The Covenant at Sinai1 Peter J. Gentry

Peter J. Gentry is Professor of Old Introduction framing all ana­lysis of the covenant at Testament Interpretation and Director of Central to the Book of Exodus—and Sinai as bookends.2 In between, attention the Hexapla Institute at The Southern indeed to the entire Pentateuch—is the will be given to the literary structure of Baptist Theological Seminary. He has covenant made between Yahweh and Exodus 19-24, and afterwards exegesis served on the faculty of Toronto Baptist Israel at Sinai comprised in chapters 19-24. will be focused on the divine purpose Seminary and Bible College and also The eighteen chapters preceding describe of the covenant in Exod 19:5-6, the first taught at the University of Toronto, Heri- the release of Israel from bond­age and four of the Ten Com­mandments, and the tage Theological Seminary, and Tyndale slavery in Egypt and the journey through ceremony of covenant ratification in Exod Seminary. Dr. Gentry is the author of the wilderness to Sinai. Chap­ters 25-40 are 24:1-11. many articles and book reviews and devoted to the construction of a place of is currently preparing a critical text of worship as the appropri­ate recogni­tion of Exodus 19-24 within the Larger Proverbs and Ecclesiates for the Göt- the divine kingship established through Story of Scripture tingen Septuagint. the covenant. The biblical narrative begins with A much bigger claim, however, can be a creator God who is the maker of our made for Exodus 19-24. The “Book of the world and indeed, the entire universe. We Covenant,” as Moses himself entitles this humans are the crowning achieve­ment of unit (Exod 24:7), along with the Book of his creative work. There is a difference, Deuteron­omy as an addition or supple­ moreover, between humans and animals, ment (28:69 MT, 29:01 EVV), forms the in fact, between us and all other creatures: heart of the old covenant. And it is in the we alone have been made as the image of inter­pre­ta­tion of the con­tent and rela­tion this creator God and given special tasks of this covenant to the new covenant to perform on behalf of the Creator. that is the basis of all the ma­jor divi­sions According to Gen 1:26-28, the divine among Christians—i.e., all denomina- image defines human life, both ontologi- tional dif­ferences derive ulti­mately from cally and functionally, in terms of a cov- different under­standings of the relation of enant relationship with the creator God the covenant at Sinai to ourselves today. on the one hand, and with the creation This brief exposition of Exodus 19-24 on the other. The former may be captured bases accurate exposition of this text on by the term sonship and is implied by (1) closer attention to the larger literary Gen 5:1-3: structure, (2) exegesis based on the cul­ By juxtaposing the divine creation of tural, historical, and linguistic setting of Adam in the image of God and the the text, and (3) consideration of the larger subsequent human creation of Seth in the image of Adam, the transmis- story of scripture (metanarrative) and sion of the image of God through explicit indications of how this text fits this genealogical line is implied, as within this larger story. Where and how well as the link between sonship and the image of God. As Seth is a Exodus 19-24 fits into the larger story of son of Adam, so Adam is a son of Scripture will be briefly detailed at both God. Language is being stretched beginning and end of the present study— here as a literal son of God is cer- tainly not in view, but nonetheless 38 the writer is using an analogy to nations are lost and scattered over the face 3 make a point. of the earth. So, God made another new start, this The latter relationship, i.e., between time with Abraham. Abraham and his humans and the creation, may be reflected family, called Israel, is another Adam, in the terms kingship and servanthood. who will be God’s true humanity. God As Randall Garr has shown, it is interest­ makes great promises to Abraham in ing to note that in the Ninth Century chapter 12. These promises are enshrined Aramaic Tell Fakhariyeh Inscription, eventually in a covenant made with him ṣalmā’ (“image”) refers to the king’s and his descendants in chapters 15 and 17. majestic power and rule in relation to Space permits here only a brief consider- his subjects, while demûthā’ (“like­ness”) ation of how God’s promises to Abraham refers to the king’s petitionary role and carry forward the focus on kingdom relation to the deity.4 Thus, the ancient through covenant. Near Eastern data con­firm, correspond The call of Abram in Genesis 12:1-3 to, and illustrate precisely the terms used consists of two commands (go in 12:1 and in the biblical text. Furthermore, as Gen be a blessing in 12:2). Each command is fol- 2:4-25 shows, the Adamic son is like a lowed by three promises. The first prom­ priest in a garden sanctu­ary. He must first ise is “I will make you into a great nation”, learn the ways of God in order to exercise and the last promise is “all the clans / the rule of God as God himself would.5 families of the earth will be blessed in The biblical narrative, then, is focused at you” (12:1, 3). We need to pay attention to the start on establishing the rule of God the terms used here to describe both the through covenant relationship: kingdom people of God and the other peoples of through covenant. the world. God promises to make Abram However, the first humans rebelled into a great nation; this is the word gôy in against the creator God. As a result, Hebrew. The other people groups of the there is chaos, discord, and death in the world are called clans or families; here the creation at every level. The destructive Hebrew term is mišpāḥâ. path chosen by the first humans led to First consider the term gôy or nation. a downward spiral of corruption and It is highly unusual for this term to be violence until divine intervention was applied to the people of God. There is required. God judged the human race by in the language of the Old Testament a a flood and made a new beginning with completely consistent usage: the word ‘am Noah and his family. Noah is presented is almost always re­served for Israel. It is in the narrative as a new Adam. As soon a kinship term which expresses effectively as the dry land ap­pears out of the chaos of the close­ness of the family/mar­riage the floodwaters, Noah is placed there and relationship between God and Israel commanded to be fruit­ful and multiply established by the covenant made at Sinai (Gen 9:1); i.e., he is given Adam’s commis- (Exodus 24). On the other hand, the word sion or man­date. The correspondence to gôy is the standard term for the commu­ Genesis 1 is striking. Eventually, however, nities or other societies in the world the family of Noah end up in the same excluding Israel. So consistent is this use, chaos and corruption as the family of the that when we see something different, we first Adam. With the Tower of Babel, the 39 need to ask why. For example, a few cases The word in Hellenistic Greek which are found where the term gôy is applied best conveys this meaning is the term to Israel in a pejorative sense. Some­times polis, normally translated “city.” In our Israel is called “nation” and not “people” modern world we tend to think of cities because the author may wish to com­mu­ as great centers of dense popu­lation in nicate that because of her wickedness she contrast to rural areas which by definition is behaving as if she were not the people are sparsely populated. In the first cen- of God. Her actions and attitudes indicate tury, however, in contrast to our culture, she is like those communi­ties who have the term “city” conveyed the idea of an no special status as the chosen people of organized community with governmental God (e.g., Judg 2:20). headship and appropriate political and Why, then, in Genesis 12 does God social structure—what we nor­mally con­ speak of Abram becoming a great gôy or vey by the English word state. Thus, the nation? The basic meaning of gôy is an promises of God to Abraham really did organized community of people hav­ing entail the city of God as the author to the gov­ernmental, political, and social structure. Hebrews puts it, accurately explaining This contrasts with the fact that the other for his readers the meaning of Genesis nations are derogatorily termed mišpāḥâ in 12. Abraham was to go to a country God Genesis 12. This word refers to an amor­ would indicate to him and reside there— phous kin group larger than an extended even if as an alien and a stranger: he was family and smal­ler than a tribe. await­ing “the city that has foundations, The background of Genesis 12 is chap- whose architect and builder is God” (Heb ters 10 and 11. There we have the history 11:10). of Babel (Genesis 11), where we see a Thus, Abraham, and Israel, have complete con­fidence and naïve optimism inherited an Adamic role.6 Yahweh refers about human achievement and effort. to the nation as his son in Exod 4:22-23. Man is at the centre of his world, and he The divine purpose in the covenant can achieve anything. This philosophy es­tablished between God and Israel at comes under divine judgment in Genesis Sinai is unfolded in Exod 19:3-6. As a king­ 11 and results in the nations being lost dom of priests they will func­tion to make and scattered over the face of the earth the ways of God known to the nations and (Gen 11:9 and chapter 10). By contrast, also bring the nations into a right relation- Genesis 12 presents us with a political ship to God. Israel will display to the rest structure brought into being by the word of the world within its covenant commu- of God, with God at the center and God nity the kind of rela­tionships, first to God as the governmental head and rule of that and then to one another and to the physi- community. In other words, we have the cal world, that God in­tended originally Kingdom of God brought into being by for all of humanity. In fact, through Abra- covenant (between God and Abram). The ham’s family, God pur­poses and plans author’s choice of terms emphasizes that to bring blessing to all the nations of the the family of Abram is a real kingdom world. In this way, through the family of with eternal power and significance, while Abraham, through Israel, his last Adam, the so-called kingdoms of this world have he will bring about a reso­lu­tion of the no lasting power or significance. sin and death caused by the first Adam. 40 Since Israel is located geo­graphically on divine promises to Abraham and to the the one and only communications link nation as a whole, and through them to between the great super­powers of the the entire world. ancient world (Egypt and Mesopotamia), in this posi­tion she will show the nations Excursus: Labelling Covenants how to have a right relationship to God, This article is entitled “the Covenant at how to treat each other in a truly human Sinai,” but what is the biblical terminol- way, and how to be faithful stewards of ogy? From the point of view of the New the earth’s resources. This is the meaning Testament—i.e., Latinized English for of Israel’s sonship. “new covenant”—it is called the “old cov- The promises of God to Abraham enant” in 2 Cor 3:14 (and compare v. 15). focused on two things: descen­dants and Hebrews 8 and 9 also use the term “first” land. When we come to the books of for this covenant. In the Old Testa­ment, Exodus through Deuteronomy, which however, it is commonly called the Torah con­stitute the Mosaic Covenant or Cov- (Law) or the Law of Moses (Exod 24:12). enant with Israel, we have the fulfillment In Scripture, covenants are normally of these promises. First, God has greatly named according to the human part­ner. increased the descendants of Abraham The cove­nant in Genesis 6-9 is between so that they are innumerable, like the God and Noah. This is expanded to sand upon the seashore or the stars of the include his family and, through them, night sky. Second, he has given the land all of humanity. It is fair to call this “the of Canaan to them. covenant with Noah.” The covenant in God’s plan and purpose, however, Genesis 15 and 17 is called the “covenant have not changed. He wants to bless the with Abram” in Gen 15:18. Since it is descendants of Abraham and, through passed directly on to Isaac and Jacob, it them, all the nations. In fact, his plan is is called the covenant with Isaac and also to re­store his broken and ruined creation the covenant with Jacob in Lev 26:42. Later through Israel. As they come out of Egypt we find the term “the covenant with the and before they enter the land, God makes fathers” (Deut 4:31) referring to Abraham, an agreement with Israel. The pur­pose of Isaac, and Jacob. We can conveniently and this agreement or covenant is to enable legitimately call it the “covenant with them to enjoy the blessings he wants Abram/Abraham.” The covenant made to give them and be the blessing to the at Sinai is simply called “the book of the other nations. This covenant will show covenant” in Exod 24:7. In Exod 34:27 this them how to be his true humanity. It will same covenant is with Moses and with direct, guide, and lead them to have a Israel. Hence some scholars have called right relationship with God and a right it the Mosaic Covenant. It could just as relationship with everyone else in the well be called the Israelite Covenant or covenant community. It will also teach Covenant with Israel. In any case, it is them how to have a right relationship to never called the Sinai Covenant in Scrip­ all the creation, to be good stewards of ture, and it is more in accordance with the the earth’s resources. We might say, then, pattern of Scripture to name it according that the Mosaic Covenant is given at this to the human partner. Later, when God time to administer the fulfillment of the makes a covenant with David, it is called 41 just that, his “Covenant with David” (2 Mark 10:19; Luke 18:20; Rom 13:9; 7:7, 8; 1 Chr 13:5, 21:7, Ps 89:3, Jer 33:21). Finally Tim 1:9, 10), and that is why the preferred God makes what is called a “New Cove­ term today is the Ten Commandments. nant” in Jer 31:31. So, in regard to the structure of the text, first we have “the Words,” then the “Judg- The Literary Structure of ments” in chapters 21-23. Exodus 19–24 However, it is not only the headings One of the reasons why both popular but also the contents that clearly distin- and scholarly discussions of the rela­tion guish the two sections. The Ten Words between the Old Testament and the New are presented as absolute commands or have resulted in a variety of theological prohibitions, usually in the second person disputes is directly due to a failure to singular. They are general injunctions not consider properly the literary shape of related to a specific social situation. They this text. Instead what is foisted upon the could be described as prescriptive law text is a framework or structure it does not since no fines or punishments are speci- clearly indicate or possess. fied. As an example, “You (singular) shall not steal!” The construction lô’ + imperfect Outline of Exodus 19-40 (1) The Background 19 in Hebrew is durative and non-specific. (2) The Ten Words 20 You shall not steal today, not tomorrow, (3) The Judgments 21-23 not this week, not this month, not this (4) The Ceremony of Covenant Ratification 24 year—as a general rule, never. By contrast, (5) Worship—the Recognition the Judgments are presented as case laws. of Divine Kingship 25-40 These are court decisions functioning The broad outline and shape of the text as precedents. They are normally in the is indicated by headings and the use of format of conditional sentences. Here specific terms. At the heart of the text are the fundamental principles embodied in two sections: (1) the “Ten Words” in chap- the Ten Words are applied in particular ter 20 and (2) the “Judgments” (or “Laws” to a specific social context. They could / “Ordinances”) in chapters 21-23. These be described as descriptive law since are the actual headings in the text. Exodus they impose fines and punishments. As 20:1 introduces the mat­ter simply: “And an example, Exod 21:28-32 addresses the case where a bull gores a human and God spoke all these words.” While Chris- tians common­ly refer to this section as the looks at whether this was the animal’s “Ten Commandments,” the commands habit or not. So chapter 20 and chapters which form the basis of the covenant are 21-23 constitute specific sections of the simply referred to as the “Ten Words” in covenant simply labelled “the words” and Exod 34:28 and Deut 4:13, 10:4. The precise “the Judgments.” expression, “the Ten Commandments” Commandments: The Ten Words occurs nowhere in the Old Testament, (Exod 20:1; 34:28; Deut 4:13) • Absolute commands usually although in a general way the Ten Words second person singular prohi- are included when reference is made to bition the commands of Yahweh. They are fre­ • General injunctions not related to a specific social situation quently re­ferred to as commandments in • Prescriptive law­—no fines or the New Testament (Matthew 5; 19:18, 19; punishments mentioned

42 Ordinances (“Judgments” – KJV; The shortening of long titles is typical “Laws” – NIV) in this culture. Much later, the Hebrew • Case decisions, case laws, judi- cial precedents canon, whose full title is “the Law and the • The fundamental principles Prophets and the Writings” may be simply embodied in the Ten Com- shortened to “the Law.” For example, Paul mandments are applied in particular to a specific social states that he is quoting from “the Law” context and then cites a passage from Isaiah (1 • Descriptive law imposing fines and punishments (usu- Cor 14:21). So “Law” must be short for ally in the form of “if… then” “Law and Prophets.” Alter­natively, since statements or conditional “the Judgments” are simply unfolding sentences) “the ten words” in practical situations, These two distinct sections to the the expression “the words” in 24:3 and 4 covenant are clearly referred to in chap­ may refer to the whole (words and Judg- ter 24, where the covenant ratification ments) by specifying just “the words.” So ceremony is described. Carefully note the two parts or sections of the covenant the particular terms used in vv. 1-8 of are written down by Moses. And this is chapter 24 as follows. Exodus 24:1, accord- called “the book of the covenant” in 24:7. ing to the clause pattern and the topic, Chapters 19 and 24 form the bookends connects and directly fol­lows 20:21 and to this “book of the covenant.” At the 22. In vv. 21-26 of chapter 20 and vv. 1-2 beginning, chapter 19 provides the setting of chapter 24 Yahweh speaks to Moses in space and time, the divine pur­pose of from the cloud on Mt. Sinai and gives the covenant, and the preparation of the instructions concerning altars and who people for the revelation of Yah­weh at Mt. will ascend the mountain for the covenant Sinai. At the end, chapter 24 describes ratification meal. In 24:3 Moses comes and the ceremony of covenant rati­fication. gives a report to the people: “And Moses Following this chapters 25-40 describe came and reported to the people all the the construction of a place of worship words and all the Judgments, and all the showing the pro­per response to the divine people responded with one voice, ‘All the kingship established among the people by words which Yahweh has spoken we will means of the covenant. do.’” Note that Moses reported “all the The shape and structure of Exodus words” and “all the Judgments.” These 19-24, then, is clearly marked in the text. two terms clearly refer to the Ten Words Chapters 20-23 constitute “the Book of in chapter 20:2-17 and the Judgments in the Covenant” consisting of “the Words” chapters 21-23. When the people say, “All (chapter 20) and “the Judgments” (chap- the words which Yahweh has spoken ters 21-23). Chapters 19 and 24 frame the we will do,” the term “the words” is an Book of the Covenant as bookends, with abbreviated form of the expression “all the chapter 19 providing the back­ground and words and all the Judgments” occur­ring setting and chapter 24 describing the cer- earlier in the verse. Similarly, in the next emony of covenant ratifi­cation. verse, 24:4, we read, “And Moses wrote As has been noted for some time, the all the words of Yahweh.” Here, again, structure of this text is parallel in broad “the words of Yahweh” is a short way of outline to the form and structure of saying, “the words and the Judgments.” international treaties in the ancient Near 43 Eastern culture of the fifteenth - thir- the Ten Words, and a consideration of the teenth centuries B.C. Parallels be­tween ceremony of covenant ratification and its the Book of Deuteronomy and the Hittite significance before the implications for suzerain-vassal treaties are more striking Christian theology are spelled out. than between the Book of the Covenant in Exodus and the Hittite Treaties, but Selected Exegesis of the Covenant the parallels are noteworthy nonethe- at Sinai less. International treaties followed a The Divine Purpose of the Covenant specific form: (1) Preamble (author iden- (Exod 19:5-6) tification), (2) History of Past Relationship As already stated, chapter 19 pro- Between the Parties, (3) Basic Stipulation, vides the background to the Book of the (4) Detailed Stipulations, (5) Document Covenant and acts as a bookend on the Clause, (6) Witnesses, (7) Blessings and opening side of the covenant document. Curses. A chart portrays how “the Book Israel arrives at Mount Sinai in her trav- of the Covenant” broadly conforms to els through the desert to the Promised this pattern: Land. Central to the chapter is the flurry of movement by Moses going up and Structure of the Covenant in Exodus (1) Preamble 20:1 down the mountain. Three sequences of (2) Historical Prologue 20:2 up and down dominate the section: (1) (3) Stipulations 19:3 (up) and 19:7 (down), (2) 19:8 (up) and (a) Basic 20:3-17 19:14 (down), and (3) 19:20 (up) and 19:25 (b) Detailed 21-23 (down). These three sequences form the (4) Document Clause 24 boundaries of three sections within the Unlike Deuteronomy, the “Bless- chapter delimiting (1) the divine purpose ings and Curses” section is absent here. of the covenant, (2) the preparation of the Nonethe­less, the commands are enshrined people to meet Yahweh and receive his 8 in what would have been clearly recog- revelation and Torah, and (3) the actual nized at the time as a covenant or treaty epiphany of God on the mountain. The form. The implications of this form for literary structure of the chapter, then, is proper theo­logical understanding will be as follows: developed later. This much is clear: the Literary Structure of Exodus 19 cove­nant is formulated as a suzerain-vas- (1) The Setting in Time sal treaty in order to define God as Father and Space 19:1-2 (2) The Divine Purpose in the and King, and Israel as obedient son in a Covenant 19:3-8 relationship of loyal love, obedience, and (3) The Human Preparation trust. This is confirmed by the fact that for the Covenant 19:9-15 (4) The Revelation of Yahweh the epiphany on Mount Sinai is heralded at Sinai 19:16-25 by the blowing of a trumpet (Exod 19:16, 19, 20:18), a clear signal in Israel for the The constant ascending and descend- acces­sion and coming of a king (2 Sam ing provides a vivid portrayal of the dis- 15:10; 1 Kgs 1:34, 39, 41; 2 Kgs 9:13).7 Space tance between the people and God and per­mits now only a brief analysis of the the need for a mediator. It then empha- divine purpose of the covenant as given sises the miracle of a covenant relation- in Exodus 19, a summary treatment of ship of love, loyalty, and trust between 44 parties such as these.9 in slavery in Egypt and the signs and wonders per­formed by Yahweh both in Then Moses went up to God, and the LORD called to him from the moun- the ten plagues and the cros­sing of the tain and said, “This is what you are Red Sea that delivered and freed them to say to the house of Jacob and what from slavery. It also speaks of the way in you are to tell the people of Israel: ‘You yourselves have seen what I which God had directed them through the did to Egypt, and how I carried you mazes and mirages of the desert using a on eagles’ wings and brought you to pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. myself. Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of This form of leadership also protected all nations you will be my treasured them from ex­treme heat by day and cold possession, for the whole earth is mine. You will be for me a kingdom by night. Every day bread rained from of priests and a holy nation.’ These heaven for their nourishment and water are the words you are to speak to the gushed from the rock to satis­fy their Israelites.” So Moses went back and summoned the elders of the people thirst. Our culture today can picture this and set before them all the words from the movie world in the miraculous the LORD had commanded him rescue of Gan­dalf by the eagles in the Lord to speak. The people all responded together, “We will do everything the of the Rings. God had protected the people LORD has said.” So Moses brought and provided for them during the difficult their answer back to the LORD desert journey, bearing them on eagles’ (Exod 19:3-8, NIV). wings, so to speak, and had so arranged After the place and time in history is their itinerary as to bring them to himself, specified, vv. 3-8 detail the pur­pose of the that is, to the place already prepared as a covenant from God’s point of view. What meeting place between God and men, to we have in these verses is a proposal of the Sinai, the mountain of God (Exod 3:1). covenant in a nutshell: (1) verse 4 describes Verses 5-6 are constructed in the form the past history of relationship between of a conditional sentence: “if you do this ... the two covenant partners, (2) vv. 5-6 pro- then you will be ... and you will be....” The pose a relationship of complete loyalty and protasis or “if clause” specifies absolute obedience of Israel as a vassal to Yahweh as obedience to the covenant stipulations. the great king and promise certain bless- The apodosis or “then clause” de­fines the ings, and (3) in vv. 7-8 the people agree to result in terms of relationship to Yahweh: the pro­posal. Thus, even in this covenant they will belong to him in two ways (1) as proposal in vv. 3-8 the form and structure a king’s treasure, and (2) as a kingdom of cor­responds to the formula of ancient Near priests and a holy nation. Eastern covenants and treaties. Before explaining the meaning of the Verse 4 is a marvellous encapsula- terms defining the divine goal in the cov- tion of the past relationship between the enant relationship, the relation of vv. 5-6 people and Yahweh using the imagery of to v. 4 must be stressed. Perhaps a diagram being carried out of trouble on the wings may be used to picture this: of an eagle: “You yourselves have seen God’s Grace what I did to Egypt, and how I carried \ you on eagles’ wings and brought you Israel’s Obedience Demanded to myself.” This brief statement summa- / Become My People rizes the abject condition of the people 45 Verse 4 shows that the motivation for find at capital cities such as Hattusa concluding and keeping a covenant with (Boğazkale, Turkey) and Ugarit (Syria) the Yahweh is sovereign grace. The creator rich treasure-vaults of the kings. It is dif- God has chosen to display favor and ficult for us to imagine since we have no kindness to Israel and has acted in his- monarchy such as the monarchs of Europe tory to redeem them and make them his in the nineteenth century. Perhaps some- people. A lot of misunderstanding has thing comparable today would be the been caused by comparing the old cove­ Crown Jewels in London. A causal clause11 nant to the new in terms of “law” and explains that the whole world belongs to “grace.” This text is clear: the old covenant Yahweh. In one sense, the king is owner is based upon grace and grace motivates or possessor of the entire country, but in the keeping of the covenant just as we find addition to this, he may also have a per- in the new covenant. God had protected sonal treasure. The whole world is like a the people and provided for them during ring on God’s hand, and his chosen people the difficult desert journey, bearing them are the jewel in that ring. on eagles’ wings, so to speak, and had so arranged their itinerary as to bring them Kingdom of Priests to himself, that is, to Sinai, the mountain Although some expositions consider of God. This teaches, then, that the basis the meaning of “kingdom of priests” and for the covenant from the point of view “holy nation” separately, in a real sense of the human partner was confidence they should be taken together. The text and trust in Yahweh as estab­lished by the clearly divides the goal of the covenant events of the Exodus and gratitude to Yah- relationship into two statements. The weh. What is unlike the new covenant is first is supported by an explanation or that covenant keeping depends on Israel’s reason. A second statement combines the promise to obey. phrases “kingdom of priests” and “holy Verses 5 and 6, then, describe the pur- nation” either as a hendiadys or at least as pose, from God’s point of view, for which an expression similar to Hebrew poetry the covenant was given to the people and where a pair of parallel lines is employed the nature of the relationship between to consider a topic from two slightly vari- God and Israel that will result from ratify- ant but similar viewpoints to create a full- ing the covenant proposed by Yahweh. orbed perspective on some proposition. These phrases will be explained here, each Personal Treasure in turn, but with the meaning of the other The first purpose of the covenant is phrase kept in mind. that these chosen, redeemed people might First, consider the phrase “kingdom become God’s own possession and private of priests” found in this text. The full treasure. The word in Hebrew that is sentence is “You will belong to me as a translated “possession” is the same word kingdom of priests” (tihyû lî mamleket used in 1 Chron 29:3 for King David’s own kōhanîm). The lamed preposition in the private cache or vault of gold and sil­ver, phrase lî clearly indicates possession.12 his personal store of all things precious The Hebrew word “kingdom” may refer and valuable.10 If we were to travel back in to the domain or realm which is ruled, or time to the ancient Near East, we would to the exercise of kingly rule and sover- 46 eignty.13 The phrase “kingdom of priests,” Dempster analyzes the phrase “kingdom therefore, could mean a domain of priests of priests” in a similar way: whom God rules or, alternatively, the The final phrase designates Israel exercise of royal office by those who are as a particular type of kingdom. in fact priests. It is difficult to decide Instead of being a kingdom of a since the lamed preposition suggests the particular king, it will be a king- dom marked by priesthood; that is former reading while the term “priests” service of God on be­half of people modifying “kingdom” suggests the latter. and vice versa. It will be “a kingdom run not by poli­ticians depending The function of a priest is to bring others upon strength and connivance but into the presence of God. Perhaps both by priests de­pending upon faith in meanings are intended so that both the Yahweh, a servant nation instead of a ruling nation.” Israel will thus relationship between God and Israel and redefine the meaning of dominion— the relationship between Israel and the service. This will be its distinctive task, its distinguishing characteris- world is indicated. The ambiguity serves 15 tic among the world of nations. the theme “kingdom through covenant.” We see, then, that Israel, the last Adam, Holy Nation will belong to God as a people under his The parallel phrase to “kingdom of rule and will exercise royal rule by spend- priests” is “holy nation” (gôy qādôš in ing time in the worship of God so neces- Hebrew). As already mentioned, this sary for the task of ruling for God and phrase is not necessarily identical in under God, and by bringing the nations mean­ing to “kingdom of priests” but both into the divine presence. They would phrases function as a pair, like parallel be a people completely devoted to the lines in Hebrew poetry to paint a three- service of God. The rite of circumcision dimensional picture in one’s mind. as practiced in Israel is an excellent illus- The term gôy or nation is the paral- tration of this. Probably the background lel term to kingdom. It is an economic, for understanding circumcision is Egypt, political, and social structure in which a where only the aristocracy, the highest final governmental headship operates. It order of priests and the noblest warriors therefore clearly reminds us of Gen 12:2 as along with the Pharoah and his family explained earlier. This is the City of God, were circumcised, because only they the Kingdom of God. In fulfillment of the were completely devoted to the service promises to Abraham, Israel, by virtue of 14 of the gods. In Deut 10:16 the com­mand the Mosaic Covenant, will provide under to Israel, “circumcise your hearts,” is an the direct rule of God a model of God’s exposition of the earlier command “to rule over human life which is the divine fear the Lo r d your God, to walk in all his aim for the en­tire world. ways, to love him, to serve the Lo r d your “Nation” is modified by the adjective God with all your heart and with all your “holy.” What is a “holy” nation? Unfor­ soul, and to observe the Lo r d ’s commands tunately, the term holy is one that is not and decrees that I am giving you today for very well understood by the church today. your own good” (NASB). Thus, circumci- Definitions commonly given are “pure” or sion is an apt expression for the idea: be “set apart.” Such definitions are errone­ completely devoted to Yahweh. ous because the meaning is determined In Dominion and Dynasty, Stephen by etymology rather than usage, and the 47 etymology is completely speculative. The must acknowledge that this ground idea that “holy” means “set apart” can be belongs to God and enter into an attitude traced to the influence of Baudissin who of consecration. Thus, rather than mark- proposed in 1878 that the root of “holy” ing an item as set apart, “holy” ground is in Hebrew, i.e., qdš, is derived from qd- “to ground prepared, consecrated, or devoted cut.”16 Extensive research recently done to the meeting of God and man. by a French evangelical scholar, Claude- A holy nation, then, is one prepared Bernard Costecalde, has cast better light and consecrated for fellowship with on the meaning of this term since his God and one completely devoted to him. analysis was based on the way the word is Instructions in the Pentateuch are often used rather than on hypothetical origins.17 supported by the statement from Yahweh, Costecalde’s study examined all occur- “for I am holy.” Such statements show that rences in the Old Testament and in ancient complete devotion to God on the part of Near Eastern literature of the same time Israel would show it­self in two ways: (1) (e.g., Akkadian and Uga­ritic). Not sur- identifying with his ethics and morality, prisingly, he discovered that the biblical and (2) sharing his con­cern for the broken meaning was similar to that in the lan- in the community. The commands and guages of the cultures surrounding Israel. instructions in Leviticus 19 and 20 are The basic meaning is not “separated,” but bounded by the claim that Yahweh is holy rather “consecrated to” or “devoted to.” (19:2; 20:26) and include concern against This is also the basic meaning of a [gioj, mistreating the alien and the poor, the the counterpart in Greek.18 blind and the deaf. In the Judgments of Noteworthy is the passage in Exodus the Book of the Covenant, some instruc- 3 where Moses encounters Yahweh in the tions relate to the oppres­sion of orphans burning bush and is asked to remove his and widows (Exod 22:23). God was con- sandals because he is standing on “holy cerned about the rights of the slave (e.g., ground.” This is the first instance in the Exod 21:2-11) and the disenfranchised Old Testament of the root qdš in either an in society. Over the past thirty years, adjectival or noun form. In the narrative, we have heard the strident voice of the Moses is commanded to stay away from feminist, of the anti-nuclear protest, and the bush, from the place from which God of the gay-rights movement. But God speaks, and not from the holy ground. hears the voice of those who are broken There is nothing inaccessible or set apart in body, in economy, and in spirit. If we about the holy ground. Moreover, his are in covenant relationship with Him, fright and shock come from a revela- we must, like Him, hear the voice that is tion of God, and not from the holiness too weak to cry out. of the place. The “holy ground” (Exod God also jealously protects what is 3:5) encompasses a larger space than just devoted to Him. His anger flares when the bush from which God speaks and is his holiness is violated, as in the case of equivalent to “the mountain of God” in Uzzah (2 Sam 6:7), who ex­tended his hand 3:1. The act of removing one’s sandals, like to touch the Ark of the Covenant. As also the act of the nearest relative in Ruth 4:7, is in Psalm 2, when the kings and princes of a cere­mony or rite of de-possession well- the earth gather to touch the Anointed of known in the culture of that time. Moses the Lord, he flares out in anger to protect 48 his King. As in the case of Paul in the (the first line), there is a chiastic New Testament, who in persecuting the structure of four phrases, in which the two central lines portray God’s church was reaching up to heaven as it universal ownership of the world were and to shake his re­bellious fist at and its nations, while the two outer Jesus, the Anointed One (= the Christ), lines express his particular role for Israel. This structure also makes and slap him in the face, and it resulted clear that the double phrase “priestly in his calling himself the chief of sinners kingdom and holy nation” stands in apposition to “personal posses- (1 Tim 1:15). sion.”… The status is to be a special Explanation of the terms “personal treasured possession. The role is to be a priestly and holy community in treasure,” “kingdom of priests,” and 20 the midst of the nations. “holy nation,” then, shows the goal and purpose for Israel. Although the language The literary structure as explained by is dif­ferent from that of Gen 1:26-28 and Wright re-enforces the exposition here of Gen 12:1-3, we can clearly see that the Israel’s covenant relationship with God covenant at Sinai achieves and adminis- and with the world that takes up the son- ters in the Iron Age, through the nation ship and kingship of the divine image in as a whole, the purposes of the promises Genesis 1. given to Abraham. God is establishing The new covenant succeeds where the his kingdom through covenant. The old covenant failed. The purposes of the covenant entails relationship with God Mosaic Covenant are now being fulfilled on the one hand and relationship with in the church. The Apostle Peter calls the the world on the other hand. Israel will church God’s “special treasure,” a “king- model to the world what it means to have dom of priests,” and a “holy nation” (1 a relationship with God, what it means Pet 2:9-10). God has forged both Jews and to treat each other in a genuinely human non-Jews into his new [Adam] hu­man­ity way, and how to be good stewards of the according to Eph 2:15. earth’s resources. As priests, they will mediate the blessings of God to the world The Ten Words (Exodus 20) and be used to bring the rest of the world A brief explanation of the Ten Words to know God. will make plain the claim made re­peatedly Christopher J. H. Wright observes that that the Mosaic Covenant entails a right Exod 19:5-6 has a chiastic structure as relationship to God and social justice follows: in human relationships. Some general Now then, if you really obey my observations on the Ten Words are fun- voice and keep my covenant, damental to a proper understanding of A you will be for me a special this Covenant. personal possession B among all the peoples; The Ten Words form the heart of the B’ for indeed to me belongs covenant between God and Israel at the whole earth Sinai. The Book of the Covenant, as we A’ but you, you will be for me a priestly kingdom and a holy have seen, consists of the Ten Words and 19 nation. the Judgments. The former constitute the basic and fundamental requirements Wright states, of the covenant, the latter are detailed After the initial conditional clause stipulations based on the Ten Words 49 which apply them in practical ways to each other. specific social situations, and draw out Note in particular that a reason or and nuance their meaning in various rationale is given for keeping the first four contingencies and circumstances. commands introduced by kî = “because” Attention has already been drawn to or “for” (20:5, 6, 11). One reason is sup- the fact that the earliest tradition in the plied after commands one and two, and biblical text refers to them as the “Ten one each after the third and fourth com­ Words” (Exod 34:28; Deut 4:13; 10:4) and mands. This is a hint, structurally, to con- not, e.g., as the “Ten Com­mandments” sider the first four commands in pairs. as we now know them. There is, in fact, No reason or rational is given for keep- a particular reason for this and for why ing the last six commands. These entail there are precisely ten instructions. A the basic and inalienable rights of every connection is being made between the human and have been recognized by the covenant at Sinai and the creation. In the customs and laws of every society.21 These creation narrative, God creates the uni- “laws” can be paralleled in law codes from verse by simply speaking, by his word. other societies in the ancient Near East: In the Hebrew Text, the verb wayyō’mer, Law Codes of the Ancient Near East “and he [= God] said” occurs ten times. The Laws of Ur-Nammu 2050 B.C. In a very real way, the entire creation The Laws of Lipit-Ishtar 1850 B.C. depends or hangs upon the word of God. The Laws of Eshnunna c. 1800 B.C. The Code of Hammurapi c. 1700 B.C. Here, the Book of the Covenant is what The Middle Assyrian Laws c. 1100 B.C. forges Israel into a nation. It is her national The Old Hittite Laws 1280 B.C. constitution, so to speak. And it is also Although the Ten Words expresses Ten Words that brings about the birth of these laws negatively, they could also be the nation. Like the creation, Israel as a expressed positively in terms in the inalien- nation hangs upon the Ten Words for her able rights of every human person: very being. Although the biblical text tells us that • Thou shalt not murder = the there are Ten Words, Jewish, Catholic right of every person to their own life and Protestant traditions have differed • Thou shalt not commit adultery in enumerating them. This is due in large = the right of every person to measure to the fact that the repetition of their own home • Thou shalt not steal = the right the Ten Words in Deuteronomy 5 entail of every person to their own some slight variations in the text, doubt- property less due to further reflection on the part • Thou shalt not bear false wit- ness = the right of every person of Moses, and yields, therefore, a different to their own reputation construal of the whole. The focus here is on Exod 20:3-17 where a clear structure in No society can endure that does not the text divides the Ten Words into four respect the basic inalienable rights of commands defining Israel’s relationship every human person. Since the last six to Yahweh and six commands dealing commands can be paralleled in the law with human interpersonal relationships codes of other societies in the ancient within the covenant community. They Near East and were well known to the define a genuinely human way to treat Israelites, no rationale for keeping them 50 need be supplied in the text. The first four strated exegetical insight to observe that commands, however, as Andrew and this was a summary statement of the Stamm have argued, are unparalleled various instructions in this section of in the ancient Near East.22 Certainly the Leviticus and indeed of the last portion of command to worship only one God, the the Ten Words that they elaborate. Later com­mand not to construct or worship on, the prophets and poets used two pairs idols, and the command to observe the of words as summaries of the Torah. One Sabbath are absolutely unique. In fact, the is the pair “loving­kindness and truth” seventh day in Mesopotamia was consid- and another is “justice and righteous- ered unlucky. These commands constitute ness.” Each pair of words is a hendiadys— a new revelation, and God graciously sup­ communicating a single idea through two plies a rationale for keeping them so that words. The first pair speaks of faithful Israel may grasp an adequate motiva­tion loyal love and the second speaks of social for following a practice that was hitherto justice. These are at­tempts to boil down unprecedented. the covenant stipulations into a single The question must also be raised as sound bite. They are important because to why the commands are given as pro- they show that the instructions represent hibitions and why they are formulated faith­ful love as well as social justice in in the Second Person Singular. Why not human inter-relationships. express them positively as inalienable Space permits in this brief treatment of rights? Why not indicate by a second the Mosaic Covenant a short expla­nation person plural that they are addressed of each of the first four of the Ten Words to all? The reason for this is simple. God as these have been more trouble­some for wants each and every individual person Christians to understand than the last six. to think first of the inalienable rights of the other person and not first about their First Command: No Other Gods own inalienable rights. This explains both Before Me the negative formulation and the second Some scholars and traditions have con- person singular. strued the first of the Ten Words as verses Right from the start and all throughout 2 and 3. Yet the fact that the covenant is the history of Israel, attempts were made broadly structured according to a Hittite to boil down, digest, and summarize the treaty demonstrates plainly that v. 2, in instructions of the covenant—both the which Yahweh states, “I am the Lo r d your many Judgments that elaborate the Ten God who brought you out from the Land Words in practical situations as well as of Egypt, from the house of slaves,” is, in the Ten Words themselves. For example, fact, the historical prologue of the treaty Leviticus 18-20 contains a collection so that the first command is just v. 3: “You of instructions that develop further in shall have no other gods before me.” In particular the last six of the Ten Words. both Roman Catholic and Lutheran inter- It is interesting to note that at the mid- pretive traditions, the command in v. 3 and end-points of chapter 19 we find the and the command in v. 4 (“You shall not in­struction “You shall love your neigh- make for yourself an idol”) are counted bour as yourself” (vv. 18, 34).23 Jesus and as one command while the command other rabbis of the first century demon- against coveting is separated into two: 51 “you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife” “They sacrificed to demons, which e and “you shall not covet your neighbor’s are not God [lō’-’ lōhîm, “no-God”].” These declara­tive sentences serve as house.” As Bruce Waltke notes, “according foundations for theological beliefs to the latter construction, the first com- and doctrines. mandment con­demns false worship and On the other hand, religious commands deal with subjective the tenth commandment distinguishes reality. The truth is, regardless of wife from prop­erty.”24 the existence of other gods, human beings create and worship what is The interpretation of the Reformers “no-God” (1 Cor. 8:4-8). As stated and the creeds following in this tradi­ above, Calvin noted that the human tion construe the text to mean we should heart is a perpetual idol factory. Thus, rather than tacitly assuming not have any other gods before the Lord, the existence of other gods, the com- i.e., in preference to the Lord. Thus the mandment assumes the depravity of prohibition is understood in terms of the human race to create and wor- ship their own gods. The religious priorities. According to the Westminster command reflects the reality of the Confession, God must be the highest pri- human situation but does not serve as a theological statement. Other ority in our attitudes, thoughts, words, 25 passages teach monotheism. and ways. Others have inter­preted the prohibition philosophically and argued This distinction is extremely helpful, that the main point is to estab­lish absolute but, nonetheless, assumes the exegesis monotheism and rule out the existence of in terms of priorities is correct. Yet this other deities. exegesis is difficult to maintain. As John The command, however, does appear Walton notes, to acknowledge the existence of other the focus on God as the highest pri- gods. In courses taught in the history ority is as far back as the LXX, which of religion at universities in the west­ern translated the Hebrew ‘l pny (“before world, the suggestion is frequently made me”) with the Greek preposition plēn, “ex­cept.” However, if Hebrew that at an earlier stage of the history of meant to say “except” there were Israel, the people were henotheists—that several ways to do this (e.g., ’ak or is, they be­lieved in the existence of many raq). Similarly, if the Hebrew had intended to express priority, it could gods but consciously chose to worship have used language such as that 26 only one. At a later point in the develop- found in Deut 4:12 or Isa 45:21. ment of Israel’s religion, henotheism gave way to monotheism, i.e., the belief that In an exhaustive study of the use of the ‘l pny- there is only one god. preposition (“before”) plus per- Bruce Waltke alleviates this problem sonal object in the Hebrew Bible, Walton by distinguishing between religious com- shows that the meaning is consistently mand and theological statements: spatial. The linguistic data, then, demand that a spatial sense be considered as the For theological statements of main option. whether other gods exist, we turn to Deuteronomy 4:39: “Acknowledge In the past, students of the text have and take to heart this day that the avoided this interpretation because they Lo r d is God in heaven above and on could not understand how it could make the earth below. There is no other.” Furthermore, Deuteronomy 32:17-21 any sense. Data from the ancient Near identifies idol wor­ship as bowing Eastern culture now illuminate how a spa- down to demons. Verse 17 reads, tial sense is eminently suitable. In the cul- 52 ture of the ancient Near East at this time, actively engaged in the actual the gods operated within a pan­theon, a work necessary to maintain the universe. The next lower divine assembly. John Walton argues that level of deities performed this the first commandment is dis­tinguishing function. Serving under the Yahweh from this common understand- authority of those who actu- ally owned the universe, the ing of deity in the ancient world and his active gods were expected to analysis is worth citing in full: perform in a way that would enable the cosmos to operate [W]hen the first commandment smoothly. Each of the gods at prohibits other gods in the pres­ this level of the pantheon had ence of Yahweh, it is ruling out the a specific sphere of authority concept that He operates within over which to exert his or her a pantheon, a divine assembly, or control. Ideally, all the gods with a consort. J. Bottéro com­pares were to per­form their duties this system to that of a king at the in a way that would keep the head of the state with his family and universe functioning perfectly functionaries around him operating in the manner desired by 27 in a structured hierarchy. the highest authority. Yet the Having this image as background gods, like human beings, are suggests that the Israelites were not portrayed as having weak- to imagine any other gods in the nesses and rivalries that kept the cosmos from operating presence of Yahweh. Scholars could 28 have arrived at this meaning by smoothly. simple lexical study, but without the benefit of the ancient Near Eastern Accordingly, by a comparative inter- material, the results of the lexical pretation of the first com­mandment study made no sense to interpreters. the Israelites were not to construe Consequently, they devised alter- Yahweh as operating within a native explanations, even though commu­nity of gods. Nor were they when the prepo­sitional combina- to imagine Him function­ing as the tion that occurs in the He­brew text head of a pantheon surrounded takes a personal object the meaning by a divine assembly, or having a is consistently spatial. Using com­ consort. In short, He works alone. parative cultural information, we The concept of a pantheon/divine have recovered a neglected sense of assembly assumed a distribution of the text that was there all the time. power among many divine beings. In view of the information pro- The first commandment declared vided from outside the Bible, this simply and unequivocally that Yah- spatial sense gains credibility. In the weh’s authority was absolute. Divine ancient Near East the gods operated power was not distributed among within pantheons and decisions other deities or limited by the will were made in the divine assembly. of the assembly. Furthermore, the principal deities The point of the prohibition of the typically had consorts. For the gods worship of any other gods “besides” life was a com­mu­nity experience. Yahweh was to ensure that Israel’s The destinies of the gods were perception of divinity was to be dis- decreed in assembly, as were the tinct from the peoples around them. destinies of kings, cities, temples This text is readily misunderstood and people. The business of the gods if the interpreter is not aware of the was carried out in the presence of notions being rejected. According to other gods. Lowell Handy helpfully this revised interpretation, the pur- summarizes this system as a hier- pose of the first commandment was archy of authoritative deities and not simply to promote monolatry; active deities. it served the monotheistic agenda another way. Although this text The highest authority in the does not explicitly deny the exis- pantheon was responsible tence of other gods, it does remove for ordering and maintain­ing them from the presence of Yahweh. earth and cosmos but was not 53 If Yahweh does not share power, idols to anything to which we devote our authority, or jurisdiction with them, energy, money, and worth as deity.31 they are not gods in any meaningful 29 sense of the word. Thus, the first Such misunderstandings of the second commandment does not insist on command are due to a couple of factors. the non-existence of other gods; only First is ignorance of the ancient Near that they are powerless. In so doing it disenfranchises them, not merely Eastern ideas concerning the nature and by declaring that they should not be role of idols. Walton classifies ancient worshiped; it leaves them with no 30 Near Eastern thinking about idols into status worthy of worship. three categories. In the progressive revealing and One category is the manufacture of unfolding of God in history and Scripture, images. In the ancient Near Eastern the com­pleted canon shows that God has mindset, only the god could approve and revealed himself completely and fully in initiate the manufacturing process. At the Jesus Christ. Jesus said, “All authority end of the process, special ceremonies and in heaven and on earth has been given rituals, in particular the mouth-opening to me.” Our lives, our service and work, ritual, allowed the god to inhabit the our worship must recognize his authority image and permitted the image to drink, alone. This disenfranchises all gods and eat food, and smell incense.32 idols worshipped in our culture. There is A second category concerns the use no one else for whom I am living my life of the image. Walton notes that “in the than for Jesus Christ. ancient world all formal and public wor- ship revolved around the image.”33 Thus Second Command: No Images / Idols the image involved mediation. It mediated The second of the Ten Words is as fol- revelation from the deity to the people lows: “You shall not make for your­self an and also mediated worship by the people image and form which is in the heaven of the deity as they brought clothes, drink, above and which is in the earth below and and food to honour it. which is in the waters under the earth.” As A third category has to do with ancient John Walton notes, popular prohibition of Near Eastern perceptions concern­ing the images has been influenced significantly function and nature of images. According by four factors: (1) Jewish interpretation, to Walton, (2) controversies over icons in the Eastern as a result of the induction ritual the Orthodox tradition, (3) statues of saints material image was animated by the in the Roman Catholic tradition, and (4) divine essence. There­fore, from now on it did not simply represent the debate over what con­stitutes art from a deity, but also manifested its pres- Christian perspective. In classical Jewish ence. However, this does not mean and Muslim tradi­tions, the second com- that the image had thereby been dei- fied. The deity was the reality that 34 mand led to a prohibition of the represen- was embodied in the image. tation of any living creature. Christian interpretation up to the nineteenth cen- Misunderstanding of the second tury was dominated by the idea that since command is due not only to ignorance God was invisible and transcendent he of the ancient Near Eastern culture and could not be contained in an image. Oth- worldview, but also to faulty analysis ers have spiritualized the text reducing of the grammar of this text. Let us con- 54 sider closely the exact text of the second rendering by “or” is contrary to the syn­tax of the Ten Words in both Exodus and here. It seems that interpretive traditions Deuteronomy. Below the Hebrew text is have molded Deut 5:8 to suit their under- provided as well as the translations of the standing of Exod 20:4. KJV and NIV. Given the analogy of Scripture, since the grammar of the text in Deut 5:8 is Exod 20:4: hn"WmT.-lk'w> ls,P, ^l.-hf,[]t; aOl clearer, a better approach is to use the KJV: Thou shalt not make unto thee clearer text to interpret the unclear in any graven image, or any likeness Exod 20:4. The construction in Exod 20:4 of any thing. NIV: You shall not make for yourself could be understood as a hendiadys, a an idol in the form of anything. common figure of speech in Hebrew liter- ature where one idea is communicated by Deut 5:8: hn"WmT.-lK' ls,p, ^l.-hf,[]t;-aOl two nouns or verbs joined by “and.” The KJV: Thou shalt not make thee any first notable example in the Bible is Gen graven image, or any likeness of any thing. 3:16. The Hebrew text has “I will greatly NIV: You shall not make for yourself increase your pain and your pregnancy.” an idol in the form of anything. This does not mean an increase of pain on the one hand and pregnancy on the other. The translation of the KJV represents early The next sentence goes on to explain, “In Jewish rabbinic understanding, no doubt pain you will bring forth children.” So mediated through the Latin Vulgate of the earlier expression must mean “pain Jerome. This is the way orthodox Jews in pregnancy”—an example of a hen­ today understand the text and also the diadys. In Exod 20:4 “a carved image and way in which Muslims have con­sistently any form” must, therefore, in the light of understood the text. If we believe in the Deut 5:8 mean “a carved image/idol in analogy of Scripture, however, where we any form.” This is the approach taken by interpret the unclear by the clear, this can- the NIV and is one that accurately follows not be the correct meaning of this text. the grammar of the Hebrew language and The original text in Hebrew actually uses the clear meaning of one text to assist conjoins the objects of the verb with waw, the interpretation of the other rather than a copulative coordinating conjunction im­pose the faulty interpretation of Exodus that always means “and.” A series of on the clear text in Deuteronomy. alternative clauses may be joined by waw, Accurate exegesis of the second com- but this does not mean that waw has the mand, then, shows that this text has noth- same value as “or” in English.35 Hebrew ing to do with art or the representation of does have a conjunction “or,” i.e., ’ô and aspects of the created order with images. it could have been used here to designate Rather, the command has to do with the alternative possibility. The text in images used as mediators of the presence Exod 20:4 is difficult, but the early rab- or revelation of deity from god to human binic understanding does not follow the or mediation of the worship of people to norms of grammar in Hebrew. Note that the deity. As Walton observes, “the pro- the parallel text in Deuteronomy does not hibition of images excluded in particular have the conjunction waw, but employs that sort of worship that understood cul- instead a con­struct phrase: “a carved tic rituals to meet the needs of the deity image / idol of any form.” Certainly the through the image.”36 55 standing, the results from the study of the Third Command: Do Not Misuse the linguistic data must be set within the con- Name of God text of the ancient Near Eastern culture. Popular misunderstanding also exists As Walton points out, this depends upon concerning the third of the Ten Words: a careful definition of magic, the world “You shall not lift up the name of Yahweh in which the false or proper use of names your God worthlessly [laššāw’].” Once occurs.38 In the ancient Near East and also again, better knowledge of both cultural in the Greco-Roman world there was no setting and linguistic data can improve demarcating line between religion and our understanding of this text. magic. Later, influence from the medieval First, the basic import of this instruc- church and the Enlight­enment resulted in tion is not related to the use of God’s distinguishing the two. In the past, how- name idly in blasphemy, minced oaths, or ever, interpreters have not appreciated profanity. This is certainly inappropri­ate how names were used in the framework and res­pect and reverence for the divine of magic and power. name is enjoined in Deut 28:58. G. Frantz-Szabó offers a comprehensive Second, the traditional view has and helpful definition of magic in the con- focused on false oaths, as Bruce Waltke text of invoking supernatural powers: notes: [Magic] is a reasoned system of [T]he operative word is šāw’ (KJV, techniques for influencing the gods “in vain”; cf. Lev. 24:15).... Šāw’ is and other supernatural powers that used in biblical Hebrew in several can be taught and learned. … Magic ways: to denote to be false or deceit- is a praxis, indeed a science, that ful with respect to speaking (Deut. through established and for the most 5:20 in reference to being a false part empirical means seeks to alter witness against a neighbour; Exod or maintain earthly circumstances, 23:1 in reference to a false report or even call them forth anew. Magic or rumor); with respect to being not only manipulates occult forces false in worship (Isa. 1:13, which but also endeavors to master the higher supernatural power with discusses a false tribute to God 39 where the people hold to a form of which religion is concerned. worship, but their heart is not there); and with respect to being false in The name of God represents and sums prophecy (Ezek. 13:3-7, which refers up his entire character and person. To use to false prophets who claim to have seen a vision, but there is no reality that name brings his person and his power to what they have seen). Herbert into a particular situation. When we use Huffmon argues from both biblical his name for something that is contrary and ex­tra­biblical evidence that the commandment prohibits false or to who he is, contrary to his charac­ter, frivolous swearing. “The focus is on we lift it up to a lie. Walton observes that not making God an accomplice, as it “the name is equivalent to the iden­tity of were to one’s falseness, whether of 37 intent or of performance.” the deity, and the divine identity can be commandeered for illicit use. The prob- Thus, according to analysis of the lin- lem of identity theft is widely recognized guistic data, the command has to do today.”40 In Ps 139:19ff. David disassociates with lifting up the name of God falsely himself in the strongest of terms from fel- or worthlessly. But this does not provide low Israelites who want him to join them a full picture. in a scheme to murder someone and are Third, in order to get a valid under- 56 doing this using the name of Yahweh. ferences between the biblical command Misusing the name of God occurs among to observe the Sabbath and the cultural Christians today when someone says, context of the ancient Near East. We need “the Lord led me to do such and such a to attend carefully to the linguistic data in thing,” when we know from Scripture the relevant texts. In Exod 20:8-11, the Isra- that this is not according to the revealed elites are commanded to remember the will of God. Sabbath Day to consecrate it. In the Old Testament, the notion of remembering is Fourth Command: Keep the Sabbath not merely mental recall, it entails acts in The fourth of the Ten Words is a posi- space and time based on keeping some- tive injunction to observe the Sab­bath. The thing at the front of one’s mind. Israel is to importance of this injunction is indicated consecrate the Sabbath; it is a commemo- by its length—it is the longest of the Ten rative event that belongs to Yahweh and is Words. For several decades in the twen- to be devoted to Him. Both humans—free tieth century, scholars attempted to find or slaves, citizens or resident aliens—and precursors to the Israelite Sabbath in the animals are to cease from the business nations surrounding them. This effort and labour ordinarily under­taken to pro- was entirely unsuccessful. The Hebrew vide for our own life and sustenance. It is šabbāt is not connected to the Babylonian an act of faith acknowledg­ing Yahweh as šabbatu, which is the fifteenth day of the the creator and giver of life and as the one month. Moreover the seventh, fourteenth, who rules our lives. twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of The biblical viewpoint is fundamen- certain months in the Babylonian calendar tally different from the ancient Near were considered unlucky. Nonetheless, Eastern perspectives, in spite of many the concept of divine rest is well attested parallels on the surface. Walton states, in ancient Near Eastern texts and the [I]n the Old Testament people work cultural context can cast great light on for their own benefit and provision, interpretation of the fourth command. rather than to meet the needs of God Six aspects of the notion of divine rest or to do his work for Him. When commanded to share the rest of God in the ancient Near East drawn mainly on the Sabbath, it is not to participate from the great epics such as the Babylo- in it per se, but to recognize His work of bringing and maintaining nian Enuma Elish are deline­ated by Wal- order. God’s rest symbolizes His ton.41 These can be briefly summarised control over the cosmos, which His as follows: (1) in the ancient epics, the people recognize whenever they yield to Him the day they could have 42 divine rest was disturbed by rebellion; used to provide for themselves. (2) divine rest was achieved after con­flict; (3) divine rest was achieved after acts of On the other hand, the parallel between creation establishing order; (4) di­vine rest the ancient Near Eastern building of was achieved in the temple; (5) divine rest temples for divine rest and the biblical was characterized by ongoing rule and creation narrative culminating in divine stability; and (6) divine rest was achieved rest is valid. The framework of the account by the gods by creating people to do their of creation in the Bible strongly sug­gests work. that the cosmos is constructed as a sanc- There are both similarities and dif- tuary / temple in which God may take 57 up His rest. work of Christ. We cannot do anything Discussion of this command brings us to add to the work of Jesus Christ. We are right into the middle of the problem of the simply to enjoy it. relationship be­tween the old covenant In Deut 5:15, a different reason is given and the new, a matter which can­not be for the Sabbath. The peo­ple of Israel must adequately discussed here. Nonetheless, remember that they were slaves in Egypt a few comments on the Sabbath are in and God brought them out of slavery, so order. they should give their slaves a chance to First, we must note that the Sabbath rest as they do on the Sabbath. Paul, in Col was the sign between Yahweh and Israel 1:12-14, speaks as do many authors of the of the old covenant, as is clearly stated New Testament of the work of the Lord in Exod 31:12-18. Covenants often have a Jesus as a new Exodus. Egypt is a picture physical sign associated with them. The or symbol of the world; Pharaoh is a sym- rainbow was given as a physical sign of bol of Satan, and their slavery is a symbol God’s promise in his covenant with Noah. of our enslavement to our passion and Circumcision was com­manded as a physi- pride from which Christ has redeemed cal sign in the body of every male in Israel us in his death on the cross. Jesus is the as a sign of God’s covenant with Abraham. new Joshua who will lead those people Similarly, the Sabbath is stipulated as a con­nected to him by the new covenant to permanent sign between Yahweh and enter and enjoy God’s Sabbath rest. Israel that the creator God who created the world in six days and then rested has Summary consecrated them to himself. The first four commands in the Ten Second, as we compare the old cov- Words can be construed as two pairs. John enant and the new covenant, the self­ Walton’s summary is helpful in grasping identity of the people of the Lord in the their function and intent:43 old covenant was that of children, while Commandments 1 and 2 the self-identity of the people of the Lord Yahweh’s mode of operating in the in the new covenant is that of mature two realms (divine and human): adults (Gal 3:24, 25). The external forms • Commandment 1 concerns how Yahweh was not to be and shadows of the old covenant have perceived as operating in the been done away now that the reality has divine realm—no distribution of authority to other divinities. come in Christ (Col 2:16, 17). • Commandment 2 concerns how Now of what does the Sabbath speak? Yahweh was not to be perceived Let us notice at once that in the two texts as operating in the human realm—no iconographic media- in the Old Testament where we have tor of his presence, revelation, or the Ten Words, the reason given for the worship offered to him. Sabbath in one text is different from the Commandments 3 and 4 reason given in the other text. In Exodus, Yahweh’s exercise of power: the reason is given in 20:11. God’s work • Commandment 3 concerns of creation was complete, it was finished; how Yah­weh’s power / author- ity was not to be per­ceived— they could add nothing to it. They were people were to recognize it by invited to enter his rest and enjoy his re­fraining from attempts to control it. work. Hebrews applies this notion to the 58 • Commandment 4 concerns how in this instance is not sustained by the evi- Yah­weh’s power/authority was dence from the text. Fellowship offerings to be perceived —people were to recognize it by refraining from can be for an expression of thanksgiving attempts to control their own or offered as the result of a vow according lives on the Sabbath. to Lev 7:12-18. The latter is appropriate since covenant making entails vows. The The Ceremony of Covenant offering in Exodus 24 is not specified as Ratification (Exod 24:1-11) a sin or reparation sacrifice, nor is the Two episodes dominate Exodus 24. verb “sprinkled” used as is normal for The ceremony of covenant ratification offerings for sin. The blood is applied to is described in vv. 1-11. In vv. 12-18, the altar representing Yahweh as well as Moses ascends Mount Sinai to receive to the people and certainly he does not in­structions on how Israel is to worship need to be cleansed from sin. In­stead, the God. ceremony indicates the meaning. Half of The ceremony of covenant ratification the blood is put on Yahweh and half of is significant for our understanding of the the blood is put on the people. In be­tween Sinai Covenant. First, Moses reports to these two symbolic acts is the reading of the people the Ten Words and the Judg- the Book of the Covenant and the vow of ments who, as in Exod 19:7-8, agree to the the people to keep its stipulations. The covenant. Then Moses commits the Words symbolism is that the one blood joins and Judgments to writing in a document the two parties.45 What is most similar to referred to in v. 8 as “the Book of the Cov- the ceremony of Exodus 24 is a wedding. enant.” Early in the morning he builds an Two people who are not related by blood altar and erects twelve pillars. Presum- are by virtue of the covenant of marriage ably the altar represents Yahweh, for we now closer than any other kin relation. It are clearly told that the twelve stone stelae is by virtue of the covenant at Sinai that represent the people, i.e., the twelve tribes Yahweh becomes the gō’ēl, i.e., the nearest of Israel. Moses has assistants from the relative, and that Israel becomes not just a twelve tribes offer burnt offerings and nation, but a “people,” i.e., a kinship term fellowship/peace offer­ings. Moses col- specifying relation­ship to the Lord. lects the blood from the bulls sacrificed This interpretation is confirmed by the and pours half on the altar. Next he reads fact that a party representing the people the Book of the Covenant, and the people ascends the mountain and eats a meal. vow to obey and practice the covenant Examples of eating a communal meal stipulations. Then he scatters/tosses the to conclude a covenant are numerous.46 other half of the blood on the people. In This ancient Near Eastern and bib­lical reality he may have actually sprinkled practice is the basis for banquets at wed- the blood on the pillars that represented dings today. the people. Concerning the blood tossed on the The Covenant at Sinai within the people, Bruce Waltke states, “The latter is Larger Story: The Significance of called the ‘blood of the covenant’ because the Form it effects the covenant relationship by The form of the covenant as given cleansing the recipients from sin.”44 This in Exodus and Deuteronomy is impor­ interpretation may appear plausible, but 59 tant for a proper under­standing of the (Matt 5:17) and that Hebrews declares is Mosaic Covenant and foundational for now made ob­solete by the new covenant correlating the old covenant with the (Heb 8:13). What we can say to represent new. The form and literary structure in accurately the teaching of Scripture is both Exodus and Deuteronomy shows the that the righteousness of God codified, following points: enshrined, and encapsulated in the old (1) The Ten Commandments are foun- covenant has not changed and that this dational to the Ordinances and con­versely, same right­eousness is now codi­fied and the Ordinances or Case Laws apply and enshrined in the new.48 extend the Ten Commandments in a prac- (3) When one compares Exodus and tical way to all areas of life. Nonetheless, Deuteronomy with contemporary docu­ one cannot take the Ten Com­mand­ments ments from the ancient Near East in as “eternal” and the Ordinances as “tem- both content and form two features are poral” for both sections together con­ without parallel: (a) In content the biblical stitute the agreement or covenant made documents are identical to ancient Near between God and Israel. Eastern law codes, but do not have the (2) It is common to categorize and clas- form of a law code. (b) In form the biblical sify the laws as (a) moral, (b) civil, and (c) documents are identical to ancient Near ceremonial, but this classification is for- Eastern cove­nants or international trea- eign to the material and imposed upon it ties, but not in content. This is extremely from the outside rather than arising from instructive. God desires to rule in the the material and being clearly marked by midst of his people as king. He wants to the lit­erary structure of the text. In fact, direct, guide, and instruct their lives and the ceremonial, civil, and moral laws are lifestyle. Yet he wants to do this in the con- all mixed together, not only in the Judg- text of a relationship of love, loyalty, and ments or ordinances, but in the Ten Words trust. This is com­pletely dif­ferent from as well (the Sabbath may be properly clas- Greek and Roman law codes or ancient sified as ceremonial). Those who claim Near Eastern law codes. They represent an the distinction between ceremonial, civil, impersonal code of conduct binding on all and moral law do so because they want to citizens and enforced by penalties from a affirm that the ceremonial (and in some controlling authority. We should always cases, civil) laws no longer apply but the remember that Torah, by contrast, means moral laws are eternal. Unfortunately, personal “in­struction” from God as Father John Frame in his new and magisterial and King of his people rather than just work on The Doctrine of the Christian Life “law” so that a term like “covenantal and Bruce Waltke in his equally magiste- instruc­tion” might be more use­ful. rial An Old Testament Theology perpetu- Our view of the old covenant is ate this tradition.47 This is an inaccurate enhanced not only by accurate exegesis representation of Scripture at this point. which properly attends to the cultural Exodus 24 clearly indi­cates that the Book context and language of the text, but also of the Cove­nant consists of the Ten Words allows the text to inform us of its own and the Judgments, and this is the Cove- literary structure and considers the place nant (both Ten Words and Judgments) that of the text in the larger story. The bibli- Jesus declares he has completely fulfilled cal theological framework is especially 60 important because there we come to see for Adam. the Ten Commandments not merely as 7H. Ringgren, “rp'Av šôpar,” in Theological fundamental requirements determining Dictionary of the Old Testament (15 vols.; divine-human and human-human rela- ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer tionships as moral principles, but we Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry; Grand come to view them as the foundation of Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 14:541-42. true social justice and the basis of what it 8The Hebrew word torâ simply means means to be a son or daughter of God, an “direction” or “instruction.” Adamic figure, i.e., truly and genuinely 9There is a contrast here between the human. covenant at Sinai and the covenant at Creation. In Eden, the man dwells on the EndnoteS mountain and walks with God without 1I am grateful to the following for con- a mediator. I am indebted to John Meade structive criticism and proofing of my for this insight. work: Barbara Gentry, John Meade, and 10Hebrew segullâ occurs only in Exod 19:5; Jason Parry. Deut 7:6; 14:2; 26:18; 1 Chron 29:3; Mal 2The Covenant in Genesis 1-2 and the 3:17; Ps 135:4; and Eccl 2:8. All occur- Covenant with Noah in Genesis 6-9 have rences refer back to Exod 19:5; except 1 been discussed in greater detail in Peter Chron 29:3 and Eccl 2:8 which are valu- J. Gentry, “Kingdom Through Covenant: able to show the concrete, ordinary use Humanity as the Divine Image,” The of the word. Southern Baptist Journal of Theology, 12, 11Some would employ the term “explana- no. 1 (2008): 16-42. tory” or “evidential” as the use is not 3S. Dempster, Do­min­ion and Dynasty: strictly causal. See A. Aejmelaeus, A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible “Function and Interpretation of yk in Bib- (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2003), lical Hebrew,” Journal of Biblical Literature 58-59. 105, no. 2 (1986): 193-209. 4W. Randall Garr, “‘Image’ and ‘Likeness’ 12See the majesterial treatment by E. Jenni, in the Inscription from Tell Fakhariyeh,” Die hebräischen Prä­positionen, Band 3: Die Israel Exploration Journal 50, nos. 3-4 Präposition Lamed (Stuttgart: Kolhammer, (2003): 227-34. 2000), 23-25, 54-57, 77. 5See Gordon J. Wenham, “Sanctuary 13See F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. Briggs, Symbolism in the Garden of Eden eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Story,” in “I Studied Inscriptions from Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1907; before the Flood” (ed. R. S. Hess and D. T. repr., 1953). Tsumura; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 14See John Meade, “The Meaning of Cir- 1994), 399-404; William J. Dumbrell, The cumcision in Israel: A Proposal for a Search for Order: Biblical Eschatology in Transfer of Rite from Egypt to Israel,” Focus (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 24-25; Adorare Mente 1 (Spring 2008): 14-29. and M. Hutter, “Adam als Gärtner und Online: http://adoraremente.sbts.edu. König (Gen. 2:8, 15),” Biblische Zeitschrift 15Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty, 101-02. 30 (1985): 258-62. The quotation is taken from J. I. Durham, 6Exod 15:17 shows that Canaan becomes Exodus (Word Biblical Commentary; for Israel what the garden sanctuary was Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 263. 61 16W. W. Baudissin, “Der Begriff der (ed. E. Blum, C. Macholz, and E. W. view of Christopher Wright, who Heiligkeit im Alten Testament“ in Stegemann; Neukirchen: Neukirch- says, “The fundamental thrust of Studien zu semitischen Religionsge- ner Verlag, 1990), 111-15. the verse is not Yahweh’s sole deity, schichte (by W. W. Baudissin; Teil 2; 24Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament but Yahweh’s sole sovereignty over Leipzig: Grunow, 1878), 1-142. Theology (Grand Rapids: Zonder- Israel” (Deuteronomy [Peabody, MA: 17Claude-Bernard Costecalde, Aux van, 2007), 411. The exposition Hendrickson, 1996], 68). origines du sacré biblique (Paris: here shows clearly the difference 31Ibid., 309-313. Letouzey et Ané, 1986). Unfortu- between “having no other gods 32Ibid. nately, for North America, this before Yahweh” and “not mak- 33Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as work is in French and, therefore, ing an idolatrous image” whereas an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- not widely known in the evangeli- “coveting a neighbor’s wife” and ment,” 311. cal world. “coveting a neigh­bor’s house” are 34Ibid., 312. 18See H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, and not as distinct notions. Therefore 35Brown, Driver, and Briggs, A Hebrew H. S. Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon the Jewish and Reformed division and English Lexicon of the Old Testa- (9th ed. with revised supple­ment; is followed here. ment. Oxford: Oxford University, 1996), 25Ibid., 415-16. 36Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as who give as the fundamental mean- 26John Walton, “Interpreting the Bible an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- ing, “devoted to the gods.” as an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- ment,” 313. 19Translation by Christopher J. H. ment,” in Israel: An­cient Kingdom or 37Waltke, Old Testament Theology, Wright in The Mission of God: Unlock- Late Invention? Archaeology, Ancient 419. ing the Bible’s Grand Narrative (Down- Civilizations, and the Bible (ed. Daniel 38Ibid., 316. ers Grove: InterVarsity, 2006), 255. I. Block: Nashville: Broadman & 39G. Frantz-Szabó, “Hittite Witchcraft 20Ibid., 255-56 (emphasis in origi- Holman, 2008), 306. and Divination,” in Civilizations of nal). 27J. Bottéro, “Intelligence and the the Ancient Near East (ed. Jack M. 21See C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man Technical Function of Power: Enki/ Sasson; New York: Charles Scrib- (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1943). Ea,” in Mesopotamia: Writing, Reason- ner’s Sons, 1995), 2007. 22Johann J. Stamm and Maurice E. ing and the Gods (Chicago: University 40John Walton, “Interpreting the Bible Andrew, The Ten Commandments in of Chicago, 1992), 232-50; the citation as an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- Recent Research (Studies in Biblical is found on p. 233. ment,” 318. Theology; Second Series 2; Naper- 28Lowell Handy, Among the Host of 41Ibid., 319-22. ville, IL: Alec R. Allenson, 1967). Heaven (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 42Ibid., 322. I have not carefully researched 1994), 97. 43Ibid., 323. whether or not the command con- 29The significance of this notion may 44Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament cerning misuse of the divine name be extended if we attach to it the Theology, 435. is found in other ancient Near East- idea that in the ancient Near East 45Walther Eichrodt, Theology of the Old ern societies. something was not considered to Testament (2 vols.; trans. J. A. Baker; 23The command means “to provide exist if it had not been assigned a Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961), assistance” or “be useful” to one’s name, a place, or a function. See 1:43, 156-157. neighbor. See A. Malamat, “‘You discussion in J. Walton, Ancient Near 46Examples of a communal meal as a Shall Love Your Neighbour as Eastern Thought and the Old Testament covenant ratification: Gen 31:44, 54; Yourself’: A Case of Misinterpreta- (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 87-97. 2 Sam 3:12-13, 20. The accession of tion,” in Die Hebräische Bibel und ihre 30Walton, “Interpreting the Bible as a king involved a covenant (2 Sam zweifache Nachgeschichte: Festschrift an Ancient Near Eastern Docu- 3:21; 5:3 = 1 Chr 11:3; Jer 34:8-18) and für Rolf Rendtorff zum 65. Geburtstag ment,” 306-309. This is close to the communal meal as ratification (1 62 Sam 11:15; 1 Kgs 1:9, 25; 3:15). 47John M. Frame, The Doctrine of the Christian Life (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2008), 213-17. Frame states, “the distinction [moral, ceremonial and civil law in the Westminster Con­fession] is a good one, in a rough-and-ready way” (213). Later he admits that “the laws of the Pentateuch are not clearly labeled as moral, civil, or ceremonial” (214). In the end, he struggles to provide clear criteria to show what is and what is not applicable for Christians today from the old covenant. Also see Waltke, Old Testament Theology, 434, 436. 48Waltke does say that the Ten Words are an expression of the character and heart of God (see Old Testament Theology, 413), but his approach does not provide a biblical criterion for determining how the old covenant applies to us today. As a code, includ- ing the Ten Words, it does not apply. The righteousness enshrined in this code, however, is the same that is now enshrined for us in the new covenant.

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