TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003 19

Overview of Environmental Problems in North-West

OLEG A. ANDREEV* AND MATS-OLOV OLSSON**

1. SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT Oblast are centers for mechanical engi- NORTH-WEST RUSSIA neering, electro-technical and construc- tion, for transport and agriculture. It has The north-west of Russia occupies 1.7 a well-developed fishing industry, ferrous thousand sq. km and it has a population and non-ferrous metallurgy, sea- of 14 million people. The area includes transport, and electric power production. two large administrative regions; the Reindeer-breeding is also of some impor- North Economic Region (the Ark- tance in Murmansk Oblast. Arkhangelsk hangelsk, Vologda, and Murmansk Oblast is a center for the forest, fishing oblasts, the and Komi republics) and chemical industries; there is also a and the North-West Economic Region space-rocket launching site in Plesetsk. (Saint-Petersburg city, the Leningrad, Vologda Oblast has a prominent ferrous Kaliningrad, Pskov, and Novgorod metalurgical industry, forest industry and oblasts). The area borders on Norway, agriculture. In the Novgorod and Pskov Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Byelorussia. oblasts there are large-scale mechanical Inside Russia it borders on the Tver, engineering, electro-technical, chemical Jaroslavl, Kostroma, Kirov, Perm, and and woodworking enterprises. Forestry, Tjumen oblasts. The area is surrounded by pulp and paper, iron-ore and fishing are the Barents Sea, the White Sea, the Kara key industries in the . Sea and the Baltic Sea. In the Komi Republic there are rich re- serves of timber, bituminous coal, oil, gas The North and the North-West Economic and other minerals. Due to the intensive Regions together form the North-West economic exploitation the environmental Federal Okrug, an area of Russia that situation in north-west Russia is ex- means a lot to the country’s economy. The tremely severe. City of Saint-Petersburg and Leningrad

* Oleg A. Andreev, PhD, Barents Centre for Social Research, Murmansk, Russia. Email: [email protected]. ** Mats-Olov Olsson, MA, Centre for Regional Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Email: [email protected]. 20 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003

The Russian Federation

Murmansk Republic of Oblast Karelia Arkhangelsk Kaliningrad Leningrad Oblast Oblast Oblast Nenets Autonomous Okrug Pskov Oblast

Novgorod Oblast

Vologda The Komi Oblast Republic

2. STAGES IN THE ECONOMIC and the Uchta oilfield and oil refinery

DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN (1930–1934) in the Komi Republic. An intensive forest exploitation was initiated NORTH-WEST in Arkhangelsk Oblast, the Karelian and Komi Republics. The Pulp and In 1920, the Bolsheviks adopted the Paper Mill (1929) and the Segezha Pulp GOELRO Plan (state governed electrifica- and Paper Mill (1936) were constructed tion of the ) proposed by in the Karelian Republic, and in Ark- Vladimir Lenin as the basis for an exten- hangelsk Oblast the Archangelsk Pulp and sive economic development of the newly Paper Mill (1940) was built. Huge state established Soviet Union. In accordance fishing companies were established in the with this plan the Volkhov and Svir’ Hy- Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and Leningrad dro Power stations and the Volkhov Alu- oblasts. However, in this period several minum Plant were constructed in Lenin- nature preservation areas were also estab- grad Oblast and in the City of Leningrad lished, like the Lapland (1930) and the the Kirovsky and the Izhorsky plants were Kandalaksha (1932) nature reserves in re-constructed. the Kola Peninsula, the Kniazitsky za- kaznik in Pskov Oblast. Somewhat later, in the 1930’s, Stalin’s plan for the industrialization and In the 1940’s, during the Second World collectivization of the Soviet Union was War, the Soviet industry and agriculture adopted. In accordance with this plan were completely destroyed. Military massive investments were made in heavy wastes and deposits of chemical, biologi- industry in Russia’s north-west, such as cal and conventional weapons were the the Niva and Nizhne-Tuloma Hydro main legacy of the war for the Russian Power Stations (1934, 1937), the Seve- people. ronickel plant (1939), the Apatite Fertil- izer Refining Complex (1929) in the Kola The period from the 1950’s to the 1970’s Peninsula, the construction of the White saw a reconstruction of the Soviet indus- Sea-Baltic Canal (1933), the establish- try and the beginning and entrenchment ment of the Vorkuta Coal Mines (1931), of the Cold War. In the Kola Peninsula, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003 21

the Kandalaksha Aluminum Plant (1951), critical ecological situation and about the Olenegorsk (1955) and Kovdor ore 300 areas in which the environment was refining enterprises (1962), the Pechenga characterized as unfavorable for living. nickel plant (1946, 1965), the Paz, The situation is still especially problem- Kovda and Verkhne-Tuloma Hydro Power atic in the north of Russia. The most de- Stations (1951–1965) were all con- graded regions from the environmental structed in this period. In the Karelian point of view are the Kola Peninsula, the republic the Nadvoizy Aluminum Plant Jamal Peninsula, the Ladoga Lake, and (1954), and in Vologda Oblast the the territories around Norilsk, Ark- Sherepovets Steel Metallurgical Plant hangelsk, and Saint-Petersburg [5:132- (1948–1955) were established. Some- 133]. what later the Syktyvkar Pulp and Paper Mill (1960) was constructed in the Komi The Kola Peninsula is one of the ecologi- Republic, and in Arkhangelsk Oblast the cal disaster areas. Here the environment Solombala and Kotlas Pulp and Paper has been gradually destroyed since the Complexes (1961) were built. The Kola end of the 1930’s, with an intensive deg- (1973, 1975) and Leningrad nuclear radation taking place during the 1960’s power stations were also constructed to- and the 1970’s. Several well-known pol- wards the end of this period [7:704-731]. luting industrial centers were established in Murmansk Oblast. The fishing industry The military also engaged heavily in con- in Murmansk, the apatite extraction in struction activities during this period. For Kirovsk and Apatity, the non-ferrous met- instance, the nuclear testing site on No- allurgy in Nikel and Zapoljarny, the iron- vaya Zemlya and the Plesetsk military ore extraction in Olenegorsk and Kovdor, space site (1960) were established in the aluminum production in Kandalaksha, Arkhangelsk Oblast. Nuclear submarines and the mining for rare metals in Revda for the Soviet Northern Fleet were built are the most significant in this respect. at the naval shipbuilding enterprises Most of the industrial centers in the re- “Zvezdochka” and “Sevmashpredpriatie” gion are surrounded by belts of technoge- that was set up in Severodvinsk, Ark- nous deserts with no vegetation. This hangelsk Oblast (1946, 1954). Ship- wasteland occupies a large area around repairing enterprises were established in the “Pechenganickel” plant (450–500 sq. Murmansk, Poliarny, and Rosliakovo. km) and the “Severonickel” plant (300– Nuclear icebreakers were acquired 350 sq. km). Here the annual sulphur (1960) by the Murmansk Shipping Com- fall-out per sq. km is about 20–25 tons, pany in the Kola Peninsula. the non-ferrous metals fall-out is about 5– 6 tons per sq. km [1:8; 3:205; 9:6].

3. THE OUTCOME OF ECONOMIC One of the difficult international problems DEVELOPMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL facing regional governments in north-west Russia is the atmospheric transfer of pol- DEGRADATION luting substances across the national bor-

der. As a result of the sulphureous gas At the end of 1991, there were seventeen pollution emitted by the “Pechengan- so-called ecological disaster areas on the ickel” and the “Severonickel” plants territory of the Soviet Union [2:145]. many lakes have been oxidized and the There were more than 100 areas with a vegetation is dying on Norwegian and 22 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003

Finnish territory. However, according to of northern Russia. The number of cars is the Murmansk hydro-meteorological cen- increasing; today emissions from cars ac- ter at the Russian-Norwegian border post count for 50 percent of the air pollution. Borisoglebsk, polluting substances are In addition there is the pollution from mostly transported from the west and ninety-two boiler-houses and heat and north-west to the east and south-east, power plants in Murmansk. Until recently rather than in the other direction, 24 % there were no sewage treatment facilities, compared to 16 % [4:12]. Scientists are and the facilities constructed during the seriously concerned about the transport of last years are already obsoleted. This polluting substances to the Arctic area. means that the pollution of the Kola Gulf According to observations made by Mur- is continuing. The fishing and transport mansk hydro-meteorological center on the fleets as well as the military vessels of the scientific icebreaker “Otto Schmidt” the Northern Fleet also contribute to this pol- volume of sulphureous gas and sulphur lution. that is transported from the countries of western Europe and the USA to the Arc- The bio-resources of the Barents Sea, the tic basin is twice as large as the volumes White Sea and the Norwegian Sea are originating from the territory of the for- close to disaster. Biological deformation mer Soviet Union [4:12]. of the marine ecosystem is a consequence of unrestrained fishing. Fish resources Air pollution from stationary sources in have been depleted due to the fishing the Northern Region were down by 17.5 practices of the Soviet Union, Norway percent in 1993 compared to 1988. At and other countries. Another serious the same time the region’s share of the problem is the pollution of the northern total air pollution in the Russian Federa- seas that is transported with the Golf tion increased from 8.8 to 11.1 percent, Stream. Foreign ships as well as vessels which indicates that the rate of fall-out belonging to the Russian Northern Fleet reduction in the Northern Region was and various merchant fleets continue to lower than that of other economic re- dispose sewage, scrap and oil wastes in gions. Vologda Oblast and the Komi re- the sea. On average, each fishing vessel public have severe air pollution problems throws about 500 tons of waste per year with almost equal shares (28 % and 27%) overboard, of these 10–20 tons are oil of the total air pollution in the Northern wastes and up to 2 tons is scrap of differ- Region. The share of Murmansk Oblast of ent kinds. the total industrial air pollution in this region is almost 20 percent, the share of Gas and oil extraction on the sea shelf Arkhangelsk Oblast is 17 percent, and endangers the northern seas. Gas reserves that of the Karelian republic about 8 per- on the shelf are estimated to 7 billion cent. In the North-West Region Lenin- tons; on the Kolguev Island alone grad Oblast accounts for 85 percent of all 100,000 tons of oil per year is already pollution emitted to the air. The share of being extracted. Water pollution not only Novgorod Oblast is 10.5 and that of depends on accidents on oil rigs, but also Pskov Oblast about 5 percent [6:39; on imperfect or defunct equipment. As a 10:11–12]. consequence the oil slicks around the Kol- guev Island have increased to some tens The environmental situation in Murmansk of kilometers. Oblast is typical for the regional centers TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003 23

A serious environmental danger both to (removal of wood) in Murmansk Oblast the Russian North-West and to adjacent has remained about 580,000 cub. m per regions is caused by various radioactive year. Clear-cutting is still the predomi- wastes from sources such as the nuclear nant harvesting method. Forests often die testing sites on Novaya Zemlya, marine because of fires caused by human miscon- and civilian atomic vessels (those in op- duct. Because of pollution from industrial eration as well as those waiting to be enterprises nearby forest lands are dying. dismantled), and the Kola and the Lenin- This is happening around Cherepovets in grad nuclear power stations. People in the Vologda Oblast and Vorkuta in the Komi north of Russia are seriously worried republic. [4:15] about radiation safety, even if most of the time the radiation level in the region is The environmental situation in the City of not higher than the natural level. In re- Saint-Petersburg and the Leningrad re- cent years the radioactive wastes from the gion, where the largest part of the popula- atomic icebreakers have been deposited in tion in north-west Russia lives, is severe. temporary storages on the land belonging The fall-out of radioactive cesium-137 to the state enterprise Atomflot. There after the Chernobyl tragedy in 1986 and have been fire incidents on the “Rossia” an accident in the Leningrad nuclear and the “Sibir” icebreakers. In the power station in Sosnovyi Bor in 1992 1980’s 11,000 containers with solid ra- have increased the radiation hazard. High dioactive waste material were dumped in levels of ground and air pollution caused the Barents and the Kara Seas, liquid ra- by sulphur, fluorine, nitrates, organic sub- dioactive wastes were just poured out in stances and heavy metals have been regis- the water. tered everywhere in Saint-Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast. The Russian Navy has temporary storages of radioactive waste in Andreev Bay, in The pollution of open waters, especially Motov Gulf and close to Severodvinsk in the Imandra and Ladoga lakes, and the the White Sea. These storages do not Neva, Northern Dvina, and the Pechora meet modern safety requirements. The rivers continues. Accidents with oil pipe- question of the salvaging of the “Komso- lines and oil rigs due to corrosion are the molets” atomic submarine sunk in the most important reasons for the pollution Norwegian Sea on April 7, 1989, is still of the Pechora river. According to the not resolved. Public Committee for the Rescue of the Pechora, there were 51 accidents in 1986 The forest resources mean very much to alone. In 1991, there were already about the economy of Russia’s North and North- 600 accidents, which means a more than West Regions. Forest harvesting levels tenfold frequency increase [4:16]. Rivers are still very high in the Karelian and the continue to be polluted by different kinds Komi republics as well as in the Ark- of enterprise waste, but there is still no hangelsk and Murmansk oblasts. Accord- money for purification measures and in- ing to official data, the annual allowable troduction of new low-waste technologies. cut (AAC) in Murmansk Oblast in the 1980–1990’s should be 613,000 cub. m. But in 1988, actual cuts were up to 1.2 million cub. m of wood. In 1991, cuts were just slightly smaller. Harvesting 24 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003

4. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 6 % less than in the previous year. The th IN RUSSIA’S NORTH-WEST AT republic occupied the 6 place among the most polluting regions of the Russian Fed- THE TURN OF THE CENTURY eration in 1999. The industrial sector

causes 90 percent of the total air pollu- In the year 2000, in accordance with a tion in the region. The burning of gas, Decree issued by President Putin, all Rus- which is related to the oil extraction sian regions (or “Subjects of the Federa- works, causes a severe environmental tion”) were grouped together to form new problem for the republic, since large “macro-regions.” Through this reform amounts of hydrogen sulphide is released seven new so-called Federal Okrugs were to the air. Water pollution in the republic created [8:20]. The following eleven re- is mainly caused by the pulp and paper gions were merged to form the North- plant “Syktyvkar LPK” (which alone West Federal Okrug: causes up to 70 percent of the total water

pollution in the region) as well as by the The Republics of Karelia and coal and oil industrial enterprises, the Komi; housing and communal services in the cit- The seven obl a st s of Arkhangelsk, ies of Vorkuta and Syktyvkar. A priority Vologda, Kaliningrad, Leningrad, task is to reduce the industrial and mu- Novgorod, Murmansk, and Pskov; nicipal waste, which is mainly produced in The City of Saint-Petersburg the cities of Syktyvkar, Vorkuta, Inta, (which has the status of federal and Ukhta [10:12]. city); and

The Nenets National Okrug (which Air pollution is also a severe problem in is a part of Arkhangelsk Oblast). Arkhangelsk Oblast. This is mainly pollu-

tion from pulp and paper enterprises, such The ecological situation in the Karelian as “Kotlas CBK” in the village Koriaz- republic is considered to be relatively sta- hma, “Arkhangelsk CBK” in Novodvinsk, ble, even if air pollution caused by emis- and “Solombala CBK” in Arkhangelsk. sions from industrial enterprises was 3.3 The cities of Arkhangelsk, Novodvinsk percent higher in 2000 compared to and Severodvinsk are still large producers 1999. The increase was due to the rising of most types of industrial and municipal production levels of the largest enter- wastes. To find environmentally sound prises in the republic: the Pitkjaranta cel- ways to dispose of this waste is an urgent lulose plant, the Nadvoitski aluminum problem for the regional authorities plant, and “Segezhabumprom” (a paper [10:13]. manufacturer). As might be expected, the industrial centers of the republic (Kosto- Emission of pollutants to the air in the muksha, Kondopoga, , Nenets Autonomous Okrug amounted to Segezha, Pitkjaranta and ) have 8,150 tons in the year 2000, which meant the highest levels of air pollution. To- an increase by 3 percent compared to the gether they account for 68 % of the total previous year. Polluting substances are air pollution in the region [10:11]. emitted to the air without any purifica-

tion, since none of enterprises has the Industrial enterprises in the Republic of technology required for purifying gas. Komi emitted 835,900 tons of polluting There are also no sewage treatment facili- substances to the air in 1999, which was ties in the okrug that meet modern stan- TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003 25

dards. About 2,700 ha in the okrug has more than 75 percent of the total volume been turned into wasteland due to the of sewage water) [10:16]. deposition of industrial wastes. Leningrad Oblast also has a high level of In 1999, the industrial enterprises in Vo- pollution. The Kirishi oil refinery plant logda Oblast spewed out an incredible and the Kirishskaya thermo electric power 637,200 tons of polluting substances to station together account for more than 45 the air. Industrial sectors, such as non- percent of the total air pollution coming ferrous metallurgy, energy, and gas, to- from 350 industrial enterprises and hous- gether with industrial plants, such as ing and municipal service producers in the “Severstal,” the regional branch of “Sev- region. The main sources of water pollu- ergazprom,” the thermo electro power tion are pulp and paper enterprises, en- station in Cherepovets, “Cherepovets ergy, defense, and chemical enterprises, azot,” “Sokol CBK,” and “Ammofos,” as well as housing and municipal services. account for a significant share of the air The “Svetogorsk paper plant,” “Sias` pollution in the region. Most of the indus- CBK,” and “Slantsy” together account trial and municipal waste is generated in for 30 percent of the total water pollution the industrial centers of the Oblast, in Vo- in the oblast [10:18]. logda, Cherepovets, Sokol, and Veliki Us- tug [10:14]. During the last few years the level of the air pollution in Novgorod Oblast has re- The total air pollution in the City of mained stable. The industrial enterprises Saint-Petersburg in 1999 amounted to and the continuously increasing transport 62,900 tons, which was almost 5 percent activity are the main contributors to air less than in 1998. The level of polluting pollution in the region (21 % of the total substances (calculated as the volume pollution volume emanates from Velikii share of polluting substances emitted by Novgorod and 15 % from the Krestetskii stationary sources) was close to the aver- district). Sewage treatment has been a age level for all of Russia (72.4 and pertinent problem in recent years. Most of 76.7% respectively). The share of the the treatment facilities use obsolete tech- transport sector is close to 80 percent of nology and they do not have sufficient ca- the total air pollution level in the city. The pacity. Illegal forest harvesting is a seri- main sources of pollution among the en- ous problem causing great damage both terprises are the Pervomaisk thermoelec- to the forest industry and to the whole re- tric power station (TPS), the Juzhnaya gion. TPS, TPS-15, and “Izhorskie zavody” that together account for more than 30 In Pskov Oblast the Pskov thermoelectric percent of the total air pollution in the power station in Dedovichi is the largest city. The volume of polluted sewage water contributor to the pollution coming from emitted to open water has increased. stationary sources. In the city of Pskov Saint-Petersburg is the second worst pol- the main sources of pollution are me- luter in this respect in the country. The chanical engineering enterprises, a cable main source of water pollution is city’s factory, and the car factory “Pskovauto.” sewage system. More than one billion cu. In Velikie Luki there is a locomotive re- m. of polluted sewage water are annually pair plant, a furniture plant and other in- poured out into the Neva and Neva Bay dustrial enterprises. Auto transport is still through this system (corresponding to the main source of air pollution in the re- 26 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003

gion – it accounts for 60 percent of the vironmental agreements and began intro- total air pollution. In 1999, the first de- ducing western industrial waste minimiz- positories for solid wastes were set in op- ing technologies. The Kursk accident eration in Dedovichi and Palkino [10:20]. (2000) in the Barents Sea was a totally unexpected and shocking experience for Despite the reduced emission of some pol- Russia, demonstrating the shortcomings luting substances the environmental situa- of the Russian attitude to radiation safety tion in Kaliningrad Oblast has not and environmental preservation in gen- changed significantly in the last 5–10 eral. years. The reason is the industrial reces- sion and the implementation of environ- Since 2000 the Russian economy has mental projects. Auto transport is still the been growing and Russia has important largest source of pollution (156,700 tons) international support (both moral and fi- corresponding to 81 percent of the total nancial) for solving existing environ- pollution in the region (and to 86 percent mental problems. Recently there has also in Kaliningrad City) in 1999. The situa- been a small increase Russian state and tion is deteriorating because there are no private investments in environmental pro- facilities for the purification and deposi- tection. tion of industrial wastes in the oblast. Only some of the administrative units be- Environmental problems differ between longing to Russia’s North-West Federal the various regions in Russia. That is why Okrug are actually trying to deal with all the environment can only be rescued their environmental problems. To this through active environmental protection group belong some relatively well-off re- activities taking the endowments of natu- gions with a comparatively favourable ral resources and the economic specializa- environmental situation, like the Nov- tion of each region into account. This in- gorod and Pskov oblasts. A few other creases the role of regional governments more or less well-off regions, like the Ne- in the design and implementation of effec- nets National Okrug, the Kaliningrad and tive regional environmental policies, Vologda oblasts (with the exception of the which should be based on carefully Cherepovets district) might also be said to worked out federal and regional environ- belong to this group. In other oblasts, like mental legislation. Leningrad and Arkhangelsk, where the environmental problems are more acute, as well as in regions like Murmansk 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Oblast and the Komi Republic, where there are territories classified as “eco- During the transition period (1988–2000) logical disaster areas,” the regional ad- the economic crisis in Russia has contrib- ministrations are forced to concentrate uted to a relative improvement of the en- their efforts on solving the most danger- vironmental situation in the country. In- ous environmental problems. dustrial production decreased dramati- cally with an accompanying reduction of The environmental problems in Russia’s industrial pollution. Most state owned en- North-West Federal Okrug that are most terprises were privatized. In this period severe today and that receive (or should Russia also signed many international en- receive) most attention are the following:

TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003 27

The disposal of military and civil- cal sphere. Since much is still unknown ian nuclear wastes, especially in both concerning the complexity of the en- Murmansk, Archangelsk, and Len- vironmental situation and the possibilities ingrad oblasts and on the island of to find and implement solutions to the Novaya Zemlya; problems an international research col- Air pollution from industrial en- laboration is called for to come up with a terprises, especially heavy metals reasonable (and legitimate) ranking of the in Murmansk Oblast; most serious environmental problems and Soil pollution, especially soil acidi- to generate implementable measures for fication (the “acid rain” problem); their solution. Forest degradation; Water pollution, the pollution of As part of such a strategy we would like rivers and lakes, especially the riv- to propose a long-term (3–5 year) inter- ers Neva, Severnaya Dvina, and national multidisciplinary research pro- Pechora, and the lakes of Ladoga ject entitled “Regional Environmental and Imandra; and Policies in the Russian North-West and The pollution of seas, especially the Nordic Countries – A Comparison.” the Gulf of Finland and the Bar- Based on a comparison and analysis of ents Sea. previous environmental policy work in Russia and the Nordic countries this pro- While much is already known about the ject would aim at identifying and formu- qualitative and quantitative aspects of lating implementable regional environ- these environmental problems not that mental policies for north-west Russia in a much is known about their possible solu- participatory policy-formulating frame- tions. To effectively deal with the prob- work. lems new inititatives must be taken both in the sphere of research and in the politi- 28 TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, ENVIRONMENT 5/2003

REFERENCES [6] EKOS (1995). Ekologicheskaia ob- stanovka v osnovnykh regionakh [1] Andreev, Oleg A. and Mats-Olov Rossii: Severnyi i Severo-Zapadnyi Olsson (1992): Environmentalism in raiony (The Environmental Situa- Russia’s North-West, Cerum Work- tion in the Main Regions of Russia: ing Paper, CWP–1992:15. North and North-West Regions). [2] Andreev, Oleg A. and Mats-Olov EKOS, No. 214, pp. 38–47. Olsson (1994): New Environmental- [7] Gladkii, Yu. N., V.A. Dobroskok, ism in the Russian North-West. In and S.P. Semenov (1999): Eko- Lassi Heininen (Ed.), The Changing nomicheskaia geografiia Rossii North: Opportunities for Academic (Economic Geography of Russia). Development. Arctic Centre Publi- Moscow: Gardariki, agentstvo cations 6. Rovaniemi: Arctic Centre, ”Kafedra-M”. University of Lapland, pp.135–147. [8] Khrushchev, A.T., Ed. (2001). Eko- [3] Andreev, Oleg A. and Mats-Olov logicheskaia i sotsial’naia geografiia Olsson (1994): Regional Self- Rossii (An Environmental and So- Government for the Country of cial Geography of Russia). Moscow: Murmansk: Background and Recent Drofa. Development. In Jan Åke Dellen- [9] Rautio, Vesa; Oleg A. Andreev, and brant and Mats-Olov Olsson (Eds.), Tykkyläinen, Markku (1999): Mod- The Barents Region: Security and ernizatsiia gornodobyvaiushchikh Economic Development in the Euro- raionov Rossiiskogo Severa (Mod- pean North. Umeå: Umeå Univer- ernisation of Mining Communities sity, pp. 197–219. of the Russian North-West), Science [4] Andreev, Oleg A. (1993): and Business in Murman. Econom- Deiatel’nost’ prirodookhrannykh or- ics and Market, Vol. 5. Issue 1, pp. ganizatsii severo-zapada Rossii v 5–10. usloviiakh obostrenia ekologicheskoi [10] Regiony Rossii (2000): Regiony obstanovki (The Activity of Envi- Rossii: ekologicheskii srez (Russia’s ronmental Organizations in the Rus- Regions: Environmental Cross Sec- sian North West in a Period of En- tion). EKOS-inform, No. 11–12, pp. vironmental Degradation). Mur- 11–22. mansk: Murmansk Publishing House. [5] Andreev, Oleg A. (1997): Re- gional’naia ekologicheskaia politika: politologicheskie aspect y (Regional Environmental Policy in Russia: Politological aspects). Murmansk and St. Petersburg: Murmansk Re- gional Environmental Committee and Saint-Petersburg State Univer- sity.