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Zinc Toxicity in Odora Cells

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Zinc Toxicity in Odora Cells Zinc Toxicity in Odora Cells A thesis submitted to the University of Cincinnati Division of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Department of Environmental Health of the College of Medicine by Heidi Hsieh A.B. Harvard University August 2011 Committee: Mary Beth Genter, Ph.D. (Chair) Hassane Amlal, Ph.D. Abstract Zinc has been touted as a panacea for the common cold. However, there has been some controversy over whether Zicam, an intranasal zinc gluconate gel purported to fight colds, causes anosmia, or the loss of the sense of smell. Historical evidence has shown that zinc sulfate solutions can cause anosmia in humans along with significant damage to the olfactory epithelium in rodents. However, more recent work has claimed to show that zinc gluconate is less toxic than zinc sulfate. Using an in vitro system to compare the toxicity of zinc sulfate and zinc gluconate on immature and mature rat olfactory sensory neurons, it was found that the toxicity of both zinc salts was similar with zinc sulfate being slightly more toxic than zinc gluconate and occurred at significantly lower concentrations than that found in Zicam nasal gel, which strengthens the epidemiological link between intranasal zinc exposure and anosmia. Mechanistic studies disproved the hypothesis that zinc toxicity was caused by inhibition of the HVCN1 proton channel which would have led to acidosis and apoptotic cell death. It was found that these immature rat olfactory sensory neurons are able to maintain their intracellular pH through a + + - - Na /H exchanger, specifically NHE1, and a Cl /HCO3 exchanger. Zinc sulfate, at non-toxic levels, had no impact on intracellular pH via proton transport either after acute exposure or after 24 hours incubation with the cells. In conclusion, zinc toxicity is not mediated through an acidification of intracellular pH. ii iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Mary Beth Genter, for all of her support, patience, and understanding throughout the years. Without her guidance and encouragement, I would not have pursued my studies in Toxicology. I would also like to thank my committee member, Dr. Hassane Amlal, for his guidance and assistance with this project. Additionally, I could not have completed my work without the assistance of Dr. Sarah Pixley, Ms. Tracy Hopkins, Dr. Marina Gálvez Peralta, Ms. Mansi Krishan, and Ms. Brenda Schumann. I would also like to thank my family and friends for all of their support and encouragement. iv Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...……….ii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………..iv Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………v List of Tables & Figures…………………………………………………………………….……vi List of Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………………vii Introduction and Background …………………………………………………………………….1 Hypothesis ………………………………………………………………………………………...8 Specific Aims……………………………………………………………………………………...8 Experimental Procedures………………………………………………………………………….9 Results……………………………………………………………………………………………13 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………..17 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...……..19 Future Studies……………………………………………………………………………………19 Literature Cited ………………………………………………………………………………….20 v List of Tables and Figures Table 1. Solutions used for intracellular pH experiments………………………………………..23 Figure 1. Cell viability of undifferentiated Odora cells after 24 hours incubation with salt solutions.…………………………………………………………………………………24 Figure 2. Cell viability of differentiated Odora cells after 24 hours incubation with salt solutions……………………………………………..………………………….………..25 Figure 3. Comparing cell viability of differentiated and undifferentiated Odora cells after 24 hours incubation with zinc salt solutions…………………………………………...……26 Figure 4. Gel showing expression of HVCN1 in Odora cells…………………………………....27 Figure 5. Gel showing expression of NHE1 in Odora cells……………………………………...27 Figure 6. Gel showing lack of expression of NHE2 in Odora cells……………………………...28 Figure 7. Gel showing lack of expression of NHE3 in Odora cells……………………………...28 Figure 8. Gel showing lack of expression of NHE4 in Odora cells……………………………...29 Figure 9. Proton transport in undifferentiated Odora cells………………………………...…….30 Figure 10. Chloride ion transport in undifferentiated Odora cells…………………………….…31 Figure 11. Proton transport in undifferentiated Odora cells treated for 24 hours with 0.1 mM zinc sulfate……………………………………………………………………………………32 Figure 12. Effect of zinc sulfate dose response on pHi recovery after acidification…………....33 Figure 13. Proton transport in differentiated Odora cells treated for 24 hours with 0.1mM zinc sulfate……………………………………………………………………………...……..34 Figure 14. Effect of acute exposure to 0.15mM zinc sulfate on intracellular pH…………….…35 Figure 15. Gel of DNA isolated from differentiated Odora cells incubated for 24 hours with zinc sulfate………………………………………………………………………………….…36 vi List of Abbreviations ATP adenosine triphosphate BCECF-AM 2‟,7‟-bis-(2-carboxyethyl-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein) acetoxymethyl ester CaCl2 calcium chloride cDNA complementary DNA Cl- chloride ion CO2 carbon dioxide DMEM Dulbecco‟s modified Eagle medium DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide DNA deoxyribonucleic acid EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration HBSS Hank‟s balanced salt solution - HCO3 bicarbonate ion HEPES 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid HVCN1 hydrogen voltage-gated channel 1 KCl potassium chloride K2HPO4 potassium hydrogen phosphate KH2PO4 potassium dihydrogen phosphate M molar MgCl2 magnesium chloride MgSO4 magnesium sulfate mM millimolar vii mRNA messenger RNA Na+ sodium ion NaCl sodium chloride NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate NHE1 Na+/H+ exchanger protein 1 NHE2 Na+/H+ exchanger protein 2 NHE3 Na+/H+ exchanger protein 3 NHE4 Na+/H+ exchanger protein 4 NH4Cl ammonium chloride OTC over-the-counter PBS phosphate buffered saline PCR polymerase chain reaction pHi intracellular pH RNA ribonucleic acid ROS reactive oxygen species RPM revolutions per minute RT-PCR reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction SLC9 solute carrier family 9 SLC9A1 solute carrier family 9, member 1 SLC9A2 solute carrier family 9, member 2 SLC9A3 solute carrier family 9, member 3 SLC9A4 solute carrier family 9, member 4 viii TMA-Cl trimethylammonium chloride ts temperature sensitive µL microliter WGA-HRP wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase ix Introduction and Background It has long been known that zinc is an essential mineral. On a molecular level, zinc is an essential structural component in many proteins.1 It can behave as an enzymatic cofactor and regulator of DNA transcription.2 Zinc deficiency has been associated with an impaired immune system, learning deficiencies, complications during pregnancy and delivery, and anorexia.3, 4, 5, 6 In zinc-deficient populations such as those found in developing nations, zinc supplementation can be beneficial. It was found in a double-blind placebo-controlled study in West Africa that zinc supplementation helped to reduce morbidity due to diarrhea, while another study in India showed that zinc accelerated the recovery of infants from pneumonia.7,8 When similar studies were repeated among non-zinc deficient populations in developed nations, the results were mixed. For every study similar to the one performed by the Cleveland clinic in 1996, which showed that zinc salt lozenges could shorten recovery time when taken upon the development of symptoms of the common cold, there appears to be another study that contradicts those results, such as the one performed by scientists in Copenhagen in 1990 showing no statistically significant improvement in cold durations for patients using zinc gluconate lozenges.9, 10 However, the most recent meta-analysis of 13 therapeutic trials and 2 preventative trials found that administering zinc supplements, in the form of either syrup, lozenge, or tablets, within 24 hours of onset of cold symptoms helped to shorten the duration and severity of symptoms associated with the common cold.11 There are a plethora of OTC products on the market which use a zinc salt as an active ingredient and claim to help fight colds. Matrixx Initiatives Incorporated, which produces the Zicam line of products, was one of the first companies to promote zinc-containing products for relief of cold symptoms, with over a dozen products including zinc-containing nasal sprays, 1 lozenges, gel swabs, and oral mists. Most of their products contain either or both zinc acetate, zinc gluconate, in addition to other traditional cold-fighting remedies, such as Vitamin C or Echinacea. In 1999, Matrixx introduced an intranasal zinc gluconate gel that was supposed to help the user to get over her cold faster. Since Zicam nasal gel was marketed as an OTC remedy (homeopathic drug), it was not regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Within a year of releasing the drug on the market, there were reports among the medical community of patients who had used zinc intranasal spray gels and consequently suffered from anosmia, or the loss of the sense of smell. For example, over a three year period, physicians at University of California at San Diego‟s Nasal Dysfunction Clinic observed seventeen patients who self-reported using zinc gluconate intranasally. Out of the seventeen patients, seven were anosmic, while ten were hyposmic (displaying an impaired sense of smell). These patients reported a burning sensation
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