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Home , 1988 Winter Olympics, 1998 World Youth Games, Demonstration sport, Freestyle skiing, Nordic Games, Ross Rebagliati

The Growth and Rebranding of the Olympic : 1908 to 2022*

By Richard Baka

"The Seed is Sown”: 1908 to 1921» - in the Summer Games and the Emergence of a Stand-Alone Event

Suppltm -nfo della Gazzctta del Popolo A ~ - IV N . f m , .* IV H..- l»M From 1896 to 1904 the were solely the domain of summer sports, with no winter sports included in the programme. Shortly after this, was included in the 1908 London Summer Games and the 1920 Antwerp Summer Games. Likewise, hockey was added as an event at the 1920 Summer Olympics. Since both of these sports could be played indoors and did not rely on winter weather conditions it was obvious as to why they were the first winter sports chosen to be in the Summer Games fixture. There is reasonably strong support for the Winter A successful trial: the Olympic Games having their origins in the Nordic International Winter Games, a regional event that preceded the Winter Sport Week 1921, in Games. As Ron Edgeworth pointed out: was recog­ The took place between 1901 and 1926, nised retrospectively mostly in , . They began, and were two years later as the perpetuated, largely by the work of the influential first Olympic Winter Swedish sports administrator, Viktor Gustaf Balck. The Games. Left: the Italian Nordic Games were not without political problems, team in a romanticised nor were they originally planned as precursors to representation. It was the Olympic Winter Games, as often stated. In fact, customary that the despite Balck's influential status on the IOC, he and athletes carried their Introduction other Swedish and Norwegian sporting leaders sports equipment with opposed early suggestions to start Olympic Winter them at the Opening As the have expanded and Games. The Olympic Winter Games themselves began Ceremony. grown to the point of earning the label of the world’s only after several heated IOC debates concerning their Photos: Vulker Kluge Archive number one sporting event, obviously an enormous merits. The Nordic Games ended after 1926, partly body of knowledge hcs accumulated. In contrast, there because of the growth of the Olympic Winter Games, have been more limited investigations and research on partly because of Balck's death and the loss of his the Winter Games - as a type of poor relation. However, leadership, and partly because of the growth of the with the growing popularity of the Winter Games, an Fédération Internationale de .h increasing number of investigations have emerged. One of the classics in tnis category is The Complete Book on the ' - a type of reference R ich ard B ak a *1951. BPE, BA, MA, Ph.D. He has been encyclopaedia covering many facets of this multi-sport employed at Victoria University in Melbourne, . event. Research specific to analyzing the growth and Dr. Baka teaches a number of subjects in the College of Sport and Exercise Science including 'Olympic Studies' and expansion of the Wint?r Games is limited but studies by supervises postgraduate students. His main area of research Baka", Winterton and Hess3 illustrate that information is the Olympic Movement. He has written numerous research in this field is expanding. Three time periods were papers. An Olympic-themed book which he co-edited with Dr. Robert Hess titled On the Periphery: New Perspectives on identified after reviewing the Winter Olympic Games the Olympic Movement (2013). and how they have grown in scope over their history. The American Jennison Due to ongoing lobbying by winter sports federations Heaton was victorious and a desire to placate Olympic nations with a winter ontheCresta Run in sports culture, the IOC reacted by staging the 1924 the at the International Winter Sports Week in Chamonix, 1928 Games. At this with six sports comprising nine sports disciplines-figure time there was only a skating, , , , cross-country in St. Moritz, so , , , military patrol this sport disappeared and . This first event proved to be successful from the Olympic enough that during the IOC's 1926 Congress it retroactively programme only to renamed this event the FirstWinter Olympic Games. From return in 2002. then on, the Winter Games became entrenched as a permanentfixture in the Olympic Games schedule. Photo. Volker Kluge Archive medals and 258 athletes. But this quadrennial event "Stabilization and Slow Steady Growth": grew steadily overthenexteightdecades with only WW2 The Winter Olympic Games from 1928 to 1992 causing a disruption as the 1940 and 1944 events were cancelled alongwith the summer version. Bythe 1992 This era was characterized by a period of steady growth Winter Games the steady expansion saw an in the number of participating nations, the number increase in this sporting event to include 64 nations, of sports and events and the number of athletes. For 57 sports events, 171 medals and 1801 athletes a very example, at the 1924 Chamonix Winter Games there substantial growth when compared to the first Winter were 16 nations represented with 16 sports events, 49 Games (SeeTa b le .

Table 1: Olympic Winter Year of Games/Host City No. of NOCs/No. of Sports No. of athletes No. print media/ No. of Games Statistics and No. of Disciplines/ (males/females) No. broadcast volunteers Figures1 No. of Events staff No.of Medals

1924 Chamonix 16/6/9/16/49 258 (11F, 247M)

1928 St. Moritz 25/4 /8 /14/3 9 * 464 (26F, 438M)

1932 Lake Placid 17/I+/7/1I+/4 2 252 (21F, 231M)

1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen 2 8/4 /8 /17/51 6i+6 (80F, 566M) 1948 St. Moritz 28U+/9/22/66 6 6 9 (77F, 592M)

1952 30rl+/8/22/66 694 O09F, 585M)

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo 32/4 /8 /24 /72 821 (i3i+F, 687M)

1960 Squaw Valley 30.4/8/27/81 665 (li+i+F, 521M)

1964 36.6/10/34/104 1091 (149F, 892M)

1968 37/6 /10/35/117* 1158 (211F, 947M)

1972 35'6 /io /35/io 5 1006 (205F, 801M)

1976 Innsbruck 37/6/10/37/111 1123 (231F, 892M) 1980 Lake Placid 37/6/10/38/114 1072 (232F, 840M)

1984 4 9 /6 /10/39/117 1272 (274 F, 9 9 8 M) 2363/5630 10,450

1988 57/6 /10/4 6/138 1423 (301F.1122M) 2477/4361 9.498

1992 Albertville 6 4 /6 /12/57/171 1801 (i+28F, 1313M) 2271'3623 6,647

1994 67/6/12/61/183 1737 (522F, 1215M) 2615/4018 9.054

1998 72/7/14 /6 8 /20I+ 2176 (522F, 1215M) 2856/5743 32,000

2002 77*7/15/78/236 2398 (8 8 6 F, 1513M 266/6069 22,000

2006 8 C/7/15/8 4 /252 2508 <96oF,15l*8M) 268 3/6720 18,000

2010 82/7/15/86/258 2566 (lOi+t+F, 1522M) 2803/8000 18,500

2014 88/7/15/98/295* 2873 (1120F, 1753M) 13,477 25,000 2018 PyeongChang ?/7/l5/l02/306 2900 (Estimate)

•sometimes extra medals were awarded due to a tie in one of the top three placings Year of Games/ (s) Addition of NevTSports & Dropping of Sports Host City Disciplines

1908 London figure skating

1920 Antwerp figure skating, ice hockey

1924 Chamonix bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, figure skating speed skating, military patrol, nordicskiing, ski jurrping, nordic combined, skeleton

1928 St. Moritz military patrol curling

1932 Lake Placid , speed skating - military patrol women, curling skijoring, skeleton

1936 Garmisch­ military patrol alpineskiing curling, s ed dog racing Partenkirchen ice stock sport speed skating - women

1948 St. Moritz military patrol, winter pentathlon skeleton

1952 Oslo skeleton, military patrol, winter pentathlon

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo bandy 1960 Squaw Valley , speed skating - women bobsleigh 1964 Innsbruck ice stock sport , bobsleigh

1968 Grenoble Ice dancing ice stock sport

1972 Sapporo ice dancing 1976 Innsbruck Ice dancing

1980 Lake Placid

1984 Sarajevo disabled - men

1988 Calgary freestyle, short trace, curling disabled alpine &

1992 Albertville freestyle - moguls, short track disabled alpine & nordic skiing 1994 Lillehammer - aerials curling, freestyle - moguls, speed skiing

1998 Nagano freestyle - moguls, curling, snowtoarding, ice lockey - women

2002 Salt Lake City skeleton, bobsleigh - women

2006/10 Turin/VancoL ver

2014 Sochi added 12 new events (refer to text)

2018 PyeongChang added four newevents (referto text) parallel slalom

What about alterations to the sports events on the ate.) added overthe ensuing years. Skeleton appeared on Table 2: Adding/ programme? Over the course of the Winter Games there the programme in 1928 and 1948 and then was off the Dropping of Winter have been as few as four sports, seven disciplines and 14 schedule for 54 yea ts before reappearing in 2202. Finally, Games' Demonstration events up to as many as nine sports, 15 discipli ne sand bobsleigh was in eve'y Winter Games apart from 1960 in Sports, Sports & 102 events (See Table 1). Curling which appeared in 1924 Squaw Valley5 (SeeTab e2). Disciplines." was dropped from the programme in 1928, and then During this era, tie host cities for Winter-Games also had demonstration status for the 1932, 1988 and 1992 eventually moved away from the dominant . The popularsport of alpine skiing made its first theatre w th the event held in 1932 and -980 in Lake appearance in 1936 and has remained one of the key Placid (USA), 1960 in Squaw Valley (USA), 19): in Sapporo fixtures of every Winter Games since that t me. Short () and 1988 in Calgary (). The growing track speed skating appeared as a demonstration sport number or athletes was also characterized by greater in 1988 and attained full status n 1992. Freestyle skiing female representation. Whereas in 1924 only 11 women was a demonstration in 1988 and was participated for a percentage of 4 .7% by 1992 this had upgraded for the 1992 Albertville Games with several grown to 428 women or a percentage of 23.3%. additional sport disci plines (e.g. , half-pipe, The 198E Calgary Games were noteworthy as having a profound impact on three demonstration sports - are governed by their respective International Sport curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing. Federations.'0 However, within each of the seven winter Peter Judge, the CEO of the Canadian Freestyle Ski sports there are now 15 discip lines and the number of Association, noted that these three sports" ...all made events has grown dramatically. For example, three their debut on the world stage during the Games that sports with the highest growth factor from 1994 to 2014 year- an event that gave validity to the sports... Calgary were biathlon which went from six to 11 events, freestyle became the launch point for the real modernization skiing from four to 10 and from four to 10. of the Games”.7 Both short-track speed skating and Following the 2014 Sochi Games, it is possible to freestyle skiing were upgraded from demonstration to reflect on the unprecedented addition of 12 new winter full status in 1992 while curlingfollowed suit in 1998 in sports events which was a record number added to Nagano.8 a particular Winter Games programme. These new events - all of which were added to the existing Winter "The New Cycle": 1 9 % to 2011»: Rapid Growth Olympic group of seven sports - can be grouped into and Expansion of the Winter Games three classifications. There were three mixed events - biathlon mixed relay, figure skating mixed team When the IOC made a resolution at the 1986 Session to event and a luge team mixed relay. Four men's events change the cycle of the Winter and Summer Games, it were added, including ski half pipe, ski slope style, paved the way for an unprecedented growth of this snowboard slope style and snowboard parallel slalom. multi-sport event. Australian Olympian historian Harry There were also women's events in each of these four Gordon summarized the significance of this major along with the addition of women’s ski jumping (which change to the Winter Games and its effect on his nation, was almost added to the Vancouver Games in 2010). commenting that, "For many years, the winter sports used to be regarded as the poor relation for the Olympic The Effect of Demonstration Sports Movement in Australia."9 No longer having to share the on the Growth of the Winter Olympic Games same Olympic year with the Summer Games, the Winter Games experienced a major growth spurt. At the 1994 Up until recently, adding new sports to the Olympic Lillehammer Games - which was the first event in the Games had a more or less two-stage process. In most new cycle - the number of competing nations had cases, they had to be demonstration sports first and, grown to 67, with 61 sports events, 183 medals and 1737 if popular, they would then beassessed byth e lOCand athletes. Only five Winter Games later in Sochi these possibly upgraded. Authors Rachel Winterton and Rob figures escalated dramatically to 88 nations, 98 sports Hess, outlined the history of demonstration sports in events, 295 medals and 2873 athletes. The decision to the Olympics: change the schedule had definitely worked to increase Between 1912 and 1992, IOC rules and regulations the profile of the Winter Games. Improved sponsorship allowed host nations to organize and direct dollars, expanded television and social media coverage certain local sports as exhibition events, and IOC and a greater public interest across the globe concerning members had the right to vote on whether to elevate lumping in the Air: the Winter Games were the outcomes of a relatively demonstration sports based on a series of criteria, Joss Christinsen (USA) simple decision to make a date change. which included history, universality, popularity and won slope style gold Surprisingly the number of actual sports (several of image of the sport, as well as the development of the at Sochi in 2011». which have various disciplines) in the Winter Games relevant international federation, and any prohibitive has remained consistent at seven since 1998 and these costs involved in staging the sport. Usually, these sports encompassed either those being considered for inclusion in the main Olympic Games program, or those which were indigenous us to the host nation ... The Olympic Games hosted the final series of 'official' demonstration sports, based upon the IOC's edict that the program was becoming too crowded.

However, the demonstration sport category eventually was abandoned and nowadays sports are dropped or added as deemed appropriate by the IOC. Its decision is influenced by problems with existing (e.g. rampantdrug use, judging issues, etc.), International Sport Federation lobbying, television friendliness, the public appeal of events, gender balance and political and social factors.“* The policy for which sports are included "Olympia-Skijöring" in the SummerGames wasoutlined on its website: as demonstration In order to control the size, cost and complexity of sport at the 1928 the Games, the Olympic Program was capped In Winter Games on the 2002 at 28 sports, approximately 300 events and a frozen St. Moritz Lake. target of 10,500 atnletes. It was also decided that a Photo: Volker Kluge Archive systematic review of the Olympic Program would be conducted after every edition of the Games to provide regular rejuvenation of the Games while maintaining contir uity and consistency. The concept of a core group of 25 sports with a maximum of three additional sports was adopted in 2007, and recommendation which could pave the way for a two years later golf and rugby sevens were added possible return of this category. Recommendation to the program of the Rio 2016 and the 2020 Olympic 11 stated that "The IOC to allow the OCOGs to make a Games. 15 proposal for the inclusion of one or more additional events on the Olympic programme for that edition of the For the Winter Games, the IOC developed a slightly Olympic Games."19 different policy for adding in new events, as it has At the very recent 129th IOC Session during the Rio not been constrained to the same extent by size Summer Games, it is noteworthy that five new sports - and limitation issues and a crowded programme as karate, , sports and - compared to the Summer Games. Besides the previously were given approval to be held at the 2020 Tokyo mentioned impact of three new demonstration sports Games along with the restoration of a previous summer added at the 1988 Calgary Games, a key development Olympic sport /softball. This outcome was a took place at the 1998 Nagano Games when 'open' result of the new flexibility provided by the Olympic professional men’s ice hockey was allowed in and Agenda 2020. Prospective new sports were assessed replaced 'amateurs', thereby permitting National according to several key criteria including innovation, Hockey League (NHL- players to compete. That same gender equality, the legacy value of adding them to the year women's ice hockey had its debut, as did curling. programme and promoting youth-friendly sports. Of Another major boost for Nagano was the inclusion interest, is that these new sports are also very popular in of a series of newer contemporary sports such as the host country Japan, making it an important reason snowboarding as the IOC attempted to keep pace with why they came into the Olympic programme. While no changing trends.16 As one source outlined: existing sports will be dropped in Tokyo, these added Its part of an effort by the International Olympic sports will result in an extra 18 events and 474 athletes Committee to inject a more edgy, contemporary vibes there is still intent to 'cap' the athlete totals at around to the Winter Games in the wake of market research the 11,000 mark meaning there will have to be some in the 1990s that showed that the Games were losing adjustments to athlete totals in the existing sports.20 the youth market. That decline was underscored by Olympic researcher Mikhail Bateuv made a very sports participation data that showed the number of interesting observation of this major announcement: US snowboarders almost doubled from 1988 to 1995, So while it looks like Tokyo 2020 will be the first truly while the number of skiers dropped by 25 percent.'7 experimental Olympics, every sport will have to prove its worth with no sport guaranteed a place at the next But not all demonstration sports, which were included Games in 2024. The danger is that the whole Olympics in various Winter Games, were successful in gaining full could become a little disintegrated, with sports status. Included inthis listand the Games at which they making fleeting appearances fora few Games, and were trialed, are skijoring (1928), ice stock sport (1936, decisions about whether they stay or go, or new sports 1964), military patrol (1928,1936,1948), speed skiing appear, made based on the particular marketing (1992), winter pentathlon 1948), bandy (1952), sled dog needs of countries, sponsors and broadcasters. So racing (1932). Disabled alpine skiing (1984, 1988) and enjoy the next few weeks in Rio 2016 - it’s likely to be disabled cross-coun-.ry skiing (1988), although on the the last "traditional" Olympic Gam es. 21 programme as demonstration sports in those years, became a part of the Winter which These changes for Tokyo could readily pave the way were first held in 1976 in Sweden.18 for similar developments at the 2022 Winter Although no demonstration sports have been Games where there may be revisions and an expanded added to recent Winter Olympic Games, the 2014 programme of events if the IOC decides to go down this Olympic Agenda 2020 review made an interesting path. Summary and Conclusions dream team concept had the same effect as occurred with men’s at the 1992 Barcelona Summer At the first Winter Games in 1924, there were only 258 Games. There was a huge public interest since the best athletes who competed in 16 events with 49 medals in the world were now competing in these sports. awarded. The 2014 Sochi Games had 2873 athletes competing in seven major sports with 15 disciplines, 2. The New Olympic Cycle: "Improving the Brand!" 98 events conducted and 295 medals.'3 For 2018 in PyeongChang, the programme has been expanded to The IOC decision to alterthe schedule to put the Winter 102 events. This rapid growth of the programme at the and Summer Games on offsetting schedules starting Winter Games led Eric Chemi to refer to it as ‘medal in 1994 in Lillehammer was made for economic and inflation' characterized by obviously many more medals organizational reasons and it proved to be a major boost on offer, and more countries winning medals (26 in for winter sports. Throughout the first 50 years of the Sochi).'* In comparison to the Summer Games which Winter Games, not everyone within the IOC supported in Rio had 11,458 athletes competing in 28 sports and them. Both the founder of the modern Olympic Games, 306 events, such figures show that the winter version is Pierre de Coubertin and IOC president Avery Brundage, approximately one third the size of the larger summer who served from 1952 to 1972, never gave widespread event. While there is still a large discrepancy, the gap support to the Winter Games. The reasons included the is closing. An analysis of this quick spurt in the growth fact that de Coubertin's Olympic vision presupposed and expansion of the Winter Games highlights several competitions in sports that were - or had the potential key factors. to be - widely practiced. A number of winter sports did not meet these criteria. The second reason was The fascination of that both individuals were adamantly opposed to winter sport: At the commercialization and the influx of professional athletes 1994 Winter Games into winter sports such as alpine skiing and figure in lillehammer, the skating. But with Brundage finishing up his term as cross-country skiing President in the early 1970s, th e amateur issue eventually competitions alone diminished due to the IOC’s decision to allow open were responsible for Olympic Games for amateur o'professional athletes.'5 the sale of 220,000 By the , the Olympic governing body saw an tickets. opportunity to attempt a radical schedule change to improve the overall brand of the Winter Games. By not having to share the same year, the Winter Games were able to attract more sponsorship dollars, obtain expanded television coverage and generally create more interest. With the schedule change National Olympic Committees had the advantage of altered and more favourable time-frames to assist in improving their support for the Winter Games as increased funding, promotional campaigns, high performance athlete 1. A New Societal Interest and Participation in Winter assistance programmes and so forth could be directed Sports: "A Reflection of Changes in Public Consumption" to winter sports now that there was a two-year gap between the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. Plain and simply, societal interest in winter sports When examining the effect of the new Olympic cycle and corresponding participation rates has increased on Australian involvement in the winter version, it is dramatically over the last 50 years. With modernization interesting to note that this nation won its first winter came improved winter sports facilities, increased leisure medals starting in 1994 and now boasts 12 in total with time, the introduction of new contemporary sports the majority coming in the newer sports category. As such as freestyle skiing and snowboarding and a media one researcher pointed out "The new Olympic cycle interest keen to cover sports with a winter label. adopted in the 1990s with the Summer and Winter Similar to the Summer Games, when the winter Games alternating in even years resulted in a greater version allowed professional athletes to compete, this profile for the Winter Games from many different greatly enhanced the profile of the Winter Games. For perspectives - the media, the public and sponsors. ” ' 6 example, when professional The new cycle spurred a huge growth in all facets of (NHL) players were allowed to represent their respective the Winter Games. For example, there were 88 NOCs countries in ice hockey at the 1998 Games Nagano, this involved in Sochi as participating nations whereas, in 1992, the last year of ;he old cycle, only 64 nations took and broadcast staff in Sochi, increased from the 10,800 part. If comparing the 1992 Albertville Games to the in Vancouver in 2010. Many of the new winter sports 2014 Sochi Games, the number of events has increased events have very obviously been added because of their from 57 to 98, medals from 171 to 294 and total athletes television appeal. If viewers have more sports events from 1801 to 2873. This represents an approximate 40 % of interest to them, then advertising revenue goes up, average increase. Figures from Table 1 concerning print broadcast coverage increases and the Winter Games media and televisior broadcasting coverage show that ultimately end up with a higher profile. 31'32 this area has also grown dramatically with the move to A large number of new snowboarding and freestyle the new Olympic cycle. events added an increased element of excitement because of their unpredictability, extreme status and 3. Gender Balance: "The Women Come Marching In!" an intangible luck factor.33 For these reasons, many of the newer winter sports have attracted a new younger The history of the modern Olympics has been one of audience and lend themselves to compelling television reflecting changes in society overthe last 75 years and a viewing, as pointed out by an Olympic official: good example is in the area of gender balance. Women's "It's important", said US Olympic Committee CEO events (and now more mixed events) are seeing the Scott Blackmun of the effort to attract a younger number of female competitors closer to equilibrium. demographic. "We've done a better job on the winter While slow to inltia ly react in the early parts of the [Games] side than on the summer side. I think in twentieth century, the IOC has been pressured to keep deciding to bring snowboarding in at the beginning, up with the times. At the first Winter Games in 1924, it has had a great impact. I've got kids. They love to there were only 11 females out of a total of 258 athletes snowboard; they don't like to ski. It's exactly the right (4.7%). The number cf female athletes in the Games has direction."* grown substantially, with females accounting for just 0ver 4 0 % of the 2873 athIetes at Soch i. 28 Linked in with this factor of television appeal, are the The Olympic Agenca 2020 review in 2014 addressed Olympic sponsors who were more likely to become this issue of gender balance and is a key factor in the involved and increase their financial contributions, if IOC’s decision-making regarding the selection of new the winter sports programme had widespread public events. Specifically, Recommendation 11 was titled appeal and were deemed to be a television success. "Foster gender equality" and emphasized that. 1. The IOC to work with the International Federations 5. Pressure from the and International Winter to achieve 50 % female participation in the Olympic Sports Federations: "The IOC is Forced to Keep Pace!" Games and to stimulate women's participation and involvement in spoit by creating more participation The recent growth and success of the X Games literally opportunities at the Olympic Games. 2. The IOC to forced the hand of the IOC to make changes to the Winter encourage the inclusion of mixed-gender team events.29 Games programme as the Olympic Movement tried to A good example was the addition of women's ski maintain a connection to the younger generation. One jumping to the 201L Games after an intense period source noted that: of lobbying by female athletes in this sport and its The push to reclaim the youth market started at International Ski Federation (FIS). As reported on the the 1998 Nagano Games where two disciplines of IOC website in June 2015, the decision to add four new snowboarding, half pipe and parallel , events to PyeongChang in 2018 would improve gender made their debut. Sochi carries that initiative further. balance. "The new programme will allow for a record In all 72 new Winter Olympic events have been added - number of female events, a record number of mixed eight of which boast X Games roots that the IOC events, a record number of female athletes, and a Olympic broadcasters and advertisers covet.* projected increase in the overall female participation rates at the Olympic Winter Games, reflecting the The X Games have also been a huge television success implementation of Olympic Agenda 2020."3° story keenly followed by the younger generation because of the inclusion of contemporary sports 4. Television Appeal: 'Give Them What They Want!" in which they often participate. The IOC needed to capitalize on these changes and reacted accordingly There were an estimated 4.1 billion potential television by including new events. American snowboarder Sage and digital media viewers for theSochi Games, upfrom Kotsenburg, who won the first gold medal in Sochi, the estimated 3.8 billion for the 2010 Vancouver Games. commented that "As far as having new events in For the 2014 Games, t lere were also 7.7 million Facebook snowboarding, having slope style, having border cross followers. In addition there was a record 13,477 media in and pipe is pretty awesome ... The world needed to see slope style because snowboarding is a different International Sport Federations such as the FIS consider sport than figure skating or . We're all really events that: added value; youth appeal; attractiveness different people and this is what the kids are dong for TV, media and the general public; gender equality; nowadays."36 minimum impact on the number of events and/or Many of the X Games fraternity have developed a quotas; and, infrastructure and operational cost and special camaraderie and while they remain competitive complexity. The FIS had also lobbied and worked closely they also consider their events as an art form, including with the Organising Committee for the 2018 PyeongChang a very strong fun and social element. The winner of Games to try to have their new events added to the the first snowboard gold medal in Nagano in 1998 programme. The successful outcome was to be expected became an Olympic hero and cult figure within the as the FIS as a major, well organised sport federation snowboardingfraternity.33 Two authors reported that: had followed all of the guidelines outlined in Olympic The first snowboarding winner Ross Rebagliati Agenda 2020 and handled the political maneuvering and of Canada tested positive for marijuana and was negotiations extremely well. 43 stripped of his gold medal. It was the first time in Olympic history that an athlete was punished for 6. Awarding of the Winter Games to Larger Host Cities: taking a non-performance-enhancing drug. The IOC "Bigger is Better!" decision was appealed to the Court of Arbitration for and Sport and Rebagliati's victory was reaffirmed Coinciding with the start of the new millennium, the Winter Games began to reflect a change in thinking with As one of the major stakeholders in the Olympic Games, the IOC often selecting larger cities with metropolitan most of the winter International Sports Federations populations exceedingi million people thereby making also were very active over the years in lobbying the them capable of hosting an expanded programme. Salt IOC for more of their sports events to be added to the Lake City in 2002 (with just over 1 million), Turin in 2006 Winter Games programme. These federations often (over 2 million), Vancouver in 2010 (close to 2 million) had non-Olympic events in their own schedules and Beijing in 2022 (over 21 million) all reflected this new including World Cup, World Championship and other trend. The only exception in the contemporary period is competitions. As a result, they had a core of athletes, PyeongChang for 2018 which has a very small population fans and organisational support structures in place under 50,000 but plans for major infrastructure and then began pushing the IOC to have these newer improvements and a fast-line rapid-transit connection events added to the Winter Games programme. In to the large capital city of Seoul. As one of these larger many cases, this lobbying was effective - an example host cities, Vancouver also earned itself the label of the being the International Ski Federation (FIS) where the "most enthusiastic" Games of all time as expressed by sport discipline of freestyle skiing went from two events then IOC President Jacques Rogge.'*’ Overall, these cities in 1992 to 10 by 2018 and snowboarding had a similar with larger support infrastructures (e.g. transportation, growth cycle going from four events in 1998 to 10 by 2018. hotels, etc.), more advanced sports facilities and Likewise, the International Biathlon Union (IBU) was larger populations made it relatively easy for the IOC to successful in increasingthe number of events it held from implementa policy of expans on of events. one in 1960 to 11 in 2018. Interestingly, Beijing - which had the 2008 Summer Following the announcement of the addition of Games - was named to host the 2022 Winter Games, four new events (i.e. curling mixed doubles, speed earning it the distinction of the first city to host both skating mass start, snowboard and alpine Summer and Winter Games. Olympic journalist Stephen skiing nations team) for PyeongChang in 2018, the Wilson commented that: very powerful FIS expressed its delight with the IOC’s Throughout more than 120 years of Olympic history, decision to add the latter two events which are under its no city has hosted both the Winter and Summer auspices. FIS President Gian Franco Kasper commented, Games. Now Beijing will be the first to do it - and in "I am very pleased with the decision to include these the span of just tk years. The International Olympic two events that reflect both the traditional and youth Committee saw Beijing as a secure reliable choice elements of the FIS disciplines. The athletes, media and that also offered vast commercial opportunities in fan reaction to both events has been overwhelmingly a new winter sport market of more than 300 million positive and I believe both events will make fine people in northern . "It really is a safe choice", additions to the Olympic Games. ’’39 IOC President said. "We know China will The FIS had done its homework and implemented deliver on its promises. " these events into its schedules for a number of years previously, thereby setting them up for promotion to an It would not be beyond th e realm of possibility for Olympic Games winter event. The IOC had requested that Beijing as one of the largest cities to ever host an Olympics and eviderced by its very successful hosting added in Sochi were television winners. The IOC agreed of the 2008 Summer Games - to organize an expanded and added even more events for 2018 justifying these programme of winter events if the IOC were to decide on changes according to the following criteria. this course of action. The one factor that could thwart Members of the IOC used a number of criteria to this is the Olympic Agenda 2020 report in December 2014 determine the sports' deservedness for inclusion recommending a capping of the number of athletes at in the next Winter Games, including youth appeal, 2900 and the number of events atioo.63 attractiveness for television, media and the general There is no doubt that the IOC, the majority of public, gender equality, added value and minimum Olympic nations, athletes, sponsors and the media impact on the number of events and/or quotas of the have all embraced the expanded Winter Games IOC. "The changes reflect the continued evolution of programme. In its pre-Olympic Sochi review, the the Winter Olympic program and build on the success respected American magazine Sports Illustrated gave of recent editions to the games." The IOC said in a a very positive overview of the newly added sports in statement. "They also build on the reforms outlined an article entitled "Amping Up the X Factor". However, in Olympic Agenda 2020, which aim to create more it did mention some detractors, with Austin Murphy flexibility into the Olympic program of the Olympic noting ", the NBC's main host of the Sochi G am es.""9 Games, recently characterized events such as slope style as Jackass stuff they invented and called Olympic The Canadian Kalynn sports."“* Likewise, in reviewing the Sochi Games, Scott Park and Charley Feschuk commented "The end of the Olympics always Thomas in action at brings a raft of questions such as what comes next for the 2015 World Mixed the athletes? How drunk was the IOC when it decided Doubles Championship double luge was a thing. " 65 Joining this list of critics was in Sochi. Mixed Curling well-known Olympic writer David Wallechinsky who did is one of the new not like all of the new events concluding that "Some of disciplines which will it is just silly... Luge relay? Seriously?'"*6 He also believes appear for the first that political factors entered into IOC decision-making time in 2018 at the when selecting the new sports. Winter Games in Not all have X-Games roots, however. Fourof they are PyeongChang. traditional Winter Games sports contested in a new Photo: World Curling format. Wallechinsky suspects that reflect a political FederatiorvAlma Pavlyuchik compromise worked out among IOC delegates behind closed doors, designed to prevent the and Canada, whose athletes have tended to dominate One Olympic commentator voiced his opinion on the the extreme sports. Hence, Olympic audiences can increased growth of the Winter Games programme and look forward to biathlon team relay, luge team relay, is not totally convinced of limitingthe addition of new team figure skating and women's ski jumping - events noting that: which should give athletes from , Germany, ... total medals awarded has skyrocketed in the last Austria and chances to shine as well:67 30 years. There was a period of steady growth toward too followed by a period of stability, before the Winter In the review and aftermath of the Sochi Games, the Olympics rapidly pushed past 200. The 2014 Games majority of new events added in 2014 and others have 98 events with a total of 295 medals, and the currently on the programme were kept intact. The total could easily exceed 300 next time around and, exception was snowboard parallel slalom, which was before long, 400. If this continued growth seems far­ removed from the programme. In June 2015 the IOC fetched, just remember there were only 138 medals Executive Board recommended the adding of four new awarded as recently as 1988 in Calgary - it took less events: snowboard big air, an Alpine skiing team event, than two decades to more than double that total.90 mixed doubles curling and mass start long-track speed skating.68 Post Sochi, several of the International Winter Back in 2006, the IOC rejected adding such winter Sports Federations effectively lobbied for the addition of sports as sports , and additional new events all of which were already part of wintertriathlon to the Winter Games programme and their international schedules with a core of competing recently other events vying for a spot included team athletes. These sports federations, the public who view and synchronised skating were also the Winter Games, Olympic sponsors and the broadcast turned down. Conceivably these could be reconsidered community must have concluded that the new sports at a later time.5'' 52 On the other hand, the Winter Games may have come close to its maximum size in terms of the programme could determine the future size and events, number of athletes and officials, as dictated composition of the Winter Games, although a move to by the recent Olympic Agenda 2020 review. If the IOC larger host cities would solve this issue to some extent. were to allow the Winter Games to expand, it could Furthermore, after witnessing the addition of five sports effectively rule out smaller host cities from ever entering for the 2020 Tokyo Summer Games, there is a possibility the bid process. With bid city numbers for the Winter that the IOC could implement a similar outcome for the Games recently moving in a downward spiral, this is 2022 Beijing Winter Games with more sports or events A white tiger called an important factor behind the IOC's announcement included. • "Soohorang" is in the Olympic Agenda 2020 review of capping the size the 2018 mascot. of the Winter Games programme and thereby keeping 1 David Wallechinsky and Jaime Lbucky, The Complete Book of the In Korean “Sooho" prospective smaller host cities in the mix. Winter Olympic Gomes, Vancouver Edition, (Toronto: Sport Media means "protection", The cost of submitting an Olympic bid has also Publishing, 2010). Another reference book covering the Winter Games is Gennadi Maritchev, Winter O lym ipcs 1924 - 2002; The "rang"(ho-rang-i) become exorbitant and potential Olympic host cities are Figures, the Results, the Athletes, ': Demarko Sport Publishing, stands for “tiger". influenced by the financial reality that preparing a bid 2002). A good up-to-date reference source is http://en.wikipedia . can cost between $25 and $40 million with no guarantee o rg/w iki/2Oi4_W inter_0lympics Two excellent sources for research studies on the Winter Games include the Journal of Olympic History of success.53 In the 2022 Winter Games bid process, only and the extensive publications emanating from the 13 International two cities were left in the end - an example of the Symposiums for Olympic Research produced every two years by diminishing interest to host Games. Almaty, the International Centre for Olympic Studies at Western University, Canada the latter available on http://www.la84.org/ in the digital eventually lost out to Beijing. Borden addressed collection. this issue of reduced bid interest in the Winter Games: 2 Richard Baka 'More Events, Mere Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games' in Intersec­ High costs and waning public support were a tions ad Intersectionolities in Olympic and Paralympic Studies; significant part of the reason other potential bidders Twelfth International Symposium for Olympic Research, eds. Robert for the 2022 Games - including , Stockholm, K. Barney, Janice Forsyth, Christine O’Bonsawin and Michael Heine, International Centre for Olympic Studies, The University of Western a combined bid from the Tyrol region in Austria and Ontario, London, Canada, 2014,35-42. , and very late in the process, Oslo - fell over one 3 Rachel Winterton and Rob Hess. 'Sideshow Alley? Australian Rules another while backing out. Concerns about useless Football as a Demonstration Spot at the Melbourne 1956 Olympic Games,’ in On the Periphery: IJew Perspective on the Olympic infrastructure, overcrowded streets and white- M ovem ent, eds. Richard Baka ard Rob Hess (: Walla Walla elephantvenues have made Winter Olympics bidding Press, 2013), 75- 80. a hard sell to voters.5I* 4 Ron Edgeworth, 'The Nordic Games and the Origins of the Olympic Winter Games’ Citius, Altius, Fortius (became Journal of Olympic History in 1997), 2, No. 2 (1994), 36 So this factor may have a bearing on how much growth 5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics. 6 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and and expansion can take place in future Winter Games. Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games', 38. This issue is being closely monitored by a concerned IOC 7 Katie Turner, 'Calgary's Olympic Games had "profound impact" and its President Thomas Bach according to one author on three demonstration sports' www.metronews.ca/features/ calgary/ 198 8 -calgarys-olympic-moment/20i 3/ 02/i 7/c a lg a r y s - who emphasized that: olympic-games-had-profound-impact-on-three-demonstration- Oversized, overpriced and overawing, the Olympic sports.html. Games are again having trouble finding cities to 8 Curling was a demonstration spoil In Albertville in 1992, was not on the programme in Lillehammer in 1994 before gaining full status in host them, putting pressure on the International Nagano in 1998. Olympic Committee to overhaul and streamline the 9 Harry Gordon. Australia and the Olympic Games, (St Lucia, Queens­ land: University of Q ueensland Pr ess, 1994)411. quadrennial event... Reducing the costs of the Games 10 The seven International Sports Federations involved within the and streamlining the selection process are among the Winter Games which are responsible for governing the various sport issues that Mr. Bach wants to address in his strategic disciplines and sports events are as follows: i. International Skating Union (ISU) with three sport disciplines: figure skating, speed platform initiative, Olympic Agenda 2020” skating, short track speed skatir g embracing 25 sports events; 2. International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) with one sport discipline The history of the Winter Olympic Games has been and two sports events; 3. World Curling Federation (WCF) with one sport discipline and three sports events; 4. International Ski Federa­ characterized by a steady growth in size and popularity tion (FIS) with six sports disciplines: cross-country skiing, alpine ski­ with a recent surge in the last two Winter Games taking ing, ski jumping, nordic combined, freestyle skiing, snowboarding it to an unprecedented level. The Winter Games have and 49 sports events; 5. International Biathlon Union (IBU) with one sport discipline and 11 sports eveits; 6. International Luge Federa­ gone through an evolution and definitely rebranded tion (FIL) with one sport discipline and four sports events; 7. Inter­ themselves in a successful manner. While it is difficult national Bobsleigh and Skeletor Federation (FIBT) with two sport disciplines: bobsleigh and skeleton and five sports events. For the to make definitive predictions, the Winter Games may most complete and up-to-date statistics on the historical growth very well continue to evolve and expand, a feature that of sports events in the Winter Games refer to the table in http:// will be determined to a large extent on what direction en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_saorts. 11 www.olympic.org/news/what-s-1ew-for-sochi/218742. the IOC ultimately decides to take. The outcome of the 12 Baka, 'More Events, More Medal;, More Interest!: The Growth and Olympic Agenda 2020 recommending a capping of Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games’, 36. 13 Rachel Winterton and Rib Hess. 'Sideshow Alley? Australian Rules 32 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and Football as a Demonstration Sport at the Melbourne 1956 Olympic Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games', 38. Games,’ 75-80.During tie Olympic era which allowed demonstra­ 33 Richard Baka. 'Everyone’s a Winner With New Events at the Winter tion sports there were 38 obscure and not so obscure summer sports Games' Blog in the The Conversation, February 29, 2019 in www. in this category with a number of them subsequently added to the theconversa tion.com/eve ryones-a-winner-with-new-events-at- Olympic programme. The number increased to 39 when Beijing was the-winter-games-22820; in Sochi such pre-Games favorites as allowed to include as a demonstration sport on a once-otf Australia's Alex ‘Chumpy’ Pullin in snowboard cross and American basis. In the Winter Olympic Games eight sports were classified as - the overwhelming favorite in snowboarding slope demonstration sports wi‘h several such as curling, short-track speed style and the half-pipe - were two athletes who did not medal due skating and freestyle s kiing eventually elevated to full Olympic to the unpredictable nature of their events. status. In one interesting case skeleton was Included in the Winter 39 www.smh.com.au/sport/winter-olympics/new-olympic-sports- Games in 1928 and after that it was dropped but was reinstated in in-sochi-range-from-the-extreme-to-the-just-silly-20190206- 2002 at the Salt Lake City Games. 322gj.html. 14 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and 35 Ibid. Expansion of the Winter Jlympic Games,' 36. 36 Chris Spillane, ‘New Olympic Sports Bring Surprises to the Sochi 15 www.olympic.org/news/ivrestllng-added-to-olympk-programme- Winter Games’, in www.bl00mberg.c0m/news/print/2019-02-23/ for-2020-and-202i*;as a result of IOC reviews baseball, softball and new-olympk-sports-bring-surprises-to-the-Sochi-Winter-Games. wrestling were all dropped after the 2008 Beijing Summer Games 37 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and and golf and rugby 7's were added to the programme for Rio in Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games', 39. 2016. Then at the 125'" Session of the IOC in Buenos Aires In July 2013 38 Wallechinsky and Loucky, The Complete Book of the Winter Olympic wrestling was voted bark into the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games Gam es, 308. as an additional sport teyond the 25 cores sports at the expense 39 http://www.fis-ski.com/alplne-skiing/news-multimedia/news/ of baseball/softball and iquash which were unsuccessful in gaining artkle=nations-team-event-added-20i8-olympk-programme. inclusion. Then at the 129’" Session of the IOC held during the Rio html Games five sports were added to the programme for Tokyo in 2020 90 Ibid. with baseball/softball ccming back in along with the new sports of 91 Richard Baka 'Olympic Winter Games Opening Ceremonies: Did surfing, skateboarding, sports climbing and karate. Vancouver 2010 Try to Raise the Bar Too High' in Rethinking Motters Olympic: Investigations into the Socio-Cultural Study of the Mod­ 16 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and ern Olympic Movement: Tenthlnternationoi Symposium for Olympic Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games', 36. Research. Eds R.K. Barney, J. Forsyth and M. Heine, Internation- 17 www.smh.com.au/spor :/winter-olympks/new-olympic-sports- alCentre for Olympic Studies, The University of Western Ontario, in-sochi-range-from-the-extreme-to-the-just-silly-20 1902o6- London, Canada, 2010,265 - 277. 322gj.html. 92 Stephen Wilson, ‘Beijing fist city awarded Summer, Winter Games,' 18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20iit_Winter_Olympics. Several sources Toronto Star, August 1 2015, B3. Munich, another large city with a report that disabled ski ng at the 1989 and great legacy of sport infrastructure due to hosting the 1972 Summer was a demonstration sport but it is sometimes described as an Games, was recently interested in bidding for the 2022 Winter Games exhibition sport as it wa; eventually moved into the programme of but withdrew due to a lack of public support and problems with the Paralympics. the mountain venues near Munich. If these issues can be resolved, 19 www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic_Agenda_2020/Olympk_ Munich could possibly resurrect a bid in the foreseeable future due Agenda_2020-20. to its favourable European location and the fact that it might be 20 www.olympic.org/news/ oc-approves-five-new-sports-for- widely supported by the IOC with its current President Thomas Bach olympic-games-tokyo-2120. being German. 21 http://theconversation.cim/five-new-sports-announced-for- 93 http://www.olymplc.org/Documents/Olympic_Agenda_2020/ tokyo-2020-but-where-does-the-future-of-the-olympics- 0lympic_Agenda_2O2O-2O-2O_Recommendations-ENG.pdf lie -630 26 . 99 Austin Murphy, 'AmpingUptheXGames', Sports Illustrated, February 22 http:en.wikipedia.org/viiki/Demonstration_sport; www.Olympic, 23,2019.79-8. org 95 Scott Feschuk. 'Quick! Get That Goalpost an Agent,’ Sportsnet, 23 http://en.wikipedia.org'wiki/2OH»_Winter_0 lym p ics; 295 m edals February 23,2019,12. were presented instead of the normal 294 due to a tie in one of the 96 www.smh.com.au/sport/winter-olympks/new-olympic-sports- events. in-sochl-range-from-the-extreme-to-the-just-silly-20190206- 24 Eric Chemi, " Inflation: Triumph Has Never Been 322gj.html. Easier" in www.businessweek.com/printer/articles/18i1it97. 97 ibid. 25 Wanda Wakefield. 'The Bobsled Controversy and Squaw Valley's 98 http://www.olympic.org/news/new-events-to-boost-female- Olympic Winter Games’, i 1 Cultural Imperialism in Action Critiques in participation-youth-appeal-for-PyeongChang-2018/296262 the Global Olympic Trust: Eighth International Symposium Jor Olym­ 99 Karen Price, 'A Closer Look at the Four New 2018 Olympic Events, pic Research. edsN.B. Crowther, R.K. Barney and M. Heine, Interna­ 'http://www.noodls.com/viewNoodl/28598305/united-states-ol- tional Centre for Olympic Studies, The University of Western Ontario, ympk-committee/a-closer-look-at-the-four-new-2018-olympk- London, Canada, 2006,179. events. 26 Richard Baka, "Australian Performances at the Winter Olympics: 50 Chemi, 'Olympic Medal Inflation’ Maintaining the Momentum," Sporting Traditions, vol. 31, no. 1 (May 51 www.olympic.org/news/what-s-new-for-Sochi/218792. 2019), 89. 52 Baka, 'More Events, More Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and 27 Over the years more Olympic sports added women's events such as Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games,' 90. bobsleigh (2002), ice hoccey (1998) and women's ski jumping (2019) 53 Tu Thanh Ha, 'IOC pressured to make Games affordable' Globe a n d to cite just a few exam ple. A recent trend has seen the addition of M oil, July 10,2019, A3. A recent example was that the IOC did not more mixed events thereoy increasing female participation. have to short-list the number of bid cities to three for the 2022 28 Baka, 'More Events, Mor? Medals, More Interest!: The Growth and Winter Games as Oslo, Beijing and Almaty, Kazakhstan were all Expansion of the Winter Olympic Games' 37. that remained left in the running after four other cities which had 29 www.olympic.org/Docurrents/Olympic_Agenda_2020/Olympk_ initially put in an expression of interest butthen subsequently with­ Agenda_2020-20-20_Recommendations-ENG.pdf. drew. Oslo then also withdrew before the July 2015 bid vote. The 30 www.olympic.org/news/ lew-events-to-boost-female-participa- same situation of a low number of bid cites also took place for the tion-youth-appeal-for-PyeongChang-2018/296262 2018 Winter Games with only three cities bidding. 31 www.olympic.org/soch -2019-winter-olympics; in the case of 59 Sam Borden, 'Almaty, Kazakhstan, Battles Perceptions and Beijing figure skating - always one of the premier winter sports with a in Olympic Bid,' in http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/23/sports/ strong television rating - the addition of a team event was meant olympics/almaty-kazakhstan-battles-perceptions-and-beiji ng- to help this oncedomina it Olympic sport retain its lofty status while in-2022-olympic-bid.html?_r=o. competing with the raftcf newer extreme sports. 55 Tu Thanh Ha, 'IOC pressured to make Gam es affordable'.