THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES La Revue des études bahá’íes/La Revista de estudios bahá’ís

Volume 28, number 4 Winter 2018

A Publication of the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES LA REVUE DES ÉTUDES BAHÁ’ÍES/LA REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS BAHÁ’ÍS Volume 28 Number 4 Fall 2018 Publications Mail Registration No. 09448

EDITOR John S. Hatcher POETRY EDITOR Peter E. Murphy EDITORIAL COORDINATOR Nilufar Gordon EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Roshan Danesh, Gwendolyn Etter-Lewis, Mehran Kiai, Pierre-Yves Mocquais, Mary Sobhani, Bahhaj Taherzadeh

French translation: Louise Mailhot and Juliette Goudreau Spanish translation: Nuriyeh McLaren

The Journal of Bahá’í Studies (USPS #013-468) is published by the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America. The views expressed in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Editorial Board or Executive Committee of the Association for Bahá’í Studies, or authoritative explications of Bahá’í teachings.

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© Association for Bahá’í Studies 2018. All rights reserved. Many articles published in The Journal of Bahá’í Studies allude to the institutions and central figures of the Bahá’í Faith; as an aid for those unfamiliar with the Bahá’í Faith, we include here a succinct summary excerpted from http://www.bahai.org/ beliefs/bahaullah-covenant/. The reader may also find it helpful to visit the official web site for the worldwide Bahá’í community (www.bahai.org) available in several languages. For article submission guidelines, please visit http://bahai-studies.ca/ the-journal-of-bahai-studies-submission-guidelines/.

ABOUT THE BAHÁ’Í FAITH

The Bahá’í Faith, its followers believe, is “divine in origin, all-embracing in scope, broad in its outlook, scientific in its method, humanitarian in its principles and dynamic in the influence it exerts on the hearts and minds of men.” The mission of the Bahá’í Faith is “to proclaim that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is continuous and progressive, that the Founders of all past religions, though different in the non-essential aspects of their teachings, “abide in the same Tabernacle, soar in the same heaven, are seated upon the same throne, utter the same speech and proclaim the same Faith” (Shoghi Effendi).

The Bahá’í Faith began with the mission entrusted by God to two Divine Messengers— the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh. Today, the distinctive unity of the Faith They founded stems from explicit instructions given by Bahá’u’lláh that have assured the continuity of guidance following His passing. This line of succession, referred to as the Covenant, went from Bahá’u’lláh to His Son ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and then from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to His grandson, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice, ordained by Bahá’u’lláh. A Bahá’í accepts the divine authority of the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh and of these appointed successors.

The Báb (1819-1850) is the Herald of the Bahá’í Faith. In the middle of the 19th century, He announced that He was the bearer of a message destined to transform humanity’s spiritual life. His mission was to prepare the way for the coming of a second Messenger from God, greater than Himself, who would usher in an age of peace and justice.

Bahá’u’lláh (1817-1892)—the “Glory of God”—is the Promised One foretold by the Báb and all of the Divine Messengers of the past. Bahá’u’lláh delivered a new Revelation from God to humanity. Thousands of verses, letters and books flowed from His pen. In His Writings, He outlined a framework for the development of a global civilization which takes into account both the spiritual and material dimensions of human life. For this, He endured 40 years of imprisonment, torture and exile.

In His will, Bahá’u’lláh appointed His oldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1844-1921), as the authorized interpreter of His teachings and Head of the Faith. Throughout the East and West, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá became known as an ambassador of peace, an exemplary human being, and the leading exponent of a new Faith.

Appointed Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957), spent 36 years systematically nurturing the development, deepening the understanding, and strengthening the unity of the Bahá’í community, as it increasingly grew to reflect the diversity of the entire human race.

The development of the Bahá’í Faith worldwide is today guided by the Universal House of Justice (established in 1963). In His book of laws, Bahá’u’lláh instructed the Universal House of Justice to exert a positive influence on the welfare of humankind, promote education, peace and global prosperity, and safeguard human honor and the position of religion. THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES

LA REVUE DES ÉTUDES BAHÁ’ÍES/LA REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS BAHÁ’ÍS Volume 28 Number 4 Winter 2018

Contents

3 JOHN S. HATCHER From the Editor’s Desk Governance and the Governed: Leadership, Conflict, Resilience, Resolution, and Hope

7 FIRAYDOUN JAVAHERI Constructive Resilience

23 SHAHLA ALI The Power of Reflection: Advancing Governance and Dispute Resolution Systems through Devolved Reflection and Shared Knowledge Generation

55 MAY KHADEM Lessons in Leadership

69 ABDU’L-MISSAGH GHADIRIAN and SHADI SALEHIAN Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention?

Poems

6 MENNA ELFYN Nine for Peace

54 NINA ISRAEL ZUCKER The Ministry of Happiness

Illustrations

2 DAVID SMITH Walking the Tracks 91 DAVID SMITH Sleeping Bear Path

89 Biographical Notes

Cover: PAULA HENDERSON Tread III (oil and wax on wood panel, 18” x 24”) 2 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

Walking the Tracks (Saginaw, Michigan, April 1972) DAVID SMITH 3

populations in developing countries. From the Editor’s For the last decade or two, however, Desk we seem to have pulled back into our shells, on both the individual and the collective level. The gated community JOHN S. HATCHER has replaced the neighborhood as the American Dream, even as the walled GOVERNANCE AND THE GOVERNED: country seems to have replaced the LEADERSHIP, CONFLICT, RESILIENCE, concept of world unity. The human- RESOLUTION, AND HOPE itarian impulse, so widely touted, has had to confront the reality of putting In the decades since the Second World laudable concepts into action, especial- War, the essential relationship be- ly caring for the displaced, the home- tween governance and the governed less, and the masses migrating from has undergone several global attitude crime, poverty, conflict, and institu- shifts. That war’s utter horror in terms tional chaos. of death and destruction resulted in When theory is tested in the fire the emergence of a nearly unanimous of social reality, the lovely dream of resolve to secure our planet against unity and harmony is drowned in the widespread injustice and tyranny. unexpected details of how to bring it The creation of the United Nations in about. Thus, the pious wish to house, 1945 held out the hope that global in- feed, and care for those who have no terests and a universal concern for the resources of their own quickly be- health, freedom, and wellbeing of hu- comes burdensome and yields to the mankind would supplant the extreme desire for an orderly and secure life nationalist fervor that had instigated unperturbed by the needs of others. two worldwide conflagrations. It is at such a point that discourses Of course, the polarization of cap- about leadership, constructive reflec- italist versus communist ideologies tion, and strategic action should be- soon brought about the Cold War, in come uppermost in our daily lives. If which the imminent threat of a nucle- the purpose of governance and leader- ar holocaust haunted our individual ship is to respond to the needs of the and collective consciousness with ev- governed, then what attributes and ery emerging conflict. Nevertheless, methodologies should characterize the globalism seemed to be a universally process of those in positions of au- accepted objective, spurred on by a thority? Where is the balance? What variety of international alliances, a is the standard? What must change if burgeoning global economy, and the we are to succeed in this human exper- vigorous support of the United Na- iment that is our globalizing world? tions, demonstrated, for example, by In this issue of the Journal, the its assistance of the disenfranchised diverse array of articles and poems 4 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

has been arranged to take the reader activists who, in 1968, took 378 files on a journey into these paramount from the draft board in Catonsville, concerns and our authors’ responses Maryland, and publicly incinerated to them. First, in “Constructive Re- them with homemade napalm. Their silience”—an edited transcript of Dr. bold actions were intended to pro- Firaydoun Javaheri’s address at the test the destructive use of napalm by 42nd Annual Conference of the Asso- American Forces during the Vietnam ciation for Bahá’í Studies—we glimpse War. how the perseverance of the Bahá’ís The second article is “The Power of in Iran has resulted in the generality Reflection: Advancing Governance and of the Iranian people beginning to Dispute Resolution Systems through admire and, in numerous cases, aris- Devolved Reflection and Shared ing to assist the Bahá’ís. Rather than Knowledge Generation” by Dr. Shahla being combative or responding with Ali, Professor and Associate Dean at passive resistance, the Bahá’í commu- the University of Hong Kong’s Facul- nity—with the guidance and support ty of Law. In her paper, she applies re- of the Universal House of Justice— search to questions of governance as a is choosing to be loving, faithful, and means to improve government’s func- resilient citizens—a distinctive and tion. This fruitful examination of the ultimately transformative response to relationship between government and oppression. the governed explores an emerging Put them in prison, and they write approach she calls “devolved reflec- poems and uplift the spirits of their tion,” a process in which local commu- fellow inmates. Push them out of nities “engage in earnest deliberation schools, and they create their own. De- to arrive at a greater understanding prive them of property, desecrate their of existing circumstances, celebrate cemeteries, and holy places, and still accomplishments, analyze challenges, they remain dutiful, reliable, and stal- learn from experience, and plan next wart neighbors, honest businessmen, steps.” While emulating some of the while, above all else, refusing to deny same steps that characterize the “re- allegiance to their Faith or to rebel flection gathering” employed by Bahá’í against the very powers that wish to communities worldwide for more destroy them. than a decade, this same process, Ali Preceding Dr. Javaheri’s presenta- explains, can be utilized for “progres- tion is a poem, “Nine for Peace,” about sive advancement within governance another moving response to govern- and dispute resolution systems” as ment oppression. This lyric, originally well as in “cross-border arbitration, or written in Welsh, is by award-winning post-disaster governance initiatives.” poet Menna Elfyn. In her poem, she In a similar vein, the third article by commemorates the courage of the Dr. May Khadem also focuses on inno- “Catonsville Nine”—nine Catholic vation in governance, this time among From the Editor’s Desk 5 doctors trying to combat blindness drive for sensual pleasure or affective on a global scale. In “Learning about relief. Examining the present-day Leadership,” Khadem traces her per- war against drugs, this article exam- sonal journey as she discovers new un- ines numerous studies on the subject derstandings about sound leadership of addiction. Ghadirian and Salehian and its implementation. In particular, attempt to answer the question posed her narrative examines “how individu- by the title—“Is Spirituality Effective al health professionals and institutions in Addiction Recovery and Preven- struggle to address the health dispar- tion?” Not only do the statistics they ities in the world.” Detailing how her cite from numerous studies seem to own approach to leadership evolved demonstrate the efficacy of spiritual as it applies to health services man- practices in both recovery from ad- agement, Khadem concludes that the diction and preventing it in the first ingredients which constitute effective place, but the authors also note how leadership “require a complete change the most widely used and perhaps in thinking, orientation, and behavior most successful support program for that includes ourselves.” alcoholism (Alcoholics Anonymous) Not coincidentally, following this is based on the fundamental assump- article is our second poem, “The Min- tion that there is a “Higher Power,” istry of Happiness,” by Nina Israel a power greater than self. Without Zucker. As the epigram for the poem acknowledging this power, a person explains, the ironic title plays off the struggling with addiction may well be appointment of a Minister of Hap- incapable of finding a sustainable path piness in the United Arab Emirates to recovery. whose task is to improve the wellbe- Finally, we include two pictures ing of all people. The poem, however, from the remarkable body of work demonstrates a natural resilience aris- by Bahá’í professional photographer, ing as a response to both personal and David Smith. In addition, we are most collective tragedy—something that pleased to use for our cover the pow- a government agency is not likely to erful work of Chicago-based artist, achieve, especially in a country where Paula Henderson. human rights are stringently overseen by autocratic governance. The last article, co-authored by Dr. Abdu’l-Missagh Ghadirian and Shadi Salehian, explores our global response to another sort of conflict—not the ex- ternal conflict between governments and the governed, but the internal conflict between our desire for ratio- nal self-control and our simultaneous 6 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018 Nine for Peace

MENNA ELFYN

translated from the Welsh by Robert Minhinnick

‘Catonsville nine’ peace activists including poet-priests Daniel and Philip Berrigan, May 17th 1968, Maryland

Because if this seems disruptive— comrades we apologise— incinerating draft papers instead of infants with our home-made napalm because with Vietnam such a bloody conflagration we think it’s imperative

Because we shared the Lord’s Prayer quietly before court— our shackles ensuring silence no-one should pity us because we slept that night dreaming a desert of ashen earth

Because we nine pledged with heaven on earth our plea each voice a step closer to peace because countless went to war towards sunset without sanctuary restless and unrecorded honest folk ripped away from their roots

because men can be vicious our language teems with violent verbs but trust the poet to spoil death’s party using words that challenge war’s hardware and memories of its maiming

Because hellfire we must learn is more than a missile but such is its accursedness that its lesson leaves us no choice 7

together. Who, then, can do this work Constructive and how will Bahá’u’lláh’s exalted Resilience1 purpose for humankind be realized? Bahá’u’lláh says that if it be God’s pleasure, God Himself could render FIRAYDOUN JAVAHERI the Cause victorious through the pow- er of a single divine Word. Should The purpose of Divine Revelation, as- this be His intention, individuals of serts Bahá’u’lláh, is “to effect a trans- indomitable strength could appear to formation in the whole character of achieve victory. However, due to God’s mankind, a transformation that shall loving providence and wisdom, it has manifest itself both outwardly and in- been ordained that complete victory wardly” (Kitáb-i-Íqán 240). Thus, Rev- can only be achieved through speech elation has a twofold purpose: the first, and utterance, and by the endeav- to liberate humanity from the darkness ors of His ordinary servants here on of ignorance and guide it to the light earth. One of the early believers, who of true understanding; the second, to was deeply affected by the majesty and ensure the peace and tranquility of power of Bahá’u’lláh, writes that once, mankind. One without the other will when in His presence: not work. The Universal House of Justice has expounded upon the inter- I said to myself: What a pity! If connectedness of this twofold purpose only the kings of the world could of God. First, individuals recognize recognize Him and arise to serve the station of Bahá’u’lláh. They then Him, both the Cause and the be- arise to serve the Cause of God and lievers would be exalted in this by doing so, their own transformation day. The following day when we takes effect as they develop the capac- attained His presence, Bahá’u’lláh ities latent within them. They also turned His face to me and ad- develop habits and attitudes that make dressed the following words to them able to persevere and be more me with infinite charm and lov- effective in contributing their share to ing-kindness. He said ”If the an ever-advancing civilization. kings and rulers of the world had Bringing together material and embraced the Faith in this day, you spiritual civilization is not an easy job. people could never have found an It is a task that lies beyond the com- entry into this exalted Court. You prehension and ability of any ordinary could never have had the oppor- human being, whether acting alone or tunity to attain Our presence, nor 1 Edited transcript of a keynote ad- could you ever have acquired the dress at the 42nd Annual Conference of privilege of hearing the words of the Association for Bahá’í Studies, Atlanta, the Lord of Mankind. Of course, Georgia, August 2018. the time will come when the kings 8 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

and rulers of the world will be- humanity. The Covenant is a means to come believers, and the Cause of protect and advance the process of cre- God will be glorified outward- ating a just and peaceful global society. ly. But this will happen after the An inseparable part of His Covenant is meek and lowly ones of the earth His Administrative Order, which pro- have won this inestimable boun- vides a pattern of governance that is ty.” (Taherzadeh, Revelation 160) unfailingly coherent with His purpose: “Indeed, the Covenant of Bahá’u’lláh Bahá’u’lláh, in His emphatic prom- has been and will continue to be the in- ise of ultimate triumph, also states violable guarantor of the invincibility that God will “provide all the means of the Cause and its divinely-ordained by which” His purpose “can be es- institutions and the means of the ful- tablished” (Gleanings 34:5). What are filment of Bahá’u’lláh’s Words” (Ta- these means? I will mention a few. herzadeh, Child 41). First is the spiritual energy needed In addition, Bahá’u’lláh has provid- to create a renewed civilization. Just as ed for the continuation of Divine guid- the animating energies of the spring- ance to humanity throughout His Dis- time penetrate the core of all mate- pensation—an indispensable means by rial things and create the conditions which the fulfillment of His purpose for new life, the creative Words of is ensured. To this end, Bahá’u’lláh has the Manifestations of God influence given us two divinely-guided Cen- hearts and souls and revolutionize hu- ters of Authority: One is the “Book,” man society. The irresistible spiritual which comprises the Writings of the forces of integration released by the Manifestations of God for this day Manifestations break down manmade (the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh) and the in- barriers to progress, and thereby bring terpretations of His two authorized forth new potentialities for creating a Interpreters (‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi new race of humanity and establish- Effendi); the other is the Universal ing a new civilization. The workings House of Justice. This unique institu- of these spiritual energies can be dis- tion—which, in a world where human cerned in both integrative and disinte- knowledge is mutable and progressive, grative processes. is invested with the sacred authority Bahá’u’lláh has also revealed teach- to decide on whatever is not in the ings, principles, concepts, and methods Book—has also been charged, among that shape the framework for building other duties, with the responsibili- that divine civilization, which is the ty for maintaining the integrity and integrative process. At the core of flexibility of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings, His Revelation, He has established managing the affairs of the Faith, and His Covenant, a line of succession and guiding the Bahá’í community. spiritual guidance that preserves the Divine assistance, Bahá’u’lláh as- unity of the Faith and ultimately of sures us, will also enable human beings Constructive Resilience 9 to undertake tasks that would other- of civilization-building? The lives of wise require superhuman effort and the Twin Manifestations of God for therefore seem impossible to attain. this age, the life of the Center of the The history of our Faith abounds with Covenant, and of the beloved Guard- stories of victories that can only be at- ian, comprise sources of inspiration tributed to the operation of Divine as- for us all. The spirit of determination sistance: from the undaunted courage demonstrated by the early believers in exhibited by the believers in the ear- both the East and the West are also in- liest days of the Cause in Persia, the valuable in this regard. We witness this land of its birth; to the intrepid spirit spirit in over 5,000 clusters worldwide of the pioneers from East and West, and the efforts of many individuals who spread the Faith’s teachings to and groups of Bahá’ís who are trying the farthest corners of the globe; to to contribute to a more just and united the exuberant community-building ef- society. Through community-building, forts we witness in this very day. we are learning how to translate the In reviewing the factors ensuring teachings of the Faith into reality, a ultimate success, the nature of the process which requires individual and Cause of God itself must be examined. collective acts of service and sacrifice. Bahá’u’lláh asserts that His Revelation A review of the history of the Bahá’í is established upon an unassailable community of Iran where, over the foundation that the storms of human past 175 years, the believers have been strife are powerless to undermine, and subjected to injustice and oppression, whose structure the fanciful theories can also prove instructive. I will fo- of human beings cannot succeed in cus on this review, but first we need to damaging. We all know these words dedicate a few words to the nature of with which Bahá’u’lláh, referring to opposition to the Faith in that country. Himself, proclaims: “Should they cast For centuries, the Shi’a mullahs Him into a fire kindled on the conti- had been struggling to gain power in nent, He will assuredly rear His head Iran. Depending on the strength of in the midmost heart of the ocean... the central government of the day, and if they cast Him into a dark- they played different roles in running some pit, they will find Him seated the country and in shaping Iranian on earth’s loftiest heights” (Summons culture. Many were also interested in 160). In other words, the DNA of the advancing their own personal power Cause of God is such that it cannot and authority. From the rise of the be destroyed; it cannot be derailed; it Báb to the present day, the clerical cannot be stopped from achieving its establishment has viewed the Faith as objectives. a challenge to essential Shi’a doctrines What, then, should be our attitude, and to their own interests. As Shoghi mindset, and approach to our individ- Effendi noted about the early days ual and collective services in the path of the Báb’s Dispensation: “Fearful, 10 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

envious, thoroughly angered, the efforts to contribute to its advance- mullahs were beginning to perceive ment and, instead, propagated slander the seriousness of their position” (God against them. Passes By 11) as they foresaw not only During the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925- the waning of their influence, but also 1979), the government purported- the end of their power. The House of ly followed a system in accord with Justice has explained that the clergy secular ideas of freedom of worship, recognized in Bahá’u’lláh the Voice and the Bahá’ís were able to exercise of a coming society of justice and a few of their basic rights. However, enlightenment in which they will have as the power struggle between the no place, and this is the fundamental Shah and the mullahs went on, Bahá’ís reason why they so desperately were often used as a scapegoat, suffer- opposed Bahá’u’lláh (26 November ing a great deal of discrimination and 2003). injustice. As self-proclaimed enemies of the In 1979, with the Islamic Revo- Faith, the mullahs have used not only lution, Ayatollah Khomeini and his their pulpits and assumed moral au- clergy came to power with specific thority over their congregations, but political, social and religious goals. also, whenever they could, the ma- Key among these goals was (and is) chinery of government to implement systemic opposition to the Bahá’í com- their plans to persecute the Bahá’ís. munity. This makes Iran, at present, Across various periods of history, the only country in the world with a they have employed diverse approach- government-sponsored plan against es in their efforts against the Bahá’í the Faith. So extensive is this plan community. During the rule of the that it would be difficult, in this short Qajar Dynasty (1794-1925), the cler- space, to make even a cursory review ical establishment had significant in- of all the repressive activities in which fluence. It therefore comes as no sur- the government is engaged. Suffice it prise that in the decades following the to say that the overall aim of the gov- proclamation of the Báb (1844), until ernment, as blatantly stated in its of- the overthrow of the Qajar Dynasty ficial documents, is the eradication of in 1925, the mullahs instigated viru- the Bahá’í community in Iran and dis- lent and ongoing attacks on Bahá’ís in crediting of the Bahá’ís outside Iran cities and villages across the nation. (Dugal). This aim is being pursued They spread disinformation and dis- vigorously through a multidimension- torted the facts of history, playing on al plan, notwithstanding, among other an ill-informed population’s ingrained things, its high cost to the nation in prejudices and widespread enslave- both material and moral terms. ment to conspiracy theories. They The first decade of the revolu- deliberately ignored the Bahá’ís’ loy- tion witnessed hundreds of killings alty to their country and their sincere and thousands of arrests within the Constructive Resilience 11

Iranian Bahá’í community. Bahá’í in- citizens while suffering at the hands stitutions were banned. A massive of an oppressive regime. Instead, con- and ever-expanding anti-Bahá’í pro- structive resilience refers to how the paganda machine began demonizing Bahá’ís in Iran have continued to grow the Bahá’ís, and it continues to this community life and stay empowered, very day, some forty years later. Bahá’í even while being deprived of funda- holy places and cemeteries have been mental civil liberties and human rights. destroyed across Iran. Efforts aimed The Iranian Bahá’ís are systemat- at the economic strangulation of the ically modeling community-building Bahá’ís were initiated from the outset at the grassroots level, a response and still continue. The believers are demonstrated by Bahá’u’lláh during prevented from teaching or studying His exile to Baghdad. Little by little, in any university or other institution He guided the believers in exemplify- of higher learning in the country. A ing such kindness and virtuous com- large amount of wealth belonging portment that they won the hearts of to both the Bahá’í community, as the citizenry, even to the point of gain- well as individual Bahá’ís, has been ing the trust of the official representa- confiscated. tives of the Ottoman government. The manner in which the believers In light of this background, let me in the Cradle of the Faith have re- begin by first simply defining resil- sponded to this opposition has been ience itself. According to the common described by the Universal House of understandings of the term, resilience Justice as “constructive resilience.” is the capacity to recover from difficul- A letter written on its behalf to the ties; elasticity and toughness are often friends in Iran praises them for striv- mentioned in this regard. In psycho- ing to transcend the opposition “with logical terms, resilience is the process that same constructive resilience that of adapting well in the face of adver- characterized” the actions of the ear- sity, trauma, tragedy, or significant ly believers when responding “to the sources of stress. duplicity of their detractors” (9 Sep- Many among the survivors of in- tember 2007). justice, who number in the millions The term “constructive resilience” today, demonstrate resilience and was first used by the Universal House achieve positive results. But the re- of Justice with a specific meaning in sponse to injustice and oppression also mind, and I would like to share with varies considerably among peoples. It you my personal understanding of that ranges from submission and accep- meaning. Before I do so, let me provide tance, to protest, resistance, open con- a brief caveat. Members of the Bahá’í frontation, and, at times, even violence. Faith do not claim to be the first group In some cases, those affected lose con- or community to have responded be- fidence in their perception of them- nignly to injustice or to remain loyal selves and their own strength. They 12 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

become drained of that spirit of initia- deviate, even slightly, from the essence tive so integral to human nature, and of the Faith’s spirit. It implies that can be reduced to the level of objects they remain undisturbed by the pre- and passive victims of their rulers’ vailing chaos in the world but rather decree. Indeed, some who are exposed that they see in it great opportunities to sustained oppression can become so to promote the Divine Teachings, and conditioned that, in their turn, should labor with steadfastness within this the opportunity offer itself, they ac- disorder, with the aim of growing cept the prevailing norms and take their spiritual capacity, serving others, actions that are not in harmony with and promoting human oneness. Such the very reasons for which they were a spirit of constructive resilience fos- persecuted. If they eventually come ters a process through which individ- to power, these oppressed groups can uals and communities are preserved easily fall into the same behaviors as from spiritual corrosion. It provides their former oppressors. And the cycle resources that enable the friends to goes on. free their hearts from resentment and Constructive resilience is different. to act with magnanimity toward those In the case of the Bahá’ís of Iran, it who have taken part in their mistreat- does not consist of submission or pas- ment. Promoting constructive resil- sive and patient acceptance of injus- ience certainly does not constitute a tice. Neither does it rely on believing criticism or belittlement of those who in some mysterious power that—dis- fight injustice using confrontation and connected from their actions—will other means. Rather, it is an approach free them from the chains of oppres- that the Bahá’ís are committed to, in- sion. Instead, constructive resilience is spired by Divine Teachings and hav- an energetic and purposeful response ing positive and practical results. The that is coherent with the very aim of spirit of constructive resilience can be the Faith: unity. For the Bahá’ís of discerned in every aspect of the Bahá’í Iran, it constitutes a non-adversarial, community in Iran. violence-free, but dynamic approach One such example concerns the to creating patterns of social engage- Bahá’í Institute for Higher Education ment that move away from contention. (BIHE). Immediately following the At the same time, community members 1979 Revolution, the doors of Iran’s are vigorously pursuing every possible institutions of higher education were legal avenue available to correct and utterly closed to Bahá’í students and remedy the prevailing injustice. professors. Over several years, exten- Acting within the central tenets of sive efforts to explore possible solu- the Faith, constructive resilience re- tions with Muslim officials proved fu- quires that members of the Faith avoid tile. By the late 1980s, it had become compromising their beliefs and adher- obvious that Bahá’ís would not be al- ence to the Teachings. They must not lowed to enroll in Iranian universities Constructive Resilience 13 without denying their faith. There- House of Justice writes: “Perhaps the fore, the community made informal most compelling and clear example of arrangements to use the volunteer your constructive resilience is evident services of dismissed Bahá’í profes- currently in your earnest striving for sors who would teach Bahá’í youth de- knowledge, in your commitment to prived of university coursework. Indi- the loftiest values of faith and reason vidual families offered their homes for which the Cause inculcates, and in classes and laboratories. The Bahá’ís your perseverance in pursuit of higher did not seek to publicize this initiative, education.” In that same letter, it attri- so as to avoid provoking the authori- butes this success to the friends being ties. The BIHE was not presented as “well aware of [their] mission” (29 a “win” over the oppressor nor was January 2014). it portrayed as retaliation. Rather, it In addition to educational repres- was a thoughtful and quiet act of col- sion, the Bahá’ís of Iran have also lective self-empowerment and moral faced tremendous difficulties as a re- imagination. sult of the government’s banning of The aim of the BIHE was and re- the Bahá’í leadership and community mains to nurture the intellectual facul- institutions. Some politicians imag- ties of youth and to prepare them for ined that the imposition of such a service to their society. Despite enor- ban in 1983 and the imprisonment of mous political pressure, the Bahá’ís of the Yárán2 in 2008 would cause the Iran took fate into their own hands. believers to lose direction and hope, Their youth did not accede to being and that it would eventually cause deprived of higher education and the the general weakening of the Bahá’í community found resources, knowl- community. But the Bahá’ís trusted edge, and space to cultivate their in- the Divine Will and held firm to the nate gifts. The BIHE has withstood the belief that all that transpires serves Iranian government’s ongoing efforts the Cause of God, as long as they to shut it down, and continues to oper- adhere to Bahá’í principles. The com- ate under harsh, fearful conditions. It munity stood firm and did not allow has produced thousands of graduates 2 This term refers to seven Bahá’í in a number of fields, some of whom leaders, six of whom were arrested on 14 have been able to continue their edu- May 2008 at their homes in Tehran. The cation in more than ninety accredited seventh, Mahvash Sabet, was arrested on universities around the world. 5 March 2008 while on a trip to Mashhad. This year marks the 30th anni- The seven formed the entire membership versary of the establishment of the of the now-disbanded group known as BIHE and Bahá’ís around the world the “Yárán” or “Friends in Iran,” tending are proud of what the believers in to the spiritual and social needs of the Iran have achieved. Expressing its 300,000-member Bahá’í community of joy at the operation of the BIHE, the that country. 14 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018 apprehension and anxiety to take root, organism seeks to maintain its nor tests to perturb their hearts. They integrity and compensate for the realized that the door to attend to their loss of a part, when the darkness individual and collective affairs is still of injustice resulted in the closure open through consultation amongst of the Bahá’í administrative insti- families and in small groups. Relying tutions in your land, you—both as on the power of divine assistance, a community and as individuals, they remained engaged in the field the other two protagonists—sus- of service and managed their affairs tained by the creative power of with moral rectitude. They carried the Covenant, succeeded in com- out their spiritual obligations with pensating for this temporary loss. steadfastness, devotion, and wisdom, (12 May 2016) and worked ever harder to maintain a vibrant community life. So exemplary In an effort to weaken the communi- was their response to this persecution ty, the Iranian government still exerts that, in 2016, on the occasion of the every effort to create a gap between eighth anniversary of the imprison- the believers and the Universal House ment of the Yárán, the House of Jus- of Justice. Many stories tell of their tice remarked: failure. Let me share one. First, I must mention that the Bahá’í prisoners, You of course know full well that when answering their interrogators, the purpose of Bahá’u’lláh’s Rev- often explain the philosophy behind elation is to bring about a civili- their actions as a way to prove their zation that is neither of the East innocence. Many of the interrogators nor of the West, a civilization apparently become affected by the sin- based on coherence between the cerity and the compelling nature of material and the spiritual needs these explanations. of humankind. You also know For instance, one Bahá’í was ar- that recognizing Him marks the rested for having served as a teacher commencement of a commit- of Bahá’í children’s classes and the ment to dedicate one’s personal interrogator began his questioning and family life to contributing to of the believer harshly. But when the establishment of that civili- he learned the reasons for educating zation. You are well aware that children with spiritual values, he ac- the fulfilment of this goal is fa- tually asked if and how he could send cilitated through the activities his own children to these classes. At and the maturation of the three the same time, there are also those protagonists in the advancement interrogators who try to avoid the of civilization: the individual, the challenge altogether. They wish to community, and the institutions. bypass the inconvenience of convinc- Even as every living and active ing their supervisors of the innocence Constructive Resilience 15

of Bahá’ís, and ask the detainees not Economic strangulation is a third to explain their philosophies during tactic used by the government of interrogation. On one occasion, one Iran as a way to weaken the spirit of of these interrogators—who did not the Bahá’í community. It began with want to be caught in a philosophical thousands of Bahá’í employees being discussion with his Bahá’í prisoner— expelled from all government-relat- approached his task in this manner: ed offices and entities. Following this complete debarment from government “Respond to my questions with- or government-related employment, out any explanation: answer me the authorities turned their attention with a yes or no.” The Bahá’í to the private sector, resorting to var- agreed and the interrogator said: ious methods aimed at severely limit- “I have two questions for you. Are ing the economic activities of Bahá’ís you a Bahá’í? And do you obey business owners and entrepreneurs. the instructions of the House In recent years, many Bahá’ís have of Justice?” The Bahá’í said that faced a new problem: When they close the answer to both questions was their shops in observance of a Bahá’í “no.” The interrogator, who was Holy Day, the authorities seal off their surprised, asked, “How come?” businesses and threaten to withdraw The Bahá’í answered, “So you their business permits. Efforts local- want me to explain,” and went on ly, nationally, and internationally to to say, “To be a true Bahá’í is the bring this economic apartheid to an desire of my heart. All my life I end have been ongoing since the onset have been striving to be a Bahá’í. of the Islamic Revolution in 1979. But I only hope that, by the grace of in facing this persecution with a spirit Bahá’u’lláh, I will succeed. But I of constructive resilience, the Bahá’ís, do not consider myself worthy far from resorting to common disrup- of being called a Bahá’í. As for tive responses, creatively find ways to your second question: If I were continue earning a livelihood. For ex- obeying fully the guidance of the ample, an automobile mechanic whose Universal House of Justice, you shop was sealed because he closed it should have been a Bahá’í by now, for a Bahá’í holy day, began repairing as that Body continuously empha- his customers’ cars at a lower cost on sizes the importance of sharing the street in front of his shop. Nat- the Message of Bahá’u’lláh as urally, his business boomed. A few part of our efforts to build a bet- weeks later, the government unsealed ter world.”3 his shop. The Iranian Bahá’í commu- nity has always found ways and means 3 This and following examples are my of assisting those in need. personal recollections from letters that A fourth strategy of the Iranian were sent to the Bahá’í World Centre. government in its efforts to demoralize 16 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

the Bahá’ís is to evoke prejudice and a Bahá’í and my heart is illumined spread slander about them among the with the light of Bahá’u’lláh. But masses, hoping to deter Bahá’ís from I want to be able to say Bahá’í taking an active role in society. At prayers in the company of other times, the authorities openly demand believers. Please tell me, what can that the believers not associate with I do? their Muslim friends and neighbors. Their aim is to exclude Iran’s largest A story contained in another letter re- non-Muslim religious minority from ports what a cleric shared during one meaningful social discourse, barring of his sermons: Bahá’ís from promoting the wellbeing of the wider community. Notwith- One day I noted that a certain standing these constraints, the Bahá’ís person (with an Islamic name) remain determined to live purposeful who had regularly attended my lives in their society. In a letter sent sermons, was no longer coming. I to the Bahá’í World Centre, a young waited for a few months and there Iranian wrote: was no sign of him. I asked some- one to look for him. This person I am a 24-year-old student. A few reported to me as follows: One years ago I had a very bad traffic day I saw the person in the street. accident. A man who was not in- He was very different in his out- volved in the accident brought me look. “I called him by the name I to hospital and stayed patiently knew him. But he said “I am not until I was safely in the hands of so and so. I am now so (a mod- medical staff. He then left. I was ern Iranian name).” I asked him, very impressed with his kindness. “What has happened to you?” He Before he left I asked his name so replied: “Do you remember the that I could thank him when I left day when you and I in the compa- the hospital. He said there was no ny of the cleric got stuck on the need to know his name. However, road outside Tehran because our he did say “I am a Bahá’í, and we car had run out of fuel? Do you are all humans and supposed to as- remember how many people, all sist each other.” He kissed my face supposedly Muslim, we stopped and left and I had no idea who he and asked for help and nobody re- was. This shook me and I decid- sponded? Do you remember that a ed to study the Bahá’í Faith. No lady stopped on her own to see if one was able to give me a book. I we needed help? Do you remem- went to the internet and found an ber that she gave us fuel and did address. A kind lady from abroad not accept any payment for it and sent me materials and accompa- at the end she gave us her busi- nied me for two years. I am now ness card? I followed up with her Constructive Resilience 17

and later on learned that she is a of local culture and conditions. It is Bahá’í. With her kind behavior I largely through their actions and com- was encouraged to investigate her portment that they defend their Faith faith and I am a Bahá’í now.” against misrepresentation. An important characteristic of the If there is one area of activity that way the Iranian Bahá’ís are facing all the government wants to see com- these tests is a certain spirit of content- pletely stopped, it is the sharing of ment and conviction. They painstak- Bahá’í principles with Muslim people ingly make ongoing petitions to gov- and conducting activities related to ernment institutions at various levels, the institute process and communi- as well as to individuals of influence in ty-building.4 Since the government is order to end this unjust discrimination aware that Iranian citizens are more against them. Not receiving a favor- eager to learn about the Faith, it tries able solution, they seek assistance for to counteract this receptiveness by the defense of their rights from their spreading false information about the spiritual sisters and brothers, as well Bahá’ís and preventing Bahá’ís from as Bahá’í institutions in other coun- openly correcting this misinformation. tries. Not relying on others to act first, Likewise, Bahá’ís understand that en- they patiently and creatively continue gaging in collective teaching plans and their efforts to find peaceful solutions other activities that are part of Bahá’í at home. Their aim is to live as con- community life elsewhere in the world tributing members of their society, are not appropriate in Iran under the and to fulfill their spiritual obligations. present conditions. Nevertheless, the Furthermore, they pursue these paths Bahá’ís in Iran do their best to teach of service with an exemplary spirit of the Faith while taking into account love for their country and friendship local realities. for their compatriots. They see in all Thus, on the one hand, they do not of this an opportunity for spiritual accept being deprived of their individ- growth and the enlightening influence ual expression of faith or contributing of the Cause of God. to the betterment of the world. On the As one demonstration of this un- other hand, they do not teach or open- conquerable spirit, a few years into ly share Bahá’í ideas in public places, at their imprisonment, the Yárán sent school, or at work. Whatever they do a message to the Universal House of is done with wisdom and consideration Justice. They respectfully asked the 4 The institute process includes activi- Bahá’ís of the world to refrain from ties aimed at assisting interested individu- praying for the Yárán’s release. Why? als to enhance their capacities for involve- Because they could see with their own ment in community building efforts and eyes that doors were being opened for participation in constructive discourses of the progress of the Faith as a result society. of their imprisonment. The spirit of 18 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

the members of the Yárán at the time Divine assistance and to their whole- of their release, following ten years hearted obedience to the guidance of of harsh and unjust imprisonment, the Universal House of Justice. was a testimony to this magnanimity. In this process, the Bahá’ís have One of the Yárán, when discharged further developed a number of capac- from prison, said: “I do not remember ities: the capacity to hold fervently to during these years talking to anyone one’s faith and to maintain certitude in about animosity, hate, or grudges…. the Manifestation of God for this age; I was never thinking of revenge or the ability to frame events historically fighting anyone or rising up against within the processes of integration any group. I was constantly thinking and disintegration; the wisdom to cul- of equipping myself with spiritual tivate a deeper understanding of the power and energy” (Sabet). vision that Bahá’u’lláh has given to There are also stories telling of the the world of the oneness of humanity spirit of joy that many of the friends and of a just society; and the courage try to maintain, even in the harshest to enact this vision by following an conditions in prison. In brief, over all-encompassing, coherent, and prac- the course of the past 175 years of tical Plan, a path through which every unremitting oppression, the Bahá’ís individual can contribute to the estab- of Iran have steadily increased their lishment of that just society. Through clarity of vision about the mission of hardship, the Bahá’ís of Iran can per- Bahá’u’lláh and their role in it. They ceive the bankruptcy of the material have retained a confident mastery world, humbly beseech Him for Divine of their moral purpose. They have assistance, place complete reliance on learned to nourish an abiding love for Him and endure difficulties in His path their fellow citizens and for the land with unfailing and legendary patience. in which they suffer so greatly. It is, Through a lack of freedom, they have therefore, an immense joy to observe developed the strength to fulfill the a positive sea change in the attitude of daily necessities of life, survive op- many Iranian people toward the Faith pression, and exhibit courage in the and the Bahá’ís. face of hatred. Their unwavering de- The spiritual energies released by termination to seek justice with quiet so great a number of sacrifices offered fortitude demonstrates the will and in the path of God, as well as the ef- the discipline required to live a pur- forts of both Bahá’ís and members of poseful life. Ultimately, the Bahá’ís of the larger community elsewhere in the Iran have learned to experience the world to arise to defend their rights, deep joy and comfort that arises from have no doubt significantly contrib- service to others and to God. Are not uted to the realization of these signal all of these among the very capacities accomplishments. The Bahá’ís of Iran and abilities that, in our prayers, we often say that they owe this success to beseech God to help us develop? Constructive Resilience 19

Moving from the spirit of con- No matter where we live, nurtur- structive resilience demonstrated by ing spiritual capacities, approaches, the Bahá’ís of Iran, let us look at the and habits of thought is necessary larger global context. The rest of hu- to strengthening our own spirit of manity is also being battered by forc- constructive resilience. As we strive es of oppression, whether generated for the betterment of the world, the from the depths of religious, racial, messages of the House of Justice ad- and gender-based intolerance, or from dressed to the Bahá’ís of Iran over the onslaught of rampant materialism. the past few years identify some such “What ‘oppression’ is more grievous,” capacities. We live at a time when the Bahá’u’lláh asks, “than that a soul seek- vision of Bahá’u’lláh challenges many ing the truth, and wishing to attain of the assumptions that shape contem- unto the knowledge of God, should porary discourse. In a letter addressed know not where to go for it and from to the Bahá’ís of the World, the Uni- whom to seek it?” (Kitáb-i-Íqán 31). versal House of Justice states: The fact is that the act of living in a society engulfed in materialistic Today the world is assailed by an philosophies and entangled in outmod- array of destructive forces. Ma- ed traditions and assumptions is not terialism, rooted in the West, has without its own tests for the Bahá’ís. now spread to every corner of the ‘Abdu’l-Bahá said that the believers planet, breeding, in the name of in the West would experience mental a strong global economy and hu- tests so as to purify them and enable man welfare, a culture of consum- them to achieve their Divinely-con- erism. It skillfully and ingeniously ferred potential as a force for change promotes a habit of consumption in the world: that seeks to satisfy the vilest and most selfish desires, while encour- And yet, how often we seem to aging the expenditure of wealth forget the clear and repeated so as to prolong and exacerbate warnings of our beloved Mas- social conflict. How vain and fool- ter, who, in particular during the ish a worldview! And meanwhile, concluding years of His mission a rising tide of fundamentalism, on earth, laid stress on the “se- bringing with it an exceedingly vere mental tests” that would narrow understanding of reli- inevitably sweep over His loved gion and spirituality, continues ones of the West—tests that to gather strength, threatening would purge, purify and prepare to engulf humanity in rigid dog- them for their noble mission in matism. In its most extreme form, life. (Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í Ad- it conditions the resolution of ministration 50) the problems of the world upon the occurrence of events derived 20 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

from illogical and superstitious it is they who have the responsibility notions. It professes to uphold to champion this mighty task. virtue yet, in practice, perpetuates The experience of Bahá’ís every- oppression and greed. Among where in the past few decades attests the deplorable results of the op- that, with the help of Divine assis- eration of such forces are a deep- tance and under the guidance of the ening confusion on the part of Universal House of Justice, they are young people everywhere, a sense indeed capable of initiating, under any of hopelessness in the ranks of circumstances, a sustainable and ex- those who would drive progress, pandable framework for social change, and the emergence of a myriad and of inviting large numbers of peo- social maladies. (20 October 2008) ple to contribute to this effort. As part of our constructive resilience, we need Growing numbers of people grap- to further strengthen ourselves to re- ple with how to advance social change main unaffected by the negative forces in the face of political disorder and of society and to avoid the temptation mounting injustice. They wonder how to give into pressures to adopt the pre- to respond to our global interconnect- vailing materialistic assumptions. edness, which demands new approach- Guided by the House of Justice, we es that build rather than erode social must develop a deeper understand- cohesion. As a result, questioning pre- ing of the Bahá’í approach to answer vailing assumptions, established para- the ills of humanity, firmly adhere to digms, and common wisdom is, in the Bahá’í principles, and resist the im- sight of many, a necessity. In the same pulse to defend prevailing ideas that letter, the House of Justice appeals are popular in the wider society only to us to be conscious that the contin- because it seems expedient in the mo- ued strengthening of our communi- ment. We must further consolidate our ty-building efforts will be matched by capacity to realize that only through a further decline in the old world order, sacrificial efforts and collaboration and to be on our guard lest the devel- with like-minded people can world opment of capacity in the community chaos and confusion be remedied and not keep pace with the rise in recep- rebalanced. Bahá’u’lláh’s advice to tivity of a disillusioned humanity. The one of the believers is profoundly rel- House of Justice expresses confidence evant in this respect: “Sharp must be that such developments in the world thy sight, O Dhabíh, and adamant thy will cause the believers in every land soul and brass-like thy feet, if thou to reflect on the lamentable condition wishest to be unshaken by the assaults of the present order, will reinforce in of the selfish desires that whisper in them the conviction that material and men’s breasts. This is the firm injunc- spiritual civilization must be advanced tion which the Pen of the Most Great together, and will remind Bahá’ís that Name hath, by virtue of the Will of Constructive Resilience 21 the Ancient King, been moved to re- on us and our success or failure. veal” (Gleanings 115:13). All humanity is disturbed and suffering and confused; we cannot ‘Abdu’l-Bahá likewise says: expect to not be disturbed and not to suffer—but we don’t have The beloved of the Lord must to be confused. On the contrary, stand fixed as the mountains, firm confidence and assurance, hope as impregnable walls. Unmoved and optimism are our prerogative. must they remain by even the dir- The successful carrying out of est adversities, ungrieved by the our various Plans is the greatest worst of disasters. Let them cling sign we can give of our faith and to the hem of Almighty God, inner assurance, and the best way and put their faith in the Beauty we can help our fellow-men out of the Most High; let them lean of their confusion and difficulties on the unfailing help that cometh (Unfolding Destiny 225). from the Ancient Kingdom, and depend on the care and protec- tion of the generous Lord. . . . Let them rise up to serve their Lord WORKS CITED and do all in their power to scat- ter His breathings of holiness far ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections from the Writ- and wide. Let them be a mighty ings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. US Bahá’í fortress to defend His Faith, an Publishing, 2014. impregnable citadel for the hosts Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of the Ancient Beauty. Let them of Bahá’u’lláh. US Bahá’í Pub- faithfully guard the edifice of the lishing, 2005. Cause of God from every side; let ———. The Kitáb-i-Íqán. US Bahá’í them become the bright stars of Publishing, 1989 His luminous skies. (Selections 10) ———. The Summons of the Lord of Hosts. US Bahá’í Publishing, And, finally, Shoghi Effendi gives us 2006. this insight into how to respond to the Dugal, Bani. “Harsh Sentences Are a confusions of today’s world: Judgement Against an Entire Religious Community.” Bahá’í We must expect these things: It is World News Service, 15 Au- becoming evident that the world gust 2010: news.bahai.org/ is not yet through with its labor, story/789/. the New Age not yet fully born, Sabet, Mahvash. Interview on Radio real Peace not yet right around France International, 20 Sep- the corner. We must have no il- tember 2017. lusions about how much depends 22 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

Shoghi Effendi. Bahá’í Administration. US Bahá’í Publishing, 1974. ———. God Passes By. US Bahá’í Publishing, 1979. ———.Unfolding Destiny. UK Bahá’í Publishing, 1981. Taherzadeh, Adib. The Child of the Covenant. George Ronald Publisher Ltd., 2000. ———. The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, Vol. 3. George Ronald Publisher Ltd, 1996. The Universal House of Justice. Message to the Bahá’ís of Iran, 29 January 2014: www.payamha-iran.org/node/228?language=en. ———. Message to the Bahá’ís of Iran, 12 May 2016: payamha-iran.org/ node/153?language=en. ———. Message to the Bahá’ís of Iran, 20 October 2008: www.bahai. org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/ messages/20081020_001/1#893552861 ———. Message to the Bahá’ís of Iran, 26 November 2003. www.bahai. org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/ messages/20031126_001/1#833102424 23

cumstances, celebrate accomplishments, The Power analyze challenges, learn from experience, of Reflection: and plan next steps. Advancing Résumé La « faculté de réflexion » est décrite par Governance and Bahá’u’lláh comme « la source des métiers, des sciences et des arts » et comme une Dispute Resolution « mine idéale » d’où jailliront « de telles perles de sagesse et d’éloquence qu’elles Systems through pourront promouvoir le bien-être et l’har- monie parmi tous les peuples de la terre » Devolved (Bahá’u’lláh, Les Tablettes de Bahá’u’lláh, 75). Cette faculté de réflexion individu- Reflection and elle et collective a été aussi de plus en plus utilisée au sein des institutions de gouver- Shared Knowledge nance. Le présent article commence par Generation une exploration de ce que l’on pourrait décrire comme une nouvelle approche de « réflexion décentralisée » selon laquelle 1 SHAHLA ALI les communautés locales prennent part à des délibérations sérieuses pour arriver à Abstract une meilleure compréhension de leur réal- The “power of reflection” has been de- ité, célébrer les réalisations, analyser les scribed by Bahá’u’lláh as “the source of défis, apprendre de l’expérience et planifi- crafts, sciences and arts” and an “ideal er les prochaines étapes. mine” with the capacity to produce “pearls of wisdom and utterance as will promote Resumen the well-being and harmony of all the La “facultad de la reflexión” ha sido de- kindreds of the earth” (Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets scrita por Bahá’u’lláh como “el origen de 72). This power to reflect as individuals los oficios, las ciencias y las artes” y una and communities has increasingly been “mina ideal” con la capacidad de producir tapped into within institutions of gover- “perlas de sabiduría y prolación que fo- nance as well. This paper begins with an menten el bienestar y la armonía de todas exploration of what may be described as las razas de la tierra.” (Bahá’u’lláh, Tab- an emerging approach to “devolved re- las 72). Esta facultad de reflexionar como flection” in which local communities en- individuos y comunidades ha sido cada gage in earnest deliberation to arrive at vez más aprovechado también dentro de a greater understanding of existing cir- las instituciones de gobernanza. Este en- 1 The author thanks Victor Ali, Mat- sayo comienza con una exploración de lo thew Weinberg, and anonymous review- que podría ser descrito como un enfoque ers for their helpful comments and input. emergente a la “reflexión desarrollada” Thanks also to the GRF RGC research en la cual comunidades locales participan grant (HK 17604318) for support. en deliberaciones serias para llegar a una 24 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

comprensión mayor de circunstancias ex- in the light of reflection” cultivates istentes, celebrar logros, analizar desafíos, “an instinctive posture of learning” aprender de la experiencia, y planificar (Ridván Message 2016) and allows próximos pasos. for insights to “gradually accumulate about effective ways to work for the Drawing on insights from Bahá’í prac- betterment of society” (letter dat- tices of community-based reflection ed 1 October 2017). The paper will gatherings beginning in the 1990s draw on research highlighting the and now held in more than 5,000 lo- role of engaged reflection and shared calities worldwide, it examines how knowledge generation in facilitating such devolved reflective approaches conditions conducive to progressive contribute to planning processes that advancement within governance and take into account increased capaci- dispute resolution systems—whether ty. At the same time, in recent years, in the context of community engage- mechanisms for devolved reflection ment with consumer financial insti- have increasingly been incorporated tutions, cross border-arbitration, or into emerging modes of organiza- post-disaster governance initiatives. tional practice, soft law principles that The work traces the role of capacity inform the emergence of customary building, cohesion, and collective con- international law, analytic and norma- tribution in knowledge generation. tive frameworks for new governance policy, and applied reflective research INTRODUCTION: methodologies. While such develop- DEVOLVED REFLECTION AND ments represent important advances ORGANIZATIONAL PROGRESS in modalities of governance, this paper suggests that the significant benefits The possibility of achieving progress arising from devolved reflection can be in organizational contexts has been a most fully realized when it is carried subject of debate and continued striv- out as a component of a larger frame- ing. June Manning Thomas expertly work of learning through reflective observed that while humanity has pro- action. As part of a tapestry of study, duced advances in technology, it has consultation, action and reflection, not solved the fundamental problems “questions can emerge and methods of hunger, poverty, homelessness, and approaches be adjusted” (Univer- war, ecological destruction, and po- sal House of Justice, letter dated 26 litical strife: “organizations at all lev- November 2012) by which “collective els struggle to adapt to the changing identity” is created and “collective world in which they must survive and will” strengthened (Universal House to carry out the purposes for which of Justice, letter dated 27 December they were created” (1). Yet central to 2005). According to the Universal this struggle is the recognition that as House of Justice, the capacity to “act humans we are “capable of thinking, The Power of Reflection 25 planning and envisioning alternative Reinventing Organizations: A Guide to courses of action” (Laszlo 56). The Creating Organizations Inspired by the “larger the entity or system involved, Next Stage of Human Consciousness, re- the more difficult the process . . . be- marks on this “shift from [a] deficit comes,” yet progress is achievable. to [a] strength-based paradigm” (46) (Manning Thomas 3). through a process of devolved “collec- The Bahá’í writings link the idea tive . . . self-reflection” (154), and finds of progress to collective participa- that “among the great number of in- tion: “the realization of justice is de- novative . . . practices . . . joint reflec- pendent upon universal participation tion” is credited with contributing to and action among all members and significant advances in organizational agencies of society” (ISGP 10) and culture and functioning (154). This re- even state that mankind’s purpose is flective process proceeds on the basis “to carry forward an ever-advancing of identifying relevant topics within civilization” (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings an organization that are “conducive to 109:2).2 Echoing this perspective, re- self reflection” (155). Often, in such cent scholarship has described an im- settings, “collective insights emerge, portant shift in organizational struc- as well as decisions and initiatives [to ture toward equipping governance be] carried out” (155), assisting “the entities to “draw out more human whole organization [to] gro[w] its potential” (Laloux 4) through reflec- way through one topic after anoth- tive dialogue—a concept that will be er” (156). At the same time, reflective elaborated on later in this paper—so spaces permit organizations to regu- as to enable them to address increas- larly acknowledge and affirm practices ingly complex and critical social and that are working well in order that environmental challenges (5). Among they may be strengthened (160). the defining features of such organi- At the planetary level, recent work zations is an orientation toward struc- in Global Experimentalist Gover- tures in which “purpose . . . [is] the nance has focused on articulating the guiding principle” (50). Such organi- dynamics of “institutionalized pro- zational systems operate on the basis cesses of participatory and multilevel of “peer relationships” and are assist- collective problem solving, in which ed to advance through joint reflection the problems (and means of address- by asking “the . . . questions that help ing them) are framed in an open-ended teams to find their own solutions” (69) way, and subjected to periodic revision while “trust[ing] in the collective in- by various forms of peer review in the telligence of the system” (85). light of locally generated knowledge” Frederic Laloux in his book, (de Burca, Keohane, Sabel 2). A key 2 This purpose, I would argue, can be step in the deliberative process is “ini- extended to the organizations and agen- tial reflection and discussion among cies created by humanity. stakeholders with a broadly shared 26 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

perception of a common problem, and the formation of trust (Putnam resulting in second, the articulation 1) built through collective exchange, of a framework understanding with learning, and action (UNDP; see also open-ended goals” (2). World Bank Group, Understanding). It The significance of devolved reflec- is strengthened by consultative pro- tive process in organizational and gov- cesses through which stakeholders ernance advancement can be linked to a continually elaborate a common un- rich body of scholarship highlighting derstanding of collective objectives the role of social capital in supporting (World Bank Group, Understanding), cooperative, cohesive, and creative so- “articulate their interests [and] me- cial behavior; enhancing productivity diate their differences . . . in order to (Putnam 1); and “facilitating collective promote development for the collec- action for mutual benefit” (Woolcock tive whole” (UNDP).4 Inclusivity is an 27), including improved social welfare, important component of social capital reduced corruption (Putnam 1), and and has been enriched by recent schol- even survival in times of crisis.3 Social arship showing that cluster rather capital, understood as a set of norms, than individualized group membership values, attitudes, beliefs, and relation- selection can significantly enhance ships (Valentinov 4), is largely formed group diversity in multiple contexts through the creation of spaces with- (Brooks and Purdie-Vaughns). in a community that foster changes Drawing on insights from “de- in thinking, attitudes, and behavior, volved reflection” processes, this paper 3 See David Brooks, in his New York examines the experience of neighbor- Times article “The Neighborhood is the hood reflection meetings in the Bahá’í Unit of Change” (18 October 2018), citing community beginning in the 1990s, a sociological study by Eric Klinenberg investigating how such reflective ap- showing “how important neighborhood is proaches contribute to planning pro- in determining who survives in a crisis.” cesses that account for capacity devel- The study compared deaths in two Chi- oped at the local level. It then explores cago neighborhoods during a heat wave how the aspiration toward devolved in 1995, finding that “more than six times reflective practices is increasingly as many people died in North Lawndale as echoed in three arenas: emerging legal in South Lawndale, even though the two principles and norms of internation- places [were] demographically compara- al law, analytic and normative frame- ble.” This was in large part due to South works for new governance policy, and Lawndale having more “social connection,” applied reflective research method- or what Klinenberg calls “social infrastruc- ologies. It concludes by examining ture,” including “physical places like librar- how the benefits of reflection may be ies where people can gather” and thereby effectively realized when carried out in “nurture relationships among people who the context of a systematic learning check in on one another when crises hit.” 4 See www.socialcapitalresearch.com. The Power of Reflection 27 process consisting of study, consulta- unremitting quest for spiritual and tion, action, and reflection on action. social progress” (Universal House of Justice, Ridván 1996). Institutions that NEIGHBORHOOD REFLECTION FOR support such efforts serve as a “medi- COMMUNITY ADVANCEMENT um for the interchange of thought and the coordination of activities” (letter The process of neighborhood-based written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, reflection for community development 11 May 1926). In his book, Creating has received growing attention in re- a New Mind, Paul Lample describes cent years. David Brooks, in a recent such communities as being akin to article for the New York Times, asks a living organism, noting that “this whether “it could be that the neigh- understanding offers valuable insight borhood, not the individual, is the es- into how [a] community can progress sential unit of social change. If you’re and how its constituent individuals trying to improve lives, maybe you and institutions can foster its develop- have to think about changing many ment” (94). The characteristic of such elements of a single neighborhood, in organisms include growth, differenti- a systematic way.” ation of activity, and coordination of Embracing the view that the indi- functions (94-95). vidual, community, and institutions Clusters hold reflection meetings all have a vital role in contributing approximately every three months, to community development, since the providing community members a mid-1990s, more than 5,000 spaces for space “to assemble from time to time community-based reflection hosted by in order to reach consensus on the cur- Bahá’í communities have been opened rent status of their situation, in light in diverse neighborhoods worldwide of experience and guidance from the (Universal House of Justice, Ridván institutions, and to determine their im- 2016). In the Bahá’í Faith, the concept mediate steps forward” (Ruhi Institute of a cluster comes from the notion 55). The stage of “reflection is to not of community as “a comprehensive only celebrate . . . accomplishments, unit of civilization composed of indi- but to analyze . . . challenges and learn viduals, families and institutions that from both to inform . . . plans for the are originators and encouragers of next cycle” (Universal House of Jus- systems, agencies and organizations tice, letter dated 27 December 2005). working together with a common These gatherings are “increasingly purpose for the welfare of people both seen as occasions where the commu- within and beyond its own borders” nity’s efforts, in their entirety, are the (Universal House of Justice, Ridván subject of earnest and uplifting de- 1996). Such communities are com- liberation” (Universal House of Jus- posed of “diverse, interacting partic- tice, Ridván 2013). Moreover, “care- ipants that are achieving unity in an ful analysis of experience, through 28 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

participatory discussions rather than a community (Ruhi Institute 53), in- overly complex and elaborate pre- volving young and old (61), especially sentations, serves to maintain unity women and girls (ITC 8). This inclu- of vision, sharpen clarity of thought sivity is motivated by the principle of and heighten enthusiasm . . . Plans are unity in diversity and the anticipation made that take into account increased that “this is the day of union, the day capacity” (Universal House of Justice, of the ingathering” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Se- letter dated 27 December 2005). As lections 260). described by Dr. Farzam Arbab, “the In these neighborhood reflection sharing of experience is extremely spaces, consultation involves a number valuable. Reflection on the dynamics of important interconnected elements, of the efforts of others yields insights including building unity of thought into the causes of crisis and victory in and embracing diversity, truth seek- one’s own endeavors” (14). ing, and mutual support. Consultation Often, cluster reflection gatherings plays a vital role in “harmonizing points are complemented by meetings for in- of view, strengthening the bonds of creasingly smaller geographic areas trust and love among the members that “generate a stronger feeling of of a community, fostering systematic responsibility among those attending” action, preserving focus, and attain- (Universal House of Justice, letter ing maturity of understanding” (Ruhi dated 29 December 2015). In particu- Institute 1). In this context, “mutual lar, “the designation of multiple units support, commitment to learning, and within a cluster allows for the creation appreciation of diversity of action of new patterns of coordination to are the prevailing norms” (Universal serve friends in smaller areas” (ITC House of Justice, letter dated 9 Jan- 7). Indeed, “when each member of uary 2001). The underlying culture the community seeks to address the “promotes a way of thinking, studying well-being of the others, the powers and acting, in which all consider them- of the community are multiplied . . . selves as treading a common path of in a way that attending to one’s own service—supporting one another and problems can never achieve” (Lample advancing together, respectful of the 112). The focus “is not on delivering knowledge that each one possesses at charity, which so often debilitates the any given moment” (Universal House recipient, but on cultivating the ca- of Justice, Ridván 2010). In this learn- pacity in individuals and their insti- ing mode, “unity of thought, based on tutions to participate in their own de- a common understanding achieved in velopment” (107). Such arrangements, a posture of humility, generates col- striving to avoid the tendency of lective energy [and] invites partici- groups to close in on themselves, en- pation” (Ruhi Institute 40). The value gage an “ever increasing number . . . in of questions posed and experiences thinking about the challenges” facing shared is realized to the extent that The Power of Reflection 29 they are expressed without “assuming In the sphere of humanitarian as- an air of authority” and with attention sistance, states are increasingly being to “the approaches that were adopted required to facilitate the establishment at various stages” (49). The objective of mechanisms for participation and is to “analyze but not reduce . . . This reflective planning. For instance, the is no small task [since] society speaks Good Humanitarian Donorship con- more and more in slogans” (Universal sortium of states emphasizes the need House of Justice, letter dated 28 De- to involve communities in “the design, cember 2010). In building unity of implementation, monitoring and eval- thought, “clearly . . . the views of a few uation” of relief activities (Principle cannot be imposed on the whole, nor 7). In addition, Article 2(c) (ii) of the is every idea equal and every individ- 2012 Food Assistance Convention ual free to pursue a separate agenda. stipulates that one of the governing Without unity of thought and action, principles in the provision of food no forward progress is possible” (Lam- assistance is the involvement of com- ple 100). munities “in the assessment of their The concept of devolved reflection needs and in the design, implementa- examined in the next section similarly tion, monitoring and evaluation” of assumes the value of localized reflec- the relief activities.5 tion at the most proximate level of A range of qualitative guidelines community, with the aim of gleaning and standards are emerging from insights from experience that can be treaties, resolutions of states, and applied to advancing systems of gov- self-regulatory instruments including ernance through drawing on diverse the Sphere Charter, which outlines a perspectives. set of minimum standards in the area of humanitarian assistance. These DEVOLVED REFLECTION AS AN standards include access to appropri- EMERGING SOFT LAW PRINCIPLE ate and safe venues for meetings, bal- INFORMING THE DEVELOPMENT OF anced representation, understandable CUSTOMARY INTERNATIONAL LAW language, transparent and effective feedback mechanisms, use of local Paralleling the growing use of de- resources and skills, and engagement volved reflection—understood as col- with progressive local religious, cul- lective reflection at the level closest to tural, and traditional norms (Sphere a given issue in organizational gover- Project 55). Because resource use nance—such principles have increas- 5 See also UNOCHA, “Civil-Military ingly contributed to the development Guidelines and Reference for Complex of customary norms of international Emergencies” (2008), and ECB, “Im- law, both in the realms of humanitari- pact Measurement and Accountability in an assistance and of local resource use Emergencies: The Good Enough Guide” planning. (2007), 34-35. 30 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

questions are “inherently infused with outcomes. This framework entails value judgments” (Rossi 173, 198) re- the following: expanded participation garding where, how, and with whom of and partnership between govern- such resources should be deployed, ments and non-state actors in solving the reduction of such questions to a public problems (Lobel; Solomon); single metric, such as GDP, implies a learning-focused orientation (Sol- “significant loss to those values” (Fos- omon; Cohen 503); the use of pub- ter 459). Guidelines such as the above lic-private partnership in regulatory are emerging to ensure uniform and reform (Solomon; Cohen 503); the objective qualitative standards of par- state as a convener, catalyst and coor- ticipation in various stages of relief. dinator (Dorf and Sabel 267; Solomon; Cohen 503); and the development of DEVOLVED REFLECTION AS AN problem-solving capabilities (Cohen EMERGING FRAMEWORK FOR NEW 503). In addition, recent scholarship GOVERNANCE POLICY AND EVALUATION has examined the challenges facing new governance, such as ensuring Elements of devolved reflection participants have the necessary skills may be traced within the emerging for participation (Cohen) and develop- field of new governance scholarship, ing procedural safeguards to ensure which examines the dynamics of so- full participation (Salamon 1611), cial coordination based on the logic especially under conditions of social of co-steering and networks.6 Among conflict (Alexander, “Stakeholder Par- the normative values identified with ticipation” 118) and resource inequal- new governance are ownership, re- ity (133). New governance regards sponsibility, and follow-through by opportunities for stakeholder partici- stakeholders, given that solutions are pation and reflection as central to de- derived from community input (Sabel cision-making processes (Alexander). and Zeitlin; van der Heijden). Delib- Stakeholders, including organizations eration and reflection on the part of (institutions, public agencies, private diverse participants may yield wiser firms, and NGOs), interact, share re- results (Noveck 85), and collaboration, sponsibility, and together generate in many cases, may give rise to higher policy (Alexander) through town hall levels of transparency and account- forums and shared resource manage- ability (van der Heijden 10). ment structures. This collaborative New governance scholarship has effort between public and private provided a framework for both pol- institutions and organizations thus icymaking and evaluation of policy enables states and localities to facili- 6 For further discussion, see my ear- tate participatory processes and once lier article, “Towards Peer Presence in solutions are found, depending on the Post-Disaster Governance: An Empirical level and origin of the issue, to moni- Study.” Also see Lee. tor implementation (Orly 342). The Power of Reflection 31

When effectively facilitated, de- replicate and possibly exacerbate ex- volved governance efforts, through isting representation problems (Foster town planning meetings and shared 485), simply offering a means of pro- resource management structures, viding input on existing plans rather enable broad-based contributions to than originating plans at the commu- decision-making.7 However, when im- nity level. New governance faces chal- plemented without regard to issues lenges similar to those in responsive of universal representation and geo- law—which sees law as a “facilitator graphic and linguistic access to deci- of response to social needs and aspi- sion-making forums, the process may rations” (Nonet and Selznick 14)8— 7 In Philippe Nonet and Philip Selz- such as subjectivity in rule-making nick’s Law and Society in Transition: To- and the danger of getting the moral ward Responsive Law, “Responsive Law” is question wrong by caving into power described in relation to both “Repressive politics (as advanced through special Law” (law as servant of repressive power) interests, for example). Likewise, new and “Autonomous Law” (law as differen- governance approaches face the poten- tiated institution capable of taming re- tial danger of rendering community pression and protecting its own integrity) resource problems “less visible or sub- (14, 63). Repressive Law generally takes ject to scrutiny, because the farther the little note of affected interests. A “com- process is removed from a centralized mon source of repression is the poverty decision-maker, the less accountability of resources available to governing elites” there will be” (Foster 485). Research (33) in circumstances where “urgent tasks has suggested that in order to benefit must be met under conditions of adequate from devolution and decentralization power but scarce resources” (36). Auton- (Alexander, “Reflections” 737–38), omous Law can be characterized by the 8 Among the challenges noted by Nonet rule of law born when legal institutions and Selznick include the fact that “re- acquire enough independent authority sponsive law is a precarious ideal whose to impose standards of restraint on the achievement and desirability are historical- exercise of governmental power (53). ly contingent and depend especially on the Specialized legal institutions claim quali- urgencies to be met and the resources that fied supremacy within defined spheres of can be tapped” (116). Specifically, there is competence (53). Autonomous law reflects the danger of subjectivity in rule making a transition from blanket certification of and “getting the moral question wrong.” the source of power to a sustained justifi- The achievement of responsive ideals de- cation of its use. “Legal institutions pur- pends a great deal on the development of chase procedural autonomy at the price “cognitive competence” (xx) (within the of substantive subordination” (58). The judiciary) to consider social conditions, downside is that the application of rules gather relevant information from outside ceases to be informed by a regard for pur- sources in order to search for a solution, poses, needs, and consequences. rather than arbitrarily lay down a rule. 32 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

the necessary conditions for new gov- these studies will be explored, includ- ernance’s success should include: (1) ing lessons learned as to how local en- the broadest possible degree of stake- gagement both responds to and shapes holder participation compatible with global norms in an effort to enhance effective decision making, (2) effective access to justice. The reflections will and informed monitoring (Alexander, draw on insights from four projects “Reflections” 740–41; Ali, “Measur- highlighting the role of engaged ing Success” 104), (3) ensuring par- participation and shared knowledge ticipants have the necessary skills for generation in facilitating conditions participation (Alexander, “Reflections” conducive to advancement within 740–41), (4) the development of mana- governance systems—whether in the gerial and procedural safeguards (Sal- form of community engagement with amon 1611), and (5) ensuring stake- global consumer financial institutions, holder participation under conditions cross border-arbitration, or post-di- of social conflict and distributional saster governance initiatives. The inequalities (Alexander, “Reflections” work traces the role of capacity build- 740–41). In order to overcome poten- ing, cohesion, and collective contribu- tial barriers to full representation, it is tion to knowledge generation. necessary to examine ways in which In examining the dynamics by reflective decision-making process- which dispute resolution organi- es might be strengthened to address zations—including consumer fi- potential disparities, the focus of the nancial dispute resolution mecha- final section of this paper (Ali, “Mea- nisms, court-annexed mediation, and suring Success” 99–100). cross-border arbitration systems— change and develop, it appears that DEVOLVED REFLECTION AS A rather than fundamental or top-down RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND shifts in structure, they often proceed APPROACH TO POLICY REFINEMENT through “iterative revolutions” in both thinking and organization. The idea In an effort to apply reflective pro- of iterative revolutions, building on cesses to research design with the the concept of scientific paradigmat- aim of generating insights that might ic shifts described by Thomas Kuhn, contribute to dispute resolution orga- implies that, over time, organizations nizations, a series of approaches to re- develop through experiencing new flective engagement will be examined. challenges, asking new questions, and These research approaches, drawing addressing these questions through a on participatory reflection, aim at con- collective body of shared knowledge tributing to a growing body of work and practice. This is similar to his supporting the advancement of com- notion that the evolution of scientif- parative dispute resolution systems in ic theory does not emerge from the a transnational context. Insights from mere accumulation of facts, but rather The Power of Reflection 33 from a set of changing intellectual The following will highlight three circumstances and possibilities. A core approaches to employing a process of element of this process requires ex- devolved reflective engagement: (1) di- ploring alternatives to “long-held, ob- versifying research participation and vious-seeming assumptions” through collaboration on interview design, (2) asking questions and reflecting on ex- exploring relevant principles to guide perience (Kuhn 139, 159). In contrast analysis, and (3) developing greater to the traditional scientific model in understanding of the impact of com- which a lone scientists engages in par- munity cohesion on efforts to gov- adigm-challenging experiments, this ern under conditions of crisis. What process implies the collective work of unites each of these efforts is a con- groups, organizations, and communi- cern with the development of com- ties engaged in a joint exploration of parative reflective spaces to address knowledge. what has been working well, identify and address challenges, and articulate ENGAGING IN REFLECTIVE PROCESS suggestions for improvement in the AS SCHOLARS, USERS, AND context of diverse cultural and social PRACTITIONERS: RESEARCH APPROACH environments. The core impetus for this approach is the notion that “the Drawing on experiences over the past realization of justice is dependent fifteen years in conducting research upon universal participation and ac- into alternative dispute resolution tion among all members and agencies institutions, this section reflects on of society” (ISGP 10). The aim is to efforts to establish reflective spaces create spaces where a growing num- amongst practitioners and users of ber of individuals and practitioners such systems. This effort reflects a can share insights that contribute to growing interest in the use of reflec- the ongoing improvement, refinement tion to advance the performance of ex- and progress of dispute resolution isting Alternative Dispute Resolution institutions. (ADR) organizations. For example, Within this reflective approach, in- emerging opportunities for feedback terdisciplinary inquiry is employed, and self-reflection amongst mediation which appreciates the role of “values administrators, aiming to improve and ideals in the world [as being] cen- overall quality and procedural fair- tral to social understanding” (Krygier ness in mediation, have been examined xi) and recognizes “the contributions (Welsh). In addition to policy reflec- that social inquiry can make to hu- tion within court settings, reflective man well-being” (Selznick, Humanist research approaches have been used to Science 17). This form of inquiry is advance understanding of how com- often referred to as a “values-based” parative systems of ADR function and approach. The interdisciplinary na- advance in diverse contexts. ture of this approach envisions that 34 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

“what we draw upon intellectually on the observation that “for none is match the character and complexity self-sufficiency any longer possible, of what we are trying to understand” inasmuch as political ties unite all peo- (Krygier xiii), and it begins with an ples and nations, and the bonds of trade “identification of the values at stake in and industry . . . are being strength- particular social processes, practices ened every day” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, qtd. in and institutions; clarification of the Esslemont 250), the project sought to nature of these values’ understand- widen the base of survey participants ing of what endangers them; and ex- to reflect the growing diversity of the ploration of the conditions in which international arbitration community, they might thrive” (Krygier xi). By particularly in the East Asian region, examining what has been working in and to engage diverse practitioners in advanced organizations, it is possible conversations regarding interview de- to synthesize “more than a collection sign and interpretation. of case studies,” finding “patterns and First, to extend the existing West- commonalities that point to a coherent ern-focused research on international new model” (Laloux 4). arbitration as practiced in Europe and In general, this research approach North America, this project sought builds upon a mixed methodology to provide empirical understanding that involves a combination of survey of the attitudes and perceptions of work and comparative case studies. over 115 arbitrators, judges, lawyers, Each of the four following sections and members of the rapidly expand- will examine: (1) the key approaches ing arbitration community in China, to reflective engagement employed in Hong Kong, Korea, Japan, Singapore, the studies, (2) relevant insights, and and Malaysia, alongside counterparts (3) limitations. in North America and Europe. The project covered both international I. DIVERSIFYING RESEARCH commercial arbitration and mediation, PARTICIPATION AND COLLABORATING ON providing an empirical analysis of how INTERVIEW DESIGN both types of dispute resolution are conducted in the East Asian context. One study, Resolving Disputes in the Second, the research project fo- Asia-Pacific Region: International Arbi- cused on participation by those imme- tration and Mediation in East Asia and diately and substantially affected by the West, sought to examine how di- the potential outcome of the research. verse cultures approach the resolution Participants were given a voice in of conflict in the context of the inte- framing and reframing the interview gration of global markets.9 Building questions, in selecting the means of 9 For a full discussion of this study, answering the questions defined by see my 2010 book, Resolving Disputes in the the research, and in determining the Asia-Pacific: International Mediation and Arbitration in East Asia and the West. The Power of Reflection 35 criteria by which to decide whether and selectively adopt particular provi- a question had been validly answered sions thereof, a relatively high degree by reviewing and co-creating the in- of substantive legal uniformity in ar- terview questions at the outset of the bitration rules (global convergence) project (Diessner 11). Likewise, the can coexist with, and be enriched by, research drew on the model of “social procedural variation in settlement science as public philosophy,” as de- processes and techniques (informed scribed by Robert Bellah et al., which diversity) across regions. For exam- “accepts the canons of critical disci- ple, while eighty states have adopted plined research” but at the same time the Model Law on International Arbi- “does not imagine that such research tration, producing general consisten- exists in a vacuum or can be ‘value cy in arbitration law, the provisions free’” (302). In this light, the research allow for variation amongst states in placed special attention on examin- the role of the arbitrator and the ex- ing the underlying values that inform tent to which the arbitrator may be contemporary processes of dispute involved in settlement efforts (Ali, Re- resolution in diverse regions. This ap- solving Disputes 1). Based on the norm proach drew on recent insights in the of “global deliberative equality” and field of socio-legal studies regarding the basic moral precept that “our spe- the growing need for legal study to be cies is one, and each of the individuals underpinned by a stronger grasp of who compose it is entitled to equal how legal frameworks are understood moral consideration” (245), regional across traditions and cultures (Twin- diversity enhances the range of pos- ing, Globalization and “Have Con- sible approaches and techniques to be cepts”), while examining underlying employed in arbitration and enables a values that guide dispute-resolution more global examination of best prac- processes (Nonet and Selznick). tices that draws on a wide range of experiences. Regional distinctions are Insights from Reflection reflected in varying arbitrator percep- tions regarding the arbitrators’ role The results of the 115-person survey in settlement, whether settlement is and 64 follow-up interviews highlight regarded as a goal in arbitration, and the importance of two major factors the efforts made in the course of arbi- at work in the field of international tration to settle disputes. For example, arbitration: global convergence and the survey found a greater openness informed diversity (Slaughter). The to exploring settlement options and major finding of the research was that, a greater degree of support for arbi- due to the relatively flexible nature of trator-initiated settlement discussions the United Nations Model Law on In- among practitioners working in East ternational Commercial Arbitration, Asia. Such diverse experiences are un- which allows countries to gradually derstood as not static but fluid, as a set 36 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

of learned institutional and ideologi- categorizations. In an interconnected cal expressions based on shared norms global community, the findings could and beliefs about the world (Karlberg). have been more fruitfully presented as Based on sixty-four open-ended in- regional insights rather than as a dis- terviews, practitioners’ insights center tillation of comparative statistics. on what they can do to improve the practice of international arbitration in II. EXPLORING RELEVANT PRINCIPLES a cross-cultural context. Such insights TO GUIDE ANALYSIS OF DISPUTE include the need for better cross-cul- RESOLUTION INSTITUTIONS tural training of arbitrators, more multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural To explore guiding principles in the panels, more bilingual arbitrators, a analysis of consumer financial dispute wider pool of arbitrators from diverse resolution systems, the project Con- countries, greater transparency in and sumer Financial Dispute Resolution in strengthening of local arbitration tri- a Comparative Context presented com- bunals, and, finally, better training of parative research about the develop- counsel and arbitrators as to the uses ment and design of grievance mech- and timing of mediation. In addition, anisms in East Asia, North America, nearly all arbitrators interviewed felt and Europe. Situated in the immediate that extensive adversarial practices aftermath of the 2008 Financial Cri- were not advantageous to the parties sis, this project sought to examine or to arbitration in general. how governments and self-regulatory organizations design and administer Limitations financial dispute resolution mecha- nisms in the context of increasingly While the study sought to extend turbulent financial markets.10 Drawing the existing understanding of inter- on insights from a multi-jurisdictional national arbitration practice in diverse survey, the project examined the emer- regions by expanding the survey pool gence of global principles that influ- to international arbitrators working ence the design of financial dispute in East Asia, a key limitation was its resolution models. Using these prin- bifurcated presentation of perspec- ciples, the project analyzed the per- tives, grouping practitioners into formance and application of ombuds two distinct regions. Such compara- and arbitration systems, attending to tive groupings create a false notion the objective of enhancing capacities of separateness. An effort was made that enable institutions to “respond to address this limitation by focusing creatively to challenges . . . [through] on arbitrators’ “region of practice” 10 For full discussion of this study, see rather than “nationality.” Yet, any my 2013 book, Consumer Financial Dispute study that involves cross-jurisdic- Resolution in a Comparative Context: Princi- tional comparisons inherently involves ples, Systems and Practice. The Power of Reflection 37

. . . the ability to . . . uphold standards between Fall 2011 and Summer 2012. of fairness and equity” (BIC 12). With a framework of accessibility, First, the project explored the de- transparency, impartiality, equity, ac- velopment of global principles that countability, and fairness, the survey influence to varying degrees the de- assessed how arbitrators and ombuds sign of consumer financial dispute viewed the benefits and challenges of resolution systems in diverse societ- particular methods of consumer fi- ies. Emerging standards—gleaned nancial dispute resolution, alongside from the Equator Principles, the Ba- suggestions for improvement. Nearly sel Accords, Rule of Law principles, 100 survey questionnaires were dis- and the UN Millenium Development tributed to practitioners throughout Goals—included the need for acces- the world. A total of forty-eight ar- sible grievance mechanisms, financial bitrators and ombudspersons from dispute prevention through transpar- East Asia, North America, Europe, the ent risk disclosure and risk mitigation, Middle East, and Africa responded. impartiality, equity, accountability, and The participants represented experi- fairness. enced practitioners, members of gov- Second, the project drew on these ernment regulatory ombuds services, selected global principles as a lens for and private arbitration commissions. analyzing processes and structures The majority of those surveyed (for- that gave rise to the development of ty-four percent) had worked for insti- accessible, efficient, and equitable fi- tutions involved in consumer financial nancial ombuds and arbitration sys- dispute resolution for more than four tems. In order to glean best practices, years. it examined comparative institutional dispute resolution structures and re- Insights from Reflection sults in selected financial centers in East Asia, North America, and Eu- Key questions raised by the study rope. By comparing corresponding intersect with scholarship in the law financial dispute resolution centers in and development field, studies in dis- seven jurisdictions, the research aimed pute system design, and work exam- to understand how these jurisdic- ining the impact of globalisation on tions addressed consumer complaints international legal practice. These through unique structures of financial questions include: How can systems dispute resolution, including ombuds, of consumer financial dispute resolu- arbitration, and multi-tier processes tion be designed in diverse contexts that involved a combination of direct to effectively and fairly administer the negotiation, mediation, and either om- resolution of financial disputes? How buds or arbitration mechanisms. can such centers draw on emerging Third, drawing on relevant global global principles of accessibility, effi- principles, a survey was conducted ciency, impartiality and fairness? How 38 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

might such centers consequently con- time, practitioners acknowledged tribute to the health of the broader areas for continued improvement, in- economic environment? In particular, cluding the need for greater public socio-legal dispute processing liter- education (Survey 1), as well as regu- ature has long investigated how ap- latory oversight and quality assurance propriate regulations and policies may of ombuds processes (Survey 4, July be developed to limit the effect of the 2011–March 2012). power and knowledge gap of “repeat players,” typically well-resourced in- Limitations stitutions, such as commercial banks, that engage in repeat litigation against The project’s global, principle-based one-time users, such as consumers, in perspective was helpful in identifying institutional dispute resolution set- relevant achievements and gaps in ex- tings. Previous studies in respect to isting practice. At the same time, the litigation tend to suggest that “haves” small sample size of the survey pool (i.e., large businesses and financially (n=48) limits the generalizability of well-endowed organizations) tend to the findings. fare better in courts than “have-nots” (Galanter). Therefore, if such disputes III. UNDERSTANDING THE IMPACTS OF are to be effectively addressed, atten- COMMUNITY COHESION ON EFFORTS TO tion to procedural safeguards, aimed GOVERN UNDER CONDITIONS OF CRISIS at addressing structural inequities due to resource disparities in the design Informed by the view that “justice is and development of such systems, is dependent upon universal participa- necessary. tion and action by all members and The survey results showed that agencies of society” (ISGP 10), the practitioners of consumer financial project Governing Disasters: Engaging dispute resolution viewed ombuds Local Populations in Humanitarian Re- processes as particularly useful in pro- lief examined lessons learned in the viding an independent and accessible realm of local engagement in post-di- review service for financial customers. saster response. The service also helped to identify The project analyzed six case stud- areas of systematic risk, including ies of post-disaster governance ex- repeated predatory behaviour on the periences in Haiti, Indonesia, Japan, part of banking institutions, such as Myanmar, Thailand, and New Orleans, their lack of adequate risk disclosures focusing on how organizations at the that could inform regulatory oversight international, state, and public/pri- (Survey 1, July 2011–March 2012). vate levels are learning to engage with Perhaps as a result of such benefits, communities following natural disas- the use of ombuds processes has been ters. It also analyzed input from six- increasing in recent years. At the same ty-nine humanitarian aid and disaster The Power of Reflection 39

response practitioners from eighteen cluster level teams in a decentralized countries and regions to understand system. This cluster system helped to the dynamics, challenges, and lessons overcome tensions between over-cen- learned in a decentralized yet coordi- tralization on the one hand and lack of nated global process of post-disaster oversight on the other. humanitarian assistance.11 In particular, surveyed relief aid workers noted that local-based part- Insights from Reflection nerships in planning lead to a number of positive outcomes, including more The project found that the key to ef- “effective communication”; “better ficacious post-disaster recovery is the long-term sustainability”; “ownership centrality given to local actors in the in work”; “flexibility”; “partnership”; direction and design of relief pro- “trust”; “good relationships with the grams. Where local partnership and community”; and a more “culturally knowledge generation is cohesive, accepted” approach. Yet, the study meaningful, and inclusive, disaster re- found that very few recovery pro- lief efforts are more targeted, cost-ef- grams achieve high levels of partner- fective, efficient, and timely. Specif- ship: only seven percent viewed their ically, the principal finding of the relief program as “highly effective.” survey and follow-up questions was The majority of survey participants a statistically significant correlation viewed their relief program as “gen- between the level of community en- erally or somewhat effective” (six- gagement and perceived effectiveness ty-one percent). The challenges cited of response.12 In particular, where en- by relief workers included: integrat- gagement is robust, relief efforts are ing diverse viewpoints “with various perceived to be more effective than in worldviews and needs”; achieving situations where engagement is weak. unity of action and movement “in Global- and country-level cluster or- the same direction”; lack of situation- ganization—based on the concept of al awareness; corruption and unfair “experimentalist governance” (i.e., distribution of resources; top-down provision of greater discretion to local policies and donor priorities; and prej- actors)—consists of a supervisory au- udice and stereotypes. In addition, in thority originating at the global level some cases, the findings demonstrated that oversees state, regional, and local a misunderstanding of participation. 11 For a complete discussion of this For example, some respondents saw study, see my 2016 book, Governing Disas- participation as “convincing the local ters: Engaging Local Populations in Human- public and government to [get] in- itarian Relief. volved in the programs” and “getting 12 For additional discussion, see my all partners on board with response,” article, “Toward Peer Presence in Post-Di- rather than consulting together on saster Governance: An Empirical Study.” the design and objectives of such 40 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018 programs. One respondent noted that quickly disappear” (Universal House often a response is designed in a way of Justice, letter dated 26 Novem- that is “not necessarily made to meet ber 2012). Building on an existing the real problems of beneficiaries base of community cohesion, “a con- but . . . rather [to] meet the will and sultative climate is encouraged that objectives of [the] donor regarding permits options to be examined dis- bilateral cooperation” (Ali, Governing passionately and appropriate courses Disaster 260). of action selected” (BIC, Prosperity Suggestions for advancing sys- 5). For example, the response of the tems of post-disaster governance community of Daidanaw, Myanmar, included: “systematic decentralized to Cyclone Nargis in 2008 demon- decision-making for response”; plan- strated how long-term patterns of ning based on “real needs of people community consultation enabled it to on the ground using local human and rapidly and effectively respond to the material resources”; “increased mean- disaster. The Local Spiritual Assembly ingful participation”; “integrated but of Daidanaw hosted everyone in the decentralized approach”; “exchang- village to consult about existing needs ing lessons learned”; and “engaging and resources, organizing volunteers local partners with their traditional to draw from reserves to provide food response skills and knowledge.” In and water to community members particular, socio-legal scholars of di- and surrounding villages, with prior- saster studies have found that access to ity given to the elderly and children. meaningful decision-making forums In consultation with the community, amongst local community members a decision was made to “begin a plan remains an important concern, given to reconstruct the homes damaged and that “factors of inequality contribute everyone young and old capable of to producing higher rates of vulnera- helping took turns to offer their help, bility” in disaster contexts and usually cooking, building, [and] carrying reflect “the profound asymmetry that things” (Ali, Governing Disaster 221). divides those who decide from those According to an observer, it was the who will be affected by such decisions” prompt assistance of the Assembly of (Izzo 71). Daidanaw that alleviated most of the In particular, the most advanced pain and distress, as it hosted every- examples of collaborative response one and provided them rice soup and demonstrated that “when an effort is water for two days, preventing even participatory, in the sense that it seeks more deaths. Later, the community be- to involve the people themselves in the gan to assess damage, and succeeded generation and application of knowl- in re-planting crops after obtaining a edge, as all forge together a path of modest loan for the purchase of seeds progress, dualities such as ‘outsider-in- and a tractor that was shared among sider’ and ‘knowledgeable-ignorant’ community members. The Power of Reflection 41

Similarly, in Indonesia, following strategy were completed 18 months the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004, ahead of schedule, produced more out- a community-driven development put, and cost 56 percent less. Overall, (CDD) strategy, which engaged local the CDD projects have rebuilt 140,000 communities and built on existing houses, constructed 2,500 miles of networks, was put in place. Follow- road, and supported 200,000 small and ing an initial investment of time and medium businesses (Amsberg).13 The resources to build capacity for group occupancy rate of housing built by the decision-making, the first step in- CDD project was 97 percent, whereas volved building institutional and social that of similar houses was only about infrastructure, including local coun- 82 percent. Other benefits included cils, in many cases of nine individu- less duplication of efforts, the use of als. “The creation of the community locally procured materials, and trans- councils . . . involve[d] educating the parency—making CDD projects less community about moral leadership prone to corruption.14 and having the council elected on the Unity of action amongst stake- basis of merit and trustworthiness, holders was critical to the process. As which usually result[ed] in the local noted by George Soraya, “this model government elites (who have typical- would not have worked in Aceh and ly exploited community funds in the Jogjakarta if a member of the commu- past) being generally excluded from nities felt dissatisfied or marginalized the councils” (World Bank, qtd. in Ali, in the process. Unity in all aspects of Governing Disaster 86). The result was the process was paramount in achiev- that community members came to see ing effectiveness and efficiency of the themselves more as partners than cus- reconstruction”15 tomers or recipients in a development process. The community councils fa- Limitations cilitated transparency and resource ef- ficiency through comparing a number Given the random nature of disas- of reconstruction proposals submitted ters and multiplicity of players, com- by village members. Rules “require[d] prehensive analysis of governance that any village group submitting a efforts is generally difficult (Drabek proposal must send a delegation of at and McEntire). In addition, the small least two women and one man to the 13 Online statement by Joachim von Kecamatan decision meeting where Amsberg, Country Director for Indonesia villagers presente[d] and decide[d] of the World Bank Group. on which proposals w[ould] be fund- 14 For complete discussion, see my ed” (Ali, Governing Disaster 86). book, Governing Disasters: Engaging Lo- In comparison with programs using cal Populations in Humanitarian Relief. conventional top-down models of re- 15 See: http://blogs.worldbank.org/ construction, projects adopting a CDD eastasiapacific/comment/reply/3398. 42 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

sample size (N=69) does not per- DEVOLVED REFLECTION mit generalizable findings. Rather, AND SYSTEMATIC LEARNING the purpose of the survey and case studies is to offer insights into how It is useful to consider how reflection institutional capacities for community interacts with a broader systematic participation and engagement might learning framework consisting of be built. consultation, action, and study, in contributing to social progress and SUMMARY advancing the reflective process with- in organizations, governance institu- The above projects sought to apply a tions, and research practices. framework of reflective engagment by As noted above, several challenges (1) diversifying research participation have been identified in the context of and collaboration on interview de- devolved governance: the potential of sign, (2) exploring relevant principles replicating and possibly exacerbating to guide analysis, and (3) developing existing representation problems by greater understanding of the impact simply soliciting “input” on existing of community cohesion on efforts to plans rather than originating them govern under conditions of crisis. at the community level (Foster 485); Efforts to apply devolved reflec- the subjectivity of rule-making; the tive practice in dispute resolution danger of getting the moral question research, alongside emerging inter- wrong through unregulated deci- national customary law pertaining to sion-making processes’ vulnerability community participation and develop- to power politics (as advanced through ments in new governance scholarship, special interests, for example); and echo a common concern with com- rendering community resource prob- munity engagement and deliberation. lems “less visible or subject to scru- Such efforts are a useful initial step in tiny, because the farther the process applying principles of reflection in re- is removed from a centralized deci- search and practice settings. Howev- sion-maker, the less accountability er, reflection isolated from a broader there will be” (485). Research has sug- framework of collective study, con- gested that to succeed devolution and sultation, and action inhibits mean- decentralization should include (1) the ingful advancement. Experience has highest possible degree of stakeholder shown that significant advances in participation compatible with effective organizational and governance pro- decision-making (Alexander, “Reflec- grams result from reflective practice tions” 740–41),16 (2) ensuring partic- woven into a wider tapestry of study, ipants have the necessary skills for consultation, and action, which will be participation (Alexander, “Reflections” discussed in the final section. 16 See my article “Measuring Success in Devolved Collaboration.” The Power of Reflection 43

740–41), (3) the development of mana- interconnection between individual gerial and procedural safeguards (Sal- and collective advancement. amon 1611), and (4) ensuring stake- A statement on social action pre- holder participation in conditions of pared by the Office of Social and adversity and wider social conflict (Al- Economic Development at the Bahá’í exander, “Reflections” 740–41). Work World Centre (OSED) notes that the in global experimentalist governance first stage of “reading society and likewise hypothesizes that all five el- formulating a vision” involves “under- ements of a governance regime—(1) standing . . . the nature and state of initial reflection and discussion, (2) society, its challenges, the institutions articulation of a framework, (3) imple- operating in it, the forces influencing mentation and adaptation at local lev- it, and the capacities of its peoples” els, (4) feedback from local contexts, (OSED 11). This does not necessarily and (5) re-evaluation and revision of “involve formal studies.” Rather, “con- goals where appropriate—must oper- ditions need to be understood progres- ate together in order to “constitute a sively, both from the perspective of a form of governance that fosters a nor- particular endeavour’s purpose and in matively desirable form of deliberative the context of a vision of humanity’s and participatory problem solving” (de collective existence” (11). Burca, Keohane and Sabel 2). In contrast to common notions Reflection alone is insufficient to of participation—as providing input contribute to social progress since this rather than originating plans within act, when disengaged from action and the community, and as bifurcating “in- study, provides no arena in which to siders” and “outsiders”—the process test and revise understanding. Rather, of reading society and formulating a reflection forms one component of a vision “from within . . . seeks to involve broader framework consisting of (1) the people themselves in the genera- studying, reading society, and formu- tion and application of knowledge . . . lating a vision; (2) consultation; and (3) [A]ll forge together a path of prog- action and reflection on action, which ress, [and] dualities such as ‘outsid- together contribute to the achievement er-insider’ and ‘knowledgeable-igno- of social justice and organizational rant’ quickly disappear” (OSED 11). advancement (OSED). For the past The concept of insiders and outsiders twenty or so years, the Bahá’í com- in many instances continues to be munity has been engaged in a process used in global resolutions concern- of capacity-building at the local level ing humanitarian sector participation, to strengthen capabilities for consul- as they try determine the identity of tation and decision-making, drawing individuals qualified as locals (Pouli- on principles including the equality of gny). Yet, such concepts often create women and men, unity in diversity, the false barriers between individuals who independent search for truth, and the seek to contribute to the betterment 44 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

of a given community. Such individ- one another animate participants in uals, regardless of origin, can “be a the consultative process. What they source of strength, contributing in- seek, rather, is the power of unified novative ideas and local knowledge thought and action” (12). This princi- which, when mobilised and used ap- ple has direct implications for achiev- propriately, can lead to solutions that ing cohesive community participation can make a fundamental contribution and overcoming conditions of social to community life” (Tran et al. 152). conflict. To overcome the danger of get- Describing the interplay between ting moral questions wrong through justice, unity, and consultation, caving in to power politics, in reading Bahá’u’lláh, writing in the mid-1800s, society, community members jointly stated that “no man can attain his true formulate a vision. This vision, ac- station except through his justice. No cording to the OSED’s “Statement on power can exist except through unity. Social Action,” “express[es] a general No welfare and no well-being can be idea of how goals are to be achieved: attained except through consultation” the nature of the strategies to be de- (qtd. in BIC, Prosperity 8). The Insti- vised, the approaches to be taken, the tute for Studies in Global Prosperity attitudes to be assumed, and . . . some (ISGP) further observes that “the re- of the methods to be employed” (11). alization of justice is dependent upon Such a vision, over time, becomes universal participation and action “more and more precise” and “able to among all members and agencies of accommodate constantly evolving and society” (10). Consultation has the po- ever more complex action” (11). tential to bestow “greater awareness The second stage, involving con- and transmut[e] conjecture into cer- sultation amongst members of a com- titude” (Bahá’u’lláh, qtd. in Universal munity, may be applied in “analysing House of Justice, Promise 12). It is a a specific problem, attaining higher “cause of awareness and of awakening degrees of understanding on a given and a source of good and well-being” issue, or exploring possible courses (Bahá’u’lláh, qtd. in Compilation 93) of action” (OSED 12). In each case, and a process that makes manifest “consultation may be seen as collective the “maturity of the gift of under- search for truth” (12). It is understood standing” (93). It has been described that “participants in a consultative by the Universal House of Justice “as process see reality from different the means by which agreement is to points of view, and as these views are be reached and a collective course of examined and understood, clarity is action defined” (letter dated 24 Janu- achieved” (12). From this perspective, ary 1993). Promoting reflection and “truth is not a compromise between participation, the consultative process opposing interest groups. Nor does aims to be “substantive and creative; the desire to exercise power over it must allow the people themselves The Power of Reflection 45 access to knowledge and encourage to express their views. They must in them to apply it” (ISGP 7). At times, every matter search out the truth and consultation might be exploratory, not insist upon their own opinion, for advisory, or decisional in nature (Karl- stubbornness and persistence in one’s berg, “Media”). The process is not an views will lead ultimately to discord and “end in itself,” but rather a means for wrangling and the truth will remain “heightening collective consciousness, hidden” (45:1). Finally, the members and fostering unified action” (Razavi, who are consulting “should behave in “Bahá’í Participation”). The ISGP has the utmost love, harmony and sincerity identified capabilities needed for effec- towards each other” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, qtd. tive participation: to “think systemat- in Compilation 96) and be characterized ically in understanding problems and by “purity of motive, radiance of searching for solutions; use methods spirit, [and] detachment from all of decision-making that are non-ad- else” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections 43:1). versarial and inclusive; [and] contrib- Consultation is described as a “spiritual ute to the effective design and manage- conference” and “not the mere voicing ment of community projects” (7). of personal views” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, As noted above, consultation is not a Promulgation 72). It should “have for its process of mobilizing support, pushing object the attainment of the light of an idea, manipulating information to truth upon questions presented and not show it in the best light, or adhering to furnish a battleground for opposition a strict set of procedures. Rather, the and self-opinion” (72). outcome of true consultation depends The interrelationship between con- on the spiritual condition of those sultation and reflection ensures that involved. In particular, members of a decision-making “benefit[s] from a di- consultative group “must take counsel versity of perspectives through a con- together in such wise that no occasion sultative process which, understood as for ill-feeling or discord may arise. This the collective investigation of reality, can be attained when every member promotes detachment from personal expresseth with absolute freedom views, gives due importance to valid his own opinion and setteth forth his empirical information, [and] does not argument. Should any one oppose, he raise mere opinion to the status of must on no account feel hurt for not fact or define truth as the compromise until matters are fully discussed can between opposing interest groups” the right way be revealed. The shining (Universal House of Justice, letter spark of truth cometh forth only dated 2 March 2013, 4). A key concern after the clash of differing opinions” is learning “how to maintain such a (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections 44:1). Further, mode of learning in action, how to en- members of a consultative group must sure that growing numbers participate “proceed with the utmost devotion, in the generation and application of courtesy, dignity, care and moderation relevant knowledge and how to devise 46 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

structures for the systemization of an been able to respond in times of crisis expanding worldwide experience and by “tak[ing] meaningful and effective for the equitable distribution of the steps to respond and recover” (BIC, lessons learned” (4). In particular, “as “Rising”). effort is made to welcome increasing An example of a cohesive, resilient numbers into thoughtful discussion community response resulting from on the direction of their collective de- an ongoing process of learning in ac- velopment, decision-making processes tion may be found in the activities of become more consultative and partic- the Tanna, Vanuatu, Bahá’í communi- ipatory . . . [and] leaders are enabled ty following Cyclone Pam in 2015. Af- to better analyze specific problems, at- ter most of the homes in the affected tain deeper understanding of complex region were destroyed, participants in issues, and evaluate courses of action the junior youth empowerment pro- with clarity and impartiality” (BIC, gram quickly mobilized to clear the “Rising”). fields of debris, dry out all of the text- The type of consultation described books at the school, and visit homes to here requires developing a number of assess conditions. Community-based interrelated capacities through con- consultation, guided by a common vi- certed efforts on the part of individ- sion from study of a Bahá’í Interna- uals and communities. Changing old tional Community statement on long- habits of debate, conflict, and violence term development and energized by and establishing new principles of daily devotions, resulted in efficient, initiative, detachment, and collabora- unified home rebuilding efforts, be- tion requires patience and a long-term ginning with those of the elderly and commitment (Ruhi, “Overview”). Ca- concluding with the school and other pacity-building materials developed community spaces. The spirit of co- by the Ruhi Institute oriented toward operation and service inspired fellow community betterment, which incor- community members to arise to assist porate the development of knowledge, in the reconstruction process (Sonjel). attitudes, and skills associated with At the level of global reflection consultative processes, have been de- and discourse, new approaches to so- scribed as exerting a “vital” influence cio-economic development by stake- on individual and collective transfor- holders increasingly draw on con- mation (OSED). Such materials are sultative principles to raise questions currently being used in local settings; “about the salient assumptions . . . of numerous communities, drawing on ca- the development process and to iden- pabilities of consultation, selflessness, tify avenues of research and action in higher motivation, and creativity and relation to those questions” (Weinberg “operat[ing] in a mode of learning— “Contributions” 191). Such a process characterized by regular and ongoing recognizes that ethical and social reflection on efforts undertaken,” have values lie at the heart of individual The Power of Reflection 47 and collective ordering (Weinberg, since “in many ways our minds are “Contributions”; Heller) and views involved in constructing the world stakeholders not as “beneficiaries” we find ourselves in. Our perceptions but rather as active “protagonists of and the concepts we hold determine development” (Arbab, “Promoting the social reality we see and create” a Discourse” 213). Exemplifying ef- (“Identity” 74). Shared understand- forts to apply consultative processes ings of concepts such as social equity, in socio-economic development in on- human security, power, the common line-offline spaces, an initiative in Tai- good, or community evolve through “a wan, “vTaiwan,” promotes meaningful dynamic process of learning, dialogue, deliberation among large numbers and praxis in which social challenges of participants on matters of social and solutions are constantly rede- concern. vTaiwan has been used to fined and reassessed . . . By building facilitate conversations on the regu- a broader framework of analysis that lation of a range of social concerns, encompasses not only material and including offensive online images, technical variables but the normative ride-sharing services, and financial and spiritual dimensions of various technology. Its “focused conversa- social issues, new insights can emerge tion” method consists of collectively that enrich dialogues previously locked defining objectives, crowd-sourcing into narrow conceptual boundaries” the development and ordering of the (82–83). agenda, reflection in a virtual space Complementing processes of study, through sharing input and feedback, reflection, and consultation is the stage interpretation of findings, and deci- of “action and reflection on action,” sion-making. Stakeholders contribute which involves both systematic action to the interpretation of data and po- and constant reflection to “ensure that tential lines of inquiry by reviewing [an activity] continues to serve the and discussing them through a web- aims of the endeavour” (OSED 12). site, meetings, and hackathons. As of Evaluation, while useful, is not suffi- February 2018, twenty-six cases had cient to serve the requirements of a been discussed through the platform, structured reflection process “through with eighty percent resulting in con- which questions can emerge and meth- crete policy action (vTaiwan). ods and approaches . . . [be] adjusted” Of direct importance in achieving (12). Beyond evaluation of distinct impactful outcomes through collective indicators—which often focuses on reflection is the creation of shared measuring narrow technical results, is meanings and attitudes about social influenced by governance structures, reality, which paves the way for con- and exerts a corresponding influence structive action. This creation requires on such structures in their conceptual- a process of transforming “habits of ization of problems (Davis 73–74)—a thought,” as described by Weinberg, more critical point of analysis is the 48 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

advancement of social, technical, and CONCLUSION ethical capacity-building. The entire learning process, defy- This paper has explored “devolved ing the new governance categories of reflection” as a mode of reflective or- “either ‘top-down’ or ‘bottom-up’” ap- ganizational practice, as an emerging proaches, is characterized by “reciproc- legal principle and norm of interna- ity and interconnectedness” (OSED tional law, as an analytic and norma- 6–7). For example, as “a group of peo- tive framework for new governance ple working at the grassroots begins policy, as an applied reflective research to gain experience in social action, methodology, and as a component of a the first lessons learned may consist wider tapestry of consultation, action, of little more than occasional stories, and study. In exploring the application anecdotes, and personal accounts” (6). of this framework, it examined les- However, “over time, patterns tend to sons learned from research into how emerge which can be documented and local engagement both responds to carefully analysed” by local adminis- and shapes global norms in an effort trative institutions that extend beyond to enhance access to justice. It drew “opinion or the mere collection of on insights from work highlighting various experiences” (6). At the same the roles that engaged participation time, such learning processes, to be and shared knowledge generation effective, are connected “to a global play in facilitating conditions condu- process” with structures “at all levels, cive to dynamic advancement within from the local to the international, to governance systems—whether in facilitate learning about development” the form of community engagement (6). At the international level, “such with consumer financial institutions, learning calls for a degree of concep- cross-border arbitration, or post-di- tualization that takes into account the saster governance initiatives. I hope, broader processes of global transfor- thus, to have highlighted the relevance mation underway and which serves to of reflective engagement, as well as its adjust the overall direction of devel- potential to contribute to institutional opment activities accordingly” (6). In advancement and collective knowl- order to do this, the OSED serves as edge generation when carried out “a learning entity dedicated to the sys- within a broader systematic context tematization of a growing worldwide of study, consultation, and action. experience” and as a conduit to “dis- seminate the knowledge thus generat- ed, strengthening structures for this purpose and lending impetus to the process of learning at all levels” (6).

The Power of Reflection 49

WORKS CITED

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Hamm, Brigitte I. “A Human Rights Approach to Development.” Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 23, 2001, pp. 1005–31. Heller, Wendy. “The Religious Foundations of Civil Society” (Part 1 and 2). The Journal of Bahá’í Studies, vol. 10, nos. 1–2 and 3–4, 2000. ITC (International Teaching Centre). Insights from the Frontiers of Learning. Bahá’í World Centre, 2013. ISGP (Institute for Studies in Global Prosperity). Science, Religion, and Development: Some Initial Considerations. www.globalprosperity.org/ documents/ISGP_Science_Religion_and_Development_Some_Initial_ Considerations.pdf. Izzo, Valerio Nitrato, “Law, State and the Politics of Catastrophes: A Critical Perspective on Epiphanies of Injustice and the Need for Protection” in Sterett, Susan, Ed. Disaster and Sociolegal Studies, Onati Socio-Legal Se- ries, Quid Pro Books, 2013. Karlberg, Michael. Beyond the Culture of Contest: From Adversarialism to Mutualism in an Age of Interdependence. George Ronald Publishers Ltd, 2004. ———. “Media and Public Discourse: Normative Foundations.” in Religion and Public Discourse in an Age of Transition: Reflections on Bahá’í Practice and Thought. (Geoffrey Cameron and Benjamin Schewel, Editors). Associa- tion for Bahá’í Studies / Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2018. Krygier, Martin. “Foreword.” In Philip Selznick, A Humanist Science: Values and Ideals in Social Inquiry. Stanford University Press, 2008. Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. U of Chicago P, 1962. Laloux, Frederic. Reinventing Organizations: A Guide to Creating Organizations In- spired by the Next Stage of Human Consciousness. Nelson Parker, 2014. Lample, Paul. Creating a New Mind: Reflections on the Individual, the Institutions and the Community. Palabra Publications, 1999. Laszlo, Ervin. Vision 2020: Reordering Chaos for Global Survival. Gordon and Breach, 1994. Lobel, Orly. “The Renew Deal: The Fall of Regulation and the Rise of Gover- nance in Contemporary Legal Thought.” Minnesota Law Review, vol. 89, 2004, pp. 341–82. Manning Thomas, June. Planning Progress: Lessons from Shoghi Effendi. Associa- tion for Bahá’í Studies, 1999. Lee, Myungsuk. “Conceptualizing the New Governance: A New Institution of Social Coordination,” Institutional Analysis and Development Mini-Con- ference, May 3–5, 2003, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Noveck, Beth. “The Single Point of Failure.” in S. van der Hof and M. Groothuis (Eds.), Innovating Government. Asserr Press. (2011): 77–99. Nonet, Philippe, and Philip Selznick. Law and Society in Transition: Toward Re- sponsive Law, 1st ed. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2001. 52 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

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The Universal House of Justice. Letter dated 24 January 1993. ———. Letter dated 9 January 2001. ———. Letter dated 27 December 2005. ———. Letter dated 28 December 2010. ———. Letter dated 2 March 2013. ———. The Promise of World Peace. ———. Ridván Message 1996. ———. Ridván Message 2010. ———. Ridván Message 2016. Tran, Phong, Rajib Shaw, Guillaume Chantry, and John Norton. “GIS and Local Knowledge in Disaster Management: A Case Study of Flood Risk Map- ping in Viet Nam” Disasters 33(1) (2009): 152–69. Twining, William. Globalization and Legal Theory, Law in Context. Butterworths, 2000. ———. “Have Concepts, Will Travel: Analytical Jurisprudence in a Global Context.” International Journal of Law in Context. vol. 1, no. 1, 2005, pp. 5–40. Valentinov, V.L. “Toward a Social Capital Theory of Cooperative Organization.” Journal of Cooperative Studies, vol. 37, no. 3, 2004, pp. 5–20. van der Heijden, Jeroen. Looking Forward and Sideways: Trajectories of New Gov- ernance Theory. General Subserie Research Paper No. 2013-01. dx.doi. org/10.2139/ssrn.2204524. vTaiwan. “Where do we go as a society?” info.vtaiwan.tw. Accessed 1 Apr. 2019. Weinberg, Matthew. “Contributions to International Development Discourse: Exploring the Roles of Science and Religion.” in Religion and Public Dis- course in an Age of Transition: Reflections on Bahá’í Practice and Thought (Geoffrey Cameron and Benjamin Schewel, Editors). Association for Bahá’í Studies / Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2018. ———. “Identity, Discourse, and Policy: Reconstructing the Public Sphere.” The Journal of Bahá’í Studies, vol. 21, no. 1-4, 2011, pp. 73–98. Welsh, Nancy. “Magistrate Judges, Settlement, and Procedural Justice.” Nevada Law Journal, vol. 16, no. 3, 2016. Woolcock, M., “Social Capital and Economic Development: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis and Policy Framework.” Theory and Society, vol. 27, no. 2, 1998, pp. 151–208. World Bank Group. Understanding and Measuring Social Capital: A Synthesis of Findings and Recommendations from the Social Capital Initiative. http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOCIALCAPITAL/Resources/ Social-Capital-Initiative-Working-Paper-Series/SCI-WPS-24.pdf ———. The World Bank at Aceh, Indonesia: A Model for Community-Driven Devel- opment. 54 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

The Ministry of Happiness April, 1968

NINA ISRAEL ZUCKER

The United Arab Emirates is the first Muslim country to appoint a minister of happiness, and she is charged with policies to ensure the happiness of all people.

The dog escaped into the middle of the road, a car ran her over in front of me, her legs under the wheels, the doors opening, the cries of the pup, the ambulance that takes me away with her in my arms, the splints that attach to her mangled legs, to set the bones in some order that makes sense to the vet, but seems impossible to me. I am humming, We shall overcome, we shall overcome, because that is what we sang in 1968 to our teacher, Mrs. Poyer, when she came into our classroom of 32 children, refugees, escapees, first-generations. How can these splintered bones knit themselves back to a whole, like yarn left outside on a porch, now the feral cats’ toy, inciting or tamping the urge to hunt. There is no ministry of happiness yet. There is no dog. I know I went to school with bows in my hair, later a mess of paint and sweat and wild eyes, and while you made yourself into something beautiful, your feet on the ground, or barely, we made our teacher cry, by singing and walking together. 55

las respuestas son excedentemente más Lessons in complejas y requieren un cambio comple- to de pensamiento, orientación y compor- Leadership tamiento que nos incluyen. Este ensayo es sobre un viaje personal de aprendizaje MAY KHADEM acerca del liderazgo el cual revela suposi- ciones falsas ampliamente compartidas Abstract que han llevado a muchos fuera de rumbo As individual health professionals and al atender los desafíos en la lucha contra institutions struggle to address health la ceguera. disparities worldwide, it becomes in- creasingly apparent that the answers are Despite the trillions of dollars spent exceedingly complex and require a com- on addressing health challenges in the plete change in thinking, orientation, and world over the past several decades, behavior that includes ourselves. This pa- the problems of extreme poverty, per is about a personal journey of learn- hunger, disease, and social injustice ing about leadership that reveals widely remain dire. The world has failed to shared false assumptions that have led address the well-recognized major many off course in addressing the chal- global issues of our time—climate lenges in the fight against blindness as change, pollution, economic failure, well as other public health concerns. extreme inequality, homelessness, and Résumé violence, among many others. Au fur et à mesure que les professionnels According to the World Economic de la santé et les institutions s’efforcent Forum’s 2015 “Survey on the Global de remédier aux inégalités en matière de Agenda,” a surprising eighty-six per- santé dans le monde, il devient de plus en cent of respondents perceived a global plus clair que les réponses sont extrême- crisis in leadership. The most distrust- ment complexes et exigent un change- ed were religious leaders, followed by ment radical de nos façons de penser, de leaders in government, business, and nos orientations et de nos comportements. non-governmental agencies (14–16). Le présent document décrit un chemine- Even heads of charitable organiza- ment personnel d’apprentissage du lead- tions were suspect, with only half of ership qui dévoile de fausses hypothèses the respondents showing confidence largement répandues qui ont mené bien in them. Among the key ingredients des gens à faire fausse route en tentant de relever les défis qui se posent dans la lutte identified for successful leadership contre la cécité. were morality, prioritization of social justice, empathy, collaboration, cour- Resumen age, a global perspective, long-term A medida que individuos profesionales de planning, and good communication la salud e instituciones luchan por atender skills (14–16). Ironically, when the disparidades de salud alrededor del mun- World Health Organization (WHO) do, se vuelve cada vez más aparente que evaluated its initiative “Health for All 56 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

by the Year 2000,”1 a global plan to solution seemed very simple to me— provide primary healthcare to all the go to these countries, find the blind world’s citizens, the initiative itself people, and cure them! was deemed a failure—not because of Well, I have since learned that all lack of resources or know-how, but is not so simple. In fact, respond- for lack of “moral leadership” (WHO, ing to such a problem is exceedingly “Report” 7). complicated. As it turns out, it is not When I started my career as a sufficient that individuals be treated; young ophthalmologist, I was very rather, whole systems must simulta- idealistic. I knew there was a lot of un- neously be transformed. And to treat necessary blindness in the world, and I problems at a systemic level, one needs wanted to be part of the solution. At unity of vision and purpose. In short, the time—in the early 1990s—it was the key to bringing about a solution is estimated that there were 45 million leadership. To support this argument, blind people and another 200 million I would like to share my journey of with low vision (WHO, “Vision 2020” learning about leadership over more 3). These numbers have not changed than thirty years of work, spanning significantly over the past few decades thirteen projects in ten different (WHO, “Blindness: Vision 2020”). countries. Most visual impairment—almost eighty percent—is avoidable; that is, it EMBARKING ON A JOURNEY is either curable or preventable (WHO, “Blindness and Vision Impairment”). I started my career working for the “What an opportunity,” I thought. I International Eye Foundation in a presumed that surely those dedicated project funded by USAID2 in the Ca- to the fight against blindness should ribbean island nation of Grenada, a be able to address its leading causes tiny country less than ten by twenty worldwide. Since half of blindness miles with a population of 100,000. was due to cataracts and a simple op- After the United States invaded the eration could restore sight, at least this country in the mid-1980s, the lo- particular cause could be easily treat- cal infrastructure had to be rebuilt. ed. The global blindness prevention The project in which I was involved community had knowledge and skills, sought to create and make sustainable and all that was needed was to mobi- a national eye care system from the lize these resources. Since most of the ground up. Almost ninety percent of people blinded by cataracts lived in 2 United States Agency for Inter- poor and middle-income countries, the national Development, an independent 1 For more details, please see the World agency of the US federal government that Health Organization’s “Declaration of is primarily responsible for administer- Alma-Ata.” International Conference on ing civilian foreign aid and development Primary Health Care, 1978. assistance. Lessons in Leadership 57 blindness and visual impairment in the While the inhabitants accepted it, they world occurs in low and middle-in- understandably resented it. We had come countries where fewer resources never before witnessed such distrust are available, and Grenada was such of foreigners, sometimes even man- a country (WHO, “Vision 2020” 3). ifested as open hostility. It surprised There, I learned that it is possible to us, but it also forced us to re-examine transform an entire healthcare system our assumptions. We learned our first and make it sustainable. Grenada went important lesson there. from being a country with no modern eye care to one in which comprehen- Lesson 1: Charity is not a long-term sive eye services became available— solution. It has a role in times of cri- and are still functioning to this day. sis and for disaster relief, but to use it At the time, I wasn’t really sure what long-term is harmful. It disempowers the essential prerequisites for success local resources, creates dependency, were, but the experience changed the and strips people of their dignity. course of my life. When I returned to the United I have come to believe that in many States almost three years later, I joined cases, sustained charity is like giv- an ophthalmology practice in Chica- ing sugar to a diabetic who is having go, but my heart was still taken with a hypoglycemic episode. It may be health development in areas of need. life-saving in the short term, but it And so, for the next two years, togeth- exacerbates the illness if continued er with some colleagues, I made short long-term. When we reflected on our visits to the Turks and Caicos Islands learning with other like-minded col- and to Guyana to offer services where leagues, we realized that we shared resources were lacking. many experiences. We tried to imag- Turks and Caicos was particularly ine what a Bahá’í-inspired effort might underserved: eye care, and eye sur- look like. How would the approach gery in particular, were only available to health development be different if intermittently through the Interna- it were informed by the vision of the tional Eye Foundation (the sponsor of oneness of humanity and the imper- my work in Grenada),3 which would ative of social justice? In 1991, we recruit ophthalmologists to travel had the opportunity to make a trip there for surgery every six months to Albania just after the government or so. This method of ministering to had transitioned from a dictatorship eye care in Turks and Caicos had been that had kept it isolated from the rest going on for years; the country was of the world for over fifty years. We totally dependent on foreign charity. assembled a group of three physicians 3 Details regarding the work of this in different specialties (a pediatrician, foundation can be found on its website: a dermatologist, and an ophthal- www.iefusa.org. mologist), together with a teacher, a 58 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

nutritionist, and a businessman, and in this space did: a combination of went on a fact-finding mission to Al- charity and technical assistance. At bania, hoping to find opportunities for the time, “capacity-building” was the service where we might experiment new buzzword among organizations with a different model. Meanwhile, working in development. It sounded one of the colleagues we were con- great, but in reality, it was reduced to sulting with had been a volunteer in “technical transfer of knowledge,”— Honduras at Hospital Bayan, also a still an improvement over the tradi- Bahá’í-inspired initiative, and encour- tional model, whereby visiting experts aged us to collaborate more closely would provide all the care. with that institution. We had also been One of Health for Humanity’s ini- encouraged by then-member of the tiatives had developed into a ten-year Universal House of Justice Dr. David project5 to help develop eye services Ruhe to collaborate with the Bahá’í in Albania, which, due to its fifty-year community in Guyana in their efforts isolation, still had services and in- to provide health services for the Am- stitutions pre-dating World War II. erindian population in the Rupununi Through this project, we got busy region of Guyana. As these oppor- providing training by sending volun- tunities developed into projects, the teers to Albania to offer it locally and need to formalize our efforts resulted by sending the local ophthalmologists in the founding in 1992 of Health for abroad for more specialized versions. Humanity, a Bahá’í-inspired health de- We equipped six eye centers (Tirana, velopment organization. Vlorë, Peshkopi, Shkodër, Korçë, and We began by applying for grants Elbasan) so that the entire country and undertook efforts to address a would have access to eye care services. variety of health concerns, including We also helped to develop a resident the leading causes of blindness. Based training program at the University on our past experiences and through Eye Hospital in Tirana. study of others’ learnings,4 we ap- Throughout the project, we noticed preciated the fact that we had to focus problems: some equipment ended on building local capacity rather than up in places we did not intend, some creating dependency on charity. The went missing, and local decision-mak- problem was that we really did not ing favored nepotism and short-term know how to go about doing this. We agendas. If we were to bring about did what most organizations working meaningful transformation, some- 4 In particular, we read messages on thing was missing. It seemed to us an social and economic development written ethical framework that all could agree by the Universal House of Justice in 1983 to might protect the project from and 1993, as well as guidance from the Of- 5 Funded mostly by the Open Society fice of Social and Economic Development Institute (www.opensocietyfoundations. at the Bahá’í World Centre. org), as well as a number of smaller donors. Lessons in Leadership 59

these problems, but at the time, we did our program. Although several proj- not know how to achieve this. This is ects received this training, we had to when we learned our next important face the fact that we did not have an lesson. effective way to measure its impact or a means whereby we could incorporate Lesson 2: “Capacity-building” is not it in a systematic way. Our work in this just technical transfer of knowledge. arena was thus a bit haphazard. We re- ally did not have a deep insight into its Halfway through the project, we came transformative power until ten years across the work of Dr. Eloy Anello later, when we did an evaluation of the and the training in “moral leadership” Albania Eye Project at its termination, he developed at Nur University, which reviewing the work at the six eye cen- he had founded in rural Bolivia.6 The ters and interviewing doctors, nurses, training he had instigated was struc- residents, and patients to understand tured to help participants explore the changes that had occurred. their assumptions about leadership, The first thing we noticed was that human nature, and dysfunctional ways the doctors we had trained had become of thinking that interfere with mean- quite prosperous, with beautiful homes ingful progress. Once participants de- and luxurious lifestyles. Eye services velop these insights, they are assisted were available throughout the coun- in embracing those particular ethical try, and the ophthalmologists were principles that will become a founda- well-trained. Albanians could receive tion for their work. We all felt this quality eye care at centers accessible conceptual framework might help us. to them, and the cataract surgery rate Consequently, with the help of Dr. had increased more than twentyfold. Anello (and of his colleagues),7 we Some patients were even coming from began to introduce this training into nearby Kosovo and Macedonia for the Albania Eye Project and into a treatment. Naturally, we deemed all new project we had just undertaken to this to be a propitious result. combat river blindness in Cameroon. But we also learned about anoth- The participants’ response to this er outcome that was, instead, very training was very enthusiastic, even disturbing. Those receiving this care quite moving. As a result, we became were the same people who used to get convinced that this framework for it in nearby countries, such as Greece training would be a helpful addition to or Italy. In other words, those who 6 For details, please visit www.nur.edu. could afford the services were the ones 7 We are greatly indebted to Charles who had access. However, the people Howard and John Kepner for their dedi- who could not afford to pay—the very cated assistance with this training for the populace we were most concerned staff in Chicago and for projects in Alba- about—were still not receiving care. nia, Cameroon, Mongolia, and Argentina. The problem of avoidable blindness, 60 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

while perhaps somewhat less urgent, its incorporation into the nursing was still very much a problem! school curriculum. Then, in the course of interview- We were so excited to learn about ing the staff we had worked with, the training’s impact that we re-in- we had a breakthrough. At the end terviewed the attending doctors and of every interview, we would ask if residents. One former resident told us: they wished to share anything we had not specifically asked about. The head The training completely changed nurse told us: the way we worked. Before, we didn’t even know each other’s The leadership training changed names and everyone was competi- my life; it was the best part of the tive and private with information. project . . . You gave the nurses After, we saw that it is better value. It helped us to appreci- for us to help each other and to ate ourselves . . . After that, I share information. We were much changed my style of communica- happier after and learned more. tion with those under me. They (Health for Humanity) saw a difference in me and they liked it. It changed them too. However, a senior doctor summed up They work differently now. Since the sentiments of his colleagues by I changed my behavior with my saying, “It was like a good movie. It subordinates, they changed their was great at the time, but when it was behavior with each other and over, it was over” (Health for Humani- with the patients. It was a new ty). Since the nurses, the ones with the experience . . . . The way we orga- least agency in the healthcare hierar- nize our work changed complete- chy, were most impacted by the train- ly . . . . We never used to prepare ing, and the senior doctors the least, the patients for surgery. We never we concluded that the impact was in- said anything to them. We talk to versely proportional to the degree of patients now. We explain every- agency people had. The residents felt thing and answer their questions. the impact, though to a lesser degree We have a new relationship with than the nurses. The senior doctors each other and with the patients. only recalled a pleasant memory, but it Even the doctors are happier. We did not change their behavior. have a new vision now . . . and it What we had witnessed seemed is growing as we learn more . . . to be a powerful way to mobilize the (Health for Humanity) talents of the entire workforce. We came to believe that if this kind of He told us he had provided the moral training were intimately woven into leadership training for his staff and he all aspects of medical and surgical even took the initiative of arranging training, it could help create a shared Lessons in Leadership 61 ethical/moral framework that all Health for Humanity. The survey was would be more likely to honor. Clear- sent out to 147 individuals. Of these, ly, without such a framework to guide sixty-one responded, a 41% return. decision-making, healthcare workers’ The survey results showed that of the technical skills and knowledge would total respondents, 93% felt that moral not necessarily benefit their communi- values were essential to their success; ty. In some instances, they might even 83% said effective leadership is a sig- cause harm if used for personal gain nificant challenge for them; 66% stated at the expense of patients’ welfare. that technical training failed to deliver And so it was that we encountered the the desired results; 54% were having next lesson in this organic process of significant problems with honesty learning about building capacity. and trustworthiness; and 32% said their projects were struggling or not Lesson 3: True capacity-building has effective at all. Almost all stated that an indispensable spiritual dimension. some equipment or funds were divert- ed to unintended uses in their projects. Throughout this period, Health for When asked to rate the ingredients for Humanity was collaborating with success, 74% rated moral values and eth- WHO and with the International ical behavior as the most important and Agency for the Prevention of Blind- surgical skill and academic knowledge ness (IAPB)8 and sharing learning as the least important! When asked to with other non-governmental orga- prioritize ingredients for success, the nizations working in this area. We top three were strong core values, ser- met annually and reviewed progress vice orientation, and honesty. These toward the goal of an initiative called respondents were the global leaders in “Vision 2020: The Right to Sight,” their field and, to our amazement, they a global plan for the elimination of were forthrightly acknowledging that avoidable blindness by the year 2020.9 moral values are indispensable to success We were curious about the expe- in addressing public health challenges! rience of other organizations, so we Clearly, what we were experiencing sent out a survey to the institutional was shared among other organizations members of IAPB. At the time, IAPB working in health development, and had ninety-four institutional members, very likely was common in interna- eighty of which were non-governmen- tional development in general. When tal organizations, including our own we shared the survey results with the 8 A multilateral organization that IAPB member institutions, we were collaborates with WHO to oversee and invited to offer the leadership training coordinate efforts to eliminate avoidable to these organizations at the agency’s blindness. next quadrennial General Assembly, 9 https://www.who.int/blindness/ in Argentina in 2008. The anecdotal partnerships/vision2020/en/. stories we heard, together with the 62 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

survey results and the unexpected in- resistance we felt made us question terest from member organizations and whether change, let alone transforma- from multilateral agencies, convinced tion, was even possible. However, we us that there is a great need for this reminded ourselves that it was a pro- kind of training. We now had the ob- cess, perhaps slow in the beginning, jective evidence. but gradually transformative as people found their voice and began to claim Lesson 4: There is growing consensus their agency. among leaders in health development We saw evidence of this change that without the moral/ethical di- two years later when one of the doc- mension, development efforts will not tors from Mongolia shared the follow- succeed. ing comments in her presentation at the 2008 IAPB General Assembly: Meanwhile, just as the Albania project ended, Health for Humanity received This training was totally different funding to carry out a more modest from others, as we had had only project to train cataract surgeons in technical assistance from different Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. We were in- NGOs. We always talked about creasingly convinced that values-based academic knowledge [and] clini- training had to be intimately inte- cal and surgical training, but the grated into the project so we tried to importance of changing attitudes weave it into all activities. We used the and behaviors in order to achieve materials developed by Dr. Anello and something had not been consid- translated the manual into Mongolian. ered. So, the training made many At the time, Mongolia’s healthcare people think about who we are, system had a deeply entrenched au- what we are doing, and where we thoritarian style of leadership. One want to be . . . I think the most person made all the decisions, and ev- important impact of the training eryone else deferred. Nevertheless, we was that people started to express were able to convince the director of their views. Before, it was rare to the eye department that the training hear anyone share what they truly would be helpful to everyone, includ- felt in the larger group. There was ing her. She gave her blessing and a fear to talk about the real situa- even participated, but it was not easy tion. But after the training, we felt for her. like we got new eyes to see things After decades—maybe even cen- around us. Now at the different turies—of passivity when it came meetings, those who participated to expressing individual opinions or in the trainings are not afraid to problem-solving, it was very hard to express how they really feel . . . engage the doctors, and very hard Now, we make decisions through for the boss to share authority. The consultation within the group Lessons in Leadership 63

and try to include all the doctors training in our development efforts. . . . After the second training, ten However, we were still experiment- ophthalmologists from different ing. We had not yet standardized the hospitals in Ulaanbaatar decided training. But we had learned that a to meet regularly to solve prob- spiritual framework, when combined lems and make decisions . . . . with the capacity for consultation, be- comes a powerful force for change and We were thrilled. They had learned transformation. about consultation! This one capaci- ty was by far the most vital tool for Lesson 6: The outcome of a spir- learning and problem-solving. Now itual framework applied through they were unstoppable, and we had consultation is measurable systemic learned another lesson regarding the transformation. training program. When work is informed by spiritu- Lesson 5: Consultation is the most al principles and learning is applied powerful means for continuous learn- through consultation, the resulting ing and improvement. change is apparent in both quantifi- able material outcomes and in qualita- Our greatest confirmation about the tive transformation of relationships. power of consultation in this organic The resulting ripple effects can be process came from Mongolia’s State far-reaching. Secretary for Health, Byambaagiin As the Mongolia project was wind- Batsereedene. “I remember how bad ing down, we were recruited to assist the conditions used to be, and now the with leadership training for WHO’s eye department is a modern depart- Good Governance for Medicines Pro- ment with high quality services,” she gramme, an initiative to fight corrup- said. “However, it is not just the tech- tion in the pharmaceutical sector.10 Dr. nical improvement that is noticeable,” Anello was already involved in this she continued. “There is something project, and the invitation gave me the else I have not seen before. The doctors opportunity to work more closely with treat the patients differently . . . . The him over the next year and a half. We ophthalmologists . . .changed . . . . They collaborated on rewriting and expand- have a very good relationship with the ing the training manual he had devel- patients and with each other and have oped. We worked together to develop now become a model department, not training materials first for represen- only for the hospital, but for all of tatives of Ministries of Health from Mongolia. I want to see this spread.” 10 An interesting overview of this There was no longer any doubt. If program can be found at www.who.int/ we wanted to have a lasting impact, healthsystems/topics/financing/heal- we had to incorporate this kind of threport/25GGM.pdf. 64 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

the Eastern Mediterranean region that has set the global standard for convening in Jordan, and later for rep- high-quality affordable eye care, Ara- resentatives from all over the world vind Eye Hospital in India.12 convening in Geneva. Aravind sees more patients, does During this period, Dr. Anello ex- more surgery, and trains more oph- pressed the desire to expand on the thalmologists than any other hospital work we had been doing and to collab- in the world. All patients receive state- orate with me and with author Juanita of-the-art eye care, regardless of their (Joan) Hernandez on publishing his ability to pay. Most of the care is ei- book in English. Unfortunately, his ther entirely free or subsidized. Even health did not permit it at the time, so, the hospital has a very solid prof- but Transformative Leadership: Devel- it margin. Harvard Business School oping the Hidden Dimension was pub- spread the hospital’s fame through a lished some five years later, in 2014. A case study it published in 1993 (Ran- companion workbook Transformative gan). Since then, numerous articles Leadership: Mastering the Hidden Di- have been written about the miracle mension, was published in 2017. The of Aravind—a hospital that has been book has also been translated into and instrumental in dramatically reducing published in Chinese. the prevalence of blindness in India. In 2010, my family had the privi- I had the privilege of spending a lege of moving to China—a country month there in order to learn how the with the greatest burden of blindness hospital achieves these amazing out- in the world. While modern eye care comes, and I was pleased to see that is available in the big cities, it is al- the magic is not just the efficiency and most nonexistent in the rural areas. standardization that so many focus on We formed another NGO in China in their reports about the institution. called “Vision in Practice” (or “Aikai” There is something else crucial going in Chinese).11 Under the auspices of on. this organization, we were fortunate When a patient enters the hospital, to obtain the assistance of a hospital regardless of who that patient is or 11 Vision in Practice was founded in how the patient is dressed, he or she 2011 in partnership with Jeff Parker, an is greeted with a deferential bow and American journalist who co-founded a accompanied to receive care. On every journal for ophthalmologists in China floor of the hospital there are signs called Ophthalmology World Report. with quotations from the founder, Dr. Through his work, he had become familiar Venkataswamy, about service: “Work is with the Aravind model and had already worship”; “I pray to be a better instru- started to help Chinese ophthalmologists ment, a receptacle for the divine force”; obtain surgical training there. Together, “When we take care of our patients, we were able to expand these training 12 For details, please visit www.ara- opportunities. vind.org/. Lessons in Leadership 65 it is ourselves we are helping. It is first, but when everyone else was com- ourselves we are healing”; “If work is promising and putting pressure on me, approached from a spiritual perspec- it was stressful. But I remembered our tive, then it becomes divine work”; and training and the importance of values. many similar axioms. On every floor I knew what I had to do.” there is a prayer room, and arching An example of the effect of utiliz- over the door are symbols of all the ing the tool of consultation in con- world religions. In other words, the junction with the virtue of humility hospital has managed to institution- and cooperation at the institutional alize a spiritual framework, and, what level can be found in one of the rural is more important, they have provided hospitals we worked with to raise the ample evidence that it works. standard of eye care which required Partnering with this amazing insti- a painful process of putting the pa- tution was a great opportunity. With tient’s needs first by re-examining as- Aravind’s help, we were able to send sumptions about the doctor-patient re- some eighty Chinese ophthalmolo- lationship. Raising the capacity of all gists for surgical training in India. We the staff members meant that a spirit helped six hospitals to be mentored by of collaboration and mutual aid had Aravind, and we worked intensively to replace the competitive environ- with two of them to transform their ment. These were difficult changes. services. However, within two years, a surgical A good example of our efforts’ im- training center was established, all pa- pact on an individual level was demon- tients began receiving comprehensive strated by one of our associates who eye services—including surgery if worked closely with us on the eye needed—regardless of their ability projects in China. After our work to- to pay, and the surgical volume more gether ended, she started working for than doubled. The staff told us that a financial institution. She told us that they now have guidelines to help them her job was very stressful and pres- with difficult decisions. They have sured her to compromise her princi- changed many of their policies that ples. When she refused to do this, she were oppressive or self-serving, such was isolated and even mocked. Those as arbitrary rules unrelated to patient around her were enjoying all kinds of care, accepting gifts for favors, prior- “perks” while she stayed on the side- itizing wealthy patients, and the like. lines, just carrying out her responsi- The chief surgeon told us: bilities. However, within a year, her We see things so differently now. entire team was fired and the depart- When we live by the moral values, we ment restructured because of its ques- feel more confident. As a result of the tionable practices. She was one of only training, we feel the strength to over- two people who survived the upheaval. come any kind of problem. We learned She told us, “Being honest was easy at how to work as real doctors, how to 66 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

create a team that is service-aimed, necessity for humankind at every lev- how to encourage each other to keep el to exhibit and maintain virtuous learning and believe in ourselves. leadership and guidance. For while When we improve, it makes us happy. service to humankind is the hallmark Even when it’s difficult, we can make of the Bahá’í teachings, everyone is, at wiser choices than before. (Personal some level, both a servant and a lead- Correspondence) er, a student and a teacher. Nowhere is this dual function more evident than Lesson 7: True leadership is servitude. in the guidance of the current Five Year plans of the Universal House of So far, we have talked about lessons Justice in which a culture of learning learned about leadership, but not is characterized by a process where much about the substance of the everyone is striving to understand training. The training we employ is the nature of true servitude, while inspired by the Bahá’í teachings. The simultaneously accompanying and term “leadership” is probably not the tutoring others: “The first quality for best description. Searching the Bahá’í leadership, both among individuals Writings to gain a deeper understand- and Assemblies, is the capacity to use ing of what leadership means in a the energy and competence that exists spiritual context, one will find count- in the rank and file of its followers” less allusions to two somewhat anti- (Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Building thetical discourses. On the one hand, Momentum 16). there are plentiful passages referring Of course, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, whose to the desire for leadership as a char- very title, meaning “Servant of Bahá” acteristic of those who are attracted (Bahá’u’lláh), embodies service, exem- to the desire for power. For example, plifies perfectly the synthesis of lead- Bahá’u’lláh notes how religious lead- ership and servitude. On the one hand ers of the past have misled their fol- He forthrightly asserts His station as lowers by the desire to retain their po- Center of the Covenant and head of sitions: “Leaders of religion, in every the Bahá’í Faith. And yet He describes age, have hindered their people from this leadership position in terms of a attaining the shores of eternal salva- servitude to Bahá’u’lláh: tion, inasmuch as they held the reins of authority in their mighty grasp. My name is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, my Some for the lust of leadership, oth- identity is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, my qual- ers through want of knowledge and ification is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, my re- understanding, have been the cause of ality is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, my praise the deprivation of the people” (Kitáb- is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Thraldom to the i-Íqán 15). Blessed Perfection is my glorious On the other hand, there are quite and refulgent diadem; and servi- as many passages discussing the tude to all the human race is my Lessons in Leadership 67

perpetual religion . . . No name, found within their own spiritual her- no title, no mention, no com- itage, they can recognize the flaws mendation hath he nor will ever in their thinking. They come to real- have except ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. This is ize that the greatest challenge they my longing. This is my supreme face is their own personal journey of apex. This is my greatest yearn- transformation. They come to realize ing. This is my eternal life. This how indispensable service is in that is my everlasting glory! (Tablets journey. They are then ready to em- 429) brace spiritually informed guidelines with which to construct a conceptual In fact, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá equates servitude framework for their work. Then, when with leadership: making difficult decisions or in times of crisis, that principle-based frame- This is not servitude but sover- work can guide them to make the right eignty, and this is not service but choices, instead of resorting to previ- chieftainship and greatness! This ous self-serving habits of thinking. is the garment of everlasting glo- My own most important learning ry with which thou hast clothed from this entire journey is that at the thyself, and this is the rose of heart of servitude is a spiritual jour- eternal exaltation with which ney of personal and collective trans- thou hast adorned thy head. It formation, for it is only through ser- is said in the New Testament: vice that we can transform ourselves, “Whosoever will be chief among our communities, and ultimately our you, let him be your servant.” world. (Tablets 510)

What we are talking about, then, is transformative servitude—a process of WORKS CITED personal transformation and service to the community. Therefore, in the ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Tablets of ‘Abdu’ l-Bahá. training, we help participants identi- Bahá’í Publishing Committee, fy the challenges with which they are 1909. struggling. They then examine the as- Anello, Eloy, Joan Hernandez, and sumptions underlying those challeng- May Khadem. Transformative es. These often have to do with precon- Leadership: Developing the Hid- ceptions of human nature, self-serving den Dimension. Harmony Eq- habits of thinking, expectations about uity Press, 2014. leadership, and definitions of success. Batsereedene, Byambaagiin. Personal Once they have examined these interview. March 2007. assumptions based on scientific ev- Health for Humanity Participants. idence and universal moral values Personal interviews. 68 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

Hernandez, Joan, and May Khadem. Transformative Leadership: Mastering the Hid- den Dimension. Harmony Equity Press, 2017. Personal Correspondence. Received by May Khadem. Rangan, Kasturi V. The Aravind Eye Hospital, Madurai, India: In Service for Sight. Rev. ed., Harvard Business School, 2009. The Universal House of Justice. Message to the Bahá’ís of the World, dated 20 October 1983. ———. “Bahá’í Social Action and Economic Development: Prospects for the Fu- ture.” 16 September 1993. Untitled Presentation. Equity and Excellence in Eye Care, International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness Eighth General Assembly, 2008, Buenos Aires, Argentina. World Economic Forum. “Outlook on the Global Agenda 2015.” reports.wefo- rum.org/outlook-global-agenda-2015/wp-content/blogs.dir/59/mp/ files/pages/files/outlook-2015-a4-downloadable.pdf. World Health Organization (WHO). “Blindness and Vision Impairment.” 11 Oct. 2018. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blindness-and- visual-impairment. ———. “Blindness: Vision 2020—The Global Initiative for the Elimination of Avoidable Blindness, Fact sheet N°213.” www.who.int/mediacentre/fact- sheets/fs213/en/. ———. “Declaration of Alma-Ata.” International Conference on Primary Health Care, 6–12 Sep. 1978, Alma-Ata, USSR. www.who.int/publications/ almaata_declaration_en.pdf ?ua=1. ———. “Report on Technical Discussions: Recommendations and Main Conclu- sions.” Forty-first Assembly on World Health, May 1988, Geneva, Swit- zerland. ———. “Vision 2020: The Right to Sight: Global Initiative for the Elimination of Avoidable Blindness, Action Plan 2006-2011.” 2007. www.who.int/ iris/handle/10665/43754. 69

dans le monde. Malgré les progrès scien- Is Spirituality tifiques considérables réalisés quant à la compréhension des composantes biopsy- Effective in chosociales complexes de ce phénomène, Addiction il n’y a pas de répit en vue. Pourtant, des recherches menées au cours des vingt Recovery and dernières années révèlent que la spiritual- ité et la religion jouent un rôle important Prevention? dans la prévention et le rétablissement. Le but premier de cet article est d’explorer ce ABDU’L-MISSAGH rôle, d’examiner diverses théories qui ont GHADIRIAN émergé au sujet de l’influence positive de la spiritualité et de considérer comment and SHADI SALEHIAN une approche efficace de prévention et de traitement pourrait être développée. Abstract Affecting millions, the rise of substance Resumen 1 abuse, particularly opioids, has become a Afectando a millones, el aumento del abu- global health crisis, the leading cause of so de sustancias, particularmente opioides, death and disability worldwide. Despite se ha convertido en una crisis global de extensive scientific advances in under- salud, la causa principal de muerte y dis- standing the complex biopsychosocial capacidad mundial. A pesar de extensos components of this phenomenon, there avances científicos en la comprensión de is no relief in sight. Yet, research studies los componentes biopsicosociales com- during the past twenty years reveal an im- plejos de este fenómeno, no hay alivio a la portant role for spirituality and religion vista. Sin embargo, estudios investigativos in prevention and recovery. The primary durante los últimos 20 años revelan un rol purpose of this article is to explore this importante para la espiritualidad y la re- role, examine various theories that have ligión en la prevención y la recuperación. emerged about the positive influence of El propósito primario de este artículo es spirituality, and consider how an effective explorar este rol, examinar varias teorías approach to prevention and treatment que han emergido sobre la influencia posi- might be realized. tiva de la espiritualidad, y considerar cómo un enfoque efectivo a la prevención y el Résumé tratamiento puede ser realizado. Touchant des millions de personnes, l’augmentation du taux d’abus de sub- stances, en particulier d’opioïdes, est de- In 2014, the New York Times report- venue une crise sanitaire mondiale et la ed that a thirteen-year-old child had première cause de décès et d’invalidité overdosed on heroin and, as a result, 1 The terms “addiction” and “substance he was left paralyzed, confined to a abuse” will be used interchangeably in this wheelchair and unable to function article. Moreover, the word “drugs” refers, independently for the rest of his life for the most part, to illicit drugs. (Seelye). At a very young age, any 70 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

dream he might have had of a pro- addiction vary depending on the type ductive future had been dashed. Sim- of substance used and the intensity of ilar situations have been the plight the condition. While a full description of thousands of people, especially of these symptoms is beyond the scope youth, in North America in recent of this article, psychoactive drugs can years, calling to mind these words of overpower the human mind and the Bahá’u’lláh: “O Son of Spirit! I created brain’s normal activities and can dis- thee rich, why dost thou bring thyself rupt individual judgment, emotion, down to poverty? Noble I made thee, and behavior. In the long run, the need wherewith dost thou abase thyself ?” to repeatedly use these drugs may be- (Arabic Hidden Words, no. 22). come a constant preoccupation—what The scourge of drug addiction, we term an addiction. affecting all strata of society irre- Unlike diseases with primarily bi- spective of socio-economic, cultural, ological components contributing to or religious background, afflicts and their development—such as diabetes, touches populations in every corner pneumonia, or rheumatoid arthritis— of the globe. The staggering statistics drug addiction is strongly character- related to the scope and pervasiveness ized by the involvement of social and of this disease highlight the urgent psychological factors in its evolution need both to understand its nature and and may, therefore, be responsive to to undertake a collective effort to tack- methods that include spirituality—in le this serious public health crisis. The addition to conventional treatment— present article proposes to explore the in the prevention of its development central role that spirituality plays in and in the process of recovery. human wellbeing and the significant effect it can have on treatment and re- PREVALENCE OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE covery from addictions. Addiction to psychoactive drugs is It is estimated that in 2016, 275 mil- a complex biopsychosocial disease, de- lion people (5.6% of the world’s popu- fined by the World Health Organiza- lation aged sixteen to sixty-four years) tion (WHO) as “the harmful and haz- used drugs at least once, according to ardous use of psychoactive substances, the United Nations Office on Drugs including alcohol and illicit drugs” and Crime (UNODC) (“World Drug (“Substance Abuse”). It is a chronic Report” 7). Furthermore, thirty-one disease with relapsing episodes that million in this group suffer from a cause compulsive drug-seeking behav- drug use disorder requiring treatment. ior and the use of certain substances The UNODC also states, “Cannabis in spite of their harmful consequences was the most commonly used drug in to the addicted individuals and those 2016, with 192 million people using it around them (“Prescription Drug at least once in the past year. The glob- Abuse”). Behavioral symptoms of al number of cannabis users continues Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 71 to rise and appears to have increased substances that can cause dependen- by roughly 16 per cent in the decade cy (“Substance Abuse”). Nevertheless, ending 2016, which is in line with the they are not treated as “controlled increase in the world population” (11). substances” and are still widely ac- The UNODC’s report indicates that cepted as harmless (or even desirable) opioids, including heroin, continue to by society when consumed in moder- be among the most harmful drugs. In ation. The number of college-aged addition to the possibility of both fatal women drinking is approaching that and non-fatal overdoses, users also risk of men—another cause of concern developing infectious diseases—such because women are more prone to as HIV and Hepatitis C—and other experiencing blackouts when blood al- medical and mental illnesses. When cohol levels rise too high. In addition, illicit drugs such as cocaine, amphet- excessive alcohol consumption puts amines, and cannabis are consumed in them at greater risk of breast cancer combination with one another, users (Schuckit, qtd. in Blake 23). place themselves in great peril. Drug The notion that the experience of overdoses kill more people than gun pain should be eliminated or reduced homicides, car crashes, and suicides to extremely low levels—a trend in combined, making drug abuse the lead- medical treatment that quickly gained ing cause of death for Americans un- ground in the 1990s—has resulted der age fifty (“Drug Overdoses”). The in the rise in opiate use that has now toll in the last ten years has surpassed reached epidemic proportions in the the number of deaths in the Vietnam United States and Canada. The U.S. War and is accelerating yearly. Centers for Disease Control reported Although the tragic opioid epidemic that in 2016 alone more than 64,000 in North America has attracted signif- Americans died of drug overdose, icant public attention, a dangerous rise the equivalent of 142 deaths daily, in the use of alcohol is also of great or one death every nineteen minutes concern. In the United States, for ex- (“Provisional Counts”). Of these, ample, research reveals that in recent seventy-eight percent are caused by decades there has been an increase in fentanyl, or other prescription opioids. the use of alcohol among the elderly, In fact, it is estimated that one in seven women, and minorities. In older in- Americans has abused prescription dividuals, alcohol abuse can result in drugs. higher levels of alcohol in their blood, Another important impact of drug with disturbing consequences, such addiction is the cost to society. For ex- as impairment of judgement, loss of ample, in the United States, the annual coordination, falls, and other sorts of cost of addiction (tobacco, alcohol, accidents. and illicit drugs) in terms of lost work According to the WHO, alcohol and productivity, healthcare, and crime, is tobacco are considered psychoactive estimated to be over $740 billion, a 72 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

figure greater than the GDP of many percent of the world’s population developing countries. Illicit drugs and (“Mental Disorders”), the added risk prescription opioids are estimated to of psychoactive drug abuse is of im- burden healthcare with a combined mense concern. $350 billion of otherwise needless ex- The National Institute on Drug pense (“Prescription Drug Abuse”). Abuse lists the risk and protective fac- This cost is astronomical in compar- tors in drug abuse as follows: ison with how the same money could be spent were it applied to primary Protective factors: healthcare, public health, preventive education, and other endeavors that - strong and positive family could improve the lives of the general bonds; public. Such calculations of economic - parental monitoring of chil- impact, however, do not and cannot dren’s activities and peers; ever reflect the extent of human suf- - clear rules of conduct that are fering and the toll taken on individual consistently enforced within the lives, families, and communities shat- family; tered by substance abuse. - involvement of parents in the lives of their children; RISK AND PREDISPOSING FACTORS - success in school performance; - strong bonds with institutions, Because there are many predisposing such as school and religious factors that lead to substance abuse, organizations; and there is no magic bullet for prevention - adoption of conventional norms of addiction, and hence no single ap- about drug use. proach will be sufficient for its treat- ment. Risk factors may be biological, Risk factors: psychological, or cultural. Genetic and biological predisposing factors have - chaotic home environments, been extensively studied, in particular particularly in which parents among alcoholics. A family history of abuse substances or suffer from alcoholism or other addictions com- mental illnesses; bined with a genetic predisposition - ineffective parenting, especially may make some individuals suscepti- with children with difficult tem- ble to substance abuse. Patients with peraments or conduct disorders; mental illness are more at risk for - lack of parent-child attach- substance abuse disorders, a fact that ments and nurturing; further complicates treatment for this - inappropriately shy or aggres- group of individuals. As mental disor- sive behavior in the classroom; ders such as depression and other psy- - failure in school performance; chiatric afflictions affect twenty-five - poor social coping skills; Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 73

- affiliations with peers display- As mentioned earlier, the current ing deviant behaviors; and trend in pain management has mag- - perceptions of approval of nified an existing danger because a drug-using behaviors in family, history of prolonged exposure to opi- work, school, peer, and communi- oids after medical treatment can also ty environments. be a major risk factor in the develop- ment of addiction. This danger is now Family conflict and the general at the center of the greatest public breakdown of family life remove a ma- health challenge affecting the North jor protective factor in social, mental, American continent. and spiritual wellbeing and also pose significant risk factors for addictive be- THE OPIOID CRISIS havior. Individuals who have a history of traumatic experiences—especially In a materialistic society, happiness women who have been subjected to is perceived as a commodity that can abuse and soldiers who have returned be purchased in a store, kept in a from a traumatizing war zone, there- bottle, consumed in pills, and served by experiencing post-traumatic stress at parties. This type of “happiness” disorder (PTSD) and depression—are can stimulate the brain and excite also at risk for developing substance the emotions, but it can also lead to abuse disorders. addiction and cause accidents, even It is also well-known that people death (Ghadirian, Alcohol and Drugs tend to mirror behavior of their friends 85). and colleagues, especially during teen- However, the search for happiness age and college years when they are is not the only reason behind thou- most susceptible to social pressures sands of people’s use of psychoac- and may be more inclined to adopt ad- tive drugs. Individuals experiencing verse behavior in order to be accepted. pain and discomfort are seldom of- Consequently, peer pressure has been fered treatment beyond the use of shown to be a strong predictor of ex- pain-killers, especially prescription perimentation with drug use, and early opioids, such as morphine, heroin, exposure to habit-forming drugs can and codeine. These opioids include have long-lasting effects; therefore, for drugs such as OxyContin and Vico- many people, experimentation in teen- din that are mostly prescribed for the age years results in devastating conse- treatment of moderate to severe pain. quences in later life (Ghadirian, Alcohol They act by attaching to specific pro- and Drug Abuse 79). The increased avail- teins called opioid receptors, which ability of illegal drugs combined with are found on nerve cells in the brain, freedom to indulge in pleasure-seeking spinal cord, gastrointestinal tract, behavior has further contributed to the and other organs in the body. When current extent of this tragedy. these drugs attach to their receptors, 74 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

they reduce the perception of pain cells. However, is it beneficial to the and can produce a sense of well-be- body, mind, and spirit of human be- ing . . . (Volkow 5). ings to use one chemical to counter- Endorphins, which are morphine- act another, or might there be other, like hormones produced by the central better ways to remedy this pervasive nervous system and the pituitary crisis of epidemic proportions? gland, also have pain-reducing and uplifting effects (Bergland). However, S PIRITUALITY AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE “[w]ith repeated administration of opioid drugs, the production of The choice of modality for treating endogenous opioids [i.e., endorphins] substance abuse is influenced by the- is inhibited, which accounts in ories about its nature, including medi- part for the discomfort that ensues cal, moral, and social models. The med- when the drugs are discontinued ical model suggests that drug abuse (i.e., withdrawal)” (Volkow 5). and addiction is a disease requiring There is no easy or definitive an- diagnosis followed by treatment ac- swer as to how to prevent and remedy cording to modern medicine—which the pervasive spread of substance use includes pharmacological, dietary, in society. Despite significant progress psychological, and rehabilitative inter- in harm reduction, treatment, and cri- ventions. This model is very popular, sis intervention, as well as in primary especially among medical clinicians prevention to counteract opioid abuse, and researchers. The moral model of the crisis has not abated. According to addiction proposes that addictive be- the American Academy of Neurology, havior is a moral defect—that is, the more than 100,000 people have died in individual intentionally chooses to use the United States since more liberal drugs and is therefore responsible for opioid prescription began—from 1999 the consequences of this choice. It to 2010 (Gagnon 12). It is estimat- also holds that the addict should be ed that more than ninety Americans able to cease consumption of psycho- die every day from opioid overdoses active drugs with the help of coun- (Levin), in spite of the increased avail- selling and other therapeutic means ability and use of Naloxone, which is such as medication, counselling, and quite effective in reversing the effects so on. The social learning or behav- of opioid overdose. One reason for ioral model is based on the notion that this increase is that sixty percent of addiction is a learned behavior that is patients don’t receive medication-as- reinforced by the social environment. sisted treatment, largely due to the As such, an addictive behavior can also stigma attached to such treatment be unlearned (UNODC 45). These (qtd. in Levin). Presently, researchers three theories regarding the depen- are working on a vaccine to prevent dency of mind and body on addictive opioid drugs from attaching to nerve substances take biological, moral, and Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 75 psychosocial perspectives. However, In his review of research studies, we posit that there is also a spiritual Koenig reports that religion/spiritual- dimension to addiction that merits ity has a positive effect on hope in sev- exploration. enty-three percent of the population There is no single, universally and on optimism in eighty-one percent agreed-upon definition of spirituality, (“Religion, Spirituality, and Health: A partly because the human spirit is not Review and Update” 20). Of course, a tangible object that can be examined consumption of illicit drugs gives an or measured. Some call spirituality a illusion that life is pleasant because process: “The process of developing psychoactive substances can numb one’s spiritual capacities is called spir- and distort one’s perception of reality. itual growth or simply spirituality” The desire to seek illicit drugs may be (Hatcher 935–36). Others see it as reduced by spiritual beliefs, which, if a science: “Spirituality is a complete authentic and based on reality, provide science that entails a comprehensive individuals with an intrinsic moral study of the intrinsic nature of the framework that enables them to recog- soul and its relationship both to the nize the actual purpose and meaning external world and to Universal Con- in life. According to one study, reli- sciousness” (Tigunait 5). Many people gion and spirituality are among “the associate spirituality with religion, most important cultural factors that while others do not. Hill and Parga- give structure and meaning to human ment propose that “spirituality can be values, behaviour and experiences” understood as a search for the sacred, (Mueller et al. 1225). The authors a process through which people seek further state, “Religious and spiritual to discover, hold on to and, when nec- practices (e.g. meditation, prayer, and essary, transform whatever they hold worship) engender positive emotions sacred in their lives” (64–65). Psy- such as hope, love, [and] content- chiatrist Harold G. Koenig, a leading ment” (1229). researcher of spirituality, religion, Unfortunately, the significance of and medicine, holds that “the concept spirituality and religious values in pre- of spirituality is found in all cultures venting, treating, and recovering from and societies. It is expressed in an in- drug abuse has long been ignored or dividual’s search for ultimate meaning underestimated. A notable exception through participation in religion and/ is Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Its or belief in God” (Medicine, Religion Twelve-Step program contains spir- and Health 13). In this discussion of itual principles that enable people to the relevance of spirituality to ad- overcome their obsession with drink. diction, we will employ the terms AA’s success during the past eighty “spirituality” and “religiosity” in the years in empowering addicts to take context of transcendence, that which charge of their lives has finally ignit- is beyond the realm of physical reality. ed a great interest among those in the 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

health sciences. Indeed, even though cocaine-dependent people in New the mechanism of spiritual empow- York City, which proposed that spiri- erment remains an enigma, research tuality can reduce the risk of relapse studies on AA’s Twelve-Step Program by acting as a protective buffer against have confirmed its efficacy (Kissman the stress of initial recovery (Laudet and Maurer). and White). Moreover, higher spiri- There has been, in fact, an increas- tuality at the beginning of the study ing amount of literature in recent predicted sustained recovery at the decades suggesting that spirituality follow-up interview. and religiosity have positive effects Neff and MacMaster explored the on health and wellbeing. Of approxi- spiritual transformation process and mately 1,200 such studies published up its implications for behavioral change to the year 2000, seventy percent were in individuals with substance abuse, on mental health and thirty percent specifically in the context of the AA on physical health; many more studies Twelve-Step program. They suggest- have been produced since then (Koe- ed that, for such addicted individuals, nig, Medicine, Religion and Health 22). engaging in a search for meaning in For example, Jarusiewiez explored the life is fundamental to the process of relationship between personal spiritu- recovery. They also explored “possible ality and success in addiction recovery. spiritual change mechanisms under- She found that not only did a greater lying behavioral change in substance proportion of recovering individuals abuse treatment, with a particular report having faith beliefs and attach- focus upon ‘faith-based’ treatment” ing importance to spirituality than (47). Among the elements of transfor- those who showed continuing relapse, mation examined in their study were but also the converse—that relapsing the effect of role modeling and peer individuals manifested lower levels influence in facilitating transformation of spirituality than those in recovery in belief and behavior; how empathy, states. forgiveness, and acceptance contribute Researchers White and Laudet to individuals’ engagement in efforts also found that there is an inverse to transform their substance abuse relationship between spirituality and behavior into positive attitude and drug abuse and addiction—individuals action; what necessary skills reinforce with higher degrees of spirituality or such a change; and how social support religiosity are less likely to consume in a community setting can assist in alcohol and illicit drugs. Their study the process. In brief, they found that suggests that “[t]here is growing ev- spiritual insights gained can lead to idence that spirituality can serve as an behavioral change, discontinuing drug antidote for substance use disorders” use, and ultimately recovery. (57). These researchers also conducted In the Project MATCH Research a study of 354 previously heroin- and Group study, one of the largest Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 77 randomized trials of spiritually based one of the co-founders of AA, wrote treatment, researchers compared about the relationship between spiri- Twelve-Step Facilitation Therapy tuality and substance abuse: “You see, (TSF) with cognitive behavioral skill alcohol in Latin is spiritus and you training and motivational enhance- use the same word for the highest ment therapy. Individuals assigned to religious experience as well as the the TSF group fared at least as well most depraving poison. The helpful as those assigned to the other two formula therefore is: spiritus contra groups, especially in measures of com- spiritum.” From a biblical perspective, plete abstinence (984). the ancient epithet spiritus contra spir- However, in all these treatment itum means that spirits (alcohol) or groups, both AA and religiosity drugs can drive out spirituality; on or spirituality were shown to have the other hand, spirituality may play modest positive correlation with the a protective role, preventing alcohol outcomes. and psychoactive drugs from prevail- ing (Miller 980). THE ROLE OF RELIGION Religion provides a sense of mean- ing in life, and religious involvement Throughout the history of mankind, serves as a protection against substance spirituality and religion have been abuse disorders. Interestingly, the word closely integrated with healing the “religion” comes from the Latin relig- sick and suffering. Religious beliefs are, which means “to bind together.” In have served as a powerful means of their paper on religiosity’s implications coping with disease and health crises. for the practice of medicine, Mueller, In particular, prayer has played an im- Plevak, and Rummans note how “most portant role in alleviating suffering. studies have shown that religious in- Indeed, in the past it was thought that volvement and spirituality are asso- having faith was an essential ingre- ciated with better health outcomes, dient in the pursuit of whole-person including greater longevity, coping care within the doctor-patient rela- skills, and health-related quality of life tionship (Ghadirian, “Spiritual Di- . . . [S]everal studies have shown that mension”). In the nineteenth century, addressing the spiritual needs of the Canadian physician Sir William Osler patient may enhance recovery from ill- stated, “Nothing in life is more won- ness” (1225). Furthermore, they state derful than faith—the one great mov- that “throughout history, religion and ing force which we can neither weigh spirituality and the practice of medi- in the balance nor test in the crucible cine have been intertwined. As a result, . . . Faith has always been an essen- many religions embrace caring for the tial factor in the practice of medicine” sick as a primary mission” (1225). (1470). Less than sixty years ago, Carl A large number of research studies G. Jung, in a letter to Dr. Bill Wilson, and literature reviews have confirmed 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

that religious beliefs and practices re- and measured, spirituality, an intan- late to health and healing (e.g., Koenig, gible phenomenon, cannot be; yet, “Religion, Spirituality, and Health”; it may have a protective influence by Miller; Bou-Yong). In one such study, counteracting the temptation to en- the possible relationship between reli- gage in behaviors that would lead to gious affiliation and alcoholism among addiction. As shown in the studies medical professionals was examined above, lack of religious affiliation and from 1948 to 1964 among 1,337 medi- involvement seems to be more often cal students at Johns Hopkins Univer- observed among alcoholics and drug sity. In 1986, a follow-up study regard- addicts. Another relevant observation ing consumption of alcohol was done is that women who are partners of al- with these same students, who were coholic men are reportedly much less by then graduated physicians. Results religious in their attitude and behavior showed that a lack of affiliation with (Miller). Over eighty percent of one religion during medical school was hundred studies on religion and alco- a strong predictor of future alcohol hol consumption problems imply that problems (Moore et al.). According there is less incidence of alcoholism to a review of research prior to 2000 for those with religious affiliation or about the relationship between reli- belief (Koenig, Handbook). Neverthe- giosity and alcohol problems, which less, further study is required to deter- evaluated eighty-six research studies, mine whether religion and spirituality seventy-six found a positive correla- are a definitive protective determinant tion between religiousness and lower against addiction. alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence (Koenig, Medicine 60). In a 2001 study, SPIRITUALITY AS A MEDIATOR adults who did not consider religion OR CATALYST to be important were three times more likely to binge drink (60). Koenig and Understanding the dynamics of the his collaborators also found indica- influence of the soul and spirituali- tions that a positive correlation exists ty on healing and recovery from any between religion and prevention of disease, including addiction, is chal- substance abuse. They noted that of lenging, partly because contemporary the 175 studies reviewed, 147 sug- research methodology is unsuited for gested that religious beliefs might be such an exploration. Such methodolo- a deterrent to the use of alcohol and gy is unable to translate the mystical drugs by children, adolescents, and and intangible influence of religious adults (Handbook). values and spiritual practices such as Whereas a material treatment mo- love, empathy, compassion, and justice dality meant to remedy a detectable into tangible physical measurements physical deficiency contributing to and statistics. Although researchers drug addiction may be easily tested have formulated questionnaires that Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 79 attempt to measure religiosity or spir- addictive drugs for a long time, the itual values, those measurements are faculties of the brain need to restore expressed, for example, as changes in their normal activities. During this heart rate and blood pressure, which process of healing and severance from are markers of relaxation during the use of addictive drugs, there may prayer and meditation. However, be a sense of panic. A recovering alco- these measurements fail to explain the holic might say: “I’m sober. Now what mechanism of how prayer or worship do I do?” (White and Laudet 59). The results in action through brain func- feeling is comparable to the sentiment tion and neurotransmitters—that is, experienced upon returning home af- how spiritual power interacts with ter a long and troubled journey only to millions of brain cells to bring about find that home no longer seems famil- certain actions or behaviors that the iar. In this period of transition, spiri- present authors assume to originate tuality may provide a new framework from the soul. Moreover, the scien- of understanding based on personal tific community does not attempt to values and beliefs. explain what the soul and spirituality An hypothesis that describes spir- are, especially since science itself does ituality as a mediator or catalyst in not readily accept the existence of recovery from substance abuse was metaphysical reality, let alone the ex- proposed by White and Laudet in istence of the soul as an essential part their review of studies on the role of human existence. of spirituality in recovery from ad- The present authors accept that diction. They concluded that “[s]pir- there is a spiritual reality and that the ituality can be a catalyst of recovery soul itself is a metaphysical essence; initiation, a protective shield in early due to this non-physicality, the soul recovery and an increasingly signifi- and its relationship to human well- cant dimension of long-term recov- being are not measurable through ery maintenance” and that the role of current scientific technology. For this spirituality in recovery initiation was reason, although there are many the- very remarkable (58). They also found ories about the influence of spiritual that this catalyst was often activated at and religious practice and affiliation a “turning point” such as a near-death on treating and preventing drug abuse experience due to an overdose, a sui- and addiction, it is not easy to prove cide attempt, or the addiction-related them. death of a close friend. Nevertheless, spirituality may sup- port the recovery process. The period SOME POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF of recovery from drug addiction, es- SPIRITUALITY’S EFFECT ON ADDICTION pecially in the beginning, can be very sensitive and perhaps stressful because, There are some research studies which after being repeatedly influenced by suggest that meditation, when used as 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

a spiritual practice, has a beneficial ef- in individuals who practice yoga ni- fect on mental health. One such study dra.2 It is noted that during meditation states, “[t]he exact neural basis of there is an increase in the release of these effects is slowly coming to light dopamine in the brain. This increase is and different imaging techniques have associated with heightened conscious, elucidated the neural basis of medi- sensory or imagery perception, and a tative practices. The evidence though relaxed and positive experience (Kjaer preliminary . . . points toward the in- et al. 257 and 259). However, besides volvement of the prefrontal and pa- the neuropsychological effects of spir- rietal cortices. The available data on ituality on substance abuse, religious meditation focus on activated frontal teachings and exhortations can also attentional network” (Mohandas 63). have significant influence on behavior This study shows that the neurobio- and perception with respect to illicit logical results of meditation have pos- drug use. itive effects on mental health, implying To summarize, the following prag- that meditation as a spiritual practice matic hypotheses may be helpful in un- might have a protective effect against derstanding the relationship between the craving that may lead to substance spirituality and drug addiction: abuse and addiction. Anxiety, depres- sive symptoms, and loss of hope and a Religion and spirituality enhance sense of meaning in life are but some psychological and, likely, physical of the psychological experiences that aspects of wellbeing. For exam- may lead to substance abuse and addic- ple, in some parts of the world tion. Meditation, mindfulness, reliance where the consumption of alco- on faith, and religious beliefs and prac- hol is strictly forbidden by reli- tices seem to provide a buffer against gion, there is low prevalence of the tendency toward seeking some alcoholism and its adverse conse- temporary and artificial solution, such quences. The same applies to the as illicit drugs. non-medical use of psychoactive Spiritual practices such as medita- drugs such as LSD, cocaine, and tion and prayer can also be a means for opioids (Koenig, Medicine, Reli- enhancing cognition, communication, gion and Health 58–59). and creativity, and may even change our perception of reality (Newberg Spiritual beliefs provide a sense of and Waldman 7). Furthermore, spiri- hope, social support, and coping mech- tual practices reportedly have an effect anisms in dealing with hardships and on the neurotransmitters (chemical 2 Also known as “yogic sleep,” yoga messengers released by nerve cells nidra is considered to be an extremely re- or neurons) of the brain and body. As laxed state of consciousness such as that an example, researchers found a six- experienced at the transition between ty-five percent increase in dopamine wakefulness and sleep. Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 81 life crises, as exemplified by the AA A BAHá’í PERSPECTIVE ON ADDICTION Twelve-Step program, which is based on spirituality and encourages perse- The Bahá’í Writings are very explicit verance in abstaining from the use of with regard to the non-medical use of alcohol. drugs. Bahá’ís should abstain from all Spirituality may act as a mediator forms of intoxicants, such as alcohol, that empowers individuals to move drugs, and “hallucinogenic agents, in- from being captivated by drug use to cluding LSD, peyote and similar sub- being liberated from it. It is import- stances” (Universal House of Justice, ant to note that such a transformation qtd. in Hornby 354). On the other depends on faith, the nature of which hand, it is important to know that the the human mind is unable to fathom, Bahá’í Faith recognizes the medicinal as well as on individual will. benefits and therapeutic effects of some of these substances. The use of METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES these drugs is permissible when they are prescribed by a physician; howev- Exploring the effect of spirituality on er, recreational drug use is prohibited substance abuse disorders and their because it can seriously impair the hu- treatment is fraught with challenges, man brain and mind. as several factors can affect the out- Of course, as mentioned above, it come of such studies: is important to give attention to both A lack of a universally agreed-upon the material and the spiritual aspects definition of spirituality and even reli- of treatment—to pair assistance from giosity among researchers. the medical profession with whatever A lack of standard evaluation and spiritual methods one might choose to measurement tools for assessing the employ. From a Bahá’í point of view, effect of spiritual and religious val- the idea that spirituality has an effect ues—although some scales and ques- on addiction recovery and prevention tionnaires have been developed to stems from the belief that human measure spirituality based on frequen- beings are created noble and are es- cy of worship, attendance at religious sentially spiritual beings. In fact, the services, and other religious practices Bahá’í Writings tell us that mental (Baetz et al.). faculties are properties of the soul The inability of current scientific expressed through the instrumental- research to quantify intrinsic and spir- ity of the brain (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris itual values. Talks 83–84; see also His “Tablet to In brief, methodological problems Auguste Forel”). As such, the brain will continue as long as research in plays a very important role because, as this field remains constrained by mea- ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, the reality of surements based exclusively on mate- a human being is his thought and in- rial or phenomenal exploration. tellect (4). Because the brain mediates 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018 between the soul and human thought explains that bodily or mental infirmi- and intellect, mental functioning and ty has no effect on the soul by com- behavioral patterns will be adversely paring bodily illness or incapacity to affected by inappropriately used drugs a cloud that interposes itself between that excessively stimulate or suppress the sun (the soul) and the earth (the healthy brain activity, especially when body). Just as the sun continues to such abuse occurs repeatedly or over shine even though its rays may not be an extended period. visible because of the cloud, the soul ‘Abdu’l-Bahá elucidates the role and is ever present, even though it may be significance of the spirit and the ratio- hidden by the effects of the infirmity: nal soul in the following observation: Know thou that the soul of man The human spirit, which distin- is exalted above, and is indepen- guishes man from the animal, is dent of all infirmities of body or the rational soul, and these two mind. That a sick person showeth terms—the human spirit and the signs of weakness is due to the rational soul—designate one and hindrances that interpose them- the same thing. This spirit, which selves between his soul and his in the terminology of the philos- body, for the soul itself remaineth ophers is called the rational soul, unaffected by any bodily ailments. encompasses all things and, as far (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 80:2). as human capacity permits, dis- covers the realities and becomes The spiritual practice of meditation aware of the properties and ef- mentioned above is also highly valued fects, the characteristics and con- in the Bahá’í Writings. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá ditions of earthly things. states, “The spirit of man is itself . . . informed and strengthened during As for the mind, it is the power meditation . . . Meditation is the key of the human spirit. The spirit is for opening the doors of mysteries” as the lamp, and the mind as the (Paris Talks 187). Furthermore, He light that shines from it. (Some explains that the “faculty of medita- Answered Questions 55:2–3) tion frees man from the animal na- ture, discerns the reality of things, The soul or spirit is a non-material [and] puts man in touch with God. essence independent of the body; yet, This faculty brings forth from the when its instrumentality in directing invisible plane the sciences and arts” the body is encumbered or damaged, (188). its ability to become edified by phys- The following insightful comment ical experience would presumably be seems to imply that through our will- severely compromised. At the same power we can use the power of med- time, an analogy in the Bahá’í Writings itation for good or ill, depending on Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 83 whether we focus on elevated or base perspective on life and its meaning, interests: and thus can naturally be very reas- suring. Bahá’u’lláh reminds us about The meditative faculty is akin to our nature and purpose with these the mirror; if you put it before emphatic words: “Thou art My domin- earthly objects it will reflect them. ion and My dominion perisheth not; Therefore if the spirit of man is wherefore fearest thou thy perishing?” contemplating earthly subjects (Arabic Hidden Words no. 14). he will be informed of these. But if you turn the mirror of your FURTHER REFLECTIONS ON THE spirits heavenward, the heavenly PREVENTION OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE constellations and the rays of the Sun of Reality will be reflected in Modern scientific advancements and your hearts, and the virtues of the unprecedented medical discover- Kingdom will be obtained. There- ies have not been able to mitigate or fore let us keep this faculty rightly prevent the rising consumption and directed—turning to the heaven- abuse of mind-altering and addictive ly Sun and not to earthly objects. substances. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks 188) “[u]nless the moral character of a na- tion is educated, as well as its brain and Applying the above analogy to the its talents, civilization has no sure ba- subject at hand, it would seem that sis” (Paris Talks 21). In response to this to fix one’s attention on an addictive warning, what approach might society substance would be like turning one’s take? A sound and appropriate path mirror toward an earthly object. By might include an ongoing preventive shifting one’s concentration toward educational program that would pro- more positive ideals, freedom from vide a healthy and protective approach attachment to addictive substances to the eradication of substance abuse. might be achieved. Moreover, such Easy availability of narcotics and reflection gives a deeper meaning to mind-altering drugs may seem entic- the purpose of life and our spiritual ing; however, a progressive society destiny, a process which can be quite will take into consideration the vital liberating. importance of protecting the minds One of the most common feelings of the future generation through among those who are attracted to al- preventing alcohol and drug abuse. cohol and other drugs, especially in a Neurologist and psychiatrist Viktor world where love and empathy may Frankl in his book The Doctor and the be hard to find, is the loss of self-con- Soul expresses an insightful view on fidence. Having faith, mindfulness, people’s indulgence in illicit drugs. and spiritual understanding of the He criticizes the recreational use of purpose of life gives one a deeper these substances, believing that the 84 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

consumption of narcotics and “nar- a caring, compassionate, and support- cotization” is, effectively, a “spiritual ive community can contribute to the anaesthesia” that can lead to spiritual healing process of these patients, who death. He moreover asserts that “con- face great emotional challenges in sistent suppression of intrinsically their lives. meaningful emotional impulses” can destroy a person’s inner life (88–89). CONCLUSION Furthermore, while consumption and overuse of analgesics and tran- In May 2017, at the annual confer- quilizers temporarily gratify our ence of the American Psychiatric physical and emotional needs, their Association, one of the highlights long-term and non-prescribed use was a special convocation in which a can interfere with the ability to deal world-renowned journalist and recov- with life’s challenges. When psycho- ered alcoholic, Elizabeth Vargas, spoke logical stress is constantly suppressed about her addiction (“Highlights”). without any insight into its meaning Vargas acknowledged that one of the gained, we lose an opportunity for per- important elements of her long and sonal growth. As Frankl comments, arduous journey to recovery was her “man’s main concern is not to gain faith and spiritual perspective, which pleasure or to avoid pain, but rather allowed her to carry treatment to a to see a meaning in life” (Man’s Search successful conclusion. This was a cou- for Meaning 179). This, however, does rageous admission before thousands not mean that people should avoid an- of psychiatrists, many of whom might algesics; rather, they should use them have been less inclined to share this moderately and wisely as they follow belief. medical advice. Most researchers and clinicians An unfortunate impediment in the believe that alcoholism is a disease of treatment of substance abuse, which the brain and treat patients according must be overcome, is treatment avoid- to the medical model. While medical ance due to the perceived shame and treatment of addiction is important, stigma attached to this illness. One we should not underestimate the sig- of the remarkable effects of religion nificance of whole-person care, the and spirituality is their capacity to role of the soul, and the spiritual cultivate a sense of social support and needs of the patient, something which to nurture caring relationships with unfortunately happens quite often. those who are sick and suffering. Such The rise of substance abuse disor- support and relationships will not only ders and addiction around the world reduce the stigma and shame, but will reflects an existential crisis of hu- also provide a therapeutic as well as a manity, which involves not only adults spiritual community characterized by from all walks of life, but also teenag- greater caring and acceptance. Indeed, ers and children. To counter this crisis, Is Spirituality Effective in Addiction Recovery and Prevention? 85 large-scale comprehensive programs some challenging aspects of this enig- of preventive education, regulation of ma. Indeed, the well-documented re- narcotics and illicit drugs, and more sults of the twelve steps of AA since effective harm-reduction policies and the 1930s are a pragmatic testimony programs against all forms of illegal that religiosity and spirituality do drugs, as well as positive alternatives, have positive effects on the preventive need to be put in place (Ghadirian, Al- and healing processes in drug addic- cohol and Drugs). tion. This is not to claim that they re- In summary, drug addiction is a place medical and psychosocial efforts global public health crisis affecting in remedying the affliction. Rather, millions of people with an astronomi- applying religious and spiritual values cal human, economic, and societal cost. in the process complements using sci- There is no single cause and hence no entific advances in curbing this wide- simple solution. This crisis affects all spread crisis of humanity. strata of society; it is our collective problem, and it requires a collective solution. Society needs to find inno- vative ways to solve the problem and WORKS CITED to realize that enforcing a solution through legislation will not work by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks. Addresses itself. Only a root-cause approach that Given by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Paris will change the social environment, in 1911–1912. UK Bahá’í Pub- protecting people from such a lifelong lishing Trust, 1995. afflictive disorder, will have a lasting ———. Some Answered Questions. effect. Bahá’í World Centre, 2014. Research shows that spirituality ———. “Tablet to Auguste Forel.” and religious values have a positive ef- The Bahá’í World, vol. 15, fect and can contribute to public edu- Bahá’í World Centre, 1921, cation for substance abuse prevention. pp. 37–43. Moreover, emerging findings suggest Baetz, Marilyn, et al. “The Associa- that religious and spiritual practices, tion between Spiritual and including meditation, may have a pos- Religious Involvement and itive influence on the brain and on hu- Depressive Symptoms in a man behavior, and thus may contrib- Canadian Population.” Jour- ute to the prevention of, as well as to nal of Nervous and Mental the recovery from, drug abuse and ad- Disease, vol. 192, no. 12, 2004, diction. Nevertheless, the mechanism pp. 818–22. whereby an intangible phenomenon Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings from the Writ- such as spirituality or religion influ- ings of Bahá’u’lláh. Translated ences these processes remains an enig- by Shoghi Effendi, US Bahá’í ma. This article attempts to unravel Publishing Trust, 1994. 86 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

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the books: Creative Dimensions of Suf- Biographical fering, Steadfastness in the Covenant, Information Alzheimer’s Disease: An Eclipse before Sunset and Materialism: Moral and So- cial Consequences.

SHAHLA ALI (BA Stanford, PhD/JD PAULA HENDERSON: “My work UC Berkeley) is Professor and Asso- represents my interest in our social ciate Dean at the University of Hong unity and represent opportunities for Kong’s Faculty of Law. Her research reflection on our collective and in- centers on questions of governance, dividual spiritual purpose. In Tread, development and transnational dispute from the Groundwork(s) series, I uti- resolution in East Asia. She current- lize residual patterns left on ground ly serves on the Bahá’í Assembly of surfaces from our daily movement the Hong Kong and its Training Institute. basis of abstract compositions to con- nect to thoughts of our shared space, MENNA ELFYN is an award win- our collectivity and spiritual purpose.” ning poet, memoirist and playwright. She has published fourteen collections Dr. FIRAYDOUN JAVAHERI holds of poetry, children’s novels, libretti a doctorate in agronomy. As a pioneer for UK and US composers, and plays to Africa for twenty-seven years, he for radio and television. In 1999, she served the Bahá’í community in his co-wrote “Garden of Light,” a choral roles of Auxiliary Board member and, symphony for the New York Philhar- then, Continental Counsellor. While monic. Her books include Eucalyptus, in Zambia, he worked as chief techni- Selected Poems 1978-1994, Cell An- cal adviser for the Food and Agricul- gel, Murmur, Bondo and a memoir in tural Organization (an agency of the Welsh, Cennad (Messager), published United Nations) and assisted, together by Barddas in March 2018. She co-ed- with his wife Vida, in the establish- ited The Bloodaxe Book of Modern Welsh ment of the Banani International Sec- Poetry. Retired from teaching at Uni- ondary School. Dr. Javaheri served as versity of Wales Trinity Saint David, a member of the International Teach- Menna is president of PEN Cymru ing Centre from 1998 to 2003, and the and lives in South West Wales. Universal House of Justice from 2003 to 2018. ABDU’L-MISSAGH GHADIRIAN, an author and researcher, is a professor Dr. MAY KHADEM is a comprehen- emeritus of McGill University, Facul- sive ophthalmologist and public health ty of Medicine. He teaches a course on activist. After serving on the faculty of spirituality and ethics in medicine and Northwestern University Department has published extensively including of Ophthalmology for 25 years, she 90 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 28.4 2018

moved to China where for seven years NINA ISRAEL ZUCKER’s work she assisted the development of rural has appeared in the anthology, Poets eye care in several provinces. May was Against the War, edited by Sam Hamill, one of the co-founders of Health for and in the 30/30 series for Tupelo Humanity, a not-for-profit charitable Press, the New York Times, US1 Work- organization where she served as the sheets, and many other journals. She organization’s Executive Director has participated in the Geraldine R. for seventeen years. She has served Dodge Foundation’s Poetry Festival, as consultant to many international as well as leading the program for ed- organizations active in blindness pre- ucators, Clearing the Spring/ Tending vention including the World Health the Fountain. She is a teacher of En- Organization, where she co-authored glish as a Second Language in Cherry a leadership training manual and of- Hill, New Jersey. fered leadership training workshops for WHO’s Good Governance in Med- icines Programme and for the Inter- national Agency for the Prevention of Blindness.

SHADI SALEHIAN served at Re- search Department Bahá’í World Center Israel for many years. She holds a Master of Public Health from Johns Hopkins University. Her main research and work focus on displaced populations and refugees with access to health as vital component of social integration. She also collaborates with the Global Institute for Health and Human Rights in working with dis- placed populations in Syria.

DAVID SMITH became a Bahá’í for- ty-eight years ago in Saginaw, Michi- gan. Now retired, his career took him down many paths, including serving as the Secretary of the Bahá’í National Education Committee for seven years. Photography has been a lifelong pas- sion that he inherited from his father. 91

Sleeping Bear Path (Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan, July 2006) DAVID SMITH