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Home , Christian Science, Christian Science (book), Stephen Gottschalk

The Tradition

Religious Beliefs and Healthcare Decisions

Edited by Deborah Abbott Revised by

he of Christ, Scientist, was founded in T1879 and reorganized in 1892 by , a Congregationalist who had experienced a dramatic healing in 1866 while reading a biblical passage about ’ healing powers. For many years, Eddy had had limited success in achieving health using a wide variety of methods, most notably home- Contents opathy and the mind-cure methods of Maine healer The Individual and the 5 Phineas Quimby. The moment of her healing repre- Patient-Caregiver Relationship sented a breakthrough not only in her search for health but in her understanding of the nature of Family, Sexuality, and Procreation 6 reality. The essence of her 1866 discovery, which she Genetics 8 called Christian Science, was that reality is, in truth, Organ and Tissue Transplantation 8 spiritual, and that the material world is only the human mind’s primitive, distorted view of reality, Mental Health 9 which she understood as God’s kingdom, always at Medical Experimentation 9 hand. Eddy spent the next several years developing and Research an extensive theology and metaphysics to help others Death and Dying 10 understand the implications of her discovery; the first edition of her magnum opus, Science and Health with Special Concerns 11 Key to the Scriptures, was published in 1875 under the title Science and Health. The metaphysical and theological basis of Christian Science is distinctive; comprehending it can require time and careful study. Adherents of Christian Science, called Scientists, are considered “students” and are

Part of the “Religious Traditions and Healthcare Deborah Abbott, M.P.H., formerly with the Park Ridge Center, is Decisions” handbook series currently affiliated with Georgia State University. published by the Park Ridge Center for the Study of Health, Faith, and Ethics Stephen Gottschalk, Ph.D., is a scholar in the field of religious studies, specializing in Christian Science.

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER expected to spend time each day studying the upholds Jesus as the Savior and “Way-shower”; and Science and Health. Through this it has always distinguished itself from other study, they seek to change their view of reality metaphysical traditions (to which it is often and to understand more fully the true nature of compared) by its focus on Christ Jesus and its God. One of the major principles of Christian Christian roots, and especially by its emphasis Science is that because God is not the cause of on the need for redemption. Christian Science is sin, sickness, and disharmony, these can be over- “scientific” in that Eddy believed that her come through a deeper understanding of divine discovery embodied a truth so real that it could truth. Christian Science teaches that God could be repeatedly verified by anyone willing to prac- not create disharmony; therefore, because God is tice its “divine Principle” according to its fixed the creator of all things, it follows that dishar- rules for demonstration. mony is not in accord with God’s will and has no ontological reality—however real it seems to conventional human perception. Another major FUNDAMENTAL BELIEFS CONCERNING principle is that the miracles of Jesus (including HEALTH CARE his healings, resurrection, and ascension) exem- plify ultimate freedom from the bondage of phys- Christian Scientists believe that all illness and ical laws and that we, too, should strive to free suffering are ultimately illusory. Obviously, ourselves from the delusion that mortality and Scientists feel sick and experience disease as the suffering it entails are divinely instituted and others do, but they believe illness results from a in consonance with God’s will. Jesus’ miracles do mistaken view of the nature of reality, indicating a not represent exceptions to the laws of nature but need for spiritual renewal. One prominent rather illustrate what can happen when one is Christian Scientist has framed the issue in this able to see the reality of God shining through the way: difficulties that only appear to be true. When Jesus was confronted with a diseased person, for This [understanding] does not deny that within a instance, he did not see the physical appearance strictly physical framework of causation, certain as a fixed reality; rather, he discerned the pres- conclusions are warranted—for example, that many ence of a spiritual individual perfectly created by infections have a bacterial origin. And a Christian God. The clarity of Jesus’ vision brought imme- Scientist would not presume to question the accu- diate health to the individual. To Christian racy from a medical standpoint of a competent Scientists, Jesus represents perfect understanding diagnosis. What a Christian Scientist does question of and harmony with God and therefore stands as is the physical framework of causation itself . . . To the model for all time. take a medical analogy, a Christian Scientist Christian Science, though distinct in many regards all forms of disease as symptomatic of an ways, has more links to traditional underlying condition that needs to be healed. This than its critics (and some of its adherents) may is the healing, or spiritual wholeness, that he or have supposed. Mrs. Eddy, for example, teaches she seeks to effect through .1 that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are three aspects or offices of one God, signifying God as therefore focus not on the symptom, Father-Mother; Christ as divine manhood; and the sickness, or disease, but rather on the under- the Holy Comforter as God’s sustaining power, lying condition—flawed human perception and which Mrs. Eddy believes has been revealed estrangement from God. Through their prayers through Christian Science. Christian Science is and practices, Christian Scientists hope to align “Christian” in that it grew out of the Christian human understanding with God’s divine, disease- tradition, relies heavily on the Bible, and free reality, thereby restoring spirituality to the

2 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS human and destroying the illusion of family difficulties, and other such problems. All disease. A renewed relationship with God is the practitioners listed in Christian Science periodi- primary goal. Physical healing is simply a natural cals have undergone an intensive two-week by-product. Eddy wrote, “Healing physical sick- course of training and are committed to full- ness is the smallest part of Christian Science. It time ministry. Consultation with a practitioner is only the bugle-call to thought and action, in often occurs over the telephone, and he or she the higher range of infinite goodness. The normally receives a modest fee. emphatic purpose of Christian Science is the Christian Science nurses complement the healing of sin; and this task, sometimes, may be work of practitioners with nonmedical physical harder than the cure of disease; because, while care. They provide spiritual support; feed and mortals love to sin, they do not love to be sick.”2 bathe patients; help patients use canes, walkers, Despite her view of bodily healing as secondary and wheelchairs; prepare meals; and provide to the healing of sin, Eddy still saw it as a vital other nonmedical care. Especially important is part of Christian salvation. Christian Science their mission of maintaining a mental atmo- periodicals regularly publish dramatic personal sphere conducive to spiritual healing. Christian accounts of healing. Since 1900, over 53,900 Science nurses do not receive any information such accounts have been published, most about medication or physical therapy as part of involving physical healing.3 their training. (See “Pain control and palliative According to Christian Science, drugs do not care,” below.) have real power; they are effective only insofar More than thirty Christian Science nursing as they are supported by general human faith in homes and sanatoria are located in the United material cause and effect. “Certain results, States and Canada. Most major health insurance supposed to proceed from drugs, are really companies cover the cost of Christian Science caused by the faith in them which the false care, including practitioners’ fees; unreimbursed human consciousness is educated to feel.”4 payments are deductible as medical expenses for Because this faith is fundamentally misguided, the purposes of federal income tax assessment.6 the effect can only be temporary. Eddy Among Scientists, sole reliance on Christian explained, “A hypodermic injection of morphine Science treatment is clearly preferred over the is administered to a patient, and in twenty use of medicine and medical treatments, minutes the sufferer is quietly asleep. To him although individual Christian Scientists are there is no longer any pain. Yet any physician— permitted to decide for themselves which kind allopathic, homoeopathic, botanic, eclectic—will of care they receive. Christian Science teaches, tell you that the troublesome material cause is however, that while both medicine and Christian unremoved, and that when the soporific influ- Science seek the healing of the patient, they rest ence of the opium is exhausted, the patient will on very different bases and are therefore incom- find himself in the same pain, unless the belief patible with each other in practical situations. which occasions the pain has meanwhile been It makes little sense, Scientists believe, to admin- changed.”5 ister medical treatment to a patient while at the Christian Scientists and others in need of same time denying the ultimate reality of matter healing often rely on Christian Science practi- and the reality of material cause and effect, tioners, professionals who are committed to the which is the basis of medical treatment. ministry of healing. This ministry involves Therefore, the two methods should not be consultation with the sick, discussion of used simultaneously—not to satisfy some stan- Christian Science principles, and prayer. In dard of “purity,” but for the welfare of the addition to treating physical ailments, practi- patient. If anyone under Christian Science treat- tioners often treat alcoholism, anxiety, stress, ment chooses to seek medical treatment, the

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 3 practitioner will discontinue work on the case, With respect to surgery and the setting of although he or she may still visit or pray for the bones Eddy wrote, “Until the advancing age patient in a general way. If a practitioner chooses admits the efficacy and supremacy of Mind [i.e., to seek medical care personally, the practitioner accepts Christian Science], it is better for must temporarily remove his or her name from Christian Scientists to leave surgery and the practitioner listings. adjustment of broken bones and dislocations to The strong tradition of rejecting modern the fingers of a surgeon, while the mental medicine does not apply in all situations. healer confines himself chiefly to mental recon- Christian Scientists regularly engage the serv- struction and to the prevention of inflammation. ices of medical professionals under certain Christian Science is always the most skillful circumstances, most notably in childbirth. Many surgeon, but surgery is the branch of its healing Scientists either give birth in a hospital or which will be last acknowledged.”8 In practice, arrange to have a doctor or certified midwife in although many Christian Scientists allow attendance at home births; if complications medical professionals to set broken bones or arise, Scientists may accept a variety of drugs or extract teeth, Scientists commonly reject surgery other medical treatments, including cesarean in favor of treatment by Christian Science sections. Eddy recommended medical oversight prayer. Scientists believe that eventually of labor following a widely publicized 1888 Christian Science principles will become widely incident in which a mother and child died accepted and will become while under the care of a Christian Science more spiritually and less physically based. practitioner, who was, in this case, the mother of the patient; Eddy held that the practitioner had not taken the requisite medical training to INSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY AND handle the case professionally. Other situations INDIVIDUAL CONSCIENCE in which Christian Scientists commonly interact with health officials and professionals include Christian Scientists believe that individuals receiving legally required vaccines (unless legal must determine for themselves what they exemption is available), obeying public health believe and practice. Those who choose to laws involving quarantines and the reporting of commit themselves to Christian Science are infectious and communicable diseases, partici- expected to learn and practice the teachings of pating in mandatory physical exams, and using the church as explained in the Christian the services of dentists; many employ doctors to Science textbook Science and Health with Key set bones and will use narcotics to quell severe to the Scriptures. (See “Clergy, worship, and pain long enough to apply Christian Science polity,” below.) methods.7

4 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE PATIENT-CAREGIVER RELATIONSHIP

edical professionals should treat the one Mind or God. It can heal in no other way, MChristian Scientists with the same since the human, mortal mind so-called is not a respect accorded to other patients, recognizing healer, but causes the belief in disease. that they are less likely than other patients to be medically informed, to accept medical Then comes the question, how do drugs, hygiene, assumptions, or to accept medical treatments. and heal? It may be affirmed Caregivers should also recognize that medical that they do not heal, but only relieve suffering and hospital surroundings are unfamiliar to temporarily, exchanging one disease for another. most Christian Scientists, and this unfamil- We classify disease as error, which nothing but iarity may in itself be disturbing to the patient Truth or Mind can heal, and this Mind must be and affect his case. When caring for Christian divine, not human. Mind transcends all other Scientists, medical professionals should share power, and will ultimately supersede all other relevant medical knowledge, offer appropriate means in healing.9 medical options and advice, and give Scientists the opportunity to decide how to proceed with According to Christian Science, medical their own care. science rests on assumed truths which are profoundly challenged by the “truths” of the ultimately spiritual nature of man and the CLINICAL ISSUES mental basis of disease, as portrayed in Christian Science. Therefore, clinicians should be particu- Self-determination and informed larly sensitive to the issue of truth-telling when consent interacting with Christian Scientists; clinician With respect to medical treatment, each and patient should find and maintain an under- individual is allowed to decide whether and standing about what level of discourse is appro- when to seek medical treatment, although sole priate for both parties. For example, clinicians reliance on prayer is clearly preferred among should be aware that when Scientists forgo Scientists. In lieu of giving informed consent to Christian Science treatment to seek medical treatment, many will sign a waiver of medical care, their attitudes about their physical condi- treatment absolving the physician or healthcare tion may differ significantly from their attitudes institution of responsibility for the consequences when they interact with clinicians for reasons of nontreatment. commonly accepted among Christian Scientists, such as childbirth or the setting of broken Truth-telling and confidentiality bones. (See “Fundamental beliefs concerning In the context of its teachings, Christian Science health care,” above.) uses the word “truth” to refer to spiritual reality; Christian Scientists respect the confidential the physical world, being a limited percept, is nature of medical records. not truly real. Therefore, the “truths” of disease and medicine, while they may appear to be Proxy decision making and advance absolutely real, proceed from an ultimately erro- directives neous and limited view of reality. Christian Scientists may or may not execute advance directives. By their commitment to Sickness is part of the error which Truth casts out. Christian Science, they indicate a preference Error will not expel error. Christian Science is the for Christian Science treatment over medical law of Truth, which heals the sick on the basis of treatment.

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 5 FAMILY, SEXUALITY, AND PROCREATION

or Christian Scientists, marriage is the legally when a guardian or proxy decides to forgo Fand morally appropriate context for procre- medical treatment on behalf of a minor or ation, but it is a human institution rather than a incompetent adult, many ethical and legal divine one. No marriages are performed by the considerations arise. Because Christian church; Eddy stipulated that Scientists should Scientists have often rejected commonly be married by clergy from other denominations. accepted medical treatment for their children, She believed that, in a marriage, “separation they have been involved in an ongoing debate never should take place, and it never would, if about the rights and responsibilities of parents both husband and wife were genuine Christian in caring for their children. Defenders of Scientists.”10 Although the church strongly Christian Science maintain that parents have a emphasizes the healing of marital and other right to exercise their religious convictions and family difficulties, its members are no less prone should not be punished for acting in what they to divorce than are Protestants as a group. judge to be the best interests of their children. Eddy understood God to be beyond sexual They also point frequently to continuing characterization and referred to God as “Father- evidence of physical healing through Christian Mother God.” This understanding of God, along Science treatment of children and adults. Critics, with the fact that Eddy was a female leader in a however, argue that no child should be time of few female leaders, has provided a foun- “martyred” or denied important medical treat- dation for relatively egalitarian gender relation- ment on the basis of the parents’ religious ships within the Christian Science tradition. beliefs. It seems that, due to heavy pressure and Christian Science teaches that homosexuality glaring publicity over the last few decades, is a condition that should be addressed with Christian Science parents are now much more compassion and with efforts to heal rather than likely to seek medical treatment for their chil- with either condemnation or uncritical accept- dren at the outset of a physical problem—though ance. Sexual activity is appropriate only within this is by no means universal. the bonds of marriage. Known homosexuals and This debate certainly has implications for adulterers are unlikely to be elected to offices those who take temporary responsibility for the within the church or accepted as practitioners care of Christian Scientists’ children, including until full healing has occurred. teachers, day-care providers, relatives, and Eddy believed that as long as people under- friends. Ideally, such caregivers should reach a stood themselves to be physical beings, they prior agreement with parents about how to would be sexual creatures who could sustain proceed in cases of emergency. In the absence of humankind only through sexual reproduction. such an agreement, caregivers should exercise Once human thought was perfected, however, their own judgment regarding the provision of sexuality for its own sake would subside, emergency medical care to children. A humans would become immortal, and procre- spokesperson for the Church of Christ, Scientist, ation as we know it would become unnecessary. advises that “in cases of accident, Christian Science parents would not object to the admin- istration of on-the-spot first aid for their chil- CLINICAL ISSUES dren. But in some instances they might prefer, after careful consideration, to have Christian Treatment of children Science treatment rather than hospitalization, Adults in this country may legally choose to surgery, or extended therapy. Again, however, forgo medical treatment for themselves. But prayer and reasoned judgment amid the exigen-

6 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS cies of practical situations—rather than abstract Published accounts and personal experiences criteria—tend to shape the choice of treatment in of healing in children under Christian Science emergency cases.”11 care demonstrate for Christian Scientists the The that parents would rely solely on effectiveness of such treatment for children. prayer for the healing of their children seems Reports include healing of children with foreign to many medical professionals. For medically diagnosed conditions such as chemical Christian Science families, it seems very natural; burns, pleurisy, stomach tumor, bowed legs, and teaching children to use prayer as a practical aid bone disease. Because of these and many other in all aspects of their lives is a common part of experiences of healing, Christian Scientists family life. Such aid may include finding a lost believe that parents should have the legal right pet, conquering fear, or overcoming sickness. to choose this form of treatment for their chil- Christian Science parents often find that chil- dren rather than medical treatment. dren are very receptive to this approach to Others disagree. They cite cases in which handling problems and Scientists believe that children under Christian Science care have died children, through their easy understanding of as a result of conditions for which early medical God, are able to heal others. treatment is normally successful, such as menin- Eddy taught that the thoughts and actions of gitis and juvenile diabetes, as proof of the parents can have profound effects, both positive importance of medical treatment. Because of and negative, on the physical well-being of their this conviction, they believe that all parents children. She wrote: have a duty to seek medical care for their chil- dren under certain circumstances. Mind regulates the condition of the stomach, Occasionally Christian Science parents in the bowels, and food, the temperature of children and United States have been criminally prosecuted for of men, and matter does not. The wise or unwise failing to seek medical care that others thought views of parents and other persons on these could have saved their child’s life. In recent years, subjects produce good or bad effects on the health the number of such cases has dramatically of children . . . increased; during the period from 1983 to 1989, Christian Science parents were criminally prose- Giving drugs to infants, noticing every symptom of cuted in seven separate cases in various states flatulency, and constantly directing the mind to with various outcomes. Most of the verdicts have such signs,—that mind being laden with illusions been appealed to higher state courts, but none about disease, health-laws, and death,—these has been appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In actions convey mental images to children’s 1993, the first civil trial of a Christian Science budding thoughts, and often stamp them there, parent began; in that case, the Minnesota Court making it probable at any time that such ills may of Appeals upheld the trial court’s award of $1.5 be reproduced in the very ailments feared. A child million in compensatory damages to the deceased may have worms, if you say so, or any other boy’s father, which were to be paid by the boy’s malady, timorously held in the beliefs concerning mother, his stepfather, and his Christian Science his body. Thus are laid the foundations of the nurse and practitioner. The defendants filed a belief in disease and death, and thus are children petition for writ of certiorari, a request for review, educated into discord.12 with the U.S. Supreme Court, but the Court refused to review it, thus making the Minnesota To Christian Scientists, the mental influences State Court of Appeals’ judgment final. of parents upon their children are of much Most states have “religious exception” or greater consequence than physical threats or “religious accommodation” provisions in their medical treatments. child welfare statutes that protect parents from

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 7 being judged negligent solely on the ground that Sterilization they do not provide medical treatment for a No official position was found on sterilization. child because of their religious beliefs. Experience has shown, however, that the mere New reproductive technologies existence of these provisions does not automati- No official position was found on artificial insem- cally protect parents from prosecution by deter- ination, gamete intrauterine fallopian transfer mined legal authorities. Current federal (GIFT), in vitro fertilization (IVF), or surrogate Department of Health and Human Services motherhood. Christian Scientists would generally regulations require that all cases in which chil- approach fertility problems as they deal with dren are denied medical treatment be reported other physical challenges—through prayer. to state welfare authorities, regardless of the parents’ religious intent.13 States may or may not Abortion and the status of the fetus charge religiously motivated parents with Abortion is rare among Christian Scientists, medical neglect, depending on state laws, the more because of its moral implications than attitudes of state authorities, and the circum- because it is viewed as a medical procedure. stances of a particular case. Nevertheless, in all cases, states do have the authority to ensure that Prenatal diagnosis and treatment necessary medical services are provided to a Discretion is left to those involved. child. Because this is such a controversial issue, the battles to define the rights and responsibili- Care of severely handicapped newborns ties of parents as they relate to the care of their Discretion is left to those involved. children are likely to continue.

Contraception Most Christian Scientists would not use birth control pills because they are drugs, although this may not be their sole reason. Discretion is left to those involved.

GENETICS

hristian Scientists believe that to examine relationship with God, determines who we are. Cor alter human genes is to focus on the About hereditary disease Eddy wrote, “The physical rather than the spiritual and to concede Scientist knows that there can be no hereditary that our physical substance, rather than our disease, since matter is not intelligent.”14

ORGAN AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTATION

ost Christian Scientists reject organ and Mtissue transplants for the same reasons that they reject other medical treatment.

8 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS MENTAL HEALTH

or Christian Scientists, mental illness, like all Psychotherapy and behavior modification Fother ailments, arises out of a false under- Psychotherapy and behavior modification are standing of the nature of reality and can be considered undesirable treatment for Christian healed through right understanding. Speaking of Scientists suffering from mental illnesses because the “arguments,” or prayerful affirmations of such illnesses can be treated with Christian spiritual truth, used in Christian Science treat- Science prayer, as can any other illness. ment, Eddy wrote: Psychopharmacology The treatment of insanity is especially interesting. “The supposition that we can correct insanity by However obstinate the case, it yields more readily the use of purgatives and narcotics is in itself a than do most diseases to the salutary action of truth, mild species of insanity.”16 which counteracts error. The arguments to be used in curing insanity are the same as in other diseases: Electroshock and stimulation namely, the impossibility that matter, brain, can Electroshock and stimulation are considered control or derange mind, can suffer or cause undesirable treatments for Christian Scientists suffering; also the fact that truth and love will estab- suffering from mental illnesses because such lish a healthy state, guide and govern mortal mind illnesses can be treated with Christian Science or the thought of the patient, and destroy all error, prayer, as can any other illness. whether it is called dementia, hatred, or any other discord.15

CLINICAL ISSUES

Involuntary commitment No official position was found on involuntary commitment.

MEDICAL EXPERIMENTATION AND RESEARCH

hristian Scientists believe that experimenta- Ction on humans is not appropriate.

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 9 DEATH AND DYING

hristian Scientists regard death not as the patients and providing palliative care—such as Cend of being or of individual identity—nor as using a fever thermometer, taking a pulse, a sudden plunge into a heaven or a hell. Instead applying heat or ice, or giving a backrub—are death is a transition to a new stage of existence incompatible with relying on spiritual means for and growth. They believe that, for individuals, healing; Christian Science holds that if one is “life in the hereafter involves growth in holiness, confidently relying on prayer for healing, he or repentance and spiritual regeneration as does she will not choose to use physical ways and this life.”17 On a higher level, they believe that means. once the last traces of sin and delusion disappear from the human mind, death itself will disappear. Forgoing life-sustaining treatment Christian Scientists generally forgo most kinds of medical treatment because they choose to rely CLINICAL ISSUES solely on Christian Science treatment, both for themselves and for their children. (See Determining death “Treatment of children,” above.) “If you or I should appear to die, we should not be dead. The seeming decease, caused by a Suicide, assisted suicide, and euthanasia majority of human beliefs that man must die, or The Church of Christ, Scientist, has issued the produced by mental assassins, does not in the following statement with respect to euthanasia: least disprove Christian Science; rather does it evidence the truth of its basic proposition that Normally, questions about euthanasia are discussed mortal thoughts in belief rule the materiality within a medical context in which certain condi- miscalled life in the body or in matter. But the tions or diseases are regarded as irreversible. forever fact remains paramount that Life, Truth, Christian Scientists, on the other hand, do not and Love save from sin, disease, and death.”18 consider any disease beyond the power of God to heal . . . Thus, they wouldn’t ordinarily approach Pain control and palliative care even serious or ‘terminal’ problems from the “If from an injury or from any cause, a Christian perspective that resignation to death is the only Scientist were seized with pain so violent that he option.21 could not treat himself mentally,—and the Scientists had failed to relieve him,—the sufferer Autopsy and postmortem care could call a surgeon, who would give him a In most cases, Christian Scientists would prefer hypodermic injection, then, when the belief of that female bodies be handled by other females pain was lulled, he could handle his own case and that no autopsy be performed.22 Nonetheless, mentally.”19 the governing by-laws in the Manual of The Christian Scientists in general and Christian state that “if a member of The Science nurses in particular are guided by Mother Church shall decease suddenly, without Eddy’s teaching that “it is no more Christianly previous injury or illness, and the cause thereof be scientific to see disease than it is to experience unknown, an autopsy shall be made by qualified it. If you would destroy the sense of disease, you experts.”23 should not build it up by wishing to see the forms it assumes or by employing a single mate- Last rites, burial, and mourning customs rial application for its relief.”20 Thus, many “The Christian Science Church does not commonly accepted forms of monitoring perform last rites, nor does it have ritual or

10 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS doctrinal requirements regarding the bodily hold services at home or in a funeral parlor. In remains of the deceased. Arrangements for many cases, a simple memorial service would be burial or cremation are left to the next of kin, as held.”24 Christian Scientists often prefer are decisions regarding services. Some families cremation over burial.25 may prefer not to have a service. Others may

SPECIAL CONCERNS

ATTITUDES TOWARD DIET AND THE USE ings, the first reader reads selections from the OF DRUGS Bible and Science and Health, and then members share experiences of healing. ctive members of the church avoid alcohol, The governmental structure of the church is Atobacco, and the use of drugs on grounds specified in Eddy’s Manual of The Mother that these are artificial and unnecessary material Church, which places governance of the church stimulants. Eddy wrote, “The depraved appetite with a five-member board of directors at the for alcoholic drinks, tobacco, tea, coffee, opium, First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, is destroyed only by Mind’s mastery of the body —commonly known as The Mother . . . Puffing the obnoxious fumes of tobacco, or Church. The Board, while entrusted with exten- chewing a leaf naturally attractive to no creature sive practical authority in the day-to-day except a loathsome worm, is at least conduct of church business, itself operates disgusting.”26 Narcotics may be appropriate under under the constraints of the church’s Manual in certain circumstances. (See “Pain control and an essentially constitutional form of church palliative care,” above.) Scientists avoid gambling government. Board members serve for varying on traditional moral grounds, and usually do not lengths of time and appoint their own succes- make use of medical therapies because of volun- sors. Most Scientists are members of both The tary reliance on spiritual means for healing. Mother Church and a local branch church. Branch churches operate democratically within fairly strict guidelines set out in the Manual. CLERGY, WORSHIP, AND POLITY

The Church of Christ, Scientist, has no ordained SPECIAL DAYS clergy. The Bible and Science and Health act as the “pastor” of the church, but Science and Services are held on Sunday mornings, and Health is not considered to be scripture. testimony meetings are held on Wednesday Worship consists of music, silent prayer, the evenings. Lord’s Prayer, and the reading by two members of a lesson-sermon containing assigned texts from the Bible and Science and Health. Many MEMBERSHIP members study the lesson-sermon each day during the preceding week. There is no personal There has been a decrease in the number of preaching or ceremony or administering of Christian Science practitioners worldwide from in the church. Eddy taught that approximately 8,300 in 1960 to about 1,700 in communion occurs in one’s heart and that 2002. The number of Christian Science branch is a process of continued spiritual churches and societies has declined from about purification. During Wednesday testimony meet- 3,000 in 1950 to about 1,400 in 2002. Taking

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 11 these and other indicators into account, one can 3. We acknowledge God’s forgiveness of sin in the arrive at a rough estimate of possible Mother destruction of sin and the spiritual understanding Church membership. The Mother Church does that casts out as unreal. But the belief in sin not report membership statistics, since Eddy is punished so long as the belief lasts. prohibited doing so at a time when members were becoming more prideful because Christian Science was growing rapidly. But a U. S. Census 4. We acknowledge Jesus’ atonement as the evidence report in 1936 listed Mother Church member- of divine, efficacious Love, unfolding man’s unity ship in the United States as about 269,000. with God through Christ Jesus the Way-shower; Informed estimates would indicate that the and we acknowledge that man is saved through number of Mother Church members today is Christ, through Truth, Life, and Love as demon- well below half that figure, though many who strated by the Galilean Prophet in healing the sick are not formal members of the denomination and overcoming sin and death. count themselves students of Christian Science. While it is true that women have dominated the church numerically, they have not domi- 5. We acknowledge that the and nated in the high offices of the church. And his resurrection served to uplift faith to under- although the demographic characteristics of stand eternal Life, even the allness of Soul, Spirit, members are not precisely known, more of the and the nothingness of matter. membership is rural or of lower-middle-class backgrounds than many people assert.27 6. And we solemnly promise to watch, and pray for that Mind to be in us which was also in Christ TENETS Jesus; to do unto others as we would have them do unto us; and to be merciful, just, and pure.28 The religious tenets, or basic convictions, of Christian Science are these:

1. As adherents of Truth, we take the inspired Word of the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal Life.

2. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and infi- nite God. We acknowledge His Son, one Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and man in God’s image and likeness.

12 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS NOTES

1. Talbot, “The Position of the Christian Science 14. Eddy, Science and Health, 412. Church,” 1642. 15. Ibid., 414. 2. Rudimental Divine Science, as quoted in Peel, Health 16. Ibid., 408. and Medicine in the Christian Science Tradition, 51. 17. Melton, The Churches Speak On: Abortion, 205. 3. Freedom and Responsibility, 112. 18. Eddy, Science and Health, 164. 4. Eddy, Science and Health, 484. 19. Ibid., 464. 5. Ibid., 416. 20. Ibid., 421. 6. Merrick, “Christian Science Healing of Minor Children,” 330. 21. Melton, The Churches Speak On: Euthanasia, 205. 7. Gevitz, “Christian Science Healing and the Health 22. Green, “Death with Dignity,” 33. Care of Children,” 427–28. 23. Eddy, Manual of the Mother Church. 8. Eddy, Science and Health, 401–2. 24. Melton, The Churches Speak on: Euthanasia, 205. 9. Ibid., 482–83. 25. Green, “Death with Dignity,” 33. 10. Ibid., 59–60. 26. Eddy, Science and Health, 406–7. 11. Talbot, “The Position,” 1643. 27. Christian Science Publishing Society, Christian 12. Eddy, Science and Health, 413–14. Science, 11. 13. DHHS, 1983. 28. Eddy, Science and Health, 497.

THE PARK RIDGE CENTER 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Christian Science Publishing Society. Christian Science: Melton, J. Gordon. The Churches Speak On: Abortion. A Sourcebook of Contemporary Materials. Boston: : Gale Research, 1991. Christian Science Publishing Society, 1990. ______. The Churches Speak On: Euthanasia. Detroit: Department of Health and Human Services. Federal Gale Research, 1989. Register 48, no. 18 (January 26, 1983): 3698–3704. Microfiche. Merrick, Janna C. “Christian Science Healing of Minor Children: Spiritual Exemption Statutes, Eddy, Mary Baker. Science and Health with Key to First Amendment Rights, and Fair Notice.” Issues the Scriptures. Boston: First Church of Christ, in Law and Medicine 10, no. 3 (1994): 321–42. Scientist, [1875] 1971. Peel, Robert. Health and Medicine in the Christian ______. Manual of The Mother Church. Boston: First Science Tradition: Principle, Practice, and Church of Christ, Scientist, [1895] 1936. Challenge. New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1988. Freedom and Responsibility: Christian Science Skolnick, Andrew. “Religious Exemptions to Child Healing for Children. Boston: First Church of Neglect Laws Still Being Passed Despite Christ, Scientist, 1989. Convictions of Parents.” Journal of the American Medical Association 264, no. 10 (1990): 1226, Gevitz, Norman. “Christian Science Healing and the 1229, 1233. Health Care of Children.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 34, no. 3 (1991): 421–38. Talbot, Nathan A. “The Position of the Christian Science Church.” Journal of Green, Jennifer. “Death with Dignity: Christian Medicine 309, no. 26 (1983): 1641–44. Science.” Nursing Times 88, no. 4 (1992): 32–33.

14 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS

Introduction to the series

eligious beliefs provide meaning for people The guidelines in these booklets should Rconfronting illness and seeking health, partic- not substitute for discussion of patients’ own ularly during times of crisis. Increasingly, health- religious views on clinical issues. Rather, they care workers face the challenge of providing should be used to supplement information appropriate care and services to people of different coming directly from patients and families, and religious backgrounds. Unfortunately, many used as a primary source only when such first- healthcare workers are unfamiliar with the reli- hand information is not available. gious beliefs and moral positions of traditions We hope that these booklets will help other than their own. This booklet is one of a practitioners see that religious backgrounds series that aims to provide accessible and practical and beliefs play a part in the way patients deal information about the values and beliefs of differ- with pain, illness, and the decisions that arise in ent religious traditions. It should assist nurses, the course of treatment. Greater understanding physicians, chaplains, social workers, and adminis- of religious traditions on the part of care trators in their decision making and care giving. providers, we believe, will increase the quality It can also serve as a reference for believers who of care received by the patient. desire to learn more about their own traditions. Each booklet gives an introduction to the history of the tradition, including its perspectives on health and illness. Each also covers the tradi- tion’s positions on a variety of clinical issues, with attention to the points at which moral dilemmas often arise in the clinical setting. Finally, each booklet offers information on spe- cial concerns relevant to the particular tradition. The editors have tried to be succinct, objec- tive, and informative. Wherever possible, we have included the tradition’s positions as reflected in official statements by a governing or other formal body, or by reference to positions formulated by authorities within the tradition. Bear in mind that within any religious tradition, there may be more than one denomination or that holds THE PARK RIDGE CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF HEALTH, FAITH, AND ETHICS views in opposition to mainstream positions, or groups that maintain different emphases. 205 West Touhy Avenue Suite 203 Park Ridge, Illinois 60068-4202 The editors also recognize that the beliefs and values of individuals within a tradition may vary The Park Ridge Center explores and from the so-called official positions of their tradi- enhances the interaction of health, faith, tion. In fact, some traditions leave moral decisions and ethics through research, education, and about clinical issues to individual conscience. We consultation to improve the lives of individuals and communities. would therefore caution the reader against gener- alizing too readily. © 2002 The Park Ridge Center. All rights reserved.

16 THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE TRADITION: RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND HEALTHCARE DECISIONS