Dictionary of Iran

DICTIONARY OF IRAN:

A Shorter Encyclopedia

D. L. Bradley

DICTIONARY OF IRAN: A SHORTER ENCYCLOPEDIA © D. L. Bradley and Khaneh- ye-Entesharha-ye-Navisandegan, 2015, 2016. Cover Photographs, © D. L. Bradley: Front, Tribal Camp in the Dasht-e-Bozorg, Iran, 1966, and Back, The Lion of Hamadan, Iran, 1967 DICTIONARY OF IRAN: A SHORTER ENCYCLOPEDIA © 2015, 2016 D. L. Bradley and Khaneh-ye-Entesharha-ye-Navisandegan.

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First Edition, 2015: Second, 2015: Revised Second, 2016.

1. Iranian Culture. 2. Iranian History. 3. Iranian Society. 4. Encyclope- dia of Iran. 5. Dictionary of Iran. 6. Persian Culture. 7. Persian History. 8. Persian Society. 9. Encyclopedia of Persia. 10. Dictionary of Persia. ABBREVIATIONS

A. = Arabic. L. = Latin. adj. = adjective. lit. = literally. adv. = adverb. M.E. = Middle English. A.H. = After ‘Al-Hijra. n. = noun. b. = born. O.E. = Old English. B.C.E. = Before the Common part. = particle. Era. pl. = plural. C.E. = Common Era. prep. = preposition. cf. = compare/see. prop. = properly. d. = died. q.v. = quod vide (which see). E. = English. r. = ruled/reigned. F. = Farsi. supra = above. Fr. = French. syn. = synonym. f. = flourished. T. = Turkic. fig. = figuratively. viz.= videlicet (namely). G. = Greek. infra = below.

i ii - A - , GÓ G[

The first letter of the English Latin alphabet, often used to transcribe A. the Farsi lower back vowel which is similar to the a in the English father or the German mann. It is also used to transcribe the Farsi lower front vowel which is similar to the American a in can. The Farsi lower back vowel is also transcribed in the English Latin alphabet by, inter alia, aa, o, and u. The Farsi lower front vowel is also transcribed in the English Latin alphabet by, inter alia, a, ae, æ, e, and i. The lower back is most often represented in the Arabic Farsi syllabary by the character alef ( [ ) or by the character alef ba maddeh ( Ó ) when alef functions in its role as representing the initial gottal stop or plosive. The lower front is then represented a diacritical fatheh ( , ) which is written above the character representing the consonant preceding fatheh. See ALPHABET. AARON THE UPRIGHT. A Western sobriquet for Harun Ar-Rashid. See ABBASIDS. AB. F., water, liquid. The word appears in many compounds, e.g., ab-jo, beer (lit., water or liquid barley). Modern Iran is two thirds very hard desert or desert mountains— large areas comprising what are among the most severe desert regions on the earth. Thus, an understanding of water is important to acquiring an understanding of the nation and its people. Water figures prominently in Iranian history and customs. Many proverbial expressions allude to water (e.g., ab abadi ast, Water is habitation) and are revealing con- cerning Iranian cultural orientations and attitudes. The concept of water may be used to move Iranians in ways not obvious to Westerners. In that connection the following story is revealing. During the early years of Iran’s development of its petroleum re serves by the British, Americans sought to enter the Iranian market. In this they appeared to be well positioned. For decades, especially dur- ing the reign of the Qajar Shahs, q.v., the British and Russians had ex- ploited Iran. For example, the AMERICAN-PERSIAN TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP AND COMMERCE of 1856, q.v., had been negotiated by Iran in order to balance the effects of this power rivalry. Wherefore the appearance of American Oil executives in Tehran after World War I was welcomed by Iranians. But, established interests were contrary to the visiting American executives. Those interests there- fore retained agents provocateurs to spread a story, that the Americans intended to use certain sacred Iranian water sources in the development of any petroleum concession they might obtain, resulting in their conta- mination with crude. The object of spreading the story was to bring A - , GÓ G[ DICTIONARY OF IRAN 2

(AB) public pressure to bear upon the Iranian government to avoid dealing with the Americans. The story was believed by the general populace, and the tactic was successful, English/Russian interests undisturbed. However, the episode had an unexpected denouement. In C.E. 1924 during the Moharram , q.v., passion plays celebrating the martyrdom of the Immam Hossein, an American Attaché, Robert Imbrie, was photo- graphing a procession of flagellants. Since the Immam Hossein, a grandson of the Prophet Mohammad, was slain by an arrow, this might not seem important. On the other hand, prior to his death by arrow Hossein and his en- tourage had been held under siege within sight of a water source denied them. The besieging forces, loath to spill the blood of a direct descendent of the Prophet—and under orders not to do so—were waiting for his death from thirst. Subsequently news reached them of an approaching superior force and the decision was made to fire the fatal shot. Thus Hossein was slain after days of parched anguish, having also been obliged to watch the deaths from thirst of the rest of his party. The moment was exacerbated because the shot allegedly pierced his throat. Wherefore upon Imbrie being brought to their attention the Mo- haram flagellants turned upon him. Holding him prostrate and spread- eagled, chanting, “How can we drink cool water when Hossein’s throat burns with thirst,” they then forced a quantity of boiling water laced with crude down his throat. Imbrie died and with him any possibility of furthering American interests in Iran for twenty years. ABADAN. An island south of Mohammerah, q.v., and the name of a seaport located there at 32°22' N and 48°15' E, at a mean elevation above sea level of three meters, about 1,065 kilometers from Tehran by road. Abadan is near the confluence of the Rud-e-Karun (Karun River)

ABADAN TEMPERATURE AVERAGES (in °C) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. L 7 9 12 18 22 26 28 27 23 18 13 8 H 19 21 26 32 38 43 45 45 42 36 27 19 ABADAN PRECIPITATION AVERAGES (in millimeters) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 19 14 18 14 3 0 0 0 0 1 26 41 Source: THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN, Vol. I; See BIBLIOGRAPHY. All figures are rounded from the source volume.

and the Shatt Al-Arab (known in the West as the Tigris-Euphrates), which in earlier times joined before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Modern Abadan is of recent origins, the city founded circa C.E. 1910 to accommodate the refinery built there after the discovery of com- mercial petroleum deposits at Masjed-e-Sulaiman, circa 1907 C.E., a geological site to the northeast of Ahvaz, q.v. When the Australian William D’Arcy-Thompson first arrived to exploit the petroleum concession granted him in C.E. 1905, Abadan was little more than 3DICTIONARY OF IRAN , GÓ G[ - A

(ABADAN) a village inhabited by Iranian Arabs. No settlement by that name is mentioned before the middle of the Tenth Century C.E. By the Second World War Abadan was a large metropolis. By C.E. 1979, along with with Khorramshahr, q.v., it was the nucleus of a major commercial and industrial center. One of Iran’s international airports is located nearby. The oil refinery covers an area of twenty square miles and the population exceeds 650,000 souls. Allegedly the city derives its name from a Moslem holy man named Abad, q.v. However, abad also means peopled, populated, populous, cultivated, inhabited, or flourishing and appears in compound words, e.g., Abbas-Abad, the town or habitation of Abbas. Consequently, the word entails a generic reference to a class of localities. In Arabic the emphatic form of abad is abadan, i.e., the term by which the city is currently known. Thus perhaps the name of the city is The Habita- tion/Town. Nonetheless there is evidence that a holy man named Abad did live there during the early Islamic period. Abadan has also been associated with Al-Kadir, known as The Green One. A shrine dedicated to him is located nearby. It is reported that Al-Kadir discovered the Fountain of Youth somewhere in the vicinity and subsequently made himself immortal by bathing therein. However he also subsequently disappeared so the existence of the fountain—like Al-Kadir himself—is not confirmed. AB ALI, DEH-YE-. Lit. Village of High Water, the name of a village about three and a half hours by car to the northeast of Tehran in the Alborz Mountains. The valley in which the village is located is just below the summit of a mountain pass to the Caspian Basin. A resort by the same name is located nearby, built by Reza Shah Pahlavi in the late 1920's. Mohammad Shah Pahlavi later donated the resort to the Pahlavi Foun- dation for the benefit of the people of Iran. ABAN. The eighth month of the Iranian solar calendar having thirty days and occurring from October 23 through November 21, Gregorian. ABARQUH. The site of an ancient town southwest of Yazd, q.v., now deserted and in ruins. Formerly Abarquh was a thriving Mongol city, its Friday Mosque constructed on the classic four eivan plan. See PROX- EMICS. The mosque dates from circa C.E. 1330, possessing flanking arcades and a five bay prayer hall. On a hill to the south stands a Seljuq tomb tower, q.v., the Gunbad-e-Ali, dating from C.E. 1056. ABBASA. A daughter of Mehdi Shah Abbasid and a sister of Harun Al-Ra- shid and Al-Hadi, married three times and three times widowed. It is believed that she contracted a fourth marriage with the Barmecide, Jafar, against the will of Harun who subsequently had Jafar put to death. ABBAS, ALI IBN AL-. An Iranian physician and author, f. circa C.E. 994. Al-Abbas was Zoroastrian by birth, later converting to Islam. His principle treatise is the KATAB AL-MALAKI (BOOK OF ROYALTY), written in Arabic. A Latin translation circulated in Medieval Europe. A - , GÓ G[ DICTIONARY OF IRAN 4

ABBASIDS. A dynasty of thirty- eight Caliphs ruling Iran and PRINCIPLE ABBASID CALIPHS much of the Islamic world for 1. Abbas (Saffah) A.H. 132/C.E. 749 - 136/754 five centuries, circa C.E. 749- 2. Ja#far (Mansur) 136/754 - 158/775 1258, founded by an uncle of the 3. Mehdi 58/775 - 169/785 Prophet Mohammad, Abbas Ibn 4. Hadi 69/785 - 170/786 5. Harun #al-Rashid 170/786 - 193/809 Abd Al-Mutalib from whom the 6. Amin 193/809 - 198/813 dynasty took its name. 7. Mamun 198/813 - 218/833 The Abbasid Caliphate fol- 8. Motasin 218/833 - 227/842 9. Wathik 227/842 - 232/847 lowed the Omayyad, q.v., which 10. Mutawakkil 232/847 - 247/861 ruled following that of the Four 11-14. Period of Anarchy 247/861 - 256/870 Rightly Guided Caliphs, q.v., i.e., 15. Motamid 256/870 - 279/892 16-27. The Persian Princes 279/892 - 490/1097 the first four Caliphs who after 28. Mustazhir 487/1094 - 512/1118 the death of the Prophet Moham- 29. Mustarshid 512/1118 - 529/1135 mad as his closest companions 30. Rashid 529/1135 - 530/1136 31. Muqtafi 530/1136 - 555/1160 succeeded to the caliphate by 32. Mustanjid 555/1160 - 566/1170 election. The period ended with 33. Mustadi 566/1170 - 575/1180 the assassination of the last of 34. Nasir 575/1180 - 622/1225 35. Zahir 622/1225 - 623/1226 these Caliphs—Ali, q.v., the Son- 37. Mustansir 623/1226 - 640/1242 in-Law and First Cousin of the 38. Mustasim 640/1242 - 656/1258 Prophet—allegedly as the result of an Omayyad intrigue. Ali had to battle the Omayyads to secure his rule. During the period of the Omayyad Caliphate, foremost among the Abbasid aspirants’ allies were adherents to the various Alid sects, dissidents which opposed Omayyad power on an assertion that its founder, Mo‘awiyah, had unlawfully seized the prerogatives of the Hashi- mites after the assassination of/or assassinating Ali. There are several versions of his murder told. A common commitment initially united the divergent interests of the clans comprising the Hashimite Beduoin tribes. That is, the tribal clans from which arose the Abbasids and Omayyads—each a branch of the Hashimite Beduoin—all claimed among their members offsprings of the Prophet Mohammad and thus a claim to his succession. This gave the Abbasids the political environment necessary to initiate a successful propaganda aimed at both the dissatisfied Alid groups and the non-Arab converts in the Moslem empire. The Iranians in particular gravitated to the Alid camp. Iranians resented the position of social and economic inferiority imposed upon them by their Omayyad governors. The Alid claims added to this dissatisfaction the fanatic glow of religious dogma. The Alid cause—originally a matter of Hashimite tribal politics—thus eventually gave birth to a number of heterodox Moslem sects beginning with the schism between the Alids and the Omayyds—which schism has persisted down to modern times as expressed in the differences between the vari- ous Sunni (followers of the Sunnah, i.e., the habitual practice or tradition of the Prophet, Mohammad) and Shi‘ah (Factions, 5DICTIONARY OF IRAN , GÓ G[ - A

(ABBASIDS) or Parties) sects. See ISLAM. Thus a community of interest between non-Bedouins and Bedouins was created and it was in Iran it first openly expressed. Subsequently during the reign of Yazid Al-Omayyad (A.H. 101/C.E. 720-105/724), a great grandson of Abbas Ibn Abd Al-Mutalib actively sought to advance Abbasid interests. Operating in Palestine close to a caravan route, he created a center for the dissemination of an anti- Omayyad propaganda. His message reached as far east as Iranian Khora- san (modern Northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, and the Trans-Oxus), where it found root among the converted. This great grandson of an uncle attempted to gain the support of Iranians by claiming that the House of Ali had surrendered its rights to the descendants of Abbas. His propaganda gained ground when Zayd —a grandson of the Immam Hossein by a second wife, Hanafiya, the origin claimed by the Hanafite Sect—prematurely initiated a revolt (A.H. 127/C.E. 740).1 In the attempt Zayd was slain and opposition to Omay- yad power became open and active, finding its primary focus in the Abbasid cause. By A.H. 129/C.E. 747 Omayyad control of Damascus had been seriously weakened and an Iranian Abbasid adherent, one Abu-Moslem, raised the so-called Black Standard of the Alid cause in Iran’s Khorasan province where it found active support. Herat and Merv were taken by intrigue and the Omayyad governor of Khorasan, Nasr—distracted by a personal opposition of his own— appealed to Damascus for help, reporting that an army of twenty thou- sand had sworn allegiance to Abu Moslem. As a consequence, Merwan Omayyad (A.H. 126/C.E. 744-132/749) arrested the current head of the Palestine propaganda station, Ibrahim. But his two brothers, Jafar and Abbas, escaped and went into hiding. Meanwhile back in Khorasan things were not going well for Nasr. The army of Abu Moslem under the generalship of an Iranian, one Kah- taba, had won major battles. In fact Nasr’s forces were completely de- feated. Fleeing toward Damascus, he died en route. Abu-Moslem then launched the campaign which finished destroying the Omayyad Ca- liphate, first under the generalship of Kahtaba and then under that of Kahtaba’s son. Abbas subsequently emerged from hiding and was proclaimed Caliph by this army (A.H. 132/C.E. 749). The first act of the new Caliph was to order total obliteration of the House of Omayya. The Omayyads were hunted down, Abbas’ pogrom succeeding beyond the efforts of modern tyrants. However, an Omayyad of the purple did escape to Spain, continuing the dynasty in microcosm until C.E. 1411, when the Moors were ejected by the Spanish.

1 The Hannafites eventually became influential, boasting as their champion Saladin of Cru- sader fame, and accomplishments such as the founding of the city of Cairo. A - , GÓ G[ DICTIONARY OF IRAN 6

(ABBASIDS) The Abbasids had come to power through the efforts of Iranian nationals. But Abbasid brutality—although not unusual for the era— made the Alids nervous, especially the Iranians. Feeling betrayed by Abbasid rulers, they subsequently sought their own rule. This was also true for other non-Sunni sects. Thus commenced an almost continual insurrection from the first day the Abbasids assumed power. After the collapse of Abbassid rule, circa C.E. 656/A.H. 1258, a line of twenty-one Shadow Caliphs was maintained in Cairo until C.E. 1517—known as the Egyptian Mamelukes—where they performed certain ceremonial functions. When the Ottoman, Selim I, conquered Egypt, he formally ended the line by deposing the last of the Shadow Caliphs. It was important to Ottoman authority that there be no confusion in claims to the leadership they sought to assert. ABBAS MIRZA QAJAR. A prince of the Qajar dynasty (Mirza is from the Arabic, Amir, meaning prince), the heir apparent of Fath Ali Shah Qajar, q.v., and the Governor-General of Azerbaijan at the beginning of Russo-Persian War of C.E. 1803-1828. He was the most promising prince in the the Qajar line, although his career experienced various fortunes. He died before he could succeed. Abbas Mirza was probably the first Iranian to recognize the im- portance of modernizing the Iranian army. The Iranian military had little evolved from the reign of Nadir Shah Afshar, circa A.H. 1148/C.E. 1736. See AFSHARS. Because of preoccupation with internal disorder, Iran had not learned from the previous Century’s continuing development of military technology. Abbas Mirza addressed this lack and began drilling, equipping and organizing the Iranian military along more modern European lines. The story of Abbas Mirza’s succession is of interest for the light it sheds on the character of the Qajar dynasty. It is alleged that when the Eunuch King, Agha Mohammad Shah Qajar, q.v., asked his nephew, Mohammad Ali Mirza (Abbas Mirza’s brother and the eldest son of Fath Ali Mirza, later Fath Ali Shah Qajar) what he would do if he were designated to succeed to the Qajar throne, the young man replied that he would kill his royal uncle. This answer became known to Fath Ali, resulting in Mohammad Ali Mirza being passed in favor of Abbas Mirza when Fath Ali Shah Qajar decided upon an heir. After the Treaty of Turkomanchai, q.v., which ended the Russo- Persian War of C.E. 1803-1828, Abbas Mirza was entrusted with the task of restoring order to Iran, particularly in Khorasan province where a disorganized rebellion was in progress. He first marched to Yazd, q.v., and then to Kerman, q.v., reviving public confidence. Aided by another brother, Khosrow Mirza, he then descended upon Khorasan, quelling the rebellion, then turning toward Herat. At this juncture he was recalled and the actual investment of Herat fell to the impolitic Mohammad Ali Mirza. Abbas Mirza also participated in a successful, 7DICTIONARY OF IRAN , GÓ G[ - A

(ABBAS MIRZA QAJAR) if brief war with Ottoman Turkey (A.H. 1236/C.E. 1821-1238/1823) in cooperation with Mohammad Ali. Abbas Mirza died under suspicious circumstances shortly after his return to the Capital, predeceasing his father. It was widely suspected that Fath Ali Shah had him poisoned—to silence a public disapprobation generated as a result of Abbas Mirza’s public criticisms of the Shah’s disadvantageous resignation of the war with Russia at the very moment Iran was winning in the field. ABBAS SHAH SAFAVID II. There were several Safavid Princes and Monarchs known as Abbas, including Abbas The Great Shah Safavid, whose rule marked the zenith of Abbasid power. See SAFAVIDS. It was under the reign of Abbas II that Safavid Iran, then in decline, ap- peared to experience a regeneration. The son of Safi Shah Safavid, he succeeded his father to the throne at the age of ten years. However, after he passed from the scene Safavid power was destroyed by the Afghan insurrection, circa A.H. 1135/C.E. 1722. See AFGHANISTAN. ABBOT, WILLIAM G. The British Counsel General in Tabriz who, on November 11, 1880, forwarded to his Foreign Secretary, Lord Granville, a report concerning the activities of the American Presbyterian Mis- sionaries working in the area near Lake Urumi‘ah. Granville subse- quently placed the document in the hands of the government of the Uni- ted States via their ambassador in London. President Chester A. Arthur upon receipt submitted it with other documents in response to a Resolution from the United States House of Representatives, then making enquiries into government actions taken to protect the American missionaries during the Kurdish uprisings of 1880. At this time the protection of the missionaries was the responsibil- ity of the British. Presentation of the documents to the American government resulted in legislation (House Resolution 6743) which enabled the United States to implement the AMERICAN-PERSIAN TREATY OF FRIENDSHIP AND COMMERCE of 1856, q.v. Though signed twenty-six years earlier in Constantinople (Istanbul), and ratified by the United States Senate, the Treaty had not been implemented because of the American Civil War and its aftermath. ABBUL KHAIR, ABU SAID IBN. A medieval Iranian poet known in Ni- shapur as the Pivot of Sufism. See ISLAM. Abbul-Khair (d. C.E. 1049) was the author of early roba’iyat (four-lined poems, frequently of mystical content). See ROBA’I. ABD. An Arabic prepositional noun used as a particle in proper names, meaning servant, slave, or man of . . . . ABD ALLAH, MIR. Lit., Prince Servant of God, the name of a brother of Mir Vais, q.v. Upon Mir Vais’ death (A.H. 1128/C.E. 1715) Mir Abd-Allah usurped the rule of eastern Khorason (modern Afghanistan) from the eldest son of Mir Vais, Mahmud. Mir Abd-Allah was planning to return Afghanistan to the traditional rule of Iran when Mahmud A - , GÓ G[ DICTIONARY OF IRAN 8

(ABD ALLAH, MIR) finally succeeded in assassinating him, himself then declared king by the tribal chiefs (A.H. 1130/C.E. 1717). See SAFAVIDS. ABD ALLAH KHAN. Lit., Chief Servant of God, a Prince of Shirvan who befriended Anthony Jenkinson, q.v., on the latter’s trip to the court of Tahmasp I Shah Safavid, C.E. 1561. It was the Prince who saved Jen- kinson’s life when he quarreled with the Shah over religious matters. The prince persuaded Tahmasp Shah that if he sent Jenkinson’s head to the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent—as the King proposed to do—it would irreparably harm foreign commerce. At this time authority over Khorasan province had deteriorated to little more than control by tribal chieftains and warlords, particularly in Afghanistan-Trans-Oxus area. The situation was exacerbated by Russian and British intervention, the goal of the latter being to create a buffer state to protect their Indian holdings from the Muscovite, eventually culminating in the Anglo-Persian War of 1856-57, q.v. ABD ALONYMOS. Lit., Servant of Alonymos, the modern term by which the last king of Sidon is known, Iranian by birth. After completing conquest of Sidon, Alexander the Great, q.v., restored him to his throne (B.C.E. 333). The remains of Abd-Alonymos were contained in a sarco- phagus, known as the Sarcophagus of Alexander. It is presently in the Istanbul Museum. The sarcophagus derived its name from the bas-relief decorating it, the only figure identified being Alexander. ABDUL AZIM, THE SHRINE OF SHAH. A Shi‘ah shrine located in Rayy, q.v., some distance to the South of Tehran, containing, inter alia, the tomb of one of the sons of the Eighth Immam, Ali Reza. The shrine is famous for its mirror mosaics. Its gold dome dominates the town of Rayy, dating from the early Nineteenth Century. It is not of major architectural or archaeological interest although well noted because of its Mirror Mosaics. It was upon leaving this shrine after Friday prayers that Nasr-u-Din Shah Qajar was assassinated, C.E. 1896, almost one hundred years after the assassination of the founder of the Qajar line, Aqa Mohammad Shah Qajar, the Eunuch King, q.v. ABDUL HAMID. The Ain-u-Dola, q.v., whose administration of the Qajar government was one of the principle factors sparking the disorders which eventually resulted in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of C.E. 1905-06, q.v. See QAJARS. ABJAD. The Syriac order of the characters of the Arabic-Farsi syllabary regarded as giving numeric values to the letters, the system known from the first four letters of that order, Alef, Be, Jim and Dal (1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively). See ALPHABET. ABRAHA. The Christian Abyssinian who in C.E. 570 sought to destroy the Kaaba. During the attempt his troops were decimated by smallpox, Abraha himself dying from the disease that same year. ABU. An Arabic prepositional nomnative used as a particle forming names, meaning father of, e.g., Abu-Ali, Father of Ali.