Management Factors That Affect the Development of Passive Immunity in the Newborn Calf
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Beef Cattle Handbook BCH-2240 Product of Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee Management Factors that Affect the Development of Passive Immunity in the Newborn Calf Glenn E. Selk, Extension Animal Reproduction Specialist, Oklahoma State University Introduction the immunoglobulin was acquired, not synthesized by A successful cow/calf operation requires that a large per- the neonate’s own immune system) protection against centage of cows wean a live calf every year. A live calf at systemic disease. Part of the immunoglobulin remains weaning time requires survival of the offspring from in the gut where it can neutralize pathogenic bacteria birth to weaning. USDA beef researchers and rancher and help prevent the development of diarrhea. surveys report that diseases including scours and pneu- In addition, colostrum contains “transferrin” and monia cause significant numbers of young calf deaths. “lactoferrin”, which bind iron and also restrict bacterial Resistance to disease is greatly dependent on anti- growth. These factors, together with immunoglobulin, bodies or immunoglobulins and can be either active or help limit growth of bacteria in the gut. passive in origin. In active immunity, the body produces antibodies in response to infection or vaccination. Formulation and Composition of Colostrum Passive immunity gives temporary protection by trans- Cow colostrum contains about 22 per cent solids com- fer of certain immune substances from resistant individ- pared with the 12 per cent solids of normal whole milk. uals. An example of passive immunity is the passing of Much of this extra solid is immunoglobulin, but antibodies from dam to calf via the colostrum (or first colostrum is also a rich source of casein, fat and vita- milk after calving). This transfer only occurs during the mins—especially A and E. There is also a trypsin first 24 hours following birth. inhibitor, which helps protect immunoglobulin from digestion in the calf’s gut as well as protein fractions that Colostrum and Passive Immunity in Baby Calves facilitate absorption of immunoglobulins in calves. Lack of colostral immunity continues to be a major pre- In cows, immunoglobulin “IgG1” is the principal disposing factor to newborn calf diseases and economic colostral immunoglobulin. In cows, immunoglobulin is loss in cattle. In recent years, our knowledge of concentrated in colostrum from about five weeks colostrum feeding has advanced, but a completely reli- prepartum, probably in response to rising estrogen con- able method for preventing hypogammaglobulinemia centration in the dam. Special receptors on the mamma- (low blood concentrations of immunoglobulins) has yet ry epithelium selectively bind serum IgG1, and this is to be described. taken into the cell by transcapillary exchange and trans- Calves are born with incompletely developed host ported to the lumen of the mammary gland, where it is disease defense mechanisms, and colostral protection released into colostrum. Serum IgG1 concentrations fall plays an important role in early life. Feeding colostrum to 50 percent, as colostral concentrations rise to 3 - 12 provides the newborn with a source of pre-formed times that of serum. Other colostral immunoglobulins immunoglobulin, some of which is actively absorbed called “IgM” and “IgA” also reach higher concentrations across the small intestine and provides passive (because than are found in serum, and they are derived partly BCH-2240 1 from the serum pool and partly from local synthesis by colostrum decreases linearly from birth. (See Table 2.) lymphocytes within the mammary gland. Immunoglobulins are fairly resistant to digestion by A number of factors influence the total amount of intestinal enzymes and are further protected by the pres- immunoglobulin found in colostrum. The volume of ence of a trypsin inhibitor in bovine colostrum. colostrum produced is affected by breed, for instance, “Intestinal closure” occurs when macromolecules dairy cows produce much more colostrum than beef are no longer released into the circulation and this cows. Cows produce more than heifers. Feeding energy- occurs before the specialized absorptive cells are deficient diets markedly reduce colostral volume (Table sloughed from the gut epithelium. In calves and lambs, 1 and Table 2). Also prepartum nutrition of the cow will closure is about 24 hours after birth, although efficiency affect colostrum quality as will be discussed later in this of absorption declines from birth, particularly after 12 paper. hours and some calves fail to absorb immunoglobulin if fed after 12 hours of age. Feeding may induce earlier Table 1. Volume of Colostrum Produced by Cows as First Milking closure, but there is little colostral absorption after 24 or First Suckling by Calf. hours of age even if the calf is starved. This principle of timing of colostrum feeding holds true whether the Average colostrum is directly from the first milk of the dam, or Colostrum Yield supplied by hand feeding the newborn calf previously Breed Management (Liters) obtained colostrum. Beef-Hereford-Cross* Out wintered: poor 0.6 nutrition 1.7 Table 2. Effect of Time of Colostrum Feeding (hours after birth) In wintered: silage ad lib on Total Immunoglobulin Absorption in Calves. Dairy-Ayrshire Plasma Jersey Time of Feeding Concentration (mg/ml) Absorption Holstein-Friesian 2.2 (hours after birth) 24 hours after feeding (%) 2.2 2.4 6 52.7 66 12 37.5 47 There are marked breed differences in colostral 24 9.2 12 immunoglobulin concentration. Low colostral IgM and 36 5.4 7 IgA concentrations in Guernsey’s have led to the specu- 48 4.8 6 lation that this may result in high calf mortality in this breed. Cows also affect the colostral immunoglobulin If parturition is induced in cows using very slow-act- concentrations and serum immunoglobulin concentra- ing corticosteroids (9 - 19 days), the efficiency of absorp- tions of their one-day-old calves. An important factor tion of colostral immunoglobulin is reduced in the calf. that influences colostrum quality (immunoglobulin con- However, there is no evidence that more rapid-acting centration) is the age of the cow. Heifers have poor corticosteroid preparations (two days) induce closure or quality colostrum while older cows have the best quality that treating calves with ACTH or cortisone at birth colostrum. Another very important factor is milking affects immunoglobulin absorption. stage. In general, colostral immunoglobulin content is halved with each successive milking; therefore, the first Behavioral Factors milking colostrum has twice the immunoglobulin con- Behavioral factors are very important in determining the tent of the second milking colostrum. Colostrum leakage final immunoglobulin concentration attained by calves. and premilking will both adversely influence colostrum Following birth the cow licks the calf dry and may eat the quality. Administration of long-acting corticosteroids, placenta. The calf nuzzles upwards, along the dark under- which takes 9 - 19 days to induce parturition, will side of the cow, and in this way ends up in the region of depress colostral immunoglobulin concentration. the udder. In cows with good conformation, the teats are Limited evidence suggests that the commonly used set at a high point between the thighs and are in the North American corticosteroid preparations, which take calf’s path. Cows with poor udder conformation have about two days to induce calving, do not adversely dropped teats, and the calf has trouble finding them as it affect the immunoglobulin concentrations attained by nuzzles up into the darker region of the thighs. The initial calves if the cow was over 260 days into gestation at licking dry of the calf appears to be very important to the induction. However, in one study, both induced and con- cow-calf bond, and the dam will not allow the calf to trol calves had a very high incidence of poor colostral suck if this phase of behavior has not been successfully immunity. completed. Calves born in stalls can mistake walls for the dam and orient to the dark corners. This is particularly Timing of Colostrum Feeding and the Principle of likely to happen if the cow remains lying down. In gener- “Intestinal Closure” al, beef cows mother their calves better than dairy cows, Timing of colostrum feeding is important because the and cows have better maternal instincts than heifers. If efficacy of absorption of immunoglobulin from the calf does not suck its dam in the first eight hours of 2 Beef Cattle Handbook life, it will be hypoimmunoglobulinemic. Despite behav- Table 3. Effect of Calving Difficulty on Serum Immunoglobulin ioral differences, calves born to dairy heifers attain Concentration 24 hours after Birth, Interval from Calving to serum immunoglobulin concentrations similar to calves Standing, and Mothering Score born to cows—better mothering behavior in cows is Calving Difficulty Score* compensated by better udder conformation in heifers. 12 3 Calves born to beef and dairy animals also attain similar Interval from immunoglobulin concentrations, possibly because, while Calving to Stand beef cows are better mothers, they do not produce as (minutes) 39.8 50.9 84.3 much colostrum. Mothering has a tremendous beneficial effect on the Mothering Score 1.2 1.5 1.5 efficiency of absorption of immunoglobulin. Mothered calves absorb 70 per cent more immunoglobulin from a IgG1 (mg/dl) 2401 2191 1918.5 standard feed than non-mothered calves. This benefit is still seen if the calf obtains the colostrum by sucking its IgM (mg/dl) 194.8 173.0 135.6 dam, but is separated from its dam between feedings. Field surveys implicate separating the calf from its dam *1=unassisted; 2=assisted after at least one hour of labor, easy pull; as one cause of hypoimmunoglobulinemia. Dairy calves 3=assisted after at least one hour of labor, difficult pull kept with their dams attained higher serum immunoglobulin concentrations then hand-fed calves, even though the mothered calves may suckle less colostrum than hand-fed calves. Table 4. Effect of Time of Suckling and Calf Vigor on Immuno- Temperature stress adversely affects colostral globulin Absorption immunoglobulin absorption.