Pyre-Related Material in Inhumation Graves Investigating Traces of Viking Age Biritualism in South-Western Scania

BY FRANCISZEK SATALECKI

Abstract The article discusses and briefly describes the inclusion of cremated remains in the inhumation burials dating to the Viking Age discovered in six locations in south-western Scania. Previous interpretations, linking the material to human funerary sacrifice and the cult of Odin, are discussed. A new perspective is proposed, focusing on the transformative nature of the burial and on its role in establishing the identities of the mourners, with special attention directed towards New Kinship studies. Ideas for further research are presented.

Introduction

One of the few aspects of Scandinavian Viking presence of a stone setting, wooden post or a Age burial ritual that most researchers agree burial mound. Researchers point out that the upon is its large variety (Svanberg 2003b; Price number of excavated burials is far too low to 2008, 257 f.; Price 2010, 124; Lund 2013, 48; suffice for the whole population of the area Price 2014, 178; Williams 2016, 401 f.). Both throughout the period, which suggests that cremation and inhumation seem to have been other forms of disposing of the dead had to practised throughout the peninsula (Gräslund exist (Eriksen et al. 2009, 146; Price 2008, & Müller-Wille 1992, 186; Price 2014, 259; Price 2014, 178). 178; Lund & Arwill-Nordbladh 2016, 424) This article is concerned with 44 conforming to regional patterns displaying monuments that combine inhumation differences in frequency between both burial burial with materials that could derive from rites (Stylegar 2007, 87). Burial practices of a funeral pyre, such as cremated human and the societies inhabiting Scandinavia in the animal remains, charcoal and soot deposits Late Iron Age have taken a range of forms, and charred wood. The burials were located including chamber graves, boat burials, on six different sites discovered in the region cremation layers, burials in urns and coffins as of south-western Scania. It is believed that well as in other forms of containers or without inhumation was a dominant burial rite in them, with additional variables such as the the area, as in Zealand and other regions of

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 39 eastern Denmark (Svanberg 2003b, 97), from some burials from sites included in this study which almost identical graves displaying a mix may suggest. of pyre-related material are known (Brøndsted The application of new theoretical 1936; Andersen 1960; Eriksen 1992; Jønsson perspectives that are mindful of the modern 1992; Kelinminger 1993; Lindblom 1993; western foundations of archaeology (Thomas Grøn et al. 1994; Wulf Andersen 1995; 2004), can present those modest contexts as Ulriksen 2011). The practice, even if often deserving of further research. The analysis noticed, has not been subjected to detailed is conducted on the documentation of description or interpretation. The aim of contexts excavated several years ago and it the study is to introduce the material to the is preliminary in its nature. However, it can broader public and analyse how the cremation provide a new perspective on burial rituals deposits were created, mainly through study in the final period of the Late Iron Age and of the recorded stratigraphy of the burials. establish a new research agenda that concerns Additionally I will attempt to discuss their essential questions about the nature of the previous interpretations and introduce new past people’s personhood. ways of looking at the material. The study focuses on burials dating to the Viking Age for two reasons – first, is the most unfortunate fact that modestly equipped Theory and method graves, such as those described in the article, The archaeology of death and burial for are seldom a subject of any in-depth study, a long time was concerned with themes with researchers focusing on extravagant and of social structure – it was assumed that lavish burial forms such as chamber graves burials reflected the structure in a rather or boat graves, with the notable exception straightforward manner, with beliefs that the of works by archaeologists such as Ulriksen social persona of the deceased and its ability to (2011), Artelius (2000), Pétursdóttir (2009) control people was symbolized and reflected and Svanberg (2003a & b). It is important to by the economic expenditure of work and recognize that knowledge about the Viking resources in the burial (Brown 1981, 28). Age mortuary customs so far has been built Modern studies recognize the transformative on a very limited amount of burial contexts nature of the funeral (Oestigaard 2000, 42; (Back Danielsson 2007, 27). Many graves Ekengren 2006, 109; Oestigaard 2006, 17; receive a brief description in an excavation Back Danielsson 2007, 250; Mansurd 2006; report, never to be studied again, and the 133; Williams 2008, 240), highlighting material is seldom subjected to an analysis the fact that the social identity of both the that goes beyond cherry-picking examples deceased and mourners was established across regional boundaries. The second reason during the process. Social identities must be for confining the study to this particular time viewed as ever changing (Jenkins 2008) and period was that most of the described contexts existing as a product of networks of social in which such remains had been found are relations between people (Brück 2004, 311; dated to the Viking Age, and therefore I Oestigaard 2006 14; Graham 2009, 52), decided that it is most pertinent to present the ever so often including the dead. The grave study of examples of the practices from south- monuments should be viewed as a group western Scania dating to this period. It is, effort to fix and communicate the established however, necessary to state that it might have identities (Oestigaard 2000, 53; Williams started in the earlier parts of the Iron Age, as 2006, 26; Ekengren & Nilsson Stutz 2009, 12;

40 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI Graham 2009, 51). The deceased, possessing choices and selections undertaken by the physical qualities and, quite possibly, acting organizers of the funeral. In that case, even as a focal point of the ceremony (Williams objects that would normally be classified as 2004, 265; Nilsson Stutz 2008), has a limited everyday items may receive another meaning, agency in the design carried out by the based on their appearance and relation to other living (Oestigaard & Goldhahn 2006, 29; objects found in the burial context (Ekengren Ekengren & Nilsson Stutz 2009, 6). During 2013, 182). The possible entanglement of the funeral a new identity is bestowed on the objects, their “biography”, must be also taken dead person, suitable for his or her present into account (Pétursdóttir 2009, 29) if the condition (Ekengren 2006, 109), to which creation of memory through performance and the mourners relate their identities. material culture is viewed as the main purpose A grave itself should not be viewed as a of the funeral (Williams 2006, 12). static arrangement of corpses and items, but With the above-mentioned concepts as an outcome of a process that takes place in mind I analysed the documentation of in certain time frames. Funerals are sequences previously excavated burials in south-western of actions that can form visible archaeological Scania, dated (or possibly dating) to the deposits (Williams 2006, 120; Ekengren 2013, Viking Age, in which cremation deposits 179) and the sites in which the dead were were discovered. As cremation deposits I deposited are often utilized later for further understand materials that could have derived burials and activities. Taphonomic processes from a cremation ceremony – mainly burned further transform the information preserved human and animal remains, large pieces of (Nilsson Stutz 2003, 137). Finally, during the burned wood, but also layers of charcoal. archaeological excavations attempts are made Cremation deposits located in separated cuts in to recover it. All these processes are critical in layers of the fill of the burial were excluded, as shaping the interpretation of the particular they might represent an overlying intersecting burial context. burial – a practice not uncommon for Viking If the funeral ceremonies are composed Age burial grounds in south-western Scania. of series of actions executed by the people The practices of deposition of the cremation- attending them, then through studies of related material are placed in a context of the stratigraphy of the graves it is possible to funeral ceremony. Analysis of drawings of establish a relative chronology of the events burial contexts, sections and the information taking place at the site (Gansum & Oestigaard about the level on which the recorded finds 2004, 69). Careful study of the burial context, were discovered, was used to reconstruct, in with consideration of different stages of the very broad strokes, the sequence of the events funeral, can help in understanding the role of and to reflect on the configuration of objects items discovered in the burial. during the certain stages of the ceremony. It is necessary to recognize that burial Following the rule of superposition – the goods can be composed of objects that were bottom layers will be perceived as older than personal possessions of the deceased, the the top layer – objects placed at the bottom tools necessary for the construction of the will be the ones that were placed first in the monument, gifts for the afterlife or means of grave, and objects found in upper layers will stopping the dead from harassing the living be generally considered as deposited at later (Brück 2004, 309; Fahlander & Oestigaard stages (Gansum & Oestigaard 2004, 69). 2008, 7ff; Pétursdóttir 2009, 32). In any of those instances they represent conscious

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Fig. 1. Map of cemeteries in south-western Scania where pyre-related material was found in inhumation burials. Drawing by the author.

Sites in the study – material of deposition of the human remains. There is a certain lack of consensus as to whether it selection, dating and context should be applied to every context in which The material is derived from six sites located small amounts of cremated human remains in south-western Scania (Fig. 1). The sites were found, as one cremation can result in were selected to include the graves in which the creation of multiple features (McKinley the aforementioned cremation deposits were 2013, 154). Regarding earlier periods, some present. Information about the presence of the researchers propose viewing the features in deposit was derived mainly from the catalogue which the amount of burned bone is small of burials provided in the second volume of as remains from different stages of the burial Fredrik Svanberg’s dissertation (2003b) with ritual, for example the site of the cremation additional sites selected from earlier work pyre (Arcini 2005, 64). The term “cremation by Märta Strömberg (1961b). The material deposit” allows the inclusion of pyre-related described in the article stems from only one material other than human bone in the study region of Scandinavia, following the opinion as well. that modern approaches to the Late Iron Age The region of south-western Scania is here in Scandinavia should emphasize the regional distinguished following Charlotte Fabech’s differences (Svanberg 1999, 130). The term research. In her opinion, Iron Age settlements “cremation deposit” is used to highlight the were mostly grouped on the plain areas of problem with the interpretation of burials. The Scania, in the south-west and east. Those term “grave” carries an emotional meaning clusters were separated by an extensive area in our culture (Kaliff 2005, 130) as a space that was less densely populated (Fabech 1993, where the dead were laid to rest, a final place 210ff). The south-west is further treated as a

42 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI Table I. Number of graves discovered at the sites. Data based on Strömberg (1961b), Samuelsson (2001) and Svanberg (2003b).

Number of Viking Probably dating to Age graves with Site Graves no. Cremations Inhumations the Viking Age cremation deposits Önsvala 26 0 26 14 4 Kyrkoköpinge 7 0 7 7 1 Norrvidinge 71 (?) 1 70 (?) 24 (?) 4 (?) Råga Hörstad 34 1 33 32 13 Saritslöv 11 2 9 11 4 Ljungbacka 191 160 31 49 20 distinct region, with regard to burial ritual, inhumations were discovered at Råga Hörstad based on Svanberg’s findings presented in (Strömberg 1968, 3) and at Saritslöv where the second volume of Decolonizing the Viking around nine inhumation burials and two Age. The Viking Age south-western Scania cremation burials were found (Strömberg was characterized by both cremation and 1961b, 65 f.). The only site not conforming inhumation, with the latter type of burials to the pattern is Ljungbacka1 where 31 dominating, as opposed to the region in inhumation and 160 simple cremation the south-east, where biritualism was also burials were discovered (Samuelsson 1998, practised but with the majority of discovered 6; Table I). This anomaly might be caused burials being cremations (Svanberg 2003b, by two possible factors. First is the damage 145). Further differences are observable in the to the top archaeological strata that might material culture discovered in the region, with have been caused by years of farming in the jewellery such as oval, equal-armed and round densely populated region of southern Scania brooches seldom occurring in the west, as well (Thäte 2007), removing the small features as a lower number of imports from western such as cremation burials. Secondly, it was Europe discovered in eastern Scania (Svanberg only at Ljungbacka that the removal of layers 1999, 34ff). The area is mainly differentiated of topsoil was supervised by archaeologists, on the basis of archaeological findings, as the which allowed for documentation and only natural boundary is the sea to the west. It identification of the features. There is evidence is believed that a dense forest could probably that there might have been more cremation have separated the area from the region of burials at Råga Hörstad and Önsvala as well eastern and northern Scania (Svanberg 2003a, (Svanberg 2003b, 89 f.). 165). Another common feature of the The sites in this study generally conform cemeteries discussed is that they were used to the observations regarding the burial ritual in periods preceding the Viking Age. At proposed by Svanberg, with Önsvala solely Ljungbacka, except for a single cremation consisting of 26 inhumation graves (Larsson burial dated to the Late Bronze Age, and 1981, 130), Kyrkoköpinge with at least seven large burial mound that was the focal point inhumation burials (Strömberg 1961b, 58), of cemetery, a number of cremation burials Norrvidinge with one cremation burial and and an inhumation burial were dated to the around 70 inhumations (Svanberg 2003b, Vendel Period (Samuelsson 2001, 99). Burials 284). Similarly, one cremation burial and 34 dated to the Late Roman Iron Age, Migration

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 43 Period and Vendel Period were discovered at Cremation deposits Önsvala, and from the Vendel Period at Råga Hörstad (Svanberg 2003b, 293). Some of the – contents and problems of the burials from Norrvidinge possibly date to intentionality of deposition the younger parts of the Iron Age, but this Svanberg recognized the difficulties in problem requires further investigation, which establishing the exact dating of burials is difficult while the results of archaeological in south-western Scania. Following the examination of the site remain unpublished. assumptions presented by Strömberg (1961a, Kyrkoköpinge and Saritslöv provided some 37) that the majority of graves equipped with graves that can be dated to the Viking Age as knives, whetstones or without any burial well, but others require further investigation. goods date to the Viking Age, he estimated The tradition of placing a cremation the amount of possible known Viking Age deposit in an inhumation burial seems to burials as reaching a number of around 230 predate the Viking Age, although it must be (Svanberg 2003b, 87). In 44 inhumations taken into account that the graves are hard to (Table II) discovered in the region, cremation date, as the burial equipment is meagre and deposits were found, amounting to around few C14 dates are available so far. However, 20% of burials in the area. I understand this statement can be based on the example cremation deposits as materials that could of burial no. 3 from Önsvala where artefacts have derived from funeral pyre as a result of dated to the Migration Period and deposits the cremation process: burned bone, both of soot were found (Larsson 1981, 157). animal and human, charred large fragments Possibly some of the unpublished material of wood and charcoal. Such an inclusive from Norrvidinge can be dated similarly early. definition is necessary, because of the The custom seems to cease around preliminary nature of my research and the fact the beginning of 11th century when the that information about the exact content of burial grounds presented in the study were many of the cremation deposits had not yet abandoned. One of the few last examples is the been published. rich wagon case burial from Önsvala – grave The bone fragments, when discovered number 24, where a small amount of cremated in the deposits and subjected to analysis, human remains was found (Persson & Persson derive both from humans and animals. At 1981, 200) probably dating to that period Ljungbacka and Råga Hörstad the presence (Svanberg 2003b, 290). The practice might of remains from dogs and sheep/goats was have been later continued in the tradition of confirmed (Strömberg 1968; Samuelsson charcoal burials known from church burial 2001, 92). The amount of bone material grounds from Lund (Lund 2013, 56), similar discovered is meagre, ranging from a couple of to those known from England (Daniel 1997, grams to around 10 g. This amount seems low, 158 f.), where the dead was placed in the grave as a cremated human corpse should produce on a layer of charcoal. around 1500–2000 g of remains (Ulriksen 2011, 189). However, it must be recognized that in south-western Scania a very low quantities of human remains were deposited, even in regular, single cremation burials, as testified by examples from Ljungbacka where it ranges from 0.1 g to 53.6 g, and some of the features interpreted as cremation burials

44 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI seemed not to contain any human remains Modes of deposition (Samuelsson 1998, 32). The mixing of animal remains was also recognisable in material The description of the cremation deposits from free-standing, single cremations from varies in the archaeological documentation, Ljungbacka, but a larger variety of species reflecting the changes in the excavation was observable with the addition of pig and methodology and the way the material was poultry to the aforementioned dogs and published. Often only one of the burial levels sheep/goats (Samuelsson 1998, 32). was documented. Another limiting factor When such small amounts of material is that most of the sites mentioned in this were mixed into a filling of a pit, the question article were previously used either for gravel of the intentionality of the deposition must be extraction (Larsson 1981, 129; Strömberg raised. Material similar to that described here 1968, 3) or agriculture (Samuelsson 1998, was often considered as a result of accidental 6), which might have disturbed the deposits. redeposition of remains from earlier cremation In most cases there are no notes about the burials (Samuelsson 1998, 16; Ulriksen 2011, exact stratigraphic position of the deposits; 189). Danish archaeologists, working with only the presence of cremated human or non- similar traces discovered on Zealand, had human bone or wood in the fill of the burial pointed to some facts that might be proof in relation to human remains is noted. of intended placement of cremated human In the case of excavations conducted in remains or pyre-related material in the the 1920s and the 1930s at Kyrkoköpinge inhumation burial. and Saritslöv, the deposition is described as The practice seemed to have been fairly forming a distinct layer of charcoal, located widespread in eastern Denmark, as such above the remains of the skeleton, as in case of material was discovered in 52% of burials grave 6 at Kyrkoköpinge (Strömberg 1961b, excavated at a cemetery at Trekroner Grydehøj 58), and both above and below the skeletons, and 60% at Kirke Hyllinge Kirkebakken as in graves 1, 4, 9 and 10 from Saritslöv (Ulriksen 2011, 189) and over half of the 55 (Strömberg 1961b, 65 f.). At Kyrkoköpinge burials discovered at Ottestrup (Eriksen 1992, the deposit is described as quite substantial, 187). More finds are known from Rytterkær forming over a half of the fill of the burial, (Jønsson 1992, 39), Kjølvejen (Kleinminger reaching a thickness of around 60 cm. 1993, 129), Lejre (Wulf Andersen 1995, 99) Similar deposits were discovered in burials and Forlev (Brøndsted 1936, 194). from Önsvala, in graves 5 and 9. In case of Other factors pointing to intentional the first burial no burned human remains deposition are the uneven distribution of the were discovered in the deposit, but in the material in the fill, which sometimes creates second case some fragments were identified distinguishable layers and concentrations as belonging to a human cranium (Larsson (Ulriksen 2011, 189) and the occurrence 1981, 181). of pyre-related material in the burials from Cremation-related material was also cemeteries without any known cremation discovered forming distinct patches, sometimes burials or in burial groups in which no unnaturally regular in shape, suggesting the use cremation burials were found (Samuelsson of a container, possibly made from an organic 1998, 17; Ulriksen 2011, 189).2 substance. That was the case of graves G6 (Fig. 2) and G17 from Ljungbacka (Samuelsson 1998, 16). In both burials the deposits were visible in the fill of the burials on levels above

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Fig. 2. Burial G6 from Ljungbaacka with rectangular cremation deposits visible at Level 2. Redrawn by the author on the basis of field documentation stored at Malmö Museum.

46 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI Fig. 3 Lower level of burial G28 from Ljungbacka. An irregularly shaped cremation deposit is visible on the drawing as a black patch. Redrawn by the author, based on field documentation stored at Malmö Museum. the discolorations related to the completely are mentioned (Lindskog 1967). However, decomposed skeleton of buried individuals. In the charred wood by itself seems not to be the case of grave G6 burned human bones were an accidental mix in the fill of the burial pit, recovered from the deposits. The complexity of as pyre remains were observed in eight graves burial rites related to this particular structure (G5, G16, G18, G19, G20, G22, G23, is further highlighted by the fact that two later G24) discovered at Ljungbacka (Samulesson cremation burials were placed over it. 1998, 13). Soot and charcoal were frequently Cremation deposits, not so regular in form, observed in the fillings of burial pits at Råga but still making up distinct concentrations in Hörstad (Strömberg 1968). In two cases, the burial, are also known from Ljungbacka, grave G9 from Ljungbacka and grave 59 (Fig. such as graves G18 or G28 (Fig. 3), where the 4) from Norrvidinge, large distinguishable deposit was found on the same level as the fragments of charred wood were placed in the skeleton of the buried individual below a layer burial. In grave 59 it appears as if two large of large stones, indicating a simultaneous logs were placed over the body of the buried deposition. Similar traces of irregular shaped individual. deposits were discovered at Norrvidinge and In the light of this evidence it is possible to described as burned wood on documentation observe that cremation deposits were formed drawings, usually occupying a position above not as a result of a single type of practice, but the human remains. There is no information different practices. One is the creation of a available as to whether any burned human layer of charcoal or burned bones, another remains were discovered in them, except a is placing a deposit confined in a container very general description of finds from the site, or without it, a third is the inclusion of pyre in which skeletal remains damaged by fire remains in the fill of the burial. However,

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 47 Fig. 4. Burial 59 from Norrvidinge. Redrawn by the author, based on field documentation stored at Lund Historical Museum.

the common denominator in all the types of funeral, so possibly even if they contained deposition, besides the probable origin in the human remains, they should be understood in funeral pyre, is that it was usually placed in the different terms than human remains found at burial after the body was placed in it, possibly the bottom of the grave, despite the fact that during the time that the burial pit was filled at first glance they were of similar significance. with soil. Cases in which the deposits were later covered by stones, probably deriving from external elements of the burial, further Interpretation based support the hypothesis of the simultaneous deposition of the pyre-related material with on written sources the process of infilling of the inhumation Archaeology’s ability to study rituals, grave. In some cases, when the use of a coffin even to identify the remains of ritualized was confirmed, the stratigraphic position of activity (Brück 1999) has to be treated the deposit points towards the interpretation with scepticism, as only material remains of that it was placed in the burial when the body complex ceremonies are preserved. Numerous was no longer visible. It could be argued that activities, such as singing, chanting, dancing since the deposits were not in direct contact and praying, do not leave any traces that can with the body of the deceased they should be recovered, and the material traces that not be viewed in the same terms as items are left can often be difficult to interpret, as placed on the same level as the corpse. Their variations or similarities might be understood inclusion took place at a different stage of the completely differently in a particular cultural

48 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI context (Nordberg 2012, 131). This issue is reconstruction of a world view that probably usually addressed by employing one of two would most closely reflect their ideals. approaches. The first is to rely on written Similarly, the description of the cremation of a sources to explain the meaning of the chieftain found in Risala is hardly applicable, archaeological remains. The second is to utilize as it has an elitist character and it is separated the knowledge produced in the subject of by quite a large geographical distance from ritual studies, functioning as a sub-discipline the lands of Viking Age Denmark. There is of social anthropology, in order to understand also uncertainty about the ethnic composition how the rituals might have fulfilled their of the group of Rus merchants, who quite functions on a more social plane, without probably included Slavs and members of local placing so much emphasis on uncovering nomadic tribes (Hedenstierna-Jonson 2006, the direct meaning of each item or practice 90) and as such might have leaned towards (Williams 2016, 402). Both approaches have more syncretic burial rituals. The very uniform their limitations, and their effectiveness is burial rite employed at south-western Scania dependent mostly on how they are applied to burial grounds makes it difficult to connect the material. them to any particular social sphere of Viking It is my opinion that cremation deposits, if Age society. interpreted at all, were subjected to reasoning grounded mostly in the first type of approach. Ulriksen (2011, 191), confronted with similar Cremated slaves cremation deposits at Danish burial grounds, regarded them as symbolically following – buried masters? the Law of Odin from Snorri Sturluson’s The lack of stress on displaying hierarchy by Ynglinga saga, which stated that the dead inclusion of lavish burial goods can also create must be cremated, or as granting the dead a difficulties in accepting the most popular faster way to the afterlife, as explained by a interpretation of the cremation deposits, mourner to ibn Fadlan in his description of especially those containing human remains a chieftain’s funeral in Risala. According to as the result of the sacrifice of a slave during this explanation the deposit would serve as a the burial ceremony (Strömberg 1968, 39 substitute for a whole cremation ceremony, f.; Kelinminger 1993, 103; Svanberg 1999, allowing the deceased and his possessions 30; Svanberg 2003b, 89). This interpretation entry to Valhalla. This interpretation is was most clearly presented by Svanberg, problematic in the light of recent ideas put as he claims that there is a noticeable status forward by historians of religion, who are difference between the individual subjected convinced that religion centred around god to inhumation and the ones cremated on the Odin and concept of Valhalla was practised pyre. He states that there are no grave goods in a restricted milieu of chieftains and their that could be assigned to the remains usually warrior retinue, not a belief or a religion discovered in the fills of the inhumations shared across all geographical regions and (Svanberg 2003b, 89 ff.). Unfortunately, such social strata (Gunnell 2015, 56). The fact that a claim cannot be supported as it relies heavily written sources, mainly used to reconstruct a on concept of grave goods and monument size coherent form of Old Norse mythology, were being representative of individual status during mainly created by skalds and other people life (Oestigaard 2006, 11; Larsson 2015, 12). serving or belonging to the upper class (Back- Even disregarding that statement, many other Danielsson 2007, 34) has resulted in the issues render this interpretation dubious.

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 49 It is problematic to compare the remains Two criteria should be fulfilled to present that were subjected to the primary rite, a burial context as a result of funerary deposited directly in a place in which they sacrifice – there must be evidence of primary decomposed, with remains that were deposited rite deposition of remains of at least two after cremation and as such subjected to a individuals and there must be visible signs of funeral in multiple episodes (Nilsson Stutz peri-mortem trauma in one of the sets of the 2003, 152). Archaeologists working with remains. In my opinion, inhumation burials cremations have stressed that not all items with cremation deposits do not fulfil these (and not all individuals) that were placed on criteria and as such cannot be presented as the the funeral pyre were deposited in the soil results of human sacrifice and ascribed rank. (Williams 2008, 246). Even if cremated remains were found in some of the burials that could be described as Performing kinship aristocratic or exceptionally rich, such as burial 24 from Önsvala or G18 from Ljungbacka, the New trends in archaeology, drawing heavily burial goods that are found in inhumations on social anthropological research allow with cremation deposits are usually just knives for a different approach towards cremation and whetstones, which does not indicate any deposits. If the modern western concept of dramatic status difference between individuals the individual is abandoned (Lund 2013, buried in the feature and suggest that the 48) it is possible to look at cremated bone inclusion of cremation deposits is not status- as a substance (Fowler 2004, 50ff). Remains related. Often cremations are considered interpreted as cremated human bone have a “poor man’s burial”, as at the point of been often discovered in Late Iron Age discovery they appear quite modest compared Scandinavia outside burial contexts including to inhumation burial and present a challenge cooking pits, hearths, property borders, to analyse and describe correctly (Williams thresholds and postholes (Back Danielson 2008, 239 f.). Experimental archaeology 2007, 245). Bones of undefined species were has contradicted this statement, proving also found to have been used as temper in the that properly conducted cremation requires production of ceramics discovered at Gudme resources, such as wood (Høilund Nielsen and Uppåkra (Jennbert 2004, 201) and were 2011, 98) and certain specialist knowledge possibly used in the process of carbonization (Oestigaard 2006, 17). of steel (Gansum 2007, 138). It is possible, Another problematic concept is an that the cremation deposits, not always assumption that the cremation and the containing human remains, do not signify a inhumation burials of both individuals must person but are rather a form of tool necessary be simultaneous to create a cremation deposit. in a transformative act such as a funeral. In the case of cremation burial, the deposition A funeral is mainly an affair that concerns of the remains, either from the body of person the living, as it serves as a mean of reforging who underwent it or of the funeral pyre, can social relationships and transmission of be delayed (Oestigaard & Goldhahn 2006, property and social functions (Oestigaard 44). Similar deposits encountered in England 2000, 53). Rituals also played an important in Anglo-Saxon inhumation burials from role as they reinforced cultural boundaries and Collingbourne Ducis have been interpreted institutions (Artelius & Svanberg 2005, 5 ff.; as depositions of mementos from earlier Oestigaard & Goldhahn 2006, 31; Hull 2014, cremations (McKinley 2013). 2) and provided oral societies with a sense of

50 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI continuity, past and social identity through blood brotherhood (in the case of Odin and the relation to the dead (Assman 1998, 78). Loki known from mythology). Even the dead Scandinavia in the Late Iron Age could be can enter into kin relations through marriage, described as a mainly oral culture (Brink 2005, as described by Al-Masudi, in the case of the 67b). As such, the approach to the past was death of an unmarried man (Jesch 1994, 119 different from that in literate societies, as only ff.). In all these examples the establishing of events important for the present situation were the relation takes place through ritualized remembered (Back Danielson 2007, 32), and behaviour. Furthermore, the terminology the past could be altered in narrative to better on many rune stones should be mentioned, suit the needs of the current situation. In such where men refer to dead members of the same contexts it is important to consider the role of retinue as sword brothers (Varenius 1998, 24 human remains as artefacts that possess a power ff.), which may point to the existence of a sort of memory creation important for establishing of kinship ties created by service as a warrior. the social order, through their connection to A story of the retrieval of grave goods from the the biography and identity of an individual mound of King Óláfr Geirstaðaálfr and their (Williams 2006, 114ff; Hedeager 2010, 111), passing to the mother of the later king, Óláfr but possibly they should be also considered as Haraldsson, as told in Flateyjarbók, can be a means of creating a social connection. also perceived as a situation in which kinship Recent trends in social anthropology ties are created through interaction with the have developed culture-specific approaches dead (Klevnäs 2016, 469). At the same time, to the question of kinship, recognizing that the practice of infanticide and the ceremony biological reproduction might be understood of presenting the child to its father testify that as a central subject in modern western being born in a family did not secure a place culture (Schneider 1972; Carsten 2000, 3 in it (Jochens 1995, 81 ff.). f.). Biological facts should not be confused When social identities are considered as with cultural facts (Yanagisako & Collier relational – existing only through interaction 1987) – it is important to recognize that among people – it might be fruitful to consider different cultures might have different ideas the cremation deposits as acts of kinship about human reproduction.3 The creation of building, perhaps through the utilization of an individual could be a result of interaction the remains of the dead or maybe between the of large numbers of people during multiple dead themselves. Those relations might have events, not only sexual in nature (Beckerman considered the created dead personas of the & Valentine 2002; Weismantel 2004). deceased, as a tool to reach the state required to Kinship has to be considered as something properly enter the afterlife, but the possibility that can be constructed or is in large part a that those relations had certain repercussions matter of performance (Carsten 1995), and for the living should not be excluded. For does not only consider living individuals, as some reasons, employment of human remains in some cultures the dead can marry people or to create ties between people is considered a even become parents (Stone 2010). suitable interpretation regarding finds dated In fact, written sources – sagas and myths to the Bronze Age and Stone Age (Jennbert – illuminate situations where broadly defined 2004, 196), but not for the Late Iron Age. kinship links are created through performative This can be related to the process of viewing action in cases such as foster-parenthood or this part of Scandinavian prehistory as more oath-taking (Gísla saga Súrssonar and the case familiar and more related to modern ways of of Gisli, Thorkel, Vesteinn and Thorgrim) or conduct, as often it is viewed as one of the roots

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 51 of modern European societies (Oestigaard osteological analysis of the excavated material 2011). The evidence of burial practice from in order to identify the species, the lowest south-western Scanian cemeteries, indicating possible number of individuals and what body the opening of the burials, deposition of parts are most often represented in the burials. human body parts and placing burials in Re-examination and detailed publication of intentional intersection with others (Satalecki sites excavated over twenty years ago would 2014), suggests an approach to the dead make the material more accessible, as now it is completely different from the modern one. mostly confined to museum stores. Attempts to create a better chronology of changes in burial ritual in Late Iron Age Scania, more oriented towards observation of small details, Conclusion could illuminate a number of questions The substantial number of cremation deposits related to the variation in ritual observable at discovered in inhumation burials requires the burial grounds considered here. Danish much more research, beyond the scope of this research (Ulriksen 2011) clearly shows how preliminary article. New research questions beneficial the publication and interpretation of arises as the evidence points towards the excavation results from recently discovered and important role of cremation in burial examined sites is, when burials are excavated rituals conducted in the region – even if the with special attention to the stratigraphy of majority of discovered Viking Age burials the fills of the burial pit. Similar research is are inhumations. The fact that people were still lacking from Sweden. At the same time, subjected to such differentiated treatment the scientific effort cannot be carried out in after death, with bodies of individuals isolation from the research about the nature preserving their integrity in the soil and of Late Iron Age kinship and the nature of others cremated and buried or used only as personhood, as it can lead to the projection of a token deposit, points to differences in the modern concepts on past populations. understanding of personhood. Discussing the Scandinavian Late Iron Age, where concepts of transformation and fluidity between Acknowledgements humans, animals (Mansurd 2006; Hedeager 2010; Jennbert 2011) and objects (Back I would like to express my gratitude towards Danielson 2007; Gansum 2007) seem to be Chatarina Ödman from Malmö Museum and recurring subjects, the possibility that human Jenny Bergman at Lund University Historical remains can become a tool in a ritual should Museum for making the documentation of receive more attention. Similar traces have sites presented in the study available to me been interpreted before as signs of an ancestor during my research on my master’s thesis. cult (Nielsen 1991), but maybe they should be rather seen as a means of creating an ancestor, and through that, a reference point Notes in a network establishing the social identities 1 The site is also known in literature as Lockarp of the mourners. (Svanberg 2003b, 290), but here the nomen- Of course any debate centred on theoretical clature used before in Lund Archaeological Re- concepts cannot take place in separation from view (Samuelsson 2001) is utilized. the actual archaeological finds and contexts. 2 Although these arguments are quite convin- One of the biggest challenges is systematic cing, they fail to address an issue of transfer of

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Franciszek Satalecki, Mogilska 15b/9 Kraków 31-542, Poland. [email protected]

56 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI Dating Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Iron half of the 10th C. First Other relevant information relevant Other burial later cremation by Cut burials. two later cremation by Cut outlines of a coffin Visible large stones found in the fill Three of the burial by cut coffin outline, grave Visible burials later cremation on which the the level Over discolorations deposit was present to a stone setting related probably found were coffin outline Visible coffin outlines Visible bones of a lamb Unburned Two in the burial. discovered burials later cut into cremation the pit. Grave goods Grave Knife, sandstone spindle whorl Whetstone, knife, ceramics ceramics knives, Two Knife, ceramics Knife Knife type M), knife, head (Petersen Axe bead, bronze whetstone, bonze rivet plate, iron Cremation deposit Cremation human bones (11.8 g) Burned in the fill of pit, discovered without clear demarcation deposits including cremation Two in the human bone (0.5 g) present fill of the burial shaped cremation Irregular deposits visible in the fill of burial, with burned human bone (3.8 g) present into the mixed remains Cremated Burned human fill of the burial. bone (3.4 g) present deposits cremation Visible shape, rectangular in regular of an suggesting the presence bone Human organic container. (0.9 g) present remains deposit of pyre Visible planks and consisting of charred branches present bone and charcoal Burned in the fill of burial shaped cremation Rectangular of level deposits visible at a lower the burial concentrations of burned Small bone (20.8 g identified as human) in the fill of burial discovered Grave G1 Ljungbacka G2 Ljungbacka G3 Ljungbacka G5 Ljungbacka G6 Ljungbacka G9 Ljungbacka G16 Ljungbacka G17 Ljungbacka G18 Ljungbacka Table II. List of graves with cremation deposits from south-western Scania included in the study. south-western deposits from with cremation II. List of graves Table

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 57 Dating Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron 10th C. Age Vendel/Viking half of 10th – to first Second of 11th C. Age Viking Age/Possibly Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Iron Age Viking Age/Probably Iron Age Viking Age/Probably Iron Viking Age/Probably Late Iron Age Other relevant information relevant Other heavily disturbed during Burial of two remains excavation, individuals discovered a later feature damaged by Pit of at least two individuals, Burial of which one is traditionally as sacrificed slave interpreted of at least two individuals Burial heavily disturbed on two levels, the burial four large stones In the top levels found. At were were human remains uncremated discovered of coffin was visible in the Outline burial a later feature damaged by Burial Grave goods Grave Knife, ceramics nails, ceramics iron Two nail, whetstone, iron vessel, Pottery object, penannular knife, iron brooch bronze Knife and a clasp knife – one with the knives iron Two bottom individual, other with the upper individual, spurs with two unidentified iron inlay, silver objects, whetstone object iron Unidentified object Knife, unidentified iron objects, unidentified iron Two knife and a whetstone rivets Knife and two iron glass bead, two unidentified Yellow objects iron Cremation deposit Cremation and burned bones (3.1 Charcoal in the fill of g human) discovered the burial pit and burned bones (0.8 g Charcoal in identified as human) discovered the fill of pit and burned of charcoal layer Small bones deposited in the fill of burial and burned bones Charcoal in the fill of pit discovered bone (4.3 and cremated Charcoal g identified as human) discovered in the fill of pit deposits cremation irregular Two in the fill of burial with human (6.4 g identified burn bone present as human) mixed bone and charcoal Burned into the fill of pit and soot bone, charcoal Burned in the fill of present were next to level the lower burial. At deposit of a skeleton, cremation shape was found. Burned irregular found in the human bones were (8.5 g) grave into was found mixed Charcoal the fill of pit bone (15.4 g human), Cremated in the fill mixed soot and charcoal of the burial Grave G19 Ljungbacka G20 Ljungbacka G21 Ljungbacka G22 Ljungbacka G23 Ljungbacka G24 Ljungbacka G27 Ljungbacka G28 Ljungbacka G29 Ljungbacka G30 Ljungbacka

58 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI Dating Age Viking Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age (C14 dating) Viking half of the 11th c. First Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking of the Beginning Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Other relevant information relevant Other traces of coffin Visible traces of coffin Visible in the wagon case Burial human remains Uncremated found in the fill of burial, as as potterywell and flint fragments in mandible discovered Human the fill of burial in the fragments discovered Flint fill of the burial pieces and burned clay Pottery in the fill of burial discovered pieces and human cranial Pottery bones found in the fill of burial fragments and flint Pottery in the fill of fragments discovered the burial Grave goods Grave knife glass bead, Iron Blue Knife, pottery fragmentary preserved Pottery, object iron orange glass bead, brooch, Bronze knife, textile fragments with iron decoration, and gold thread silver pottery Knife, whetstone, belt buckle Knife Knife, ceramics, whetstone knife and knives Ringed pin, two iron dog skeleton Knife and whetstone Cremation deposit Cremation bone and soot of cremated Layer the skeleton, large located above deposited in the piece of charcoal burial bone and soot of cremated Layer the skeleton. Some located above bone fragments identified as human human bone found in Cremated the fill of pit human bone found in Cremated the fill of burial in fragments discovered Charcoal the fill of burial fragments and soot Charcoal in the fill of burial discovered soot and cremated Charcoal, in the fill human bone discovered of the burial soot and burned bone Charcoal, in the pit of fragments discovered the burial in the fill of discovered Soot burial in the fill of discovered Soot burial in the fill of discovered Soot burial in the bone discovered Cremated fill of the burial Grave 5 grave Önsvala 9 grave Önsvala 16 grave Önsvala 24 grave Önsvala Råga Hörstad 2 grave Råga Hörstad 3 grave Råga Hörstad 4 grave Råga Hörstad 5 grave Råga Hörstad 6 grave grave Råga Hörstad 7a grave Råga Hörstad 7b grave Råga Hörstad 10

LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 22 | 2016 59 Dating Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Viking Age/Probably Late Iron Age Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Age Viking Age/Possibly Late Iron Other relevant information relevant Other deposit possibly not Cremation simultaneous with the burial, visible traces of a coffin pieces, human teeth and Pottery animal bones found in the fill of traces of coffin Visible the burial. might not be Deposit simultaneous with the burial traces of a burial mound. Visible a burial in wagon case. Possibly in the fill Large stones discovered of the burial pit traces of a coffin Visible traces of coffin Visible Grave goods Grave and Amber bead, blue, yellow glass beads, traces of textiles green Knife, two whetstones object of Iron Fragments vessel Pottery fragments decorated with Textile weaving and gold thread, silver at least 10 glass beads sword, Knife bead, key Glass Knife, whetstone Comb Knife, whetstone object iron Unidentified Knife, ferrule Cremation deposit Cremation burial located in the fill Cremation burned charcoal, of the pit. Soot, big stones as three bones, as well in the fill of pit. found present cracked stones and fire Soot, found in the fill of charcoal burial in the fill of discovered Soot deposit in a corner pit, cremation of the pit deposit in the cremation Irregular fill of the burial deposits of cremation Two in the shape discovered irregular fill of the burial pit shaped cremation irregular Two deposits visible in the burial logs placed in the fill charred Two of the pit in the fill of of charcoal A layer the skeleton burial located above in the discovered of charcoal Layer the skeleton fill of the burial above in the discovered of charcoal Layer fill of the pit located above of charcoal Layer human remains and below deposited under of charcoal Layer the skeleton located under of charcoal Layer the skeleton Grave grave Råga Hörstad 11 grave Råga Hörstad 12 grave Råga Hörstad 26 grave Norrvidinge 3 grave Norrvidinge 18 grave Norrvidinge 21 grave Norrvidinge 59 Kyrkoköpinge 6 grave 1 grave Saritslöv 4 grave Saritslöv 6 grave Saritslöv 9 grave Saritslöv 10 grave Saritslöv

60 FRANCISZEK SATALECKI