggested that in each society there should be an empirically

determinable ‘breakpoint’ within the income distribution below which participation of

Individuals collapse, providing a scientific basis for fixing a poverty line and determining the extent of poverty (Ferragina, 2016).

Therefore, the researcher is of the view that many communities in Dutywa are also affected by Absolute poverty as they are under undue hardship. This statement is true because in

Dutywa, there is no particular evidence of any development. This was due to: poor access to education, poor health facilities and many other services. People in these communities are living in extreme poverty. As a result, many elderly persons in these communities are also living in severe poverty not only because they received a small amount of money as old age grant but the fact remained that, the money received at month end could not catered for all their daily needs, how much more to take care of their extent families or grant children. In fact, this kind of poverty has killed many elder persons because they could not withstand the stress or cope fully with their basic needs challenges.

2.4 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

2.4.1 Women

South Africa has a small wealthy population and medium sized middle income and poor populations (Birdsall, 2010). The differences between the wealthy and the poor are very big and in some ways we have the developed world and the developing world living side by side in one country. Women form a greater percentage of poor people than men (United

Nations, 2015). The main reason for this is that women have historically had less access to education and paid jobs. Many women have always performed unpaid work as mothers,

housewives etc. Many women are employed in poorly paid jobs such as domestic workers and farm labourers.

Even within poor household, women usually earn less than men and property and possessions are often in the name of a man. The UN has found that although women perform nearly two thirds of the world's work, they receive only one tenth of the world's income and they own only one hundredth of the world's property.

2.4.2 Children

Poverty has a very severe effect on children (Trani and Cannings, 2013). At the moment, some of the poorest households in South Africa are those headed by children, where parents are either ill or have died from AIDS or other causes. Even in families where parents are still present, children are very badly affected by malnutrition and it has its most severe effect on children between the ages of six months and two years. Malnutrition also means that the children can more easily get diseases and either die young or have poor physical and mental development as a result.

Poverty limits the access children have to educational opportunities, especially in early childhood development. Many poor children also leave school before completing matric. In South Africa, the provinces with the largest numbers of poor children are the Eastern Cape, where more than 70% of children live in poverty. Limpopo has less people, but 74% of children there live in poverty (Education and training unit, 2011).

2.4.3 Youth

Poverty and lack of education limits employment opportunities for young people (Education and training, 2011). In South Africa, with our high unemployment rate, many young people have no hope of finding work in the formal sector.

Urban youth are also very vulnerable to getting involved in crime, gangs and drug or alcohol abuse. These youth are often called "youth at risk" and government targets them for public works and other employment and training programmes.

2.4.4 Disabled

About 5% of all people in South Africa suffer from some form of disability. In developed countries there are usually grants, support, special institutions and special jobs to help people live full lives in spite of their disability. In developing countries, the responsibility of care and support falls on the family (Education and training unit 2011).

Poor disabled people live under the double burden of poverty and disability. Without support from the state, it is very difficult for them to access education, special care and jobs.

Public transport is often not accessible to people with certain disabilities and those with hearing or sight impediments are restricted from accessing information and communicating with others.

2.4.5 The elderly

Older people are usually not working anymore and have to be taken care of by the rest of society. In South Africa most poor older people survive on the monthly pensions paid by the state. They also have access to free health care. Because of high unemployment many

families share the pensions meant for the elderly and it ends up being insufficient for their needs. Older people also often look after grandchildren and continue to perform unpaid domestic work for their families (Education and training unit, 2011). This especially applies to older women.

2.4.6 Families living with AIDS

People who carry the heaviest burden as a result of HIV and AIDS are the poor. AIDS increases poverty and families are the first to feel the economic effects of HIV and AIDS.

Families lose income if an earner is sick. Often another one of the family members stays at home to look after the sick person and further income is lost (Education and training unit,

2011). Families also have increased costs as they have to spend on caring for the sick or paying for funerals. In most cases, orphans are cared for by older female relatives who are already living in poverty - the additional burden they carry will deepen their poverty. At the moment, South Africa has an overall HIV prevalence rate of 22% among pregnant women.

This means that about 11% of the overall population is HIV positive.

2.4.7 Developed countries

Countries in Europe, North America and Asian countries like Japan are well developed countries. They used to be called first world countries. We now avoid that label and call them developed or industrialised societies (Education and training unit, 2011). One of the most important characteristics of industrialised countries is that they have the capacity to produce a lot of material goods necessary for human survival. They usually engage in mass production and most people in these countries live in cities. The kind of farming that is

practised in industrialised societies is usually mechanised and done on large commercial farms. Farms do not employ a large number of people and very few people live in rural areas in industrialised countries.

There used to be a whole lot of countries referred to as the second world. These were based on socialist principles where the state was heavily involved in planning of production and the economic system. Second world was used to refer to industrial countries of the former

Soviet Union and Eastern Europe Developing countries.

2.4.8 Developing countries

The less developed countries used to be called the third world. This term is no longer used because it is derogatory. These countries are now called developing countries. The most important characteristics of developing countries are that they are much poorer than the industrialised ones and they do not have large scale industrialisation (Education and training unit, 2011). Most of the developing countries are still engaged in primary economic activities such as farming, harvesting of natural resources such as wood, minerals and fish rather than manufacturing. Most of these resources are used by people for their own survival or exported to developed countries where they are turned into more valuable consumer goods.

In developing countries most people usually live in rural areas and many of them are involved in subsistence farming, where they only produce enough to feed themselves and their families. They usually do not produce anything extra that can be sold to generate an income. When the community in a whole area is involved in subsistence farming, it has

nothing to trade to bring in extra money. This means the community has no money to pay for roads, electricity and other services. Rural communities in developing countries often have high population numbers without any productive base, infrastructure or services.

These are the issues the development programmes have to address if they are serious about rural development.

Although most populations in the developing world still live in rural areas, many of these societies are experiencing rapid urbanisation. Countries where rapid urbanisation and industrialisation are taking place are generally called newly industrialised countries.

Examples of such countries are Mexico, South Korea and Taiwan. South Africa can be classified as a newly industrialised country, although industrialisation started much earlier than in the other examples.

Nearly one quarter of the worlds' population are living in conditions of poverty in developing countries. About a third of the worlds' poor are living in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the past few years, conditions in the most impoverished areas have deteriorated rather than improved. This is partly because of diseases like HIV and AIDS, Malaria and TB but it is also as a result of relationship between the developed and the developing world and the impact of globalisation on issues like markets, trade and investment.

The World Bank 2011 argues that some analysis of poverty reflect pejorative, sometimes racial, stereotypes of impoverished people as powerless victims and passive recipients of aid programmes. Ultra-poverty, a term apparently coined by Michael Lipton, connotes being amongst poorest of the poor in low-income countries. Lipton defined ultra-poverty as

receiving less than 80 percent of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food. Alternatively, a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research

Institute defined ultra-poverty as living on less than 54 cents per day.

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF POVERTY

Asset poverty is an economic and social condition that is more persistent and prevalent than income poverty (Haushofer and Fehr, 2014; Ward, 2016). It can be defined as a household’s inability to access wealth resources that are sufficient enough to provide for basic needs for a period of three months. Basic needs refer to the minimum standards for consumption and acceptable needs. Wealth resources consist of home ownership, other real estate (second home, rented properties, etc.), net value of farm and business assets, stocks, checking and savings accounts, and other savings (money in savings bonds, life insurance policy cash values, etc.). Wealth is measured in three forms: net worth, net worth minus home equity, and liquid assets. Net worth consists of all the aspects mentioned above. Net worth minus home equity is the same except it does not include home ownership in asset calculations.

Liquid assets are resources that are readily available such as cash, checking and savings accounts, stocks, and other sources of savings. There are two types of assets: tangible and intangible. Tangible assets most closely resemble liquid assets in that they include stocks, bonds, property, natural resources and hard assets not in the form of real estate. Intangible assets are simply the access to credit, social capital, and cultural capital.

2.5.1 Hunger and malnutrition

Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than wealthy people. As a result, poor households

and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. “The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty” (Wandati, 2016). Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to United Nations

University's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. “Every year, nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion People go to bed hungry every night” (Maluleke, 2012).

According to the Global Hunger Index, Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions over the 2006–2016 periods (Akombi et al., 2017).

2.6 CAUSES OF POVERTY

2.6.1 History

“Many of the poorest nations in the world were former colonies, slave-exporting areas and territories from which resources had been systematically extracted for the benefit of colonizing countries (Acemoglu and Robbinson 2011; Wailer, 2016). Although there are notable exceptions (Australia, Canada and the U.S. being perhaps the most prominent), for most of these former colonies, colonialism and its legacies have helped create the conditions that prevent many people from accessing land, capital, education and other

resources that allow people to support themselves adequately. In these nations, poverty is one legacy of a troubled history involving conquest” (Wailer, 2016).

2.6.2 War and political instability

Both of these factors have often been tied to histories of colonialism, but whatever the causes of war and political upheaval, it is clear that safety, stability and security are essential for subsistence and beyond that economic prosperity and growth (Wailer, 2016). Without these basics, natural resources cannot be harnessed individually or collectively, and no amount of education, talent or technological know-how will allow people to work and reap the benefits of the fruits of their labour. Likewise, laws are needed to protect rights, property and investments, and without legal protections, farmers, would-be entrepreneurs and business owners cannot safely invest in a country’s economy. It is a telling sign that the poorest countries in the world have all experienced civil war and serious political upheaval at some point in the 20th century, and many of them have weak governments that cannot or do not protect people against violence” (Wailer, 2016).

2.6.3 National Debt

“Many poor countries carry significant debt loads due to loans from wealthier nations and international financial institutions (Wailer, 2016). Poorer nations pay an average of $2.30 in debt service for every $1 received in grant aid. In addition, structural adjustment policies by organizations like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund often require poorer nations to open their markets to outside business and investors, thereby increasing competition with local businesses and, many argue, undermining the potential development

of local economies. In recent years, calls for debt reduction and forgiveness have been increasing, as activists see this too as a key means of reducing poverty. The United Nations has also made it a priority to examine how economic structural adjustment policies can be designed to place less pressure on vulnerable populations” (Wailer, 2016).

2.6.4 Discrimination and social inequality

“Poverty and inequality are two different things but inequality can feed widespread poverty by barring groups with lower social status from accessing the tools and resources to support themselves (Wailer, 2016). According to the United Nations Social Policy and Development

Division, “inequalities in income distribution and access to productive resources, basic social services, opportunities, markets, and information have been on the rise worldwide, often causing and exacerbating poverty.” The U.N. and many aid groups also point out that gender discrimination has been a significant factor in holding many women and children around the world in poverty” (Wailer, 2016).

2.6.5 Vulnerability to natural disasters

In regions of the world that are already less wealthy, recurrent or occasional catastrophic natural disasters can pose a significant obstacle to eradicating poverty. The effects of flooding in Bangladesh, the drought in the Horn of Africa and the 2005 earthquake in Haiti are all examples of the ways that vulnerability to natural disasters can prove to be devastating to large portions of affected countries (Wailer, 2016). In each of these cases already impoverished people became refugees within their own countries, losing whatever little they had, being forced out of their living spaces and becoming almost completely

dependent on others for survival. According to the World Bank (2011), two years after cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar in 2008, the debt loads of local fishermen had doubled. The

Solomon Islands experienced an earthquake and tsunami in 2007 and the losses from that disaster equalled 95 percent of the national budget. Without foreign aid assistance, governments in these countries would have been unable to meet the needs of their people

(Wailer, 2016).

These are only five causes of poverty, they are both external and internal causes; both man- made and natural. Just as there is no single cause of poverty, there is no single solution

(Wailer, 2016). Nevertheless, understanding the ways that complex forces like these interact to create and sustain the conditions of widespread global poverty is an important first step in formulating comprehensive and effective responses to combat poverty around the world.

2.7 INFLUENCE OF OLD AGE GRANT ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION

The State Old Age grant accounts for 37 percent of social assistance expenditures which costs approximately 1.4 percent of GDP and, therefore, comprises the largest proportion of social assistance outlays. Recipients of the Old Age Grant are eligible for R1 600 00 and 1 620 00 per month for approximately 1.9-2.1 million beneficiaries and this costs the Department of Social Development R13.2 billion per year, the largest social security transfer by the South African government. This grant is non-contributory and becomes available at the age of 60 for both women men (Dowman, 2014; Ncube 2014).

Due to mass unemployment in South Africa (estimated to be between 25 and 40 percent depending on who constitutes as unemployed), old age grant recipients are often the only contributors to income in households and, thus, support the entire family on their OAG.

Because of this, the grant is assumed to close the gap between poor households with access to wage income and those without. Contrary to this assertion, the old age grant creates a

network of dependency in which entire households are dependent on the Grant income of one individual and use this assistance for sustenance rather than seeking employment and self-sufficiency.

Globally, social protection is seen as a powerful tool to reduce poverty (Barrientos, 2010).

Old Age Grant in South Africa plays a critical role regarding its effect on reducing income poverty and inequality.

Over the past decade the grants have increasingly become widespread in the developing world. In Mozambique the social cash transfer programme is estimated to have contributed to a reduction in the poverty headcount by 6%, and reductions in the poverty gap and poverty severity by 27% and 44%, respectively. In Ecuador and Bolivia, social pension schemes have also reduced the poverty rate of older people by 36% and 44%, respectively

(Help Age International 2011).

Help age international (2011) argues that in Zambia an evaluation of the Kalomo social cash transfer scheme revealed an increase in satiation levels after meals for beneficiaries, with the percentage of households complaining of not being satisfied after each meal decreasing from 56.3% to 34.8%. Furthermore, beneficiary households also recorded a high intake of balanced diets with more households consuming vitamins and proteins such as vegetables fruits, fish and meat. Interestingly, evidence from Malawi’s social cash transfer programme also showed that administering the Grant to households with children resulted in a 5% increase in school enrolment, whilst targeting households with orphan’s resulted in a 4.2% increase in school enrolment (Chronic poverty research centre). An evaluation of the

Educational Sector Reform Program in Pakistan by the World Bank in 2011 also revealed

that school enrolment rates for girls aged 10-14 years increased by 11 percentage points from the base line figure of 29 %. Likewise, in Namibia 14 out of 16 grade 12 pupils attended school regularly because their grandparents are in the receipt of old age grant.

Even though it is now generally accepted that the old age grant provides an essential safety net for the poor and has played an important role in alleviating poverty in South Africa, poverty and inequality remains a problem. Policies also misread the needs of the poor and are therefore ineffective (Geldenhuys, 2016).

Taylor Committee (2011) projected impact of the grant is an immediate reduction in the poverty gap; the poverty gap is estimated to close by 56.7 percent, which is a dramatic increase compared to the 7.6 percent closing caused by the current system (Taylor

Committee, 2011).

Zanker, Morgan and Meth (2011) noted that Old Age grants have a range of positive outcomes on non-monetary aspects of poverty such as the health of household members, school attendance of children and access to job opportunities. (Gutura and Tanga, 2014) argues that the grant plays a critical role in the survival of households, especially those most in need since they target them directly and reverse the bias of earlier apartheid-era social security programmes. In addition, they have a holistic effect on household welfare and health by bringing income into the household, thereby, acting as a preventive rather than a palliative intervention.

Where old age grant reciprocity plays such an important role: the certainty of the income makes a remarkable difference to the status of the recipient and the ability to transact with those around them. Prior research has shown that receipt of old age grant is often

statistically associated with lower reported hunger and higher school attendance, and that grants are often used in construction or upgrading of housing. The research study by The

Institute of Poverty, Land and Agrarian Reform shows that grant recipients are also likely to have a higher level of activity in financial markets both formal and informal and are able to obtain credit on more favourable terms.

Old age grant has various social and economic implications and it is said that it places a significant burden on the social service and healthcare systems, including intergenerational support systems, social welfare, health care, and recreational resources.

2.8 CHALLENGES FACED BY OLD AGE GRANT BENEFICIARIES IN FIGHTING POVERTY.

Dhemba (2012) posits that the benefits of pensions are found to be distributed more broadly to all in the household as the majority of poor households in South Africa live in intergenerational households.

The old age grant not only helps the recipient who is the grandmother or grandfather in the household but it also benefits the children of the recipients who are unemployed, the grandchildren orphaned through HIV/AIDS, as well as the abandoned children left for the grandmothers to take care of. Barrientos and Loyd-Sherlock (2011) in their research in Brazil found that old age grant was able to support entire families. Local evidence also shows that

In South Africa, the old age pension is increasingly the sole household income serving as a

lifeline to over two million non-contributory pensioners caring socio-economically for grandchildren, children and other family members who live with them (Department of

Social Development, 2009).

Another dimension of South African society that is important in analysing the economic activity of the elderly is the complex extended household structure that is common among black South African households. As noted by Loyd-Sherlock (2011), one of the reasons the grant system is so effective in reducing poverty in South Africa is that the elderly recipients of the grant often live in households with young children. While these complex extended household patterns have long historical roots in South Africa, they have taken on new importance as HIV/AIDS and high unemployment have weakened the ability of prime-age adults to support their families.

2.8.1 Elder abuse

The Older Persons Act, 2006, had envisaged dealing effectively with the plight of older persons by establishing a framework aimed at the empowerment and protection of older persons, and at the promotion and maintenance of their status, rights, well-being, safety and security.

Older people are abused socially, physically, sexually, economically and psychologically.

Their basic human rights such as the right to life and liberty, the right to work, the right to freedom from discrimination are violated. They suffer abuses such as rape, theft and burglary, dispossession of property by individuals, families or the community and are, among other things, accused of witchcraft, preventing or causing too much rain for which

they are tortured and assaulted. This situation arises because they live in isolation or they are too frail to defend themselves and there are no mechanisms to protect them. In some households they are victims during pay day because they are targets to their communities by youngsters who rape them and also take their money, knowing that are powerless.

With regard to physical facilities, pension pay-out points are often based on unsympathetic environments, especially in rural and disadvantaged areas. Factors such as lack of shelter, inaccessible buildings, unsafe environments and long queues add to a sense of dehumanization and disempowerment. There are no facilities such as toilets at the pay points, in winter, the aged are exposed to the cold and, in summer, they stand for hours in the rain waiting for grants. Incidents have been reported of pensioners who had been standing in queues for more than ten hours who collapsed and died (Mumbai Mirror, 2017).

HIV / AIDS: The combination of poverty, natural disasters, violence, social chaos and the disempowerment status of women facilitates the transmission of HIV. Conversely, the illness increases the risk of a households or individuals becoming impoverished, and lowers the general level of health in communities because of its close relationship with other communicable and poverty-related diseases such as tuberculosis (Department of Health,

Over and above the fact that Africa as a continent and South Africa, in particular, are struggling in terms of debt, the underdevelopment of its economy, education and technology, it is the worst hit by HIVIAIDS pandemic. The latest national survey of HIV prevalence among women attending antenatal clinics in October shows that 45 Percent of pregnant women were HIV- positive giving a total estimate of November 2009 which found an average of 14 over 2.4 million HIV-infected people in South Africa (Karim et al., 2009).

Concerning the economy impact, research shows that where a family member has AIDS, the average income falls by as much as 60 per cent, expenditure on health care quadruples, savings are depleted and families often go into debt to care for the sick. Other studies have suggested that food consumption may drop by as much as 41 Per cent in orphan households

(Ababio, 2010). Asset-selling to pay for health care, loss of income by breadwinners and funeral costs may deplete all household reserves as well as savings. Migration has been identified as an important family and community coping mechanism in the face of the

HIVIAIDS pandemic. This is especially so in South Africa where there is aggravation by stigma and discrimination.

Migration occurs for several reasons and people move both within and between rural and urban areas. Some identified forms of migration include going home. There are also rural widows moving to town to seek work or help from relatives and potential caregivers and dependants moving between kin households to achieve the most optimum care arrangements for all concerned.

Children are frequently relocated. Adolescents are particularly affected by migration, as girls are sent to help out in other households or children are encouraged to try and defend for themselves by working, including prostitution

2.8.2 Food Security and Nutrition

Older people are the worst hit by food insecurity and poor nutrition. (Strickhouser et al.,

2015). They mainly feed on carbohydrates and take only one meal a day. Inadequate food intake and poor diets has pre-disposed older persons to malnutrition, ill health, emaciation

and chronic energy deficiency. Older people are culturally not allowed to eat some nutritious foods and that makes them to be exposed to poverty. (Strickhouser et al., 2015).

Hoeppner (2010) posits that low-income households in urban centres may nonetheless have easier access to supermarkets than those living in remote or isolated communities. In these areas, nutritious food is less available, and the cost of a food basket is often out of reach for those living on low incomes.

2.8.3 Shelter

In Dutywa –where the research was conducted, older persons live in semi-permanent, grass-thatched, mud and wattle houses. Some of the structures are dilapidated and this puts them and their dependants in grave danger, especially during rainy seasons. A number of interventions by government through RDP strategies have been provided, though in some many areas there still a need.

2.9 COPING MECHANISMS AVAILABLE FOR OLD AGE GRANT BENEFICIARIES IN FIGHTING POVERTY

Recent research funded by the Finmark Trust, (2009) has identified specific economic benefits of social grants. These include of recipients to manage risk and insecurity facilitating saving and investment and increasing the improving ability to engage in informal economic activity. In addition, (the Finmark Report 2009) suggests that old age grant allows people to enter into existing systems of social reciprocity on which the impoverished and vulnerable often depend for their survival, thus strengthening existing informal social protection systems and social networks.

However, while old age grants alleviate the most extreme aspects of poverty and destitution, it is doubtful whether this approach alone can fundamentally transform the socioeconomic situation of the many South Africans who are effectively excluded from participation in the economy. One of the most visible outcomes of vulnerability amongst the elderly is hunger and food insecurity and the receipt of the old age grants undoubtedly seems to reduce these conditions in terms of meal frequency, meal quality, ability to purchase food (directly or indirectly) and benefiting from economies of scale by buying in bulk.

2.10 LEGISLATION AND POLICY

According to the National Development Social Welfare Strategy, social welfare is intrinsically linked to other social service systems through which people's needs are met and through which people strive to achieve their aspirations. Social welfare services are, therefore, part of a range of mechanisms to achieve social development, such as health, nutrition, education, housing, employment, recreation, rural and urban development and land reforms (White Paper 2007).

The ANC’s policy commitment to fighting poverty reflects the view articulated in the

Department of Welfare’s (White Paper 2007), which argued that the focus of social protection should be on moving people out of poverty and empowering them, and not just using social protection for prevention, social compensation and income redistribution . The

ANC needs to be seen to fight poverty – establishing and extending a range of social grants is an effective and visible way of doing so. It is providing a range of assets and services, such

as education and health services (free for the poor), housing subsidies, free basic electricity and water and sanitation, all loosely referred to as the ‘social wage.’

2.10.1 BILL OF RIGHTS OF THE CONSTITUTION

The restructuring of social security system through the New Constitution (1996) makes equality before the law a basic human right. It also makes access to social security and social assistances a basic human right. This fundamental human right is regulated in section 27 (1)

(c) of the Bill of Rights of the Constitution and it reads as follows: 27 (I) everyone has the right to have access to: c) Social security, including, if they are unable to support themselves and their Dependants, appropriate social assistance.

2.10.2 SOCIAL ASSISTANCE ACT 13 0f 2004

According to the Department of Social Development (2008 & 2016), the aim of this act is to provide for the rendering of social assistance to persons, especially those that cannot support and maintain themselves for different reasons, to provide for the establishment of an inspectorate for social assistance and to provide for matters connected therewith.

2.10.2.1 Objectives of the Act

(a) “Provide for the administration of social assistance and payments of social grants”

(6)”Make provision for social assistance and to determine the qualification requirements in respect thereof”.

(c)” Ensure that minimum norms and standards are prescribed for the delivery of

Social assistance”.

(d) “Provide for the establishment of an inspectorate for social assistance”.

2.10.3 Implementation of the Older Person’s Act, No 13 of 2006

The first draft of the Bill appeared over ten years, but it was finally signed in December

2006, whilst draft regulations were finalised and gazetted on 1 April 2010. A draft implementation plan for the Act was finalised, but no time frames were attached to implementation. The implementation of the Act and Regulations by provinces was of crucial importance.

These provided for the services older persons could expect, and set out how the rights and dignity of vulnerable older persons, especially in rural areas, would be observed and protected.

If the Act was to be effectively implemented by DSD, a substantial increase in the budget for the Directorate for Care and Services to Older Persons was required. Although partnerships between government and civil society were formed for the provision of services to older persons, the budget allocated to Care and Services to older persons, both at national and provincial levels was inadequate to ensure the implementation of the Act, the rollout of services and effective advocacy.

The introduction of the Older Persons Act (No.13 of 2006; OPA) presented a shift in policy focus from institutional care to community-based care and support for older persons in

South Africa. Community-based care exists on a continuum of care for older persons ranging from home-based care services to residential facilities and institutionalised frail care. This is reflective of a broader international shift to integrated, multidisciplinary care, providing

access to health and social welfare services for older persons in order to support active and independent ageing.

NGOs offered a range of services to older persons, including social support groups, training and education, income generating projects, frail care services, and transport to health facilities, luncheon clubs and Home Based Care. DSD delegated its responsibilities for delivery of services to older persons to NGOs, but these were mostly underfunded. NGOs were frustrated by delays in payment of subsidies, delays in transfers of funding that had already been allocated, and the lack of consultation on DSD’s part, which, in turn, caused disruptions in service delivery. Services to older persons in formerly disadvantaged areas and more affluent areas must be brought in line.

2.11. SUPPORT SERVICES PUT IN PLACE BY PROFESSIONALS OR AGENCIES SUCH AS SOCIAL

WORKERS, NURSES, EDUCATORS AND TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN FIGHTING POVERTY.

Statistics South Africa (2011) indicates that South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) administers social assistance. Following improvements in its financial position in recent years, it is now able to fast-track projects to improve service delivery and reduce fraud, especially amongst old age grant recipients. Of the 1.2 million new applications for grants last year, 89 per cent were finalised within 21 days with an average processing time of nine days. In 2012/13, SASSA implemented a new payment system that will reduce the unit cost per payment from as high as R32 to a standard rate of R16. Old age grant beneficiaries are now able to receive their grants anywhere in the country and have access to the banking system.

National and provincial social development departments transferred R5 billion to the non- governmental Social welfare Government partners with Non-Governmental Organisations

(NGOs) to provide welfare services. NGOs provide a range of statutory services for which they are partly subsidised by government and also receive support from corporate companies and other donors. Special priority is given to the implementation of Older

Person’s Act (2006) which provides for protection against older person’s abuse and neglect.

As of June 2012, there were 100 000 NGOs registered in South Africa of which 40 per cent operate in social services, providing assistance to children, the elderly, the disabled and victims of abuse. The NGOs have contribute hugely toward alleviating poverty among elder persons in South Africa as many of the elderly who are homeless have been provided with houses; in winter which is highly known for extensive cold, the elderly were provided with blankets to cover themselves at night. Hence, many NGOs are facing financial difficulties as a result of additional demands associated with their responsibilities and a decline in external donor funding.

Administration includes SASSA payment contractors and appeals tribunal Revised estimate

SASSA administrative reforms have contributed to improved Old Age Grant processing times; NGOs play an important role partnering with government in the provision of welfare services and budget support for NGOs includes strengthening their involvement in public employment. South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) has also provided a huge amount of educational support to the elderly in order to alleviate poverty. Awareness of most essential information, such as the government intension in increasing the old age grant would be made known to them so that they would be able to cater to their other immediate

needs at a particular period in a year. SASSA ensures that this would be of benefits to the elderly as this would improve their standard of living in the country.

Department of Social Development in use of Social workers often make sure that people’s wellbeing and rights are taken well care of by the state and communities. Outreach programmes are being done to educate people and broaden them with knowledge. The government has also been seen as an instrument of poverty reduction strategies. Some of the government strategies include providing free medications at the clinics, making nurses available at all times to attend to sick elderly, etc. Other agencies that also provide support services to the elderly at the study area include the churches and other NGOs where they give donation in all forms.

The Department of Social Development is currently exploring ways to improve income support for recipients of the old age grant who live with their relatives but are not being supported by them in order to prevent the exclusion of vulnerable individuals and eliminate the disincentive to preserve retirement savings arising from the present means test.

Similarly, the social workers at the Department of Social Development in South Africa contribute a lot towards alleviating poverty among the elder persons by educating them on the issues relating to government policies that may in one way or the other be of benefits to them. In this manner, social workers could be seen as educators because they are also facilitators. They also inform the elder persons on measures that could be taken in order to spend their income wisely so as to combat poverty in their family. Service centres to the elderly also made available by government working together with Social development to promote active aging of senior citizens. Community leader are to look after and protect

peoples dignity within the community and making sure are always protected. Traditional leaders have also provided support services to the elderly in South Africa by providing local or herbal medicine for treatment. The Traditional leaders have also play a major role toward alleviating among the elderly.

Nurses in South Africa have play a tremendous role in contributing towards alleviating of poverty among the elder persons by providing effective health care facilities. They provide free support services to the elderly as the majority of them could not afford paying for expensive treatment at the hospitals. Government has tried to assist them by ensuring that all elder persons are well care for at the government hospitals by employing many nurses to provide free services for them. They make sure that heath service are available at all times and make it possible that, those in remote areas are getting access to the treatment through mobile clinics.

2.12 EFFECTS OF POVERTY AMONG ELDERLY

Poverty has been seen as the most dangerous weapon that have been affecting the growth and development globally. In fact, the effect has not been so friendly with the elderly worldwide. There are many issues that go hand in hand with poverty, which include: homelessness, hunger, inadequate medical or dental care and poor hygiene can result from living in poverty (Mumbaimirror, 2017). Another result of living in poverty is dying at a younger age than those who don’t live in poverty. This is especially true for indigenous people in Australia (Acenoglu and Robbinson, 2011).

2.13 GAPS

The old age grants which was intended as a poverty relief programme for the aged has turned into a poverty alleviation programme for rural households. When they live together with other generations, these pensioners become the primary caregivers in the household and they act as breadwinners by looking after their unemployed children, orphans grandchildren and other relatives.

Households that receive the old age grants were found to have lower prevalence rates of hunger among young children than households with similar levels of income that did not receive the grant. Unless a policy is implemented effectively, efficiently and ethically, it is of little use to those meant to benefit from it as it does not cater for all the needs in a household.

The right to access social protection provides a fall-back in the form of supplementary benefits when a person’s income from work and assets such as land does not provide sufficient income for the person to achieve a minimum standard of living. In the context of this study, it is a social right for citizens who meet the basic requirements to receive an old age grant. Despite the extensive social protection system, South Africa is still one of the most unequal countries in the world: While interracial inequality has decreased within racial group, inequality has increased sharply for all groups and is highest for the black population (Devereux, 2011). Part of this trend owes to the development of a growing

African middle class and elite, which had been stifled during the Apartheid period.

In many instances, old age grant was shared among household members and pooled for the common benefit rather than being used exclusively for the benefit of the nominal beneficiary. This dilutes the impact of the grant on the intended recipient

2.14 CONCLUSION

The extent and distribution of poverty, its symptoms, causes and characteristics of poverty in South Africa have been discussed. It has been argued in this chapter that if more people live below the poverty line, more money will be needed for social grants. What is also highlighted in this chapter is the nature, extent and distribution of poverty in South Africa, particularly in Dutywa.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is made up of components such as: type of research used in conducting the study, study area where the study was conducted, the research design, the population and sample are also outlined as well as the instrument used to collect the data. This chapter focuses on checking instruments used in conducting a study. Interview schedules, questionnaires, and scales are among the prominent techniques that the researcher used in collecting data. This chapter aims at providing a detailed description of research methodologies used in the research approach, as well as the research design and methodology, population, sample and sampling method that apply to this study.

3.2. RESEARCH PARADIGM AND APPROACH

Paradigms are fundamental orientations, perspectives or worldviews that are often not questioned or subject to empirical test (De Vos et al., 2011). Babbie (2010) states that a paradigm is a fundamental model and reasoning or frame of reference we use to organise our observation. According to Babbie (2010), a paradigm is a perspective of looking at reality. In addition, paradigms are models or frameworks for observation and understanding which shape both what we see and how we see it. Explanatory research implies that the research in question is intended to be explained, rather than simply to describe, the phenomena studied (Cruze and Jones 2014). Explanatory research can be used to explain why a phenomenon is going on, for hypothesis testing, to draw inferences about associations and causality and mostly in case-control, cohort and intervention trials studies. In this study old age grant is used as a factor that effects poverty alleviation programme.

The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative approaches focusing on the qualities and quantities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured. Creswell (2011) posits that mixed methods research is both a method and methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing and integrating quantitative and qualitative research in a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry. In this study, qualitative approach was used with the aim to stimulate participant’s explanations of meaning, experiences, feelings or perceptions in their own language and spoken words. The approach allowed for beneficiaries to provide a deeper meaning of their own understanding of the effect of the grant on poverty alleviation.

Quantitative approach was used in the study with the aim of trying to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality as well attempt to control the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified (Babie and Mouton 2011). Quantitative method in this study allows for a broader study involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the results in the community under study.

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

Babbie (2010) posits that the research design is the point at which research questions are converted into a research project. It marks the stage in the research process when the researcher moves away from thinking about asking questions to thinking in details about how these questions might be answered. The researcher used explanatory research design aims to explain the phenomenon of old age grant and its effect on poverty alleviation

programme. Explanatory research design defined as an attempt to connect ideas to understand cause and effect, meaning that researchers want to explain the process of old age grant and how it has affected poverty among old people (De Vos et al. 2010). In this design, the researcher looked at how old age grant interact with poverty alleviation in a way to reduce level of poverty among old people in Dutywa. The research design grounded the project in practical consideration. This design also helped the researcher to explain the impact or effects of the consistency of social grants in alleviating poverty in the Dutywa.

3.4. POPULATION AND RESEARCH DOMAIN

The research was conducted in Dutywa - Mbhashe Local Municipalities, a municipality in

Amathole District and situated in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Its administrative seat in the town of Idutywa and the entire municipal area falls within the former Transkei homeland area. The urban population is mainly located in the small town, Idutywa, with a low density rural settlement dominating the municipality. Seventy percent (70%) of households reside in traditional or village type settlements. These settlements are loosely scattered throughout the entire municipal area and are surrounded by communal grazing and arable lands.

The majority of residential structures are self-built. Apart from a few trading stores, there is little sign of any significant economic activity within the rural settlements. Many of the families in the rural regions of the municipality were formerly supported by men who worked as migrant labour in local mines. Subsequent retrenchment at the mines has left these communities with scant means to survive. About 75% of households can be regarded as indigents with access to either no income or incomes of less than R500 per month. Most

of the education institutions in Mbashe cater to lower level schooling. Of the 380 schools in the Mbhashe area, 60% are overcrowded or highly overcrowded, according to the Amathole

District office and Mbhashe local municipality.

Population: can be defined as a set of individuals to which findings of survey are to be extrapolated (Berg and Bruce, 2009). It can also be defined as the theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in the study (Babbie 2010). The population in this study is the total number of old people from Dutywa that are eligible to benefit from the old age grant.

Out of the whole population, the researcher targeted the elderly who are reachable by means of transport and those who were available to participate in the study. According to the statistics of the old age grant recipient in Dutywa April 2017 there were 28 981 elderly receiving the grant; the number changes monthly depending on the new pensioners and those who have passed away.

3.5. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling is a process of selecting units, e.g. people/organization from a population of interest (Gomm, 2008). The researcher used non-probability sampling where elements were selected on the basis of their availability (Gomm, 2008). In non-probability sampling, the odds of selecting a particular individual are not known because the researcher does not know the population size or the members of the population (De Vos et al., 2011).

Specifically, the study used purposive sampling where the units were observed and selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative (Babbie, 2010). De Vos et al. (2011) alluded to the fact that this type of sample is based entirely on the judgement of the researcher in that a sample is composed of

an element that contains the most characteristics representative or typical attributes of the population. The researcher used Babbie’s definition of purposive sampling which seems to be in line with the study due to the fact that the total number of old age beneficiaries in

Dutywa could not be ascertained and also many of the beneficiaries are illiterate who could not read and write. The fewer number who could read and write were given questionnaire to be filled. Judgemental sampling technique was adopted for both qualitative and quantitative approach for the study.

De Vos et al. (2011) affirm that there are two major groups of sampling procedures, probability sampling and non-probability methodologies. Probability is based on randomisation, while non-probability sampling is done without randomisation (De Vos et al.,

2011). The study has employed non-probability sampling technique because is suits a qualitative research and quantitative well.

3.6. SAMPLE SIZE

Sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole or a selection taken from a larger group/population (Babbie, 2010). De Vos et al. (2011) posit that a sample comprises elements of the population considered for actual inclusion in the study or a subset of measurements drawn from a population in which we are interested.

The sample size of the participants for the qualitative method was sixteen (16) and seventy respondents (70) for the quantitative method. The seventy respondents were purposively selected among beneficiaries who are queuing up at ATM machine to withdraw their monthly grants. Those selected were those who signified that they understood the questionnaire and could fill them. The same process also applied to the sixteen participants

for the qualitative study. They were also selected among the beneficiaries queuing up at

ATM machine to withdraw their grants but not based on ability to read and write but those who volunteered to be interviewed. The verification of their biographic details were looked at in terms of age, sex and ability to read and write. Sample size is an issue that often provided the most concern to trust the researcher (Angel and Scutt, 2009).

3.7. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

The data was collected in the form of interviews. Interviewing is predominantly made use of in data or information collection in qualitative and quantitative research. The researcher obtains information through direct interchange with an individual or a group that is known or expected to process the knowledge (De Vos et al., 2011). Engel and Schutt (2013) affirm that in person interviews have several advantages, such as the fact that the response rate is very higher in such interviews than in any other survey. Objective 1 from the research objectives was used in collecting quantitative data and objective 2, 3 and 4 were used for collecting qualitative data.

3.7.1 In-depth-interviews

The researcher used face to face interviews as a method of data collection. The data was gathered by means of a semi-structured interview guide. Semi-structured interviews are defined as those organized around areas of particular interest, while allowing considerable flexibility in scope and depth. De Vos et al. (2011) affirm that interviewing is the predominant mode of data or information collection in qualitative research. The interview was conducted in Xhosa as the participants were free in understanding and expressing

themselves in their mother tongue. The researcher also used a tape recorder as it was difficult to keep all the important information given by the respondents.

The researcher organised the individual interviews with the elderly people who were keenly interested to participate in the study at their different homes and the researcher set a separate time with them and visited them on their spare time as to get all the information needed for the study. Due to the age eligibility of the elderly people and for the fact that most of them send their children to collect the pension on their behalf, the researcher ended up having individual interviews.

One to one interviews were conducted on different days in the homes of the elderly people where the in-depth interviews were done and observations of the elderly were also done.

The researcher spent time with the elderly people and that helped the researcher to get more information from them. Participants.

The researcher used face to face interviews with the elderly and the tape record was also used to record all the information that was said by the elderly who were interviewed and the same information was interpreted. David and Sotton (2011) define interview as a face to face talk based on the data collection method, it may be one to one or a group based and be more or less formal structure.

3.8. DATA ANALYSIS.

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming and modelling data with the goal of discovering useful information (Babbie, 2010). According to De Vos et al. (2011), the idea of analysis implies some kind of transformation, De Vos et al. (2011) further affirms

that qualitative analysis is the non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations for the purpose of discovering underlying meaning and patterns of relationships. Babbie (2010) and De Vos et al. (2011) share a similar view with regards to the definition of data analysis. In this study, data was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively.

Qualitatively it was done through the identification of themes from the responses given by participants, where frequency tables were used to categorize data. After collecting and recording the data, the analysis was done using thematic content analysis which is the most foundational of qualitative analytic procedures and informs all qualitative methods

(Lamputtong, 2011). Whittaker (2009) further states that the purpose of thematic analysis is to identify patterns of meaning across a dataset that provides an answer to the research question being addressed.

For the quantitative method, graphic explanation was used in the study. Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) was used to analyse quantitative data for accurate results.

Charts and percentage were also used to analyse quantitative data.

3.9. TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE STUDY

3.9.1 Credibility

De Vos et al. (2011) argue that the credibility of a research is established while the research is undertaken; credibility is alternative to internal validity in which the goal is to demonstrate that the inquiry was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described. Babbie (2010) contend that the use of results from one set of data to corroborate those from another type of data is also known as

triangulation. According to De Vos et al. (2011), triangulation may incorporate multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in order to increase confidence in research findings. Rubin & Babbie (2011) contend that the use of results from one set of data to corroborate those from another type of data is also known as triangulation. Hence, this study has used diverse data collection source both quantitative and qualitative to corroborate, elaborate or illuminate the phenomenon old age grant and poverty eradication. These sources included in-depth interview and key questionnaire interview.

Research participants were also given an opportunity to comment on the information presented regarding the research topic. The study was also designed in such a manner that diverse participants were used in order to strengthen the study’s usefulness for other settings. Engagement with the data was done intensively to demonstrate clear links between the data and the interpretations. Regular discussions were held with supervisor and adjustments were made in accordance with suggestions and recommendations.

The researcher used triangulation in this study to ensure the trustworthiness and validity of the study. Triangulation being a way of mutual validation of results can uncover biases when there is only one researcher investigating a phenomenon. According to De Vos et al. (2012), triangulation may incorporate multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in order to increase confidence in research findings. Similarly, Creswell (2009) strongly believes that triangulation arose from an ethical need to confirm the validity of the processes and, in case studies it can be achieved by using multiple sources of data. In the same vein, Babbie (2010) contend that the use of results from one set of data to corroborate those from another type of data is also known as triangulation. Hence, this

study has used diverse data collection source to corroborate, elaborate or illuminate the phenomenon under study.

3.9.2 Transferability

De Vos et al. (2012) refer to transferability as external validity or generalization, in which the burden of demonstrating the applicability of one set of findings to another context rests more with the researcher who would make the transfer, than the original investigator.

Creswell (2009) suggests that transferability is achieved when the findings of the study fit into contexts outside the study situation and when its audience views its findings as meaningful and applicable in terms of their own experiences. Transferability was reached by sample triangulation using beneficiaries of old age grant. De Vos et al. (2011) refer to transferability as external validity or generalization, in which the burden of demonstrating the applicability of one set of findings to another context rests more with the researcher who would make the transfer, than the original investigator. Transferability was assured by producing detailed and rich descriptions of contexts, with the intention of giving readers detailed accounts of the structures of meaning which developed in a specific context. These understandings can be transferred to new contexts in other studies although they cannot be generalised due to the limited number of participants who took part in the study.

3.9.3 Dependability

Babbie and Mouton (2011) affirm that dependability can be achieved through rich and detailed descriptions of the data procedure and sites selection. The study provided statements of the methods used to collect and analyse data. Thyer (2010) describes

dependability as the degree to which the reader can be convinced that the findings did indeed occur as the researcher claim they did. This was achieved in this study through rich and detailed explanation of the data procedure and sites selection. The study also provided statements of the methods used to collect and analyse the crude data and care was taken to ensure that the research process was logical, and traceable.

Thyer (2010) describes dependability as the degree to which the reader can be convinced that the findings did indeed occur as the researcher claim they did. Dependability was achieved through rich and detailed descriptions of the data procedure and sites selection.

The researcher also provided statements of the methods used to collect and analyse data as well as recordings and transcripts of crude data. For dependability, care was taken to ensure that the research process was logical, and traceable.

3.9.4 Conformability

De Vos et al. (2012) affirm that the concept of conformability replaces the traditional concept of objectivity. It has to do with whether the findings of the study could be confirmed by another, or whether the data helps to confirm the general findings and lead to the implications. The use of triangulation in this research in which qualitative data was used to support quantitative data helped in reducing the effect of bias. Conformability was achieved through findings and analysis of data.

Ethics are systems of moral principles and a branch of philosophy which defines what is good for individuals. Research ethics refers to rules of morally good conduct for researchers; they are grounded in moral and political beliefs which are external to the research itself

(Gomm, 2008). Babbie (2011) posits that the researcher needs to take caution and to be aware of the general agreements about what is proper and improper in the conduct of scientific inquiry.

This section commences with a discussion of one or two salient concepts, followed by an explication of a variety of ethical issues each accompanied by a distinct stance taken, which represent ethical principles that we consider of the utmost importance. In this discussion on codes of ethics, an attempt is made to help researchers make the most ethically responsible decision by spelling out some of the pitfalls involved and offering some firm guidelines on the relevant ethical principles. Ethics For the purpose of this study, the researcher sought ethical clearance from the University of Fort Hare’s Research Ethical Committee (REC). A certificate was issued by the Research Ethical Committee (See appendix A).

3.10. ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

3.10.1 ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY

The researcher ensured that the information and data collected was not revealed in any form that can be linked or traced back to individual (Hardwick & Worsely, 2011). De Vos et.al (2011) state that confidentiality can be viewed as a continuation of privacy which refers to agreements between persons that limit others to access the private information. This principle can be violated in a variety of ways and it is imperative that researchers be reminded of importance of safe guarding the privacy and identity of respondents and to act with the necessary sensitivity where the privacy of subjects is concerned. Privacy implies the element of personal privacy while confidentiality indicates the handling of information in the confidential manner (De Vos. et. al., 2011).

The information was treated as confidential as possible. It was the duty of the researcher to explain to the respondents that no names will be published when the results and recommendations are given out. It was important to inform study participants that the research information was collected, analysed and reported anonymously so that participants cannot be identified in any of the research data (Hennink et al., 2011). No personal information was published or edited, and the participants were assured that there will be no information relating to them.

3.10.2. Informed consent

Hardwick and Worsely (2011) regard informed consent as a procedure for ensuring that research participants understand what is done to them, to their participation and awareness of any risks they can incur. Engel et.al (2009) affirm that the requirement of informed consent is more difficult to define than it first appears. To be informed, consent must be given by the persons who are competent to consent and have consented voluntarily without the need of coercion. Both authors give similar definitions, thus the researcher will use both definitions for the purpose of this study.

The participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. The participants, irrespective of their age, sex and educational background, were respected by being given enough information of what the research was all about and how the study was to be conducted. The participants were informed about their rights and options not to participate in the study.

The participants were also informed on what was expected from them.

3.10.3. Avoidance of harm

The participants were informed that no harm will be done to them when conducting the research. Corey and & Corey (2011) posit that the researcher needs to protect participants against harm; this is advisable, rather than efforts to repair or minimize such harm afterwards, which means that prevention is better than cure. Their identity was safeguarded. The participants were given an assurance that measures to minimize the risks will be implemented. De Vos et al. (2011) affirm that the fundamental ethical rule of social research is that it must bring no harm to participants. De Vos et al. (2011) further state that the responsibility for protecting respondents against harm reaches further than mere efforts to repair or attempt to minimise such harm afterwards. Both descriptions by the authors give a broad and a clear understanding of the ethical consideration. The researcher used both definitions when conducting the study.

The risks were continuously monitored, assessed and documented by the researcher. The researcher is a qualified and trained social worker and abided by the principle of confidentiality as well as professional ethics. The researcher maintained Professional integrity adhered by the professional ethics throughout the study. De Vos et al. (2011) affirm that participants may experience concrete harm, for instance, with regard to their family life, relationships or employment situation.

3.11. PIILOT STUDY.

Pilot study/preliminary study referred to a small scale of a complete survey or a pre-test for a particular research instrument such as a questionnaire or interview guide (Janghorban,

Roudson &Taghipour, 2014). Using a pilot study, a researcher can identify or refine a research question, figure out what methods are best for pursuing it, and estimate how much time and resources will be necessary to complete the larger version, among other things. In researcher’s study the pilot study was not conducted. The sample number selected for the study was manageable and reached for collection of data.

3.12. CONCLUSION

In this chapter the researcher provided a full description of research methodology that was used in the study. The study was explorative in nature and utilised both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyse data, it also used semi-structured and face-to-face interviews. Research design, study area, research paradigm, research approach, population, sample and sampling strategy, methods of data collection/ instruments, data analysis and Ethical issues were discussed.

In the next chapter the presentation results and data analysis will be provided.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with data analysis, presentation and interpretation of the results of the quantitative findings, which are presented in two parts, namely, analysis of respondents’ biographic information and analysis of research questions.

The researcher interviewed the elderly people to get the information from them. Out of the information that was collected from the elderly, the themes and the categories were developed as they were used to analyse the data.

Additionally, the researcher’s observation throughout the process of data collection was used to interpret the findings of the study and broad themes have been used to present the data. The data was collected from the sample which was selected from the population of the elderly people of Dutywa, using a purposive sample. This chapter is to give an analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data collected from fifteen (16) interviewees and interpretation of quantitative data collected from 70 respondents who are elderlies. The themes identified and presented below emerged from the individual interviews held with the participants.

This chapter starts with a brief profile of the interviewees in order to provide a picture of the participants and ends with the themes that emerged from the discussion, aimed at providing a detailed description of the qualitative and quantitative research methodologies used in the research approach, as well as the research design and methodology.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONDENTS’ BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Figure 4.2.1.Age distribution of respondents

The figure 4.2.1 shows that respondents between the ages of 60-65 were 21.4% of the total sample, 32.9% were between the ages of 66-70, 25.7% were between the ages of 71-75 and

20% of the respondents were 75 years and above

Figure 4.2.2. Gender distribution of respondents

The figure 4.2.2 shows that 60% (42) of the respondents were female while 40% (28) were male.

Figure 4.2.3 marital status of respondents

The figure 4.3 shows that 38.6% of the respondents were married, 31.4% were widows/widowers 12.9% were divorced, while 17.1% of the respondents were single.

Figure 4.2.4 Level of education

The respondents’ level of education shown by chart 4.4 reveals that 27% of the respondents had primary school education, 37% had secondary school education, and very few, 2%, of the respondents had tertiary education while 33% never went to School.

Figure 4.2.5 Household type

The figure 4.5 shows that 37.1% of the respondents’ household type is flat, 24.3% household type is temporary structure, 35.7% household type is 35.7% while very few, 2.9% household type is other without stating type.

Figure 4.2.6 Number of years receiving old age grant.

The figure 4.6 shows that 48% of the respondents have been receiving old age grant for 6-10 years, 23% have been receiving old age grant for 1-5 years, 19% have been receiving old age grant for 16 and above years and 10% of the respondents have been receiving old age grant for

11-15 years.

Figure 4.2.7 whether respondents have dependants

The figure 4.7 shows that the majority, 81%, of the respondents have dependants while 19%

of the respondents don’t have dependants.

Figure 4.2.8 Relationship between respondents and their dependants

The figure 4.8 shows that 34.3% of respondents stated that, the dependant were their grandchildren, 12.9% stated that the dependant were either husband or wife, 11.4% stated that dependants were their siblings, 8.6% stated that the dependants were their grandchildren and siblings, 1.4% stated that their dependants were either husband or wife and siblings and 7.1% of the respondents stated that the dependant were their grandchildren and either husband or wife, while 24.3% of the respondents did not state how they relate with their dependants.

4.3. ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH QUESTION

Question 2: what influence does old age have on poverty alleviation?

Figure 4.3.1. Whether there is any sign of poverty in the household

The figure 4.3.1. Shows that 54% of the respondents responded that there is sign of poverty in 9their household, while 46% of the respondents responded there is no sign of poverty in their household.

Figure 4.3.2 whether there is any sign of poverty in the household

The figure 4.3.2 shows responses of respondents with various signs of poverty in their household. The chart shows that more than average, 57.1%, of the respondents stated one or more signs of poverty in household, as listed on the questionnaire, while 42.9% of the respondents stated “other” without specifying such a sign of poverty.

Table 1 Extent of influence old age grant has on poverty alleviation

Yes No

2.2 As a recipient of an old age grant, does it make any Frequency 46 24

difference in your living? Percent 65.7 34.3

2.3 Frequency 23 47

Is there any other source of income in your family? Percent 32.9 67.1

2.4 In cases where the grant is payable to someone else on Frequency 46 24

your behalf, do you get all your money? Percent 65.7 34.3

2.5 Do you think government is doing enough by introducing Frequency 39 31

the grant as means of alleviating poverty? Percent 55.7 44.3

2.6 Are you able to buy yourself proper clothing with the old Frequency 28 42

age grant? Percent 40 60

2.7 Frequency 34 36

Does the old age grant help you buy nutritious food? Percent 48.6 51.4

2.8 Does the grant afford you the opportunity of buying Frequency 36 34

yourself medication? Percent 51.4 48.6

The table 1 above showing the influence of old age grant on poverty alleviation. 2.2 shows that 65.7% of the respondents responded that the old age grant does make difference in their living, while 34.3% responded “NO”, that is the old age grant does not make difference in their living.

2.3. Shows that more than average of the respondents 67.1% responded “NO” that is, there is no other source of income in their family other than the old age grant, while 32.9% of the respondents responded yes, that is, there is another source of income in their family than the old age grant.

2.4 shows that 65.7% of the respondents get all their money in case the grant is paid to someone else on their behalf, while 34.3% responded NO, that is they don’t get all their money, in cases where the grant is paid to someone else on their behalf.

2.5 shows that 55.7% of the respondents indicated that the government is doing enough by introducing the grant as means of alleviating poverty, while 44.3% responded No, that is, government is not doing enough by introducing the grant as means of alleviating poverty.

2.6 shows that 40% of the respondents were able to buy for themselves proper clothing with the old age grant while more than average, 60%, responded NO, that is, they were not able to buy for themselves proper clothing with the old age grant.

2.7 shows that 51.4% of the respondents are of the view that old age grant does not help to buy nutritious food, while 48.6% responded that the old age grants help them buy nutritious food.

2.8 shows that 51.4% of the respondents responded that the grant affords them an opportunity of buying themselves medication, while 48.6% responded that the grant does not afford them the opportunity of buying themselves medication.

In summary, the above findings show that: Old age grant has a great influence on poverty alleviation in Dutywa.

The results are then supported by Hagen-Zanker, Morgan and Meth (2011) who noted that

Old Age grants have a range of positive outcomes on non-monetary aspects of poverty, such as health of household members, school attendance of children and access to job opportunities. The grant plays a critical role in the survival of households, especially those most in need, since they target them directly and reverse the bias of earlier apartheid-era social security programmes. In addition, they have a holistic effect on household welfare and health 33by bringing income into the household, thereby acting as a preventive rather than a palliative intervention. Naves et al. (2009) argue that grants substantially improve the status of households, particularly in communities.

The findings of this study demonstrate that the sampled elders make considerable contributions to the well-being of their family and community but these overlap with substantial health problems and impose functional limitations and distressing symptoms.

4.4 PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESULTS

4.4.1 Table 2: Demographic Information of Participants of qualitative Approach

AGE Numbers 60-65 2 65-70 3 70-75 6 75 and above 5 GENDER Numbers FEMALES 4 MALES 12 MARITAL STATUS Numbers Single 3 Married 7 Divorced 1 Widow/er 5 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Numbers Primary 4 Secondary 2 Tertiary 0 None 10 HOUSEHOLD TYPE Numbers House 3 Flat 6 Temporal structure 2 Other 5 NUMBER OF YEARS Numbers 1-5 3 5-10 4 10-15 3 15 and above 6

In terms of the qualitative approach, the study was composed of 16 respondents who were all beneficiaries of old age grant from different areas of Dutywa in the Eastern Cape of South

Africa. Their ages ranged from 60 to 90 years. The majority of participants were females with total number of 12 and remaining 4 were males. They were all Blacks.

The participants were asked if they have any dependents and how do they relate to them.

The majority 10 of beneficiaries sited that they had more than 1 dependent in the

households. The beneficiaries were further asked about the level of education that they had attained and ten of them had no schooling followed by four who had primary schooling and two with senior qualifications. It was revealed in the study that, amongst the participants that participated, 7 were married, 5 were widowed, and 01 divorced and 3 had never been married.

4.4.2.Table 3. Main Themes and categories

Main Themes Categories

Challenges that are faced by beneficiaries of Take care of their grandchildren, Support old age grant on poverty alleviation granddaughters who gave birth while they were teenagers, spend the money to buy immaterial things, Supporting children left with the elderly. Coping mechanism available for old age Churches, neighbors, loan sharks and some grant beneficiaries: in cases where the grant children were willingness to help the elderly. is not enough.

Support services available for beneficiaries A few support and services were rendered of old age grant from professionals, agencies by social development. or relatives in fighting poverty. A little support and services were rendered by churches and NGOs. Most of the community leaders make sure

that the elderly’s’ rights and dignity are

being protected.

4.4.3 Main Theme 1 Challenges that are faced by beneficiaries of Old Age Grant on poverty alleviation’

During interview participants were asked to mention challenges that they were faced with regards to the eradication of poverty. Some of the respondents indicated that the grant they received is used to take care of their grandchildren. Seven out of 16 participants highlighted that they had elderly granddaughters who gave birth while they were teenagers who, after received the grant, spend the money to buy immaterial things, leaving children to be supported by them. Some other participants stated that their children who had migrated to urban areas in search of employment, left their children behind and the responsibility of taking care of these children becomes their own. These are some of the participants’ response:

“This town that we stay in is very small and there are no jobs available. My children have left to search for jobs in Cape Town. They could not take their children along with them so they left them with me their grandmother.”

Three participants revealed that are staying alone and every pay day they are being forced by the young stars in their area to give them their money:

“I am staying by myself with no one to look after me, my children are away staying in

Johannesburg and I don’t want to leave my place and stay with them. The thugs are scaring to kill us if we report them to the authorities.”

Two participants highlighted that are taking care of their siblings who are infected by HIV and Aids.

“Our children were infected by HIV/AIDS and they were unable to go to work. We are staying with them. They are not earning any income. I use my grant to take care of them. I can’t let my blood suffer, the nurses told us to buy them nutritious and healthy food.”

The physical abuse challenge was highlighted by one of the respondents, stating that her son wanted all the money for himself.

“My son on my pay day, he comes shouting at me that I should give him the money and when I refuse he beats me and calling names.”

The remaining three mentioned the challenge of food security and nutrition, with participant 1 saying:

“I am old; I quickly get tired and have no time to cook by myself. One meal per day is enough for me. I don’t want to eat all of these kind of food”.

The findings above seem to reaffirm Dhemba’s (2012) study which proved that the benefits of pensions are found to be distributed more broadly to all in the household as the majority of poor households in South Africa live in intergenerational households.

4.4.4. Sub theme 1: Support given by grandmothers to grandchildren who gave birth while they were teenagers

The old age grant not only helps the recipient who is the grandmother or grandfather in the household, but it also benefits the children of the recipients, who are unemployed, the grandchildren orphaned through HIV/AIDS, as well as the abandoned children left for the grandmothers to take care of. Barrientos and Loyd-Sherlock (2011), in their research in

Brazil found that social pensions were able to support entire families. Local evidence also

shows that older South Africans are consistently investing the little money they had in income generating activities as well as in health and education of other family members

(Legido-Quigley, 2006). In South Africa the old age pension is increasingly becoming the sole household income acting as a lifeline to over two million non-contributory pensioners caring socio-economically for grandchildren, children and other family members who live with them (Department of Social Development, 2009).

Findings also illustrate the intergenerational living arrangements in South Africa are becoming almost non-existent because the elderly, who are supposed to be supported by their children or grandchildren, are unfortunately those who take care of other generations

(own children and grandchildren) (Tanga, 2008). Statistics show that, for every grandmother receiving a grant, 20 people are being supported by this one grant (Lombard and Kruger

2009). In many cases, grandparents take on a share of the responsibility.

In supporting the above findings, Swanepoel (2011) states that the poor have limited access to information, services, labour organisation, opportunities and opinions. Looking at the elderly most of their poverty is caused by the age group, others inherited from their generations. Swanepoel (2011) further alludes that high unemployment, poor physical health, emotion problem, low education. In most cases, some of the families are household headed by young children with no other means of income and other are household headed by elderly with only pension fund as a means of income into those families and this contribute to the growth of poverty in the communities.

Considering the view of Turner (2009) in chapter two clarifies that the elderly people and their households has been worsened by a combination of factors that includes HIV/AIDS

pandemic which lead to an increased number of the elderly caring for the orphaned children. The government needs to understand the elderly people and the challenges they encounter as to evaluate the pension money that is given to them.

4.4.5 Main theme 2 Coping mechanism available for old age grant beneficiaries: in cases where the grant is not enough

During interview, participants were asked to mention how they were coping in a situation where the grant is not enough with the intension of reducing poverty. Some of the respondents indicated that they received some financial support from churches and their neighbours to take care of themselves and their grandchildren. 5 of them highlighted that the grant is not enough to satisfy all their basic needs at home. The participants lamented that groceries do not last the whole month sometimes. They often goes to bed on an empty stomach. Therefore, in order for them to cope partially, the churches and neighbours helps them to provide some food and all other most basic things that should be needed to take good care of themselves and their grandchildren at home. 7 among the participants stated that they approached loan sharks in order to cope with their ugly situations by borrowing money when there is no hope of getting financial support from anyone and especially when they are in a bad situation especially when dying of hunger. In addition, 4 among the participants also stressed that in some cases where they cannot cope at all, they often cry for help from some of their children who are working to send money to them. These are some of the participants’ responses:

“I receive small money and cannot provide nutritious food for my family I get hand-outs from neighbours.”

“With the money I get I can’t budget all the needs of this house…I go to loan sharks in town to borrow money.”

“My children are working in Cape Town so they help send me money to buy food when it’s finished.”

In the literature reviewed in chapter two Finmark Trust (2009) supported the findings above by identifying specific economic benefits of social grants which would seem to be supporting the above results. These include the tendency of recipients to manage risk and insecurity facilitating saving and investment and increasing the improving ability to engage in informal economic activity. In addition, the Finmark Report (2009) suggests that old age grant allows people to enter into existing systems of social reciprocity on which the impoverished and vulnerable often depend for their survival, thus strengthening existing informal social protection systems and social networks.

4.4.6. Sub theme 2: Support by Churches, neighbors, loan sharks and some children that are willing to help the elderly.

The old age grant, thereby, becomes inadequate to satisfy their needs. Given the lack of orphanages in many rural settings, support from extended family and community members offers the best, and perhaps the only, realistic long-term solution to meeting the needs of children whose parents have died.

in their discussion stated that Poverty alleviation concentrates on the assets and the resources that have a bearing on the livelihood of the poor, the latter focuses on knowledge

and rights, thus while agriculture growth and better access to markets can alleviate poverty the involvement of poor in the development effort becomes crucial for poverty reduction .

4.4.7. Main theme 3 Support services available for beneficiaries of old age grant from professionals, agencies or relatives in fighting poverty.

During interview, participants were asked to mention some of the support services available for them as beneficiaries of old age grant from professionals, agencies or relatives in alleviating poverty. Some of the respondents indicated that they received support services from professionals such as social workers working at the Department of Social

Development. In fact, they emphasised that Social workers often visits them to check on their well-being and educate them on what they should do in order to take good care about themselves. The government has also been seen as an instrument of poverty reduction strategies. Some of the government strategies include providing free medications at the clinics, making nurses available at all times to attend to sick elderly, etc. Other agencies that also provide support services to the elderly at the study area include the churches and other

NGOs. 3 of the participants highlighted that some of the support services provided to them by Social Development in their areas include service centres. They therefore stressed that, they usually assembled for meetings or get-together ceremonies at this service centres and at the same time get free lunch 3 times daily. The participants also revealed that their community leaders played a major role in their lives. They make sure that their views are taken into consideration and are not being undermined. They also make sure that their rights are being protected to protect their dignity.

4.4.8. Sub theme 3- Support and services rendered by churches, NGOs and community leaders to the elderly

Professionals, agencies and relatives are playing a vital role in supporting the beneficiaries of old age grant in Dutywa. The government is also doing so by providing poverty reduction strategies in the form of grant. Out of 16 participants, 10 participants, who never went to school are confronted with the problem of budgeting; they spend money buying immaterial things. 6 among the participants indicated that they think are doing well.

It is in their best interest to support and empower the beneficiaries of old age grant as they are seemingly in need of that kind of intervention. These are some of the participants’ responses: One of the participants

“Professionals are so much supportive to us; Social Workers pay us visit to check if everything is running smoothly, where possible they give us advices help us to draw budget and that help us a lot.”

“My husband is recipient of old age grant, he is misusing the money buying alcohol, he is even no longer paying his burial society; I went to report him to Social Workers for being irresponsible, where we both given counselling and skills to budget.”

Participants: seven of them highlighted the facts that they are getting support from Health centres as there personally cannot afford private doctors. The following are some of their responses:

“The money we receive from government cannot afford to buy medication; mobile clinic is visiting our areas for easy access.”

Another one said:

“I can’t even walk my legs are itching-but I access medication via care givers who work for department of health in our areas.”

Participants were asked to give report on how other agencies support them in fighting poverty,

Three participants said:

With the support given by Social Development, in our areas we have service centres where we are involved in active ageing and getting free lunch 3 times daily.

It was revealed by the participants that the elderly received blankets from surrounding churches, NGOs and are provided with lunch by Social development.

“I have 2 blankets that I received from the New Direction Church; they helped me a lot because with the little money I get I can’t even buy myself warm blankets.”

“3 times a week we visit our service centre where we receive food free of charge from

Seventh day church.”

“In honouring my 90th birthday –Super spar Supermarket donated to me a new bedroom suit and celebrated the day with me as I am unable to do that by myself I have too much responsibilities and cannot buy myself new furniture.”

“The community leader helps us to confirm our residential areas when applying for the old age grant.”

There was one participant who was accused of witchcraft but was saved by community leaders when community members wanted to attack her.

“I am too old I was nearly killed by the community saying that I am a witch, even people who died in the area were killed by me because I look ugly and old.”

Statistics SA (2011) alludes to the fact that South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) administers social assistance. Following improvements in its financial position in recent years, it is now able to fast-track projects to improve service delivery and reduce fraud, especially amongst old age grant recipients.

Social welfare and government partners with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to provide welfare services. NGOs provide a range of statutory services for which they are partly subsidised by the government and also receive support from corporate and other donors. Special priority is given to implementation of Older Person’s Act (2006) which provides for protection against older person’s abuse and neglect (Sector for welfare services in 2012/13.

According to Swanepoel (2011) poverty alleviation can be achieved through the strategies that are carried out by the poor in attempts to change their poverty in terms of their resources and assets. This is usually based upon individual or local groups of the poor seeking ways to offset the economic disadvantages they face by exploiting opportunities to utilise the resources and assets they possess or can access. Second strategy can be through which the poor or those representing the poor seek to secure their interest by effecting change in the actions and policies and in particular, bringing about change in public policy and in its implementation.

4.5 CONCLUSION

In this chapter the researcher has presented and discussed results of the data collected in chapter three. The results revealed that the majority of the beneficiaries of Old Age grant have played a great and significant role in alleviating poverty in their households.

The old age grant has been seen as the most effective in reducing both the poverty incidence and the poverty intensity.

The next chapter provides a research summary, conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of the study was to explore the effects of Old Age Grant in Dutywa in the Eastern

Cape of South Africa. In this chapter, a Summary of the Findings, Conclusions, implication of findings, recommendations and suggestion for further studies were presented.

5.2. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The study used a mixed method approach. Quantitative data was collected through the use of survey questionnaires that were administered to 70 beneficiaries of Old Age Grant. The study also made use of in-depth interviews with 16 participants that were interviewed to obtain qualitative data. A summary of data collected from both approaches used in the study was presented in details in the previous chapter. Findings are summarised as follows:

The summaries of findings are presented according to the four objectives and research questions that were used to guide the study. One objective was quantitative in nature and the other three were qualitative.

 The study revealed that there are many factors that contribute to poverty that affect

the elderly people of which that include the income distribution of the elderly

people, becoming the breadwinners of the families and support of the

grandchildren. The study revealed that the pension is very important among the

elderly people Dutywa but due to the burden that is upon the shoulders of the

elderly the money that is given to them fails to alleviate poverty that is in their

household. They reported that half bread is better than no bread at all as having the

pension will not be the same as having nothing.

 The findings in the study show that most of people in Dutywa are living in poverty,

depending on which poverty line is used. Therefore, Old Age Grant has a vital role to

play in alleviating this poverty.

 In the South African context of deep poverty and inequality inherited from the past,

Old Age Grant plays a vital role to many households.

 The way this grant been paved is for its beneficiaries to promote human resource

development which will enable impoverished households to care for their members,

especially children and those who are vulnerable.

Considering the view of Turner (2009) in chapter two clarifies that the elderly people and their households has been worsened by a combination of factors that includes HIV/AIDS pandemic which lead to an increased number of the elderly caring for the orphaned children. The government needs to understand the elderly people and the challenges they encounter as to evaluate the pension money that is given to them. Elderly people in South

Africa are mostly located in the rural area far from the services that factor also affects the distribution of the pension money. Lusted (2010) support the view that most of the elderly of the area live in the rural areas and rural elderly have higher rates of poverty than the urban elderly, and rural areas tend to have a higher percentage of elderly in their total population than their urban counterparts. Studies on poverty level undertaken in Dutywa have also shown that the elders who live alone or without younger adult who are mostly vulnerable to poverty (Wandati, 2016). The majority of the elderly people are residing in the

rural area. Elderly residents of rural areas may have less access to necessary services and rely more heavily on private transportation or sometime long distance travelling that is not possible for them.

The study also revealed that old age grant is very important to the beneficiaries as they stated that it makes a huge different in their households. The money on its own will not reduce poverty in their lives as they believed that government should increase their benefit.

Currently, the majority of the rural elderly are affected by poverty and the major problem as stated by Patel (2005) poverty remains one of the greater challenges facing southern African countries and which has been passed from one generation to the other generation is that the children are being raised by the elderly people who are only dependent on pension as a means of income in the household are disadvantaged and also the elderly who do not have anyone to take care of either financially and physically are also in a very high probability of being affected by poverty for a long time. The elderly are taking care of their children and grandchildren by buying food and medication for the sick and orphaned household members, instead of satisfying their own needs.

5.3. CONCLUSION

The elderly people are the important people in the community and they need to be recognised by both the community members and the government in the countries, there are different studies conducted by different researchers showing that elderly people are the most neglected people in the communities whereas they have capability and potential. Old age grant is very important to elderly people. The implementers need to evaluate the effects of the grant. In relation to the study the government must make a follow up on the

pension by making sure that it is used for its purpose. The policies are needed to ensure the security of the elderly people.

The findings show that the elderly people do get the pension fund but still remain poor unless the elderly people are taken care of by the children to provide the need of the elderly. The elderly people are so happy to have the old age grant as they believe without the grant it will be very hard to survive. The old age grant on its own fails to alleviate poverty among the elderly people. Therefore alleviating poverty in old age requires a different approach from other age groups. Social protection is a major arena of government activity aimed at ensuring that vulnerable population groups receive appropriate and effective public support to ensure their financial security and to safeguard their health.

However, despite the growth and extent of social protection programs in both developed and developing countries, most emerging economies have nascent systems and only a small portion of all such efforts address the specific vulnerabilities and needs of elderly people.

The fact that the elderly people have become the breadwinners in the families it has also contributed to the vulnerability of the elderly people as they fail to meet their minimum

The interventions call for different departments to understand the livelihood of the elderly people. It is out of an understanding that evens the current Millennium Development Goals and policy statements underscore the need to tackle poverty and unemployment as a way of enhancing household security.

The government for example, has the responsibility of approving policies as well as program that the country intends to implement to promote well-being especially that targets the

elderly people. Similarly, it has powers to enact any law that is geared towards improving security in the country. The elderly people are part of the community therefore the policies of the government should also include them in both decision making and their protection.

5.4 IMPLICATION OF FINDINGS FOR SOCIAL WORK POLICY PRACTISE

The findings of the study have many implications, not only for Social Work Practice but also for policy implications. The focus on the current interventions provided is mainly on generalist approaches service providers have identified in interventions that address unique issues; more focused attention on specific programmes is needed. If service providers are to provide the most appropriate and effective treatment methods, the focus of the services provided must be on the developmental approach to social welfare principles.

The interventions provided by social workers appear to have positive effects on beneficiaries of the grant.

It is important that not all the grant amount will cost to government. The increased spending by households, which will result from the grant, will lead to an increase in government tax revenue.

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON THE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY

On the basis of the findings of the study, the researcher wishes to recommend the following:

1. The Department of Social Development should employ people who are to trained and inform the beneficiaries on how to budget on their grants and how to develop ways of investing their money.

2. Support has to be given to the elderly people who are taking care of HIV/AIDS people by coordinating government NGO and private sector efforts because, as this study has demonstrated, the elderly are caring for and buying food and medication for the sick and orphaned household members, instead of satisfying their own needs.

3. Strengthening the social contract through appropriate human resource development in order to ensure that public service employees working at local pay points and district offices receive appropriate training and grasp of the government’s developmental goals such as providing social protection as a means to alleviate poverty will go a long way towards helping in this regard.

4. There is a need for inclusion of elderly people in the decision making processes about issues that affect their lives. For example, there should be a need for elderly to have the right to voice out on their feelings about the pension that they receive. The government should be in a position to listen to the elderly people and make sure they are also included or represented in the policies of the government and the committees in the communities so as to prevent isolation.

5.6 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES

The study cannot claim to have exhausted every aspect of this topic; therefore, there are certain areas that need further investigation. It would, therefore, be necessary for further studies to be carried out in the following areas, which this study could not cover.

1. It is important that further studies to include programmes that are designed to

empower the elderly with taking care of people infected by HIV and Aids as they end

up becoming primary caregivers.

2. Other researchers should focus more on interventions to support the Old Age Grant

beneficiaries who have to support for their entire families with little money they

have to check if is there should be increase on Old Age Grant .

3. There should be consideration for future research that would involve the

intervention of the government and the private sector in promoting the socio

economic circumstances of elderly people, the aspect that can assist to promote the

lives of elderly people and the assistance of the children under the care of elderly

people so as to promote the lives of those children not to be affected by

generational poverty.

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APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

I hereby agree to participate in research regarding the effects of Old Age Grant on alleviating poverty. I understand that I am participating freely and without being forced in any way to do so. I also understand that I can stop this interview at any point should I not want to continue and that this decision will not in any way affect me negatively.

I understand that this is a research project whose purpose is not necessarily to benefit me personally.

I have received the telephone number of a person to contact should I need to speak about any issues which may arise in this interview.

I understand that this consent form will not be linked to the questionnaire, and that my answers will remain confidential.

I understand that if at all possible, feedback will be given to my community on the results of the completed research.

……………………………..

Signature of participant Date: …………………..

I hereby agree to the tape recording of my participation in the study

……………………………..

Signature of participant Date:…………………..

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Appendix C Quantitative Questionnaire The effects of Old Age grant on poverty alleviation a case study of Idutywa in the Eastern Cape 1. BI0GRAPHIC INFORMATION

1.1 Age of respondents (mark with x) 60-65 65-70 70-75 75 and above

1.2 Gender (mark with x)

Male 333Female

1.3 Marital Status (mark with x) Single Married Divorced Widow/ Widower

1.4 Level of education Primary Secondary Tertiary None

1.5 Household type House Flat Temporal Mud Other Structure Structure

1.6 Number of years receiving Old Age grant 1-5 5-10 11-15 15 and above

1.7 Do you have any dependents?

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Yes

If yes, how do they relate to you?

Grandchildren Husband or Siblings Other Wife

1.8. Residential area………………………………………..

2. What influence does old age grant have on poverty alleviation?

2.1 Is there any sign of poverty in your household?

A. Yes

B. No

If yes, what are they? Choose below

A. Hunger

B. Poor health

C. Poor clothing

D. Poor food consumption

E. Others

2.2 As a recipient of an Old Age grant, does it makes any difference in your living?

A. Yes

B. No

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2.3 Is there any other source of income in your family?

A. Yes

B. No

2.4 In cases where the grant is payable to someone else on your behalf, Do you get all your money?

A. Yes

B. No

2.5 Do you think government is doing enough by introducing the grant as means of alleviating poverty?

Yes

2.6 Are you able to buy yourself proper clothing with the Old age grant?

A. Yes

B. No

2.7. Does the Old age grant help you buy nutritious food?

A. Yes

B. No

2.8. Does the grant afford you the opportunity of buying yourself medication?

A. Yes

B. No

THANK YOU….END…..END

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Appendix D

Qualitative Research Questions The influence of Old Age grant on poverty alleviation: a case study of Idutywa in the Eastern Cape.

1.1 What are the challenges faced by beneficiaries of Old Age Grant on poverty alleviation?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

1.2 How do environmental and social regulations or obligations affect the poverty reduction programme?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………......

......

1.3. How can the social security system become more focused on achieving beneficial long- term outcomes for individuals?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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2. What are the coping mechanism available for Old Age Grant beneficiaries?

2.1. In cases where the old age grant is not enough, how do you cope?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Support services available from professionals, agencies or relatives:

4 .1 Are there any support services you received from professionals such as Social Workers,

Educators, Nurses and community leaders?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. 2 what kind of services do you think that the professionals are supposed to be offering in fighting poverty?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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4.3 Which poverty campaigns provided by professionals/different stakeholders do you think have been most successful at reducing poverty and what can be learned from them?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....

113