Landforms of the with Google

Anja M. Scheffers • Simon M. May Dieter H. Kelletat

Landforms of the World with

Understanding our Environment Anja M. Scheffers Simon M. May Southern Cross Geoscience Institute of Geography Southern Cross University University of Cologne Lismore , NSW , Cologne , Germany

Dieter H. Kelletat Institute of Geography University of Cologne Cologne , Germany

ISBN 978-94-017-9712-2 ISBN 978-94-017-9713-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9713-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930258

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Cover image: A beautiful syncline in the Andes of NW Argentina, exposing Jurassic rock formations. Large-scale accompanying the uplift during the Andean orogeny has removed the adjacent (anticline) parts of these rock formations, but the trough-like syncline persisted. Picture-perfect cuestas have developed towards the center of the structure, where inclined layers of sedimentary rocks of different colour are incised by draining channels (Image credit: ©Google earth 2012).

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. Dordrecht is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface

Scientifi c outreach and a passion for the power of observation of the physical world around us are at the heart of this book. From the extraordinary observational skills harnessed by the fi rst scientifi c travelers in antiquity, to the naturalists and explorers of the eighteenth and nineteenth century like Alexander von Humboldt or Charles Darwin, and through to the modern day, sci- entists have been the driving force for revolutionary discoveries in the fi eld of earth and envi- ronmental sciences. Today, we can observe the surface of the earth when travelling by airplane to every corner of the globe within days or hours, or use virtual globes in the public sphere that are becoming popular and powerful tools to visualize data and information in a geographical context over the ever broadening range of infl uence of the internet. The patterns, forms and geometries that we can visit with our desktop journey are often of astonishing beauty and stag- gering aesthetic harmony for the human eye. Besides igniting our scientifi c quest to understand their origins, they impress us in many psychological and emotional ways as they have impressed artists from all disciplines, painters, sculptors or musicians, over the long time of human his- tory. The exquisite interrelation between arts and sciences and a homage to the power of obser- vation and precise measurements resonates within the words of Alexander van Humboldt: “ herself is sublimely eloquent. The stars as they sparkle in fi rmament fi ll us with delight and ecstasy, and yet they all move in orbit marked out with mathematical precision” (In: “Narrative of Travels of the Equinoctial Regions of the New during Years 1799– 1804”, London [1814], Vol. 1, pp. 34–35). Google Earth images showcase the astonishing diversity of the landforms of the world and are the travel tickets to guide the reader along a geomorphologic journey to typical and spec- tacular landforms in diverse environments on all . Google Earth’s bird’s eye perspec- tive is enriched with photographic images and graphic illustrations and aims to familiarize the reader with diverse terrestrial environments and landforms and the processes that shape them by providing short interpreting texts based on the extensive fi eld experience of the authors. This volume is thought as an inductive addition to existing textbooks on geomorphology, using a language which intends to be understandable for everyone. As the subtitle of our book, “Understanding our Environment” says, we try to provide insights into the diversity of terres- trial landforms especially to young students and scientists and to motivate the interested public to actively observe the landforms and related processes. Part I (Introduction) introduces the reader to the scientifi c discipline of geomorphology, Part II and III explore the forms of the Earth’s surface and the driving forces and processes of nature that result in the landscape and scenery around us. The epilogue touches on the human species as a geologic force in forming and changing the . Selected short reference lists at the end of each chapter will offer the reader easy access to additional background material that covers the recent prog- ress in the specifi c topic. An index listing regional and general keywords allows quick searches to special chapters, terms and geographic features.

v vi Preface

We thank Google Earth for the permission to use their imagery and are indebted to our editors at Springer Publishing, Petra van Steenbergen and Hermine Vloemans, for their superb support, Frank Schmidt-Kelletat for graphical and technical assistance, and Anne Hager for her support with control and formatting.

Lismore , NSW , Australia Anja M. Scheffers Cologne , Germany Simon M. May Cologne , Germany Dieter H. Kelletat About Googl e Earth

Virtual, web-based globes such as Google Earth, NASA World Wind or Microsoft Virtual Earth allow all of us to become travelers visiting the most remote places, and tour our planet or even outer space at speeds faster than a rocket. Any computer user can easily, at no charge, download and use Google Earth (for both PC and Mac computers). If you have not done so already, download Google Earth (the new version) from earth. google.com. Install it on your computer and prepare yourself to fl y around the globe on your own research expedition. You can travel to millions of locations and look for the context of all landscape features of interest to you (e.g., geography, , vegetation, man-made struc- tures and more). You can also see these objects from different altitudes (i.e., in different scales), perspectives and directions; you can view a chosen area around 360° from an arbitrary point in the air; and you can fl y deep into canyons and craters. You can look straight down in a tradi- tional 2D perspective or enable an oblique view in 3D and you can hover above one location, circle around or fl y like a bird over countries, continents and . In this book we focus on geologic and geographic features, but that is only a snapshot of what Google Earth is providing with their virtual globe. There is no room here for a complete tutorial, but you will fi nd that the program is so easy to use and understand that you will become an expert after working with it for a few minutes. Please visit the Google Earth webpage for a complete free Google Earth tutorial that is constantly updated to refl ect the improvements in different versions of Google Earth ( http://earth.google.com/support/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=176576 ). We hope that the diversity of the landforms of the world will come alive for you and stimu- late your curiosity to become an explorer of these fascinating places either as a hobby or profession.

vii

Contents

Part I Introduction

1 Shaping the Surface of Earth: Geomorphology in a Nutshell ...... 3 Reference ...... 13

Part II Endogenic Forms and Processes

2 Volcanic Landforms ...... 17 2.1 Volcanic Products ...... 20 2.1.1 Lava Types ...... 23 2.1.2 Pyroclastic Deposits ...... 35 2.2 Types of Volcanoes ...... 36 2.2.1 Shield Volcanoes ...... 36 2.2.2 Stratovolcanoes ...... 37 2.2.3 Lava Domes ...... 37 2.2.4 Cinder Cones ...... 37 2.2.5 Calderas ...... 39 2.2.6 Craters ...... 39 2.2.7 Volcanic Necks and Diatremes ...... 48 2.2.8 Hydrothermal Activity ...... 54 Further Readings ...... 56 3 Igneous Intrusive Landforms ...... 57 3.1 Plutons...... 57 3.2 Dikes and Sills ...... 57 Further Readings ...... 74 4 Tectonic Landforms ...... 75 4.1 Folds ...... 80 4.2 Faults ...... 81 4.3 Joints ...... 101 4.4 Circular Structures ...... 101 Further Readings ...... 120

Part III Exogenic Forms and Processes

5 Impacts Craters ...... 123 Further Readings ...... 136

ix x Contents

6 Physical and Chemical ...... 137 6.1 Physical Weathering ...... 142 6.1.1 Insolation Weathering ...... 142 6.1.2 Frost Wedging and Salt Weathering ...... 142 6.1.3 Exfoliation...... 142 6.2 Chemical Weathering ...... 142 6.2.1 Hydration, Hydrolysis and Oxidation ...... 142 6.2.2 Tafoni or Honeycomb Weathering ...... 143 Further Readings ...... 146 7 Karst Landscapes: Topographies Sculptured by Dissolution of Rock ...... 147 Further Readings ...... 161 8 Mass Movements: Landforms Shaped Under the Force of Gravity ...... 163 8.1 Mass Movement of Hard Rock ...... 164 8.2 Mass Movement of Unconsolidated Materials ...... 173 Further Readings ...... 182 9 Forms by Flowing Water (Fluvial Features) ...... 183 Further Readings ...... 244 10 Planar Forms and Plain Forming Processes: Pediments/Glacis, and Peneplains (with Inselbergs) ...... 245 Further Readings ...... 254 11 Forms by Wind (or: Aeolian Processes): Deflation and Dunes ...... 255 Further Readings ...... 291 12 Glacier Ice and Its Domain ...... 293 Further Readings ...... 345 13 Frost and Permafrost as Morphological Agents (or: the Periglacial Domain) ...... 347 Further Readings ...... 374

Part IV Epilogue

14 Transformation of the Earth’s Surface by Man (Anthropogenic Forms) ...... 377 Further Reading ...... 387

Index ...... 389