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University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. University of Bradford BEING 50: A psycho-social study of a cohort of women in contemporary society from a life course perspective Fiona Ellen Anderson Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre for Psychology Studies Department of Social Science and Humanities 2010 Abstract The economic, demographic and social changes of the latter half of the C20th have influenced the experience of individuals now at ‘midlife’. Arguably the impact of these changes has been more profound for women; specifically in the UK for those educated to be the wives, mothers and carers of industrial Britain (Newsom, 1963). Now around 50 years old this group of women are likely to experience a lengthy period of ‘postmaternity’ (Sheriff and Weatherall, 2009) extending to over thirty years in many cases. This research considers the experience of this metaphorically entitled ‘telescopic’ cohort (Goldstein and Schlag, 1999). The major corpus of age related research assumes a linear developmental progression of life stages (Erikson, 1951, 1968; Gould, 1978; Levinson, 1978; Levinson, 1996; Klohnen et al., 1996; Miner-Rubinio, 2004). Drawing on life course theory (Elder, 1995; Runyan, 1982; Super, 1980) enables this research to explore how women may have changed assumptions about themselves and their expectations as the social world has changed around them, moreover offers an alternative to the essentialist, linear, deterministic models of ageing. This feminist poststructuralist examination of the experience of women at ‘midlife’ is divided into two parts; firstly the ‘lived life’ which examines demographic changes, and drawing on material from ‘Jackie’ magazine, considers discourses of femininity and the expectations for, and of, girls. The ‘told story’ is then explored using narrative interview material. How women ‘story’ their lives and their understanding of ‘self’ at midlife is examined within the context of the changing world and their ageing bodies. The research revealed that the experience of ‘midlife’ for this cohort of women is narrated as a time of change in social circumstances with some ‘gains’ and some ‘losses’, however it is not storied as a time of inevitable ‘crisis’. Moreover despite the plethora of literature portraying the menopause as problematic, this was not supported by the interview material. Key words; life course, feminism, post structuralist, critical realist i Contents ABSTRACT I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VIII INTRODUCTION X Being 50: A reflexive prologue x Research Overview xi CHAPTER 1: THE JOURNEY TO MIDLIFE 1 Introduction 1 Midlife: tasks, transition and crisis 1 Psychological perspectives of midlife 3 Paradox of crisis 5 Gendered meanings of midlife 9 Changing bodies 12 Growing up in a changing world 20 Educating girls 21 Changing world of work; a new place for women 24 Towards midlife: the lengthening transition 29 Defining the cohort; a group within a group 32 Defining the ‘telescopic’ cohort 36 Research Aims 37 CHAPTER TWO: DEVISING A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 39 Life course theory: an alternative to ‘ages and stages’? 40 ii Modelling the life course 42 Transitions and trajectories 46 What is ‘woman’? 50 ‘Woman’ in a positivist world 51 Constructing ‘woman’ 55 Woman as ‘other’ 57 Feminist perspectives 58 An interim summary 60 CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPING A METHODOLOGY 62 The turn to language 63 Structuralism and poststructuralism 64 Feminism and poststructuralism 66 Discourse analysis; the pros and cons 67 But is it real? 70 The ‘lived life’ and the ‘told story’ 73 Resolving some dilemmas 75 Positioning myself in the research 76 Summarising the framework 77 The next step 78 CHAPTER 4: LIVES IN CONTEXT; THE ‘JACKIE’ GIRLS 79 Finding a data source 80 Considering the method 83 Planning the analysis of ‘Jackie’ 86 ‘Jackie’ and me 86 Finding ‘Jackie’ 88 iii The ‘Jackie’ impact 89 The framework takes shape 92 The method refined 93 Conclusion 98 CHAPTER 5: RE-READING ‘JACKIE’ 101 The data in its context 101 A girl’s place 102 The feminine mystique 104 My place in the research 105 A Content Analysis 105 An initial reading 106 Exploring the contents 107 A Discourse Analysis 110 The picture strip story 110 Job adverts 117 The ‘voice’ of the ‘Jackie’ reader 126 Conclusion 132 CHAPTER 6: PREPARING TO EXPLORE THE TOLD STORY 135 Telling stories 135 Narrative and discourse 137 Collecting stories 141 Ethical issues 142 The narrative interview 145 ‘Story tellers: The ‘lived lives’ 146 iv June 148 Pauline 151 Amanda 152 The next steps 154 Diane 154 Lesley 155 Mattie 157 Matching the ‘telescopic’ profile’ 159 Method of analysis 162 Structuring the analysis 169 Organising the interview material 171 Steps of analysis 172 CHAPTER 7: NEGOTIATING THE ‘SEPARATE SPHERES’ 174 Pauline; a modern matriarch? 176 Home and hearth 176 The domestic goddess? 181 The ‘good old days’ 184 Just like my Mum? 189 Amanda; building a career 194 ‘Little Mis-fit’ 195 Confronting patriarchy 202 Still just a girl 208 ‘I am not my (her) mother’ 212 CHAPTER 8: CONSTRUCTING DUTIES OF CARE 217 Lesley: a working ‘Mum’ 218 Life-long learning 227 v Negotiating the ‘sandwich generation’ 231 Diane: negotiating change 236 ‘Dangers and opportunities’ 237 Challenging constructions of ‘caring’ 241 Performing the ‘good girl’ 246 Lesley and Diane: ‘keeping mum’ 251 CHAPTER 9: DAUGHTER, WIFE, MOTHER; JUST GETTING ON WITH IT 255 ‘Malory (ivory) Towers’ 256 Doing one’s duty 268 Moving on 276 CHAPTER 10: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 283 Telling Stories over the life course 284 Re-modelling the life course 284 A place for the ‘Jackie’ girls 288 Looking back through the telescope 289 Just like girls 289 Change and (dis)appearance 293 Crisis, what crisis? 296 ‘Not my mother’ 298 ‘Like her like her not?’ 298 So, are we younger? 300 Looking towards the future 302 REFERENCES 304 vi APPENDIX 1: THE PICTURE STRIP STORY 328 APPENDIX 2: THE CATHY AND CLAIRE PAGE 331 APPENDIX 3: INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS 332 vii List of Figures Figure 1: The comparative numbers of men and women in further and higher education from 1970 to 2005 adapted from Social Trends 37 25 Figure 2: The changing age profile in the UK from 1971- 2006 and projected for 2031 adapted from Social Trends, 38 30 Figure 3: The Life- Career Rainbow (Super,1980) 44 Figure 4: Triple Helix Model Rapoport and Rapoport (1980) 45 Figure 5: The dynamic interaction of the person and the situation giving rise to behaviour. Adapted from Runyan (1982) 47 Figure 6: Advert from 'Jackie' 96 Figure 7: A selection of adverts in ‘Jackie’ 1973 100 Figure 8: Content analysis of 'Jackie' 107 Figure 9: Advertising by subject 108 Figure 10: Advert from Jackie (1973) 120 Figure 11: Advert frame 1 121 Figure 12: Advert frame 2 122 Figure 13: Advert frames 3 123 Figure 14: Letter to Cathy and Claire 128 Figure 15: Tripolar discursive action, demonstrating how 'self' is positioned and in turn positions others (adapted from Boxer, 2003) 168 Figure 16: Capturing stories from a life course perspective 286 Figure 17: Revised model of life course 287 viii Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere thanks to Professor Christine Horrocks and my other two supervisors Dr Victoria Lavis and Dr Tammi Walker for their help, support, encouragement and general good humour as this project took shape. This research is about women, and I am very grateful to ‘June’, ‘Pauline’, ‘Amanda’, ‘Lesley’ ‘Diane’ and ‘Mattie’ for taking the time to participate and allow me to hear their stories. My family have patiently put up with my stress, ill temper and self doubt, so my love, gratitude and thanks go to David, Tom and Penny for supporting me, explaining statistics, teaching me to format pictures, holding my hand and keeping me on track throughout. ix Introduction Being 50: A reflexive prologue There seems to be an expectation that any birthday ending with a ‘zero’ marks a milestone in one’s life. This is perhaps best evidenced by plethora of birthday cards commiserating with the recipient for their age, or congratulating them for having ‘survived’ thus far. One’s fiftieth birthday is apparently no exception. This research evolved from my unashamedly subjective opinion that at ‘50’ or thereabouts, myself, and my peer group, were ‘younger’ than our mothers had been. It appeared to me that we had different jobs, different expectations, different lifestyles, and indeed different hairstyles than previous generations. I wondered why. Reflecting back I began to understand that the jobs and careers undertaken by many of my peer group were either unknown to previous generations or, for some reason, unavailable to women. Again, I wondered why. It also seemed that our expectations of home and family may be different than those held by previous generations. As we reached 50 I looked around and pondered on what we should expect: a crisis perhaps? The Internet suggested that everyone from teenage footballers to oil companies have midlife crises. Why wouldn’t we? How should we act? Should we take to wearing ‘cardies’, ‘elasticated waists’ and comfy shoes? Should we perhaps ‘wear purple with a red hat that doesn’t go’ as the poet Jenny Joseph (1961) advised? Or indeed were we ‘invisible’ as Marge Piercy (2006) suggested. This research was born from my quest to explore the experience of a contemporary cohort of 50 year old women. I considered if the notion that we x are younger than previous generations might draw on the analogy of ‘adolescence’, a time between childhood and adulthood which has been conceptualised as ‘emerging adulthood’ (Arnett, 2002).