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Dissertation UMI Information Service University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Com pany 300 N Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 8618754

Bumgarner, Shan Elizabeth

EVALUATION OF AEROBIC F'TNESS ACTIVITY IN SECOND, THIRD, AND SEVENTH GRADES AS IMPLEMENTED THROUGH THREE DIFFERENT MODES

The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1986

University Microfilms

International 300 N Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106

THIRD, AND SEVENTH GRADERS AS IMPLEMENTED THROUGH

THREE DIFFERENT MODES.

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State Univesity

Shan Bumgarner B.S., h. A.

1986

Dissertation Committee: Approved by

Linda Heeks-Hltchell

Charles L. Hand

Timothy Kirby Adviser School of Health, Physical Philip Halt Education, and Recreation Copyright by Shan Bumgarner 1986 To Ray, ay husband, whose love, support, and encouragement made thla endeavor possible.

11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A field study such •• this, relies lpon the cooperation of aany people. I as grateful to The Wellington School second, third, and seventh grade students, teachers, and parents who enthusiastically supported this endeavor.

My appreciation is extended to Dr. Charles Hand for his support in this special pedagogical experience. Hy countless thanks to Dr. Tin Kirby and Dr. Phil Helt. Linda Mitchell played a crucial role by her friendship, support, and scholarly Banner that have been a source of aotivation for cospletion of this project and degree. Thank you.

iii VITA

February 5, 1948 ...... Born - Swindon, Wiltshire, England

1969 ...... P. S. Degree, The Ohio State University

1969 - 1973 ...... Physical Education and Health Education Teacher: Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio; Licking County Schools, Hebron, Ohio; Hillsborough County Schools, Taspa, Florida.

1973 - 1974 ...... Assistant Physical Education Director, Jewish Coasunity Center, Colusbus, Ohio.

1975 - 1982 ...... Aquatic Specialist, Worthington Schools, Worthington, Ohio.

1975 - 1982 ...... Recreation Director, Huirfield Village Swia and Tennis Center.

1980...... H. A. Degree, The Ohio State University.

1980 - 1981...... Teaching Assistant, The Ohio State University Student Health Center.

1982 - 1986...... Director of Physical Education and Athletics, The Wellington School, Upper Arlington, Ohio.

PUBLICATION

'Integrating Advanced Life Saving and A Water Safety Instructor Course into Your Physical Education Progras.* future Focus, 0.J.H.P.E.R.D.. Winter, 1981.

iv VITA (continued)

FIELD OF STUDY

(l»jor Field: Physical Education

Studies in Health Education - Associate Professor Linda Meeks-Mltchell

Minor Field: Psychology

Studies in Neuropsychology - Professor Donald Meyer

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... ill

VITA ...... lv

LIST OF TABLES ...... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Purpose of the S t u d y ...... 2 Research Questions ...... 4 Limitations ...... 5 Definitions ...... 5 Overview of the S t u d y ...... & Sussary ...... 9

CHAPTER 2.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 10

Running and Jusping R o p e ...... 10 Contracts 12 Athletic Training and Cardiorespiratory F u n c t i o n ...... 19

CHAPTER 3.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES ...... 22

Introduction ...... 22 Subject Population and Selection ...... 23 Setting 24 Facilities and Equipsent ...... 24 Intervention ...... 25 Experiaental Design ...... 26 Treatment of D a t a ...... 27 S u s s a r y ...... 34

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page CHAPTER 4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 35

Reetateeent of the P r a b l e a ...... 35 Analyeia of Result* by Intervention and by Tiae (Pretest, Post-test) ...... 42 Suaaary of R e s u l t s ...... 47 Health-Related Fitness Teat Percentile R e s u l t s ...... 53 Discussion...... 58

CHAPTER 5.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

S u a a a r y ...... 67 Conclusions ...... 69 Recoaaendations ...... 70

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 72

APPENDICES ...... 84

vii LIST OF TABLES

Organization of Aerobic Fitness ......

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task - A (Athletics) ...... 31

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task - HB

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task - JR (Jusp-Rope) ...... 33

Data Sheet for Subjects - Coding and Score ...... 37

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task - A ...... 43

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task - HB ...... 45

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task - JR ...... 46

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness Sussary Table ...... 46

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Experiaental Group - Control ...... 50

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Experlsental Group - Intervention ...... 51

National Percentile Noras - Seventh Grade ...... 55

National Percentile Norse - Third Grade ...... 56

National Percentile Noras - Second Grade ...... 57

viii LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1. ExpvriMntal Design Visualization...... 29

lx CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Aerobic fitness Is of basic iaportance to Increasing the

healthfulness and longevity of our lives. For aerobic fitness activity

to be of optiaal benefit to us In our 60's; ve auat begin a progras In

our 6 's. (While this appears intuitively true, definite proof awaits

long-tera longitudinal studies). Corbin (1984), Cundlff (1979), Gallop

(1980), USDHEW (1980).

Investigators have docusented the prevalence of coronary heart disease risk factors In children. Bailey (1978), Bar-0r-0 (1971),

Cooper (1976), Dwyer (1983), Gibbons (1980), Kannel (1967), Khoury

(1980), Nora (1980), Paffenbarger (1980), Wilaore (1974). A change in these risk factors in adult populations has been desonstrated using physical activity. Vaccaro (1978), USDHHS (1980). According to

Astrand <1952, 1954) and Pollack (1973), applying this activity to children would necessitate a target heart rate of at least 160 beats/min. Gillloa (1981) reported that the voluntary activity patterns of children say be inadequate in terms of duration and inten sity to promote cardiovascular health. MacConnie (1982) reported froa his data that children spend aore time in low to moderate activity and little if any time in high intensity activity (HR > 160 bts./sin.).

The National Children and Youth Fitness Study (1984) sampled 8,800

1 2

youngsters and found their fitness habits to be poor. McGinnis

(1965). Leas than half were getting enough exercise to develop healthy

hearts and lungs. Those students who performed best on the fitness

tests were the ones who participated in aerobic exercise the most

often, played the hardest, and aalntalned year-round involvement in

exercise. Ciszek (1985).

A minimum of 10 to 15 minutes a day of aerobic exercise is

recommended, but in many schools there is insufficient time in the

physical education class period to devote this amount of time to endurance activities. Church (1976), Cooper (1968, 1975, 1976), Kemper

(1978), Vilmore (1982). Total physical activity should consist of at

least 30 to 60 minutes per day. The most ambitious plan incorporates

vigorous activity in class while encouraging outside participation.

Johnson (1985), Lohman (1984), Lupton (1984), Hisner (1983), Pollack

(1978), Pooley (1984), Shephard (1980).

Hany schools are now involved in testing using AAHPERD's Youth

Fitness Test and/or Health-Related Fitness Tests. Unfortunately, many schools use this as a screening tool or a reward system and do not put into effect the curricular designs necessary to maintain lifetime fitness levels. Cirzek (1985), Hovell (1978), Hunsicker (1976).

Purpose of the Study

Of particular Interest is the aerobic fitness level which is an indicator of cardiorespiratory health. Few field studies show the differing types of aerobic fitness activities that can be successfully incorporated in the physical education curriculum from early lover 3

school through Middle school. Becker (1963), Church (1976), Cooper

(1966, 1975), Cundlff (1979), Franks (1964), Gutln (1976), Kntch

(1963), Krakenbuhl (1977, 1978), Metz (1970), Partin (1981), Reyrouck

(1979), Rutenfranz (1982), Stevart (1975), Yoshida (1983).

The Run/Walk Is designed in the Youth Fitness Test snd in the

Health-Related Fitness Test as the indicator of aerobic fitness level.

Running is not always logistically possible to use within a physical education curriculua as the aerobic activity of choice. Three parts of interest within a study of aerobic fitness logistics will be juaping rcpe, contractual out-of-school activity, and athletics. Juaping Rope needs to be proven of equal value with the run/walk in elevating heart rate and developing aaxlaua oxygen uptake. Baker (1968), Bautz-Holter

(1975), Cleary (1979), Dotson (1985), Town (1980), Skolnick (1984),

Jackson (1976), Jette (1979), Kaach (1976).

Another consideration is that aore tiae need be spent on aerobic activity than can soaetlaes be accoaplished in class tiae. This necessitates taking advantage of tiae in after-school hours by contractually planning aerobic fitness activities. Baranowski (1984),

Brown (1975), Coleaan (1973), Dardig (1976), Dwyer (1983), Hall (1970),

Hovell (1978), Reaper (1978), Lupton (1984), Shephard (1980), Spencer

(1968).

Taggart (1980) says it seeas laportant to involve parents in

Increasing the aerobic activity level of their children outside of the school. Parents exert significant influence upon lover and aiddle school-aged children. In setting a contract with a student, one anticipates that the parents vlll act to encourage students to fulfill

a contract sade, help record the data, and help lspleaent a prograa.

Turner (1976), Vance (1976), Wysocki (1979).

Out-of-school time can also sean U s e for school athletics. Are

athletics sufficient to replace the tise spent In physical education

class on aerobic fitness? Studies show that anaerobic threshold aay be

reached during aost dual and teas activities, but usually the sustained

target heart rate (for IS ainutes at a tise) needed for aerobic

perforsance is not. Bar-0r-0 (1971), Boileau (1977), Cussing (1973),

HacConnie (1982), Rushalal (1969), Song (1983), Vaccaro (1978).

There is a need for a field study that exasines alternative ways

to arrive at the suggested aerobic fitness levels for a sinisum of 10

to IS ainutes a day. This study will be three different studies within one.

Research Questions

The overall concern of this experisental study is to investigate the validity of tise spent in physical education classes on aerobic fitness and how this can be accoaplished. The prleary questions are what type of aerobic intervention will achieve the better results in physical education class? Does juaping-rope produce equivalent aerobic fitness to that achieved by a run/walk? Does additional hose-based contractual aerobic activity increase interest and perforsance? Does athletic participation laprove aerobic fitness at the sase or at a greater level than physical education class-based fitness activities? 5

Limitations

The study is Halted In the following waysi 1. The school chosen for the study does not allow for generalization to a sore diversified, larger population. 2. The weather can affect testing as the out-of-doors teaperature can be significantly different froa the pretest to the post-test. 3. The tialng and record keeping Is kept by a single individual, ayself. 4. The school board has asked for little interference in regular school activities that could bring parental disapproval. The following assuaptions are aade: The children selected are aeabers of Intact classrooas that were 'equalized* in assignaent by acadeaic, social, and athletic criteria by a group aeeting of teachers and adalnlstrators in the Spring, 1984. The two classes in each grade are thought to be equalized (but no aeans have been compared in this school year). The techniques of recording run/walk tiaes and contract recording are appropriate measures for this study. A reliability check is aade of pretest run/walk tiaes by checking them against 1984, 1983 baseline data for moat children.

Definitions

1. Aerobic exercise - sustained exercise that increases the heartbeat

rate to about 140 beats per minute (youth) and uses aaxiaua aaounts

of oxygen over a given period of tiae. (Cooper, 1968).

2. Aerobic performance - the ability to endure hard and prolonged

tasks that are of subaaxiaal intensity. Aerobic performance is

sometimes also defined as V02M x* Whether aerobic performance 6

is defined In teres of subsaxissl endurance or short-ters capacity

to achieve v02aax, ***e process of ventilation iB sufficiently

robust to continue at high rates for prolonged periods, oxygenating

the blood passing through the lungs.

3. Anaerobic capacity (AC) - the workload peforaed in the absence of

oxygen.

4. Anaerobic threshold (AT) - the level of work 2 > above which

levels of blood lactate increase aarkedly. In untrained children

it is SOX of V02liax.

5. Health-Related Fitness Test (HRFT) - the AAPHERD youth test of

endurance of the cardiorespiratory systea, level of fatness,

abdosinal strength, and flexibility of the lover back.

6. Training effect - the percent of increase in V02)Bax during

training sinus the percent of increase in V02aax out of

training. (Becker and Vaccaro, 1983).

7. V02l)ax ~ the saxisal voluae of oxygen uptake, al/ain/kg; and

ability of the individual to transport V02 to the working

nuscles. It is dependent on the individual's willingness to give

all out effort above AT.

6. Contract - a forsal agreesent between two or sore persons in which

each person binds hisself to cosplete an act or perforsance.

Overview of the Study

This study exasines sethods of aerobic fitness with selected groups of youngsters in a private school setting. 7

Subjects In this experiment are 7-to-13 year old boys and girls at

the Wellington School, a private non-sectarian school in Upper

Arlington, Ohio. The subjects have above average socioeconomic

backgrounds.

In this study, forty second graders, twenty-eight third graders,

and twenty-nine seventh graders are part of a K-0 student body of 300

students.

The second and third grade subjects are classified by Intact

classroom assignment 2B, 2C, 3C, 3S. The seventh-grade subjects are

classified by participation or non-participation in school athletics.

The one-mile run/walk is the aerobic fitness activity used as a

basis for testing athletics, home-based contracts, and juap-rope to

determine their interchangeability in a school physical education

setting.

Three modes of aerobic fitness -- athletics, home-based contract,

and jump-rope -- are assigned to the three different grades. Assigned

to second grade is juap-rope; to third grade is home-based contracts;

and to seventh grade is athletics.

The one-mile run/walk is performed by the control groups in this

study as the aerobic fitness activity for fifteen ainutes each of the

three days a week that physical education classes meet. The three

modes of aerobic fitness are assigned as interventions.

The second grade has class 2C run/walk for its aerobic exercise

during physical education class. Class 2C is the control for 2B.

Class 2B has as the intervention jumping-rope for its aerobic a exercise during physical education class. The aerobic exercise is performed three tiaes per veek for IS ainutes at the beginning of each physical education class.

The third grade has class 3C running for its aerobic exercise.

Class 3C is the control for 3S. Class 3S has as the intervention a hose-baaed contractual aerobic fitness progree

The Hoae-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan is lapleaented by sending hone an inforaation letter to the parents of class 3S. A parent and investigator aeeting or phone call is arranged. The parents are inforaed of their responsibility to help their child record aerobic exercises that are at least 15 ainutes in duration on a weekly data sheet to be brought to school each Tuesday of the study. The investigator, with the child, records weekly aaounts on the aaster contractual fora.

The seventh grade has all students running during physical education two tiaes per veek. Every seventh grader at soae tiae during the 1984-1985 school year will have participated in athletics. The participation in Spring school athletics is self-selected. The non-participants in athletics for this season are the control for the group that will have as the intervention athletic participation.

A sign-up sheet for Spring athletics provides the grouping for the seventh grade intervention with the Spring season's non-athletes being controls for the athletes. Both groups are close in nuaber of subjects. 9

Subjects are coded by grade level <2, 3, or 7); control or

Intervention; and nuaber In classrooa. Grade la coded by 2-second

grade; 3-third grade; and 7-seventh grade. Task Is coded by JR - juap

rope; HB - hoae based contract; and A - athletics. Experlaent is coded

as C - control or E - experlaent (intervention>. Score is the nuaber

of ainutes It takes to coaplete the one-alle run/valk. Tiae is coded

as 1 - the pretest or 2 - the post-test.

Suaaary

In this chapter, a brief rationale for the Evaluation of Aerobic

Fitness Activity In Second, Third, and Seventh Graders as Iapleaented

Through Three Different Hades is discussed. The scope of the study is

laconically outlined. The probleas of the study are identified as is

the significance of pursuing this line of inquiry.

The true significance of this study is reflected in the results obtained froa all three interventions. These tied together, are three studies vithin one. The relevance of the study will be to piovide supportive data that will encourage other physical educators to incorporate aerobic fitness activities into a tri-veekly prograa in a

K-12 curriculua. This should enable aore Aaerican youth to attain higher aerobic fitness levels. CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chapter 2 represents a review of the literature significant to this

study and is cospriaed of three sections. The first section discusses

fitness activities and the aerobic nature of running and jumping rope.

Section two discusses the role of parental involvesent in assisting

student behavior. Section three proceeds through athletic training and

cardiorespiratory discussions.

Running and Jumping Rope

Ninety percent of Anerican adults feel that regular exercise is

isportant to achieve optiaal health. U.S. Departsent of Health and

Human Services <1980), Gallop <1980), Golding (1984), Lohman (1964),

Hisner (1983). Approximately sixty percent of American adults are physically active today as compared with twenty four percent in 1960.

Corbin (1984).

If we, as educators, want to teach people to be intelligent consumers of exercise, then we must begin teaching fitness to children at a very young age.

A search of the literature for student physical fitness and physical activity information uncovered surveys of the general papulation and laboratory research but provided few field studies of

10 11 early youth fitness progress. The inforsation available is the noreed data of AAHPERD's Youth Fitness Test. Health-Related Fitness Test. U.S.

Public Health Service's National Children and Youth Fitness Study, end

Juap Rope for Health.

Lupton (1984) suggests that a coaprehensive body of inforsation on physical fitness and activity should Include seasures of fitness, physical activity at work (school), activity related to daily saintenance, and physical activity participation during leisure tise.

Lohsan (1984) suggests that extending these and slsilar prograss to a greater nuaber of youth is one of the greatest challenges of the cosing decade.

Physical fitness is operationally defined by Hlsner (1963) as the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness without undue fatigue, with asple energy to enjoy leisure pursuits and to aeet unforeseen esergencles. The concept 'aerobic fitness' relates sore closely to vigor, alertness, and energy.

There is sose research evidence that indicates children's bodies any not respond significantly to physical conditioning until the pubertal period or later. Becker (1983), Cussing (1973), Goto (1979),

Katch (1983), Lussier (1977), Rutenfranz (1982).

At this point, we cannot say that excellent physical education in the school years leads to healthy, fit life-styles throughout life. A longitudinal study of excellence has yet to be cospleted on a large scale basis in Aserican schools. 12

Because so many Americans are still at cardiorespiratory risk, disease research should continue to deal with the effect of physical activity on the risk on health, life expectancy, and life enhancement.

Physical educators uniquely do this in an applied setting using the husan sodel, Hlsner (1983). Cooper (1976), Gibbons (1980), Kannel

(1967), Khoury (1980), Nora (I960), Paffenbarger (1980).

The President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, Spring 1984

Hearings, attempted to determine why Americans are at cardiorespiratory risk and to design ways to counteract it. Cardiologist John Cantwell said that coronary and vascular diseases begin in youth. . . . If we can emphasize endurance exercise and proper nutrition . . . we can make major inroads in the control of cardiovascular disease by the year

2000. Hammond said that youngsters do not get enough exercise and that leisure tiae activities are not geared toward physical fitness.

Children are capable of substantial improvements in six to eight weeks in any of the components of fitness, but the basic program must continue, or all gains can be lost quickly. Bruce, (1984). Cureton said fitness can be gained by every child when given the right program with the right leadership.

Some physical education programs do not have the time nor the inclination to remedy youth fitness issues within the crowded dally school schedule. Therefore, many community organizations believe it their policy and philosophy to establish youth fitness in recreational settings, according to Jack Robinson, president of the National

Recreation and Parks Association. Golding (1982). 13

Of priaary laportance to the increase of youth fitness is the

estabilshsent of a school-based activity progras. This occurs by

getting the sessage to parents, giving the tise to children, giving the

content and process to teachers, and finding out what works. Seefeldt,

(1964).

Pengrazi (1964) says if fitness is not proaoted in physical

education progress, it could lead youngsters to believe that it is not

isportant for a healthy, well-balanced life-style. Future lifetise

sports prograss sust develop functional fitness for recreational and

lelsure-tise participation.

Razor (1964) said a researcher or a practitioner, a fitness

devotee, and a whole child educator each share a basic agreesent about

the isportance of fitness but differ in the particulars of how to get

there.

The AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test has been in use for 26 years. The

President's Award fros the President's Council on Physical Fitness and

Sport has been awarded to sore than seven ailllon youngsters since

1965. Hunsicker (1976). The Health-Related Fitness Test was a cooperative effort of the Research Consortius, the Heasureaent and

Evaluation Council, and the Physical Fitness Council. The coaputerized

Fitnessgraa is a cooperative project with the Caapbell Soup Coapany, the Institute for Aerobic Research, and the President's Council on

Physical Fitness and Sport. It is a report card of either the Health-

Related Fitness Test or the Youth Fitness Test. The Fitnessgraa plan is to catalyze parents and school adalniatrators to act for fitness 14 activities in schools. In cooperation with the Aaerlcan Heart

Association, AAHPERD runs the Juap Rope for Heart Progras. Host recently available are the norm fros the National Children and Youth

Fitness Study collaborated by the Office of Disease Prevention and

Health Prosotion, AAHPERD, the National Recreation and Parks

Association, the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, and others.

Specific to this study are the use of the noras fros the Health -

Related Fitness Test. HRFT norss have yet to be developed fros a nationally representative sasple of K-fourth graders. The 1960 AAHPERD norss resain the best available for this age group. Ross (1965).

There have been few studies on endurance running in children.

Krakenbuhl et al (1979); Hacek et al (1976); Yoshlda and Ishiko (1979);

Yoshida et al (I960). Yoshida (1983) says the relationship of running perforaance to cardiorespiratory function is obscure. Endurance perforsance in children could be influenced by factors such as running efficiency, anaerobic capacity, skills, fractional utilization of

V02aax

Costlll et al 1973) and/or anaerobic threshold (Huraoka et al 1981,

Reybrouck et al 1982). V02sax is the laboratory detersinatlon of aerobic fitness cospared to the field use of HRPET norss for detersinatlon. Whether in the laboratory or in the field, the detersinatlon of aerobic perforsance is dependent on the individual's willingness to give all-out effort above the anaerobic threshold. 15

Children have the potential ability to perform endurance activities. The evidence coses in studies such as Astrand (1952),

Yoshida and Ishlko (1979) et al (1980) that show the magnitude of

V02a)ax in 4-6 year old children is 40-60 sl/kg/sin. This is cosparable to the value obtained for adults. Astrand (1952), Astrand and Rodahal (1970).

Coccagna (1961) compared the relationship of heart rate relative to oxygen uptake between two exercise modes, running on a treadmill and rope skipping.

Assman (1969) and Baker (1966) showed that workloads during jogging and rope skipping can be equated to elicit similar cardiovascular gains provided each treatment was of sufficient duration, frequency, end intensity. Durant (1975) investigated jumping rope as contrasted to jogging and aerobic dance and found no significant differences between the groups.

Hode does not seen to beof as much importance as duration in getting cardiovascular gain. The American College of Medicine (1976) recommended a 12-minute duration to gain from cardiovascular exercise.

Kobayashi (1969) studied high school nales who jumped rope five minutes each day for eight weeks. He showed significant gains in oxygen consumption and a lowered recovery rate from treadmill runs.

Powell (1967) studied rope skipping for prepubescent boys 15 minutes a day for a six-day week for ten weeks showing improvement from pretest to post-test. Casino (1964) had young adults skip rope for ten minutes a day for a five-day week for eight weeks at 120-130 turns per minute. 16

The results shoved an Increase in aerobic fitness. Town, Sol, and

Sinning (1979) Measured V02Hax et skipping rates of 125, 135, and 145 skips per ainute. They reported no physiological differences between skipping rates. Foster (1979) reported that jumping efficiency appears to have a noticeable effect on the energy cost of jumping rope.

Jumping rope is a rhythmical, continuous, large-motor movement but also contains isometric contraction in the forearm. In jumping rope the arms are holding and turning a rope. Because there is an increase in the amount of active muscle tissue in jumping rope, one might expect an elevation in VO2 , but at the same heart rate, the contrary is true. Coccogna (1981). A decrease in the amount of muscle mass employed in just arm work as compared to leg work or combined leg and arm work produces a lower VO2 . Busklrk et al (1955), Bautz-Holter

(1975). Beyond a critical point, VO2 and heart rate would rise from effects other than the amount of muscle mass used. Hill (1960). Local muscle fatigue raises blood acidity which stimulates heart rate.

Astrand (1977). The fatigue response would be reflected in the respiratory quotient.

Cleary and Getchell (1979) compared selected cardiorespiratory and caloric cost responses to rope skipping and running. The VO2 at 60 turns per minute were compared to a treadmill run at the same heart rate that was obtained when skipping. They concluded that running was a more suitable aerobic activity for cardiorespiratory fitness training because it produced a higher VO2 . 17

Lofgren (1966) found no significant increases in cardiovascular

efficiency in feaale ninth graders who skipped rope 1-4 alnutes two

tiaes per veek. Controls such as Coccogna's were not used and could

account for this.

Coccogna (1961) found that the skipping rate required to keep a

rope Moving requires 60X of maximal aerobic capacity, and the naxlaui

turns of a rope that are dependent on turning velocity, rope weight and

air friction, aaxlalze at a skipping rate of 75X of aaxiaal aerobic

capacity. The findings show that heart rate aaxlMua levels would be

reached before the desired high-Intensity V02. Coccogna further

suggests that the Halted response range of VO2 during rope skipping

exercise is not sufficiently high to elicit a training effect in

individuals with a superior fitness level. The elevated heart rate

response is unsuitable in individuals with an extremely low performance

level or with cardiac limitations.

All available literature supports the conclusion that running is a

more appropriate aerobic exercise than jumping rope but that jumping

rope is preferential to no aerobic exercise.

Contracts

From Ross's 1965 conclusions, the typical youth performs the

overwhelming majority of his or her physical activity in a setting

other than the school's physical education program. There seem to be eight types of community organizations involved -- church/temple, parks

and recreation programs, local team sports, private organizations, Y's, IB

Scouts, tars clubs, and parental place of employment. Dotson (1985)

says that involvement in different community organizations for high

school boys had a significant effect on their mile run/walk scores.

Home and community are a valuable adjunct to school for activity.

Outside of physical education literature, there is little evidence

to show use of behavior modification to increase exercise habits in

children. Behavior modification is seen to be accomplished most

readily by parents, as they have access to many privileges not

available to most teachers to use as rewards or reinforcements.

Atkeson (197B). Taggart (1980) suggests that a home-based Intervention

has little real cost to parents and can improve physical education

involvement.

Using parents to reduce problems or to assist in a school setting has been investigated before. Research with parents as the agents for behavioral change focuses on more hone response to school problems and training of parents in the use of behavioral strategies.

Providing an opportunity to practice academic work by tutoring has a positive effect on school work. Thurston (1979). Practicing response and achieving correctness during out-of-school time reduces errors in school-time academic work. Greenwood (1979). Parents monitor homework, but few studies show the behavioral techniques employed to achieve completion. Atkeson (1978) extended the teacher's note hone to parents for the parents to dispense rewards and punishments in the same manner as in school. Contingency contracting is a tested valid means for alleviating many behavioral problems.

Dardig (1976). 19

Rushal (1969, 1974) used rewards to elicit sore work than when a

standard coaching procedure with a self-recording techniques such as

reinforceaent feedback was used. Taggart (1980) says that lsaedlacy of

the reinforcer Is also crucial, especially when the perforsance In an

exercise prograa say be physically uncosfortable. Wysocki et al (1979)

used contract contingencies to encourage physical exercise using

Cooper's Aerobics Point System. Twelve months after the end of

Wysocki's study, seven of the eight subjects were still earning more aerobic points than during the pretest.

Heeks and Heit (1984) used a Parent Involvement contract with students to sake goals, to plan, to execute, to record, and to evaluate aerobic exercises performed outside of the school. This contractual plan in a modified form is used in this study.

Athletic Training and Cardiorespiratory Function

The effect of training on non-athletes and athletes has long been a concern of many researchers. It is generally assumed that athletes improve in physical conditioning during the competitive season. Many studies on the effect of training during the competitive season in various sports have been completed. It seems that training effects during the competitive season differ between sports and levels of participation. Pollack (1973), in his review of the effect of endurance training on aerobic power, concluded that the initial level of fitness (natural endowment and habitual activity), intensity, frequency, duration, and age are factors that influence the improvement 20

of aerobic power. Studies on training effects have been aalnly

conducted on aale subjects and on cardiorespiratory response to

exercise. Song (1983) said that there Is sufficient inproveaent In

perforsance capacity when there are additional possibilities for

conditioning by participating in out-of-school activities, but the

developaent depends on the initial fitness level and training progras.

The effects of training on V02,iax have been studied extensively, and

there 1b little doubt that V02aax increases with training. Astrand

(I960) stated that the aean ^02aax vaa aore or less stable until the

age of 20, and only then a decline appeared. Lessee et al (1978) found

a eigniflcant change in V0 2 Max after eight weeks of training although

there was only an increase of 13X. The overall sean of V02aax in the

(Lessee) study was 48.8 sl/sin/kg which is greater than that of

Canadian girl athletes at 44.1 sl/sin/kg and girl non-athletes at 35.0

sl/sin/kg. The age ranged fros 12 to 17.

Cussing (1973), Shaver (1974), and Vilsore et al (1970) reported a

significant increase in respiratory function following training;

however, Gree and Houston (1975), and Thosas and Reilly (1976) found no

significant change during the coapetitive seasons. Song (1983),in his

study of 14 to 17 year old fesale athletes, found no significant

changes during the cospetitlve season. The lack of significant

iaprovesent in these studies say be due to the initial high level of

fitness and training of the subjects.

Daniels (1971), Gibbons et al (1972), and Spryanova (1966) suggest that intense endurance training in children will not increase the 21

dimensional and functional components of maximal aerobic pover beyond

the increase associated with growth. The failure to partition out

increases in VQ2 wax due to growth say partially explain the reason

Brown et al (1972) and Eriksson (1972) found much greater Improvements

in V02aax following training than did by Becker and Vaccaro (1983).

Gains in the HRFT are used for testing the seventh graders in the

third part of this experiment. Using this evaluation will help substantiate the data of the effects of athletic training.

This review concerned itself with the contributions, ramifications, and relevancies of different studies completed in this area. CHAPTER 3

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Introduction

This chapter describes the sany aspects of The Evaluation of

Aerobic Fitness Activity in Second, Third and Seventh Graders as

Implemented Through Three Different Modes. This study is concerned vith identifying cardio-reapiratorily, educationally, and logistically sound aerobic exercise vithin and without of a physical education class setting. The prisary focus is to Monitor the direct effect of the aerobic progress on the aerobic fitness levels of the children. All subjects are encouraged to keep their heart rate above 60X of Maximum during aerobic fitness activity throughout the study.

The overall concern of this experlaental study is to investigate the soundness of time spent on aerobic fitness in physical education classes. The questions that arise are the following: What type of aerobic intervention will achieve the better results? Does jumping-rope produce equivalent aerobic fitness to that achieved by a run/walk? Does additional hoae-based contractual aerobic activity

Increase interest and perforsance? Does athletic participation improve aerobic fitness at the sase or at a greater level than physical education class-based fitness activities?

22 23

To answer these questions, this study is structured into three parts. Jump-rope is an intervention with second graders; hose-based contracts is an intervention with third graders; and athletics is an intervention with seventh graders. Each of these aodes has as the control the one-aile run/walk.

Subject Population and Selection

Subjects in this experiaent are 7 to 13 year old-boys and girls at the Wellington School, a private non-sectarian school in Upper

Arlington, Ohio. The subjects have above average socioeconomic backgrounds.

In this study, forty second graders, twenty-eight third graders, and twenty-nine seventh graders are part of a K-8 student body of 300 students.

The second and third grade subjects are classified by intact classrooa assignment 2B, 2C, 3C, 3S. The seventh grade subjects are classified by participation or non-participation in school athletics.

The Human Subjects consent protocol is being followed. The seventh graders visited the Laboratory of Exercise Physiology at The Ohio State

University. This field trip is to help in understanding how the laboratory treadmill test for works as the clinical counterpart for the one-aile run/walk field teat peforaed in this study. Parental permission for all seventh graders was obtained. A

1984-1985 school year doctor's examination is available for each subject. All participants are in normal health with no previous history of cardiorespiratory dysfunction. All second, third, and 24 seventh graders are performing activities normal to their physical education classes.

The rationale for mode assignment to classes Is as follows: Second grade Is assigned jump-rope because the class interest In the one-mile run/walk easily wanes and because the class is relatively inexperienced with jumping rope. The third grade is assigned home-based contracts because of a particularly cooperative pair of classroom teachers and group of parents. Seventh grade is assigned to athletics as this is the first year of participation available in interscholastic athletics.

Setting

The school grounds encompasses 20 acres including two school buildings. At the time of this study, ground breaking has begun for the High School gymnasium and classroom building. The running course is set up as the perimeter of the existing Lower and Middle School on a measured path that takes five laps to a mile.

Facilities and Equipment

The running path, in this study, is on an asphalt surface play ground and accompanying sidewalks. A measuring wheel determined five repetitions of the pathway to equal a mile. The timing of the one-mile run/walk is accomplished by the physical education teacher using an electronic stopwatch and recording the times in the gradebook. The intervention in second grade is accomplished in a sixty-eight foot by fifty foot gymnasium with plastic jump ropes. The intervention for third grade is accomplished at the subjects' hoae-sltes and recorded in 25 the subjects' classroom. The seventh grade Intervention is accomplished on a grass athletic field adjacent to the gymnasium.

Intervention

The testing instrument for this study is the AAHPERD Health-Related

Fitness Test one-aile run/walk. This is a valid field test of cardiorespiratory function and performance because it is related to maximum oxygen intake and provides an index of the student's ability to run distances. The reliability of the test, when administered carefully, is affected by other factors such as body fatness, running efficiency, maturity, and motivation.

The run/walk pretest was administered the last week of March, 1985.

There is a control and an Intervention group within each of three grades -- second, third, and seventh. The exposure to the intervention covers eight weeks. The post-test run/walk was administered the last week of Hay, 1985.

By taking each student's age and time on the one-mile run/walk, a percentile can be established from Table 2-1 in the AAHPERD Health-

Related Physical Fitness manual. Each participant's run/walk time is measured on a stopwatch by the teacher for each participant, recording to the nearest 1/lOth. The parameter used in statistical analysis is the actual minutes to complete the run walk. This is found to give a greater range of values than the use of percentiles.

The Home-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan is implemented by sending home an information letter to the parents of class 3S. A parent and investigator meeting or phone call is arranged. The 26 parents are informed of their responsibility to help their child record aerobic exercises that are at least IS minutes in duration on a weekly data sheet to be brought to school each Tuesday of the study. The investigator, with the child, records weekly asounts on the saster contractual form.

A sign-up sheet for Spring athletics provides the grouping for the seventh-grade Intervention, with the Spring season's non-athletes being controls for the athletes. Both groups are close in number of subjects.

Permission was asked from the School Board to conduct this study.

It was granted on December 17, 1984. Permission of the Human Subjects

Committee was also granted.

Experimental Design

This quasi-experimental research uses the non-equivalent control group design. According to Campbell and Stanley (1963),

one of the most widespread experimental designs in educational research Involves an experimental group and a control group both given a pretest and a post-test, but in which the control group and the experimental group do not have a pre-experimental sampling equivalence. Rather the groups constitute naturally assembled collectives (in this case classrooms), as similar as availability permits but yet not so similar that one can dispense with the pretest. The assignment of the intervention to one group or the other is assumed to be random, under the experimenter's control, and deliberately introduced, not naturally occurring. . . . The more the similarity of the control group can be confirmed . . . the more effective this becomes. This design controls the main effects of history, maturation, testing, and instrumentation, in that the difference for the experimental group between pretest and post-test cannot be explained by main effects of these variables such as would be found affecting both the experimental and the control group. 27

The study consists of • pretest followed by the experimental

manipulation, with the same test being given at the completion of the experiment. (Refer to Figure i)

The post-test score is the dependent variable, and the intervention is the Independent variable with the pretest as a covariate. This will remove bias resulting from the use of Intact groups that are not completely matched.

The gain in precision from the use of the covariance adjustments depends upon the degree of correlation between the covariate and the dependent variable. Wlldt (1973).

Treatment of Data

Statistical help was obtained from the Psychology Department of The

Ohio State University, Behavioral Science Laboratory personnel.

This study investigates whether two groups differ in their values of the dependent variable Y, performance on the HRFT one-mile run/walk. This study wants to know whether the mean value of the performance scores differ from the control group to the intervention group, the independent variable X which has two categories. Iverson

(1976).

Analysis of Variance is used to establish if after eight weeks there is a difference in between the experimental group and control group. A p-value of equal to or less than . 05 will be considered significant.

Rubon (1941), Stanley and Beeman (1958), R.L. Thorndike (1942), and

Johnson and Neyman (1959) tested the effects of the experimental 2d variable without the procedure of Matching by covariance analysis and other statistical techniques. Lord (I960) cautions against use of analysis of covariance when the covariate is not perfectly reliable.

The treataent should cause a statistically significant decrease in the run/valk tiaes obtained from the Health-Related Fitness Test of the elementary school children involved in this study. The Magnitude of the effect that can be detected given the sample size, the variance obtained In the study, and the chosen probability level are shown through power analyses.

ANOVA with a single covariate extends the elementary ANOVA by including the pretest Measure (covariate) in the Model in the fora of linear regression. The covariate (pretest Measure) adjusts for initial differences between groups. Campbell and Stanley (1963).

Statistical analysis is performed through use of the Statistical

Analysis System (SAS) program on a Amdahl 470/V8 computer at The Ohio

State University. The scores for each subject are entered for data analysis. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedures were completed with use of the SAS General Linear Nodels (GLH) program. GLM performs ANOVA procedures for unbalanced data.

Subjects are coded by grade level (2, 3, or 7); control or intervention; and number in classroom. Grade is coded by 2 -- second grade; 3 -- third grade; and 7 -- seventh grade. Task is coded by JR

-- Jump rope; HB -- home based contract; and A -- athletics.

Experiment is coded as C -- control or E -- experiment (intervention).

Score is the number of minutes it takes to complete the one-mile run/valk. Time is coded as 1 -- the pretest or 2 -- the post-test. 29

FIGURE 1

Experimental Design Visualization

(7th grade) (3rd grade) (2nd grade) A HE) JR

control

exper intent < intervention)

time (pretest)

home-based JUIBP (athletics) contract rope

HB JR

time 2 (post-test) Table 1

Organization of Aerobic Fitness General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE TYPE I EXPECTED HEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) ♦ 2 VAR) ♦ Q(EXP, TASK*EXP, EXP*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) + Q(TASK*EXP,TASK*EXP*TIHE) SUBJ(TASK*EXP> VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(TIHE,TASK*TIHE,EXP*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*TIHE VAR(ERROR) 0< TASK,TIHE,EXP*TIHE,TASK,EXP«TIHE> EXP*TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(£XP*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*EXP*TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(TASK*EXP*TIHE)

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED HEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) Q(TASK,TASK*EXP,TASK*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) Q< EXP,TASK*EXP,EXP-TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) Q(TASK*EXP,TASK*EXP*TIHE) SUBJ(TASK*EXP) VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK*EXP)) TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(TIHE,TASK*TIHE,EXP-TIHE, TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(TASK*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) EXP*TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(EXP*TIHE,TASK*EXP*TIHE) TASK*EXP*TIHE VAR(ERROR) 0(TASK*EXP*TIHE)

8 31

Table 2

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task - A (Athletics) General Linear Models Procedure Class Level Infornation

CLASSLEVELSVALUES

EXP 2 C E

TIHE 2 1 2

SUBJ 29 7C01 7C02 7C03 7C04 7C05 7C06 7C07 7C08 7C09 7C10 7C11 7C12 7C13 7C14 7C15 7101 7102 7103 7104 7105 7100 7107 7108 7109 7110 7111 7112 7113 7114

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE TYPE I EXPECTED MEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ < EXP) ) + Q < EXP*TIME) SUBJ(EXP) VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ < EXP) ) TIHE VAR(ERROR) □ (TIME, EXP*TIME) EXP*TIME VAR(ERROR) Q(EXP*TIME)

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED HEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR

Table 3

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task * HB (Hoae-baaed Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan) General Linear Hodels Procedure Class Level Inforaation

CLASSLEVELSVALUES

EXP 2 C E TIHE 2 1 2 SUBJ 28 3C01 3C02 3C03 3C04 3C05 3C06 3C07 3C08 3C09 3C10 3C11 3C12 3C13 3C14 3801 3102 3103 3104 3105 3106 3107 3108 3109 3110 3111 3112 3113 3114

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE TYPE 1 EXPECTED HEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(EXP)> ♦ Q(EXP,EXP*TIHE) SUBJ(EXP) VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(EXP)) TIHE VAR(ERROR) Q(TIHE,EXP*TIHE> EXP*TIHE VAR(ERROR) 0(EXP*TIHE>

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED HEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) ♦ 2 VAR 33

Table 4

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Taek Task = JR (Juap-Rope) General Linear Hodels Procedure Claes Level Information

CLASSLEVELS VALUES

EXP 2 C E TIHE 2 1 2 5UBJ 40 2C01 2C02 2C03 2C04 2C05 2C06 2C07 2C08 2C09 2C10 2C11 2C12 2C13 2C14 2C15 2C16 2C17 2C18 2C19 2C20 2101 2102 2103 2103 2104 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 2120

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE TYPE I EXPECTED HEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) 4 2 VAR(SUBJ(EXP)) ♦ 0

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED HEAN SOUARE

EXP VAR(ERROR) 4 2 VAR(SUBJ(EXP)) ♦ QIEXP,EXP«TIHE) SUBJ(EXP)VAR(ERROR) 4 2 VAR(SUBJ

Data obtained in this study is recorded by the physical education teacher in the fora of tiae on a stopvatch. At the conclusion of the study, the tiaed data is coded and entered by the physical education teacher into the General Linear Procedures coaputer prograa for analysis as explained in the previous tables.

The degree of experiaental significance and confidence one has that changes are due to experiaental manipulation is determined by the amount of change that occurs in each subject's performance on the related dependent variables.

Suaaarv

This review of methodology and procedures in the Evaluation of

Aerobic Fitness Activity in Second, Third, and Seventh Graders as

Implemented Through Three Different Modes with the supporting material in the figures, tables and appendices shoud allow an informative analysis and discussion of the data that now follows. Chapter IV attempts to relate the findings. Chapter IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Restatement of the Problem

This study was Initially concerned with Identifying cardio-

respiratorlly, educationally, end loglstlcally sound aerobic exercise

vlthin and without of a physical education class setting. The

primary focus Is to monitor the direct effect of the aerobic programs

on the aerobic fitness levels of the children. All subjects are

encouraged to keep their heart rate above 60X of maximum during

aerobic fitness activity throughout the study.

There Is a need for a H e l d study that examines alternative ways

to arrive at the suggested aerobic fitness levels. To arrive at

this, the three selected modes become three separate parts of the study bound together by the same testing instrument.

The overall concern of this experimental study is to investigate the validity of time spent in physical education classes on aerobic fitness. The primary questions are the following: What type of aerobic intervention will achieve the better results? Does Jumping- rope produce equivalent, better, or worse aerobic fitness to that achieved by a run/valk? Does additional homebased contractual aerobic activity increase interest and performance in 8 and 9 year olds? Does school athletic participation improve aerobic fitness at

35 36

the sane or at a greater level than physical education class based on

aerobic fitness activities?

This study involves forty second-grade subjects, twenty-eight

third grade subjects, and twenty-nine seventh-grade subjects that cospleted a one-nlle run/valk for tise. Following the perforsance of

the trials, the resulting tlses are recorded. (Refer to Table 5)

Each subject cospletes eight weeks of aerobic fitness activity.

Twenty second grade subjects run for one aile three tiaes per week in physical education class. Other second grade subjects juap-rope for twelve ainutes three tiaes per week in physical education class.

Twenty-eight third-grade subjects run one aile three tiaes per week in physical education class. Fourteen third-grade subjects, in addition to class tiae, engage in a Hoae-based Contractual Aerobic

Fitness Plan for fifteen ainutes three tiaes per week. Twenty-nine seventh-grade subjects run one aile two tiaes per week. Fourteen seventh-grade subjects, in addition to classtiae, engage in school athletics -- lacrosse for boys and softball for girls.

Statistical analysis is caapleted through use of the Statistical

Analysis Systea (SAS) progras on an Aadahl 470 V/8 coaputer at The

Ohio State University. ANOVA procedures are coapleted with use of the SAS General Linear Models (GLM) progras, GLM perforas ANOVA procedures for unbalanced data. The perforsance scores yield a range froa 5.52 ainutes to 15.57 ainutes for coapletlon of the one-aile run/valk. Table 5

Data Sheet lor Subjects - Coding and Score

SAS

DBS SUBJECT GRADE TASK EXP SCORE

1 2001 2 JR C 10. 45 1 2 2001 2 JR C 10. 00 2 3 2001 2 JR C 8. 46 1 4 2002 2 JR C 8. 08 2 5 2003 2 JR C 13. 56 1 6 2003 2 JR c 10. 12 2 7 2004 2 JR c 15, 57 1 6 2004 2 JR c 14. 50 2 9 2005 2 JR c 15. 57 1 10 2005 2 JR c 15. 30 2 11 2006 2 JR c 13. 12 1 12 2006 2 JR c 13. 38 2 13 2007 2 JR c 12. 53 1 14 2007 2 JR c 13. 38 2 15 2008 2 JR c 8. 46 1 16 2008 2 JR c 8. 08 2 17 2009 2 JR c 12. 15 1 18 2009 2 JR c 9. 42 2 19 2010 2 JR c 9. 16 1 20 2010 2 JR c 6. 10 2 21 2011 2 JR c 14. 30 1 22 2011 2 JR c 9. 42 2 23 2012 2 JR c 9. 37 1 24 2012 2 JR c 13. 25 2 25 2013 2 JR c 14. 30 1 26 2013 2 JR c 13. 30 2 27 2014 2 JR c 12. 15 1 28 2014 2 JR c 13. 38 2 29 2015 2 JR c 14. 00 1 30 2015 2 JR c 13. 25 2 31 2016 2 JR c 12. 53 1 32 2016 2 JR c 13. 30 2 33 2017 2 JR c 11. 38 1 34 2017 2 JR c 13. 38 2 35 2018 2 JR c 11. 43 1 36 2018 2 JR c 9. 42 2 37 2019 2 JR c 10. 48 1 38 2019 2 JR c 10. 11 2 39 2020 2 JR c 15.00 1 40 2020 2 JR c 12. 53 2 41 2101 2 JR E 9. 57 1 38

Table 5 (continued)

OBS SUBJECT GRADE TASK EXP SCORE HE

42 2101 2 JR E 9. 57 2 43 2101 2 JR E 9.50 1 44 2102 2 JR E 8. 15 2 45 2103 2 JR E 12. 18 1 46 2103 2 JR E 11. 53 2 47 2104 2 JR E 12. 18 1 48 2104 2 JR E 12. 00 2 49 2105 2 JR E 8. 37 1 50 2105 2 JR E 8. 15 2 51 2106 2 JR E 12. 53 1 52 2106 2 JR £ 9. 25 2 53 2107 2 JR E 10. 06 1 54 2107 2 JR E 10. 45 2 55 2108 2 JR E 10. 10 1 56 2108 2 JR E 12. 15 2 57 2109 2 JR E 9. 48 1 58 2109 2 JR E 10. 57 2 59 2110 2 JR E 8. 37 1 60 2110 2 JR E 8. 19 2 61 2111 2 JR E 10. 06 1 62 2111 2 JR E 11. 07 2 63 2112 2 JR E 11. 59 1 64 2112 2 JR E 11. 30 2 65 2113 2 JR E 9. 48 1 66 2113 2 JR E 10. 05 2 67 2114 2 JR E 10.06 1 68 2114 2 JR E 10. 02 2 69 2115 2 JR E 10. 10 1 70 2115 2 JR E 10. 45 2 71 2116 2 JR E 10.06 1 72 2116 2 JR E 9. 36 2 73 2117 2 JR E 11. 21 1 74 2117 2 JR E 13. 34 2 75 2118 2 JR E 10. 20 1 76 2118 2 JR E 8. 56 2 77 2119 2 JR E 10. 06 1 78 2119 2 JR E 10. 20 2 79 2120 2 JR E 15. 30 1 80 2120 2 JR E 14. 05 2 81 3001 2 HB C 10. 30 1 82 3001 2 HB C 10.35 2 83 3002 3 HB C 15. 20 1 84 3002 3 HB C 13.00 2 85 3003 3 HB C 11. 44 1 86 3003 3 HB C 10. 10 2 87 3004 3 HB C 13. 03 1 88 3004 3 HB C 9. 55 39

Table 5 (continued)

0B5 SUBJECT GRADE TASK EXP SCORE HE

89 3005 3 HB C 13. 10 1 90 3005 3 HB C 10. 43 2 91 3006 3 HB C 14. 35 1 92 3006 3 HB C 13.90 2 93 3007 3 HB C 10. 00 1 94 3007 3 HB C 9. 05 2 95 3008 3 HB C 12. 00 1 96 3008 3 HB C 9. 50 2 97 3009 3 HB C 12. 00 1 98 3009 3 HB C 9. 50 2 99 3010 3 HB c 15. 20 1 100 3010 3 HB c 15. 52 2 101 3011 3 HB c 11.58 1 102 3011 3 HB c 10. 45 2 103 3012 3 HB c 13.04 1 104 3012 3 HB c 10. 40 2 105 3013 3 HB c 11. 58 1 106 3013 3 HB c 9. 50 2 107 3014 3 HB c 9. 55 1 108 3014 3 HB c 8. 00 2 109 3101 3 HB E 10. 30 1 110 3101 3 HB E 8. 00 2 111 3102 3 HB E 8. 30 1 112 3102 3 HB E 7. 37 2 113 3103 3 HB E 8. 30 1 114 3103 3 HB E 7. 37 2 115 3104 3 HB E 9. 54 1 116 3104 3 HB E 10. 35 2 117 3105 3 HB E 10. 40 1 118 3105 3 HB E 9. 35 2 119 3106 3 HB E 10. 15 1 120 3106 3 HB E 10. 20 2 121 3107 3 HB E 10. 00 1 122 3107 3 HB E 8. 58 2 123 3106 3 HB E 10. 20 1 124 3108 3 HB E 10. 12 2 125 3109 3 HB E 15. 12 1 126 3109 3 HB E 14. 25 2 127 3110 3 HB E 15. 15 1 128 3110 3 HB E 14. 25 2 129 3111 3 HB E 11. 00 1 130 3111 3 HB E 10. 20 2 131 3112 3 HB E 10. 40 1 132 3112 3 HB E 9. 05 2 133 3113 3 HB E 14. 20 1 134 3113 3 HB E 12. 45 2 Table 5 (continued)

OBS SUBJECT GRADETASKEXPSCORE

135 3114 3 HB E 9. 34 1 136 3114 3 HB E 10. 00 2 137 7001 7 A C 8. 42 1 136 7001 7 A C 7. 24 2 133 7002 7 A c 6. 59 1 140 7002 7 A c 6.23 2 141 7003 7 A c 7. 40 1 142 7003 7 A c 6. 23 2 143 7004 7 A c 12. 18 1 144 7004 7 A c 7. 40 2 145 7005 7 A c 9. 42 1 146 7005 7 A c 9. 43 2 147 7006 7 A c 8. 57 1 146 7006 7 A c 6. 57 2 149 7007 7 A c 9. 21 1 150 7007 7 A c 6. 46 2 151 7008 7 A c 6. 52 1 152 7008 7 A c 6. 13 2 153 7009 7 A c 6. 36 1 154 7009 7 A c 6. 14 2 155 7010 7 A c 6. 47 1 156 7010 7 A c 6. 55 2 157 7011 7 A c 12. 18 1 156 7011 7 A c 11. 27 2 159 7012 7 A c 9. 21 1 160 7012 7 A c 8. 10 2 161 7013 7 A c 8.05 1 162 7013 7 A c 6. 39 2 163 7014 7 A c 11. 27 1 164 7014 7 A c 9. 27 2 165 7015 7 A c 11. 42 1 166 7015 7 A c 8. 29 2 167 7101 7 A E 9. 21 1 166 7101 7 A E 8. 18 2 169 7102 7 A E 6. 51 1 170 7102 7 A E 6. 35 2 171 7103 7 A E 12. 30 1 172 7103 7 A E 13.00 2 173 7104 7 A E 9. 07 1 174 7104 7 A E 7.03 2 175 7105 7 AE 9. 21 1 176 7105 7 A E 8.05 2 177 7106 7 A E 9. 21 1 178 7106 7 A E a. 34 2 179 7107 7 A E 13. 12 1 180 7107 7 A E 9. 08 41

Table 5 (continued)

OBS SUBJECT GRADE TASK EXP SCORE HE

181 7108 7 AE 6. 20 1 182 7108 7 AE 5. 52 2 183 7109 7 AE 7. 20 1 184 7109 7 A E 8. 40 2 185 7110 7 A E G. 52 1 186 7110 7 A E 6. 12 2 187 7111 7 AE 9.21 1 188 7111 7 A E 7. 53 2 183 7112 7 A E 8. 08 1 130 7112 7 A E 7. 17 2 191 7113 7 A E 9. 55 1 192 7113 7 A E 8. 54 2 193 7114 7 A E 8. 32 1 194 7114 7 A E 8. 44 2 42

Analysis of Results by Intervention and by Tise (Pretest. Post-test)

In the athletics (A) Intervention, the Intervention subjects seet after school with their coach four days a week for either a one-hour practice or one of eight scheduled gases. The boys have s lacrosse season, and the girls have a softball season. The control subjects do not participate In school athletics. The pretest one-alle run/walk is adsinlstered prior to the season, during physical education class. The post-test Is adsinlstered after the athletic season, during physical education class.

The analysis of data finds an iaprovenent fros the pretest to the post-test for both control and Intervention groups. There is not a significant difference fros the control group to the intervention group. (Refer to Table 6)

The possible explanations of these findings have to include the fact that this population of subjects are fros socioeconosic backgrounds that encourage fasily, club, and cossunlty athletic lnvolvesent in activities such as skiing, skating, tennis, golf, diving, swisslng, gysnastics, and baseball. The school athletic practice for these subjects is Halted to one hour, four tises per week, with a heavy concentration of skill work. Either of these factors can heavily influence the control group to be sore equalized with the Intervention group. 43

Table 6

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task * A (Athletics) General Linear Models Procedure

MEANS

EXP N SCORE

C 30 8.16566667 E 28 8.16642857

TINE N SCORE

1 29 8.86137931 2 29 7.56724138

EXP TINE N SCORE

C 1 15 8.88466667 C 2 15 7.44666667 E 1 14 8.83642857 E 2 14 7.69642857

9 a

C E

In the scatter plot model, regression lines predict within each group the best estlsate of post-test ability for any individual given the pretest score. The treatment effect is represented as the displacement of one regression line above or below the other or the difference between the intercepts where the regression lines intersect the vertical axis. 44

In the Home-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan (HB) intervention, the subjects performed aerobic activity, as defined by the contract each subject made, for three tiaes per week for fifteen minutes in out-of-school time. The control group for HB does not record by contract any after school activity. The pretest and post-test one-aile run/walk is administered at the beginning and end of this study during physical education class.

The analysis of data finds an improvement from the pretest to the post-test for both control and intervention groups in HB. There is not a significant difference from the control group to the intervention group. (Refer to Table 7)

The possible explanations of these findings have to include the fact that this population of subjects is from a socioeconomic background that encourages after-school physical activity whether unstructured or organized. The simple involvement in delineating the choice of activity and recording its performance is not enough to influence a faster post-test performance of the intervention (E) group to the control (C) group in HB on the timed one-mile run/walk.

In the Jump-Rope (JR) intervention, the subjects jump-rope instead of run/walk during the aerobics portion of physical education class. The pretest and post-test one-mile run/walk is administered as a normal part of physical education class.

The analysis of data for JR finds no significant difference from pretest to post-test in either control (C) or intervention (E) 45

Table 7

Organization of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task = HB (Hose-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan) General Linear Hodels Procedure

MEAN

EXP N SCORE

C 26 11.4664286 E 26 10.4976571

TIME N SCORE

1 28 11.5969266 2 26 10.3853571

EXP TIME N SCORE

C 1 14 12.3121429 C 2 14 10.6607143 E 1 14 10.8857143 E 2 14 10.1100000

9 a

C E

Scatter Plot Model of Regression Lines 46

Table 8

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task = JR (Jusp-Rope) General Linear Models Procedure

MEANS

EXP N SCORE

C 40 11.8917500 E 40 10.4617500

TIME H SCORE

1 40 11.3607500 2 40 10.9927500

EXP TIME N SCORE

C 1 20 12.1985000 C 2 20 11.5850000 E 1 20 10.5230000 E 2 20 10.4005000

Scattor Plot Model of Regression Lines 47 groups. But the control group is significantly slower pretest to post-test than the intervention group. (Refer to Table 8)

The explanation of these findings has to show that nr account was

Made for a novelty effect of jumping rope instead of performing the run/walk for seven and eight-year-old second graders.

Summary of Results

Statistical analysis in this study is completed through use of the Statistical Analysis System

A Scheffe paired comparison test is rigorous. Performed at this point in the study, this test reveals a marginal difference between the effect that athletics (A) and home-based contracts (HB), athletics (A) and jump-rope (JR), and home-based contracts (HBO) and jump-rope (JR) have in the post-test. There is no significant difference in the control and experimental groups between each of these tasks. This gives reliability to the testing procedure and to the improvement effects due to maturation that carry through each of the class controls and experimental groups. (Refer to Tables 10 and

11 )

The source of error in Type I sum of squares is incremental. The error term for Type III SS is unique. There is a two-way interaction at the = ,05 level. There is no three-way interaction while it is consistent between task*tiae; exp*time; and task«exp«time. Using Table 9

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness General Linear Models Procedure Suasarv Table

Dependent Variable: Score

Source DF Sue of Squares Mean Square F Value PR > F R-Square C. V.

Model 102 1085. 36975476 10.64087995 11. 50 0.0001 0.928011 9.3955 Error 91 84.19639214 0.92523508 Root Mae Score Mean Corrected Total 193 1169.56614691 0.92523508 0.96189141 10.23778351

Source DF Type I SS F Value PR > F

Task 2 330.98862665 183.67 0. 0001 Exp 1 34.63946715 37.44 0.0001 Task*Exp 2 20.08740431 10.86 0. 0001 Subj(Taak*Exp) 91 638.94269881 7. 59 0.0001 Tine 1 38. 32790155 41.43 0. 0001 Task*Tiae 2 9.28365530 5.02 0.0086 Exp*Tiae 1 3. 59272840 3.88 0. 0518 Task*Exp*Tiae 2 0.61827261 0. 33 0. 7168

Source DF Type III SS F Value PR > F

Task 2 339.35985374 183.39 0. 0001 Exp 1 28.44450059 30. 74 0. 0001 Task*Exp 2 20. 08740431 10.86 0.0001 Subj(Task*Exp) 91 638.94269881 7.59 0.0001 Tiae 1 43.26094671 46.76 0.0001* Task*Tise 2 9.22077221 4.98 0.0088* Exp*Tiae 1 3.63729667 3.93 0.0504* Task*Exp*Tiae 2 0.61827261 0. 33 0.7168 Table 9 (continued)

Tests of Hypotheses Using the Type III US for Subj(Task«Exp) as an Error Tera

Source DF Type III SS F Value PR > F

Task 2 339.35985374 24.17 0.0001* Exp 1 20.44450059 4.05 0.0471* Taak*Exp 2 20.08740431 1.43 0.2445

•C* sO so

Table 10

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP

MEANS

TASK N SCORE

A 30 6.1656667 HB 28 11.4864286 JR 40 11.8917500

TIME N SCORE

1 49 11.2165306 2 49 10.0540816

TASK TIME N SCORE

A 1 15 8.8846667 A 2 IS 7.4466667 HB 1 14 12.3121429 HB 2 14 10.6607143 JR 1 20 12.1985000 JR 2 20 11.5850000

Scheffe Paired Coaparison Test

12 JR HB 11

T T

A is significantly different fros JR and HB, but HB and JR are not significantly different. 51

Table 11

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP (Experimental Group) EXP * E (Intervention) General Linear Models Procedure

MEANS

TASK N SCORE

A 28 8.2665289 HB 28 10.4978571 JR 40 10.4617500

TIME N SCORE

1 48 10.1368750 2 48 9.5270833

TASK TIME N SCORE

A 1 14 8.8364286 A 2 14 7.6964286 HB 1 14 10.8857143 HB 2 14 10.1100000 JR 1 20 10.5230000 HR 2 20 10.4005000 Table 11 (continued)

Experimental Group Scheffe Paired Comparison Test

JR HB 10

Ti T2

Scatter Plot Model

There is no significant difference between A and HB in Time 1

There is no significant difference between A and JR in Time 1

There is a marginal difference between A and HB in Tiae 2.

There is a marginal difference between A and JR in Tiae 2. 53

Type III MS lor Subject (Task*Exp) as an error term test shows there

is a significant difference between subjects in task, in control

compared to experiment, and in consistent test results of one group

(control) to the other (exp).

We can conclude with confidence that a significant difference does exist between the control (C) and intervention (E> but not between the (time 1) pretest to (time 2) post-test. There is no difference between the effect on the completion time of the one-mile run/walk produced by variations of the HB and A methods of aerobic fitness training. In A, there is a pretest (Tj) to post-test

(T2 > significance but no significant difference (C) control to (E)

intervention. In HB, there is a pretest significance but no significant difference C (control) to E

(intervention). The findings emerge:

No significant difference is found to exist between the

effect of the three treatments. Athletics and

home-based aerobic contracts do not improve beyond the

performance of the control groups involved in the

run/walk for aerobic fitness. No significant

difference is noted in the effect of the jump-rope

treatment. The control group improved more pretest to

post-test than did the jump-rope group.

Health-Related Fitness Teat Percentile Results

The national norms set in the Health-Related Fitness Test (HRFT) are standards of achievement as represented by the median or average 54 achievement of a convenience sample, i.e., students who were readily available in schools that volunteered to assist in norm development.

A convenience sample is thought to produce norms that are skewed toward higher performance levels. The HRFT pecentiles are set by sex and age.

Tables 12, 13, and 14 in this study show subjects from this study by sex and age at the class mean, in percentile form.

Using actual data for analysis in this study gives the reader a more accurate picture of a coeducational clasB in a field setting than does the noraed data presented in Tables 12-14.

One of the problems with field studies is that the population comparisons are made from a convenience group of subjects. This does not necessarily allow for assumptions to be made to a general population.

A general level of concern in field studies is the interaction of the governing institution from which the subjects are obtained. In this case, the institution is a private school where the administrators and parents do give a lot of input into the parameters of the proceedings of any study. In this case, this field study was to interrupt the daily routine of the school as little as possible.

This limits a more introspective clinical analysis of some of the answers found in the field results.

Further discussion of results of the actual data is to follow. 55

Table 12

National Percentile Noras - HRFT - Seventh Grade

TIHE EXP BOYS' PERCENTILES GIRLS' PERCENTILES

1 C 60 45 2 C 60 65 1 E 40 65 2 E 60 72

75 E ? 70

65 C9

60 E o* C 55

The girls in the seventh grade vere pretested at a percentile aean of 45 for the control group and 65 for the experiaental group. The boys vere pretested at a percentile aean of 60 for the control group and 40 for the experimental group. The post-test for the girls vas 65 for the control group and 72 for the experiaental group. The post-test for the boys vas 60 for both groups. The girls shoved a non-significant iaproveaent in coaparison of pretest to post-test of the control and experiaental groups. The boys in the control group stayed the saae froa pretest to post-test, and the experiaental group had a significantly lover pretest vith iaproveaent to achieve the saae point at the post-test as the control group. 56

Table 13

National Percentile Noras - HRFT - Third Grade

TIHE EXP BOYS' PERCENTILES GIRLS' PERCENTILES

1 C 20 53 2 C 38 53 1 E 38 40 2 E 48 48

55 C? 50 E w E 9

40 C°+ 35

The girls In the third grade were pretested at a pecentlle aean of 53 for both the control and experiaental group. The boys were pretested at a percentile aean of 20 for the control group and 38 for the experiaental group. The post-test for the girls was 53 for the control group and 48 for the experiaental group. The post-test for the boys vas 38 for the concrol group and 48 for the experiaental group. The girls in the control group stayed the saae froa pretest to post-test. The boys in the control group iaproved significantly (18 percentile points) froa pretest to post-test. The girls in the experiaental group increased, but at a non-significant difference in the pretest to post-test. The experiaental boys and girls iaproved at a slailar rate and to the saae percentile. 57

Table 14

National Percentile Noras - HRFT - Second Grade

TIHE EXP BOYS' PERCENTILES GIRLS' PERCENTILES

1 C 40 40 2 C 65 60 1 E 40 60 2 E 65 60

65 C M E o* 60 C? E ?

The girls in the second grade vere pretested at a percentile aean of 40 for the control group and 60 for the experiaental group. The boys vere pretested at a percentile aean of 40 for both the control and the experiaental groups. The post-test for the girls vas 60 for both groups. The post-test for the boys vas 65 for both groupB. The girls iaproved 20 percentile points in the control group from pretest to post-test, but in the experiaental group there vas no iaproveaent. The boys improved 25 percentile points froa pretest to post-test in both the control and experiaental groups. 56

Discussion

In the actual data, no significant differences are found to exist between the effect of athletics involveaent and aerobic run/walk In seventh graders. In discussion of this finding, let us review the findings of pertinent related literature.

There have been few studies on endurance running in children.

Krakenbuhl et al (1979); Hacek et al (1976); Yoshida and Ishiko

(1979); Yoshida et al (1980). Yoshida (1983) says the relationship of running perforaance with cardiorespiratory function is obscure.

Endurance perforaance in children could be influenced by factors such as running efficiency, anaerobic capacity, skills, fractional utilization of V02,iax (Yoshida 1983), sotivation (Costill 1967;

Costill et al 1971; Costill et al 1973), and/or anaerobic threshold

(Huraoka et al 1981, Reybrouck et al 1982). V02max the laboratory detersination of aerobic fitness cospared to the field use of HRPET norms for determination. Whether in the laboratory or in the field, the determination of aerobic performance is dependent on the individual's willingness to give all-out effort above the anaerobic threshold.

Children have the potential ability to perform endurance activities. The evidence comes in studies such as Astrand (1952),

Yoshida and Ishiko (1979), Yoshido et al (1980) that show the magnitude of V02nax year old children is 40-60 ml/kg/min.

This is comparable to the value obtained for adults. Astrand (1952,

Astrand and Rodahal (1970). 59

node does not sees to be of as such importance as duration in

getting cardiovascular gain. The Aaerican College of Medicine (1978)

reconaended a 12-minute duration to gain froa cardiovascular

exercise.

Children are capable of substantial iaproveaents in six to eight

weeks in any of the components of fitness, but the basic program aust

continue, or all gains can be lost quickly. Bruce, (1964). Cureton

said fitness can be gained by every child when given the right

program with the right leadership.

The effect of training on non-athletes and athletes has long been

a concern of many researchers. It is generally assumed that athletes

improve in physical conditioning during the competitive season. Many

studies on the effect of training during the competitive season in

various sports have been completed. It seems that training effects during the competitive season differ between sports and levels of participation. Pollack (1973) concluded in his review of the effect of endurance training on aerobic power that the initial level of fitness (natural endowment and habitual activity), intensity, frequency, duration, and age are factors that influence the improvement of aerobic power. Studies on training effects have been mainly conducted on male subjects and on cardiorespiratory response to exercise. Song (1983) says that there are sufficient improvements in performance capacity when there are additional possibilities for conditioning by participation in out-of-school activities, but the development depends on the initial fitness level and training 60 program. The effects of training on V02lliax have been studied extensively, and there is little doubt that V02max increases vith training, Astrand (1960) stated that the mean V02max vas only more or less stable until the age of 20, and only then a decline appeared.

Lesmes et al (1978) found a significant change in V02max after eight veeks of training, although there vas an Increase of 13X. The overall mean of VQ2 ,„ax in the Lesmes study vas 48.8 ml/min/kg and greater than that of Canadian girl athletes at 44. 1 ml/nin/kg and of girl non-athletes at 35.0 ml/mln/kg. The age ranged from 12 to 17.

Cumming (1973), Shaver (1974), and Wllmore et al (1970) reported a significant Increase in respiratory function folloving training; hovever, Gree and Houston (1975), and Thomas and Reilly (1976) found no significant change during the competitive seasons. Song (1983), in his study of 14 to 17-year-old female athletes, found no significant changes during the competitive season. The lack of significant improvement in these studies may be due to the initial high level of fitness and training of the subjects.

Daniels (1971), Gibbons et al (1972), and Spryanova (1966) suggest that Intense endurance training in children vill not increase the dimensional and functional components of maximal aerobic pover beyond the Increase associated vith grovth. The failure to partition out

Increases in VQ2max ciue to grovth may partially explain the reason

Brovn et al (1972) and Eriksson (1972) found much greater improvements in V02nax folloving training than those reported by Becker and

Vaccaro (1983). 61

No significant difference Is found to exist between the effect of

the Hose-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan and aerobic run/walk

in the third-grade subjects. In discussion of this finding, let us

review the findings of pertinent related literature.

Lupton (1964) suggests that a cosprehensive body of information

on physical fitness and activity should include measures of fitness,

physical activity at work (school), activity related to daily

maintenance, and physical activity participation during leisure

time.

Some physical education programs do not have the time nor the

inclination to remedy youth fitness Issues within the crowded daily school schedule. Therefore, many community organizations believe it their policy and philosophy to establish youth fitness in recreational settings, according to Jack Robinson, President ofthe

National Recreation end Parks Association. Golding (1962).

Of primary importance to the increase of youth fitness is the establishment of a school-based activity program. This occurs by getting the message to parents, giving the time to children, giving the content and process to teachers, and finding out what works.

Seefeldt, (1984).

From Ross's 1965 conclusions, the typical youth performs the overwhelming majority of his or her physical activity in a setting other than the school's physical education program. There seem to be eight types of community organizations involved -- churchytemple, parks and recreation programs, local team sports, private 62

organizations, Y's, Scouts, farm clubs, and parental place of

employment. Dotson (1965) says that involvement in different

community organizations for high school boys had a significant effect

on their mile run/walk scores. Home and community are a valuable

adjunct to school for activity.

Outside of physical education literature there is little evidence

to show use of behavioral modification to Increase exercise habits in

children. Behavior modification is seen to be accomplished most

readily by parents, as they, unlike most teachers, have access to

many privileges not available to most teachers to use as rewards or

reinforcements. Atkeson (1976). Taggart (1960) suggests that a

home-based intervention has little real cost to parents and can

improve physical education involvement.

Using parents to reduce problems or to assist in a school setting

has been investigated before. Research with parents as the agents

for behavioral change focuses on more home response to school

problems and training of parents in the use of behavioral strategies.

Providing an opportunity to practice academic work by tutoring

has a positive effect on school work. Thurston (1979). Practicing

response and achieving correctness during out-of-school time reduces

errors in school-time academic work. Greenword (1979). Parents

monitor homework, but few studies show the behavioral techniques

employed to achieve completion. Atkeson (1976) extended the

teacher's note home to parents for the parents to dispense rewards and punishments in the same manner as in school. Contingency 63 contracting ia a tested valid means for alleviating many behavioral problems. Dardig (1976).

Ruahal (1969), 1974) used rewards to elicit sore work than when a standard coaching procedure with self-recording techniques as reinforcement feedback was used. Taggart (1980) says that Immediacy of the reinforcer is also crucial, especially when the performance in an exercise program may be physically uncomfortable. WyBocki et al

(1979) used contract contingencies to encourage physical exercise using Cooper's Aerobics Point System. Twelve months after the end of

Wysockl's study, seven of the eight subjects were still earning more aerobic points than during the pretest.

Neeks and Heit (1984) use a Parent Involvement contract with students to make goals, to plan, to execute, to record, and to evaluate aerobic exercises performed outside of the school. This contractual plan in a modified form (a used in this study.

No significant differences are found to exist between the effect of Jump-rope and aerobic run/walk in second grade subjects. In discussion of this finding, let us review the findings of pertinent literature.

Coccagna (1981) compared the relationship of heart rate to relative oxygen uptake between two exercise modes, running on a treadmill and rope skipping.

Assman (1969) and Baker (1968) showed that workloads during jogging and rope skipping can be equated to elicit similar cardiovascular gains, provided each treatment was of sufficient 64 duration, frequency, and Intensity. Durant (1975) Investigated jumping rope as contrasted to jogging and aerobic dance and found no significant differences between the groups.

Kobayashl (1969) studied high school males who jumped rope five minutes each day for eight weeks. He showed significant gains in oxygen consumption and a lowered recovery rate from treadmill runs.

Powell (1967) studied rope skipping for prepubescent boys 15 minutes a day for a six-day week for ten weeks, shoving improvement from pretest to post-test. Casino (1964) had young adults skip rope for ten minutes. The results showed an increase in aerobic fitness.

Town, Sol, and Sinning (1979) measured V02max at skipping rates of

125, 135, and 145 skips per minute. They reported no physiological differences in subjects performing at these skipping rates. Foster

(1979) reported that jumpingefficiency appears to have a noticeable effect on the energy cost of jumping rope.

Jumping rope is a rhythmical, continuous, large-motor movement but also contains isometric contraction in the forearm. While jump ing rope, one's arms are holding and turning a rope. Because there is an increase in the amount of active muscle tissue in jumping rope, one might expect an elevation in VO2 , but at the same heart rate, the contrary is true. Coccogna (1961). A decrease in the amount of muscle mass employed in just arm work as compared to leg work or combined leg and arm work produces a lower VO2 . Buokirk et al

(1955), Bautz-Holter (1975). Beyond a critical point, VO2 and heart rate would rise from effects other than the amount of muscle 85

mass used. Hill (1980). Local muscle fatigue raises blood acidity

which stimulates heart rate. Astrand (1977). The fatigue response

would be reflected in the respiratory quotient.

Cleary and Getchell (1979) compared selected cardiorespiratory and caloric cost responses to rope skipping and running. The VO2 at 80 turns per minute was compared to a treadmill run at the same heart rate obtained when skipping. They concluded that running was a more suitable aerobic activity for cardiorespiratory fitness because

it produced a higher VQ2 .

Lofgren (1988) found no significant increases in cardiovascular efficiency in female ninth graders who skipped rope 1-4 minutes two times per week. Controls such as Coccogna's were not used and could account for this.

Coccogna (1961) found that the skipping rate required to keep a rope moving requires SOX of maximal aerobic capacity, and the maximum turns of a rope that are dependent on turning velocity, rope weight and air friction, maximize at a skipping rate of 75X of maximal aerobic capacity. The findings show that heart rate maximum levels would be reached before the desired high-lntensity VO2 . Coccogna further suggests that the limited response range of VO2 during the rope skipping exercise is not sufficiently high to elicit a training effect in individuals with a superior fitness level. The elevated heart rate response is unsuitable in individuals with an extremely low performance level or with cardiac limitations. 66

All available literature supports the conclusion that running is a lore appropriate aerobic exercise than Jumping rope but that jumping rope to preferential to no aerobic exercise.

Summary

The Evaluation Of Aerobic Fitness Activity in Second, Third and

Seventh Graders as Implemented Through Three Different Modes is effective in testing levels of aerobic fitness to determine the efficacy of the interchangeability of the three modes presented.

To determine what aspects in this study are responsible for the changes is a necessary future step. It is clear that the combined effects of socioeconomic climate and extra interest in activity, impact on each subject's performance.

The ability of the physical education teacher to implement this study at a low level of disruption is important to the results.

Students are kept involved as though the testing is a normal part of their school work. Student interest to achieve is kept at an effective level in all aspects of this study. Chapter V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Suweary

The present study evaluates the effect of aerobic fitness activity in second, third, and seventh grade subjects as implemented through three different inodes. Interventions in the form of

Athletics for seventh graders, a Hone-based Contractual Aerobic

Fitness Plan for third graders, and Junp-Rope for second graders is presented to forty-nine out of the ninety-seven subjects. A pretest of the ninety-seven subjects is a one-mile run/walk for time followed eight weeks later by a post-test timed performance of the ninety-seven subjects. During the eight weeks in physical education class (three days per week for second and third grade and two days for seventh), control subjects run/walk one-mile. Interventions are additions to that wile in third and seventh grade and a substitution for the wile in second grade.

The intent of this Btudy is to evaluate the effects of different modes of aerobic fitness activity in youth. This investigation seeks to answers the following questions:

1. What type of aerohic fitness intervention achieved the better

results?

67 68

2. Did Jumping-Rope produce equivalent, better, or worse aerobic

fitness to that achieved by a run/walk?

3. Did additional Home-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness Plan

activity increase interest and performance?

4. Did school Athletics participation improve aerobic fitness at

the same or at a greater level than physical education class-

based aerobic fitness activities?

This study does answer those questions. We may speculate that as a result of physical education class aerobic activity for the control groups and school athletics, home-based contract, or jump-rope for the interventions groups, a set of results of pretest to post-test improvement would have been consistent with our expectations.

However, the only part of the study consistent with our expectations was jump-rope, and that result deviated from the expected by not showing a significant improvement of results of pretest to post-test in the jump-rope intervention group only in the control group.

This finding of Jump-rope improvement is consistent with research indicated in the performance of subjects in the studies of Assman

(1969), Baker (1968), Kobayashi (1969), Powell (1967), Casino (1964),

Coccagna (1981), and Cltary and Getchell (1979).

The findings of no significant improvement in the home-based contract is not consistent with the studies of Rushal (1974), Wysocki

(1979), or Taggart (1980).

The finding of no significant improvement in athletics is consistent with the studies of Song (1983), Gree and Houston (1975), 69

Thomas and Reilly (1976), Daniels (1971), Gibbons (1972), and

Spryanova (1966).

On the one hand, this study's findings may indicate that

athletics and home-based contracts are not reasonable alternatives to

the run/valk in physical education class as methods of aerobic

fitness activity. On the other hand, this study does find that

jump-rope is a reasonable alternative to the run/valk to achieve

aerobic fitness.

Performance on this study may hBve been affected by the types of

activities these subjects perform as a normal part of their out-of-school routine.

Conclusions

1. For these seventh-grade students, participation in school

athletics for eight weeks does not build a higher aerobic

capacity than a one-mile run/valk per day a minimum of tvo times

per week in physical education class.

2. For these third-grade students, a Home-based Contractual Aerobic

Fitness Plan for eight weeks does not build a higher aerobic

capacity than a one-mile run/walk per day a minimum of three

times per week in physical education class.

3. For these second-grade students, jump-rope for twelve minutes a

minimum of three times per week can be used as a reasonable

alternative to a one-mile run/walk in physical education class to

achieve a low level of aerobic fitness. Recommendations

1. Research should be conducted to find which sports, what type of

athletic training, and what grade level could become an

ccceptable alternative for the aerobic fitness obtained by

running in physical education class. This research would become

a guide for physical education curriculum planners.

2. Research of the use of a Home-based Contractual Aerobic Fitness

plan should be conducted to find its effect by grade, population,

socioeconomic group, sex, and reporting system.

3. Research should be conducted of the effect of jump-rope on sex,

age, expertise, rate, and time for reasonable aerobic fitness

levels. BIBLIOGRAPHY

71 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thesis

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3. Coccogna, E.H., Selected physiological responses to varied rope skipping intensities. Master's Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1961.

4. Couey, R.B., The effect of training of various heart rate intensities on cardiorespiratory fitness. Ph.D. Thesis. Texas A & M University, 1972.

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6. Astrand, P.O., Textbook of Work Physiology. McGraw Hill, N.Y., 1970.

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63 APPENDIX A

Home-based Contracv.ual Aerobic Fitness Plan Fora

This recording fora Is handed out to the third grade subjects in the Hoae-based Contract intervention. The contractual portion is filled out and returned to the physical education teacher. The fora is then used as a weekly recording fora for the eight weeks of the study.

84 85

HOME-BASED CONTRACTUAL AEROBIC FITNESS PLAN

NAME ______D A T E ______CLASS ______

Dear Parent: Your child has learned about aerobic exercises. Aerobic means "with air". When you do aerobic exercises, your heart supplies your muscles with enough oxygen while they are working harder than usual. Aerobic exercises strengthen your heart muscle. They help you develop cardiovascular fitness.

Self Contract: Aerobic Exercises

GOAL: I will do an aerobic exercise for 15 minutes at least three times per week outside of school physical education class. PLAN: I will make a list of five aerobic exercises from which 1 can choose. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I will select from this list. I will do aerobic exercise three times per week. I will plan to warm-up for a few minutes. I will begin my program slowly. I will do exercise at a steady pace for 15 minutes. EVALUATION: I will write down my exercise program each week. I will record how long I exercised. I will turn my completed record sheet each week for eight weeks to my physical education teacher. RESULTS: Why is it important to continue my plan for aerobic exercise? How will I know if I am getting in the best condition for me?

AEROBIC Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week EXERCISES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1

Health Focus On You, 1984. Reprinted by Permission of Merrill Pub. Co. Ammended with permission of HeekB, Heit. APPENDIX B

Supporting Statistical Analysis of Results By Expertsent and by Text

86 Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness General Linear Models Procedure

MEANS

TASK N SCORE

A 58 8. 2143103 HB 58 10.9921429 JR 80 11.1767500

EXP N SCORE

C 98 10.6353061 E 96 9.8319792

TIME N SCORE

1 97 10.6822680 1 97 9.7932990

TASK EXP H SCORE

A C 30 8.1656667 A E 28 8.2664286 HB C 28 11.4864286 HB E 28 10.4978571 JR C 40 11.8917500 JR E 40 10.4617500

TASK EXP N SCORE

A 1 29 8.8613793 A 2 29 7.5672414 HB 1 28 11.5989286 HB 2 28 10.3853571 JR 1 40 11.3607500 JR 2 40 10.9927500

EXP TIME N SCORE

C 1 49 11.2165306 C 2 49 10.0540816 E 1 48 10.1368750 E 2 48 9.5270833 Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness General Linear Models Procedure (continued)

MEANS

TASK EXP TIME N SCORE

A C 1 15 6.8846667 AC 2 15 7.4466667 A E 1 14 8.8364266 AE 2 14 7.6964286 HB C 1 14 12.3121429 HB C 2 14 10.6607143 HB E 1 14 10.8857143 HB E 2 14 10.1100000 JR C 1 20 12.1985000 JR C 2 20 11.5850000 JR E 1 20 10.5230000 JR E 2 20 10.4005000 89

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP Task = C General Linear Models Procedu: e Class Level Information

CLASS LEVELS VALUES

TASK 3 A HB JR TIME 2 1 2 SUB J 49 2C01 2C02 2C03 2C04 2C05 2C06 2C07 2C06 2C09 2C10 2C11 2C12 2C13 2C14 2C15 2C16 2C17 2C18 2C19 2C20 3C01 3C02 3C03 3C04 3C05 3C06 3C07 3C08 3C09 3C10 3C11 3C12 3C13 3C14 3C15 7C01 7C02 7C03 7C04 7C05 7C06 7C07 7C08 7C09 7C10 7C11 7C12 7C13 7C14 7C15 90

Evaluation of Aerobic FitneBS by EXP EXP - C General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE; SCORE

SOURCE TYPE I EXPECTED MEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ < TASK > > + Q (TASK, TASK*TI HE ) SUBJ < TASK) VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR < SUBJ < TASK) > TIME VAR(ERROR) Q (TIME, TASK*TIME > TASK*TIME VAR(ERROR) Q(TASK*TIME>

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED MEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK) ) + Q(TASK,TASK'TIME) SUBJ(TASK > VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK)> TIME VAR(ERROR) Q (TIME,T ASK'TIME) TASK*TIME VAR(ERROR) Q(TASK*TIHE> Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP EXP = C General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE DF SUM OF SQUARES MEAN SQUARE F VALUE PR > F R-SQUARE C.V.

MODEL 51 641.47700760 12.57798054 10. 18 0.0001 0.916305 10.4520 ERROR 46 56.83963321 1.23564855 ROOT HSE SCORE MEAN CORRECTED TOTAL 87 696.31664082 1.11159730 10.63530612

SOURCE DF TYPE I SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 266.40308379 107.80 0.0001 SUBJ(TASK) 46 366.71075702 5.92 0. 0001 TIME 1 33.10654694 26.79 0.0001 TASK*TIHE 2 5.25661985 2.13 0.1308

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 266.40308379 107.80 0.0001 SUBJ(TASK) 46 366.71075702 5.92 0.0001 TIME 1 36.44876963 29.50 0.0001* TASK*TIHE 2 5.25661985 2. 13 0.1308

TESTS OF HYPOTHESES USING THE TYPE III MS FOR SUBJ(TASK) AS AN ERROR TERM

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 266.40308379 18.20 0.0001*

In the control group there is a time and a task difference. Tine 1 to Time 2 is consistent but not significant. 92

EvaJ.uatlon of Aerobic Fitness by EXP EXP = E General Linear Models Procedure Class Level Information

CLASS LEVELS VALUES

TASK 3 A HB JR TIME 2 1 2 SUBJ 48 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 2120 3101 3102 3103 3104 3105 3106 3107 3108 3109 3110 3111 3112 3113 3114 7101 7102 7103 7104 7105 7106 7107 7108 7109 7110 7111 7112 7113 7114 93

Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP EXP = E General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE TYPE I EXPECTED MEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK >) * Q(TASK,TASK»TIME) SUBJ(T ASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK)> TIME VAR(ERROR) Q(TIME,TASK*TIME) t a s k *t i m e VAR(ERROR) Q (TASK*TIHE >

SOURCE TYPE III EXPECTED MEAN SQUARE

TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK)) □(TASK,TASK*TIHE) SUBJ(TASK VAR(ERROR) 2 VAR(SUBJ(TASK)) TIME VAR(ERROR) □(TIME,TASK*TIME) TASK*TIH£ VAR(ERROR) Q(TASK*TIME) Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by EXP EXP = E General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE DF SUM OF SQUARES MEAN SQUARE F VALUE PR > F R-SQUARE C. V.

MODEL 50 412.59736503 8.25194730 13. 57 0.0001 0.937819 7.9302 ERROR 45 27.35655093 0.60792353 ROOT HSE SCORE MEAN CORRECTED TOTAL 95 439.95392396 0.77969451 9.83197917

SOURCE DF TYPE I SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 96.90603217 79.70 0.0001 SUBJ(TASK) 45 302.23104180 11.05 0.0001 TIME 1 8.92430104 14.68 0.0004 TASK*TIHE 2 4.53509003 3. 73 0.0317

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 96.90603217 79. 70 0.0001 SUBJ(TASK) 45 302.23104180 11.05 0.0001 TIME 1 10.77045271 17.72 0.0001* TASK*TIHE 2 4.53509003 3.73 0.0317*

TESTS OF HYPOTHESES USING THE TYPE III MS FOR SUBJ(TASK) AS AN ERROR TERM

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

TASK 2 96.90603217 7.21 0.0019*

Time 1 to Time 2 has significant difference and the interaction shove improvement. Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task = JR General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE DF SUM OF SQUARES MEAN SQUARE F VALUE PR > F R-SQUARE C. V.

MODEL 41 298.85174000 7.28906683 5.45 0.0001 0.854752 10, 3432 ERROR 38 50.78381500 1.33641618 ROOT MSE SCORE MEAN CORRECTED TOTAL 79 349.63555500 1.15603468 11.17675000

SOURCE DF TYPE I SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 40.89800000 30.60 0.0001 SUBJ(EXP) 38 254.03985500 5. 00 0.0001 TIME 1 2.70848000 2.03 0.1627 EXP*TIME 1 1.20540500 0. 90 0.3483

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 40.89800000 30.60 0.0001 SUBJ(EXP) 38 254.03985500 5.00 0.0001 TIME 1 2.70848000 2.03 0.1627 EXP*TIHE 1 1.20540500 0.90 0.3483

TESTS OF HYPOTHESES USING THE TYPE III MS FOR SUBJ(EXP) AS AN ERROR TERM

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 40.8980000 6.12 0.0160*

There is no time significant difference but there is significant difference in control to experiment; control is slover. Evaluation of Aerobic Fitness by Task Task = HB General Linear Hodels Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE DF SUN OF SQUARES NEAN SQUARE F VALUE PR > F R-SQUARE C.V.

NODEL 29 251.13888571 8.65996158 17.13 0.0001 0.950269 6.4681 ERROR 28 13.14305714 0.50550220 ROOT HSE SCORE NEAN CORRECTED TOTAL 55 264.28194286 0.71098678 10.99214286

SOURCE DF TYPE I SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 13.68182857 27.07 0.0001 SUBJ(EXP) 26 214.15441429 16.29 0.0001 TINE 1 20.61857857 40.79 0.0001 EXP*TINE 1 2.68406429 5. 31 0.0294

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 13.68182857 27.07 0.0001 SUBJ(EXP) 26 214.15441429 16.29 0. 0001 TINE 1 20.61857857 40.79 0. 0001* EXP*TIHE 1 2.68406429 5.31 0.0294*

TESTS OF HYPOTHESES USING THE TYPE III HS FOR SUBJ(EXP) AS AN ERROR TERN

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 13.68182857 1. 66 0.2088 not sig

There is a significant interaction of Tine 1 to Time 2 but .lot a significant difference (intervention) to C (control). Evaluation of Aerobic FitnesB by Task Task = A General Linear Models Procedure

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SCORE

SOURCE DF SUM OF SQUARES MEAN SQUARE F VALUE PR > F R-SQUARE C. V.

MODEL 30 195.50150241 6.51671675 8.68 0.0G01 0.906060 10.5480 ERROR 27 20.26952000 0.75072296 ROOT 1SE SCORE MEAN CORRECTED TOTAL 57 215.77102241 0.86644271 8.21431034

SOURCE DF TYPE I SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 0.14704289 0. 20 0.6616 SUBJ(EXP) 27 170.74842952 8. 42 0.0001 TIME 1 24.28449828 32.35 0.0001 EXP'TIHE 1 0.32153172 0.43 0.5184

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 0.14704289 0. 20 0.6616 SUBJ(EXP) 27 170.74842952 8. 42 0.0001 TIME 1 24.06340759 32.05 0.0001* EXP»TIME 1 0.32153172 0.43 0.5184

TESTS OF HYPOTHESES USING THE TYPE III MS FOR SUBJ(EXP) AS AN ERROR TERM

SOURCE DF TYPE III SS F VALUE PR > F

EXP 1 0.14704289 0.02 0.8799 not sig.

There is a significant difference Time 1 to Time 2 but not E (intervention) to C (control).