The Leakey Foundation Research Grant Application

The Leakey Foundation research grant application

Eucalyptus Tree Farming: Causes of Expansion and its Impact on Ecology, Land use and Livelihood in Gurage Zone, Ethiopia

PhD Thesis Proposal

By: Belay Zerga Seware

Advisors: 1. Demel Teketay (Prof.) - Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources

2. Muluneh Woldetsadik (PhD) - Addis Ababa University

3. Bikila Workineh (PhD) - Addis Ababa University

June, 2017

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed in various ways from the conception to the finalization of the proposal. However, I would like to express my indebtedness to those whose lasting advices and encouragement had always with me. My special thanks go to my Principal Advisor, Muluneh Weldetsadik (PhD), for his constructive and brotherly advice, comments and encouragements. These are not forgotable in my mind. Thank you Doctor for all.

Thanks go to Demel Teketay (Prof.) and Bikila Workineh (PhD), my co-advisors, for their closer communication and friendly encouragement in this proposal preparation.

I would like to thank various administrative officials of Gurage Zone for their moral support and providing me valuable and necessary documents. I owe special gratitude to Eza, Cheha, Enemorna Ener and Sodo weredas (districts) Agriculture and Rural Development Department officials for providing me important data and the long hours I spent with them discussing in valuable issues for the development of my proposal.

Finally yet importantly, I would like to express my gratitude to Wolkite University for providing me car service and Perdiem during firsthand information gathering from sample weredas of the zone.

Table of contents Page Table of contents ...... ii Abstract ...... iii 1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 2 1.3 Objective of the Study ...... 4 1.4 Research Questions ...... 5 1.5 Rationale of the Study ...... 5 1.6 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.7 Scope of the Study...... 6 2. Theoretical Framework and Review of Related Literature ...... 6 2.1 Theoretical Framework ...... 6 2.2 Review of Related Literature ...... 7 2.2.1 Tree Farming practices ...... 7 2.2.2 Forest Plantations in Ethiopia ...... 9 2.2.3 Success of Eucalyptus as an Exotic: A Brief Global Perspective ...... 11 2.2.4 Introduction of Eucalyptus to Ethiopia ...... 12 2.2.5 History and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Gurageland: A Brief Survey ...... 12 2.2.6 Land Use/Land Cover Changes ...... 13 2.2.7 Economic Importance of Eucalyptus Tree Farming ...... 14 2.2.8 Environmental Effect of Eucalyptus Trees ...... 15 3. Materials and Research Methodology ...... 17 3.1 Location and Background of the Study Area ...... 17 3.1.1 Physical Setting ...... 17 3.1.2 Socio-economic Setting ...... 21 3.1.3 Administrative Setting ...... 21 3.2 Research Methodology ...... 22 3.2.1 Materials ...... 22 3. 2.2 Secondary Data ...... 23 3.2.3 Primary data:...... 23 References ...... 26

Abstract

There are high and increasing demands for wood for industrial uses and fuel needs, and others especially in developing countries of the tropics with their increasing populations. To cope with increasing demand for wood situation, people often opt to planting fast growing, highly utilizable, exotic tree species. Such popularity may be justified by more than eighty countries that have shown interest in eucalyptus and have planted more than four million hectares worldwide outside the natural range of Australia, S E. Asia, and the Pacific. Given the urgency of food security in the country, plantations with exotic trees underscore the importance of integrating trees into more intensive tree crop production systems wherever the environment is conducive. Population pressure in the Ethiopian highlands has led to a change in land use/ land cover. Establishment of wood lots and plantations with exotic tree species (such as Eucalyptus) has long been advocated as a strategy for relieving pressure on indigenous forests and wood lands in the Ethiopian highlands. Traditional agroforestry practices in Ethiopia involve planting of trees in various spatial patterns to meet wood, fuel wood and fodder requirements. In recent years, however, single rows of Eucalypts globules trees planted along crop field borders have become a dominant feature of the central highland landscape. Thus, preservation of indigenous woodland and biodiversity may be achieved when substitutes for indigenous forest products for fuel wood are available. The study area, Gurage Zone has thirteen weredas. For the purpose the study four weredas will be selected based on the tremendous expansion of eucalyptus tree farming. To get primary data about the study systematic purposive sampling method will be employed. Three hundred eighty three households from sample weredas will be selected. These households will be representatives of eucalyptus tree farming activities since eucalyptus growing and land holding system are more or less similar in the zone. Thus, after selecting households with eucalyptus tree farms from the list of each Wereda’s PAs (peasant administrations), closed and open ended questionnaires will be distributed to every 10th households. The main reason for selecting this sampling method is to avoid the inclusion of non-eucalyptus tree farmers and to keep the validity of the representative samples.

Key Words: Eucalyptus tree expansion, Ecological impact of eucalyptus tree, Gurage Zone, Livelihood impact of Eucalyptus, Land use competition, Land use/land cover change

iii

1. Background of the Study

1.1 Introduction

Agroforestry is one of land use practices involving a deliberate combination of trees, agricultural crops and /or animals on the same land management unit in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence (Wundgren and Raintree, 1982, cited in FAO, 2005). Cultivating trees in combination with crops and livestock is an age-old practice. However, several factors have contributed to a rising interest in agroforestry since 1970’s because of deteriorating economic situation in many parts of developing world; increased tropical deforestation; degradation and scarcity of land because of population pressure; and growing interest in farming systems, intercropping and the environment (Nair, 1983).

Most of the researches on agroforestry conducted from the biophysical perspective, however, socio-economic aspects are gaining attention (Mercer and Miller, 1998). Agricultural development theory suggests that farmers adopt agroforestry practices when there are substantial economic incentives to do so at regional and household levels and as long as associated risks can be managed. Understanding farmers’ current agroforestry practice, and likely trends in economic incentives, would then be needed to identify effective technical and institutional interventions (Selamyihun, 2004).

Population pressure in the Ethiopian highlands has led to a change in land use/ land cover. Establishment of wood lots and plantations with exotic tree species (such as Eucalyptus) has long been advocated as a strategy for relieving pressure on indigenous forests and wood lands in the Ethiopian highlands. Nevertheless, tree planting at the scale that satisfies the biomass energy demand alone would occupy 6% of the total utilizable land area in Ethiopia by 2014, requiring a major land use shift (Bojo and Cassells, 1995).

Given the urgency of food security in the country, plantations with exotic trees underscore the importance of integrating trees into more intensive tree crop production systems wherever the environment is conducive. Traditional agroforestry practices in Ethiopia involve planting of trees in various spatial patterns to meet wood, fuel wood and fodder requirements. In recent years, however, single rows of Eucalypts globules trees planted along crop field borders have become a dominant feature of the central highland landscape (Selamyihun, 2004). The greater availability of fuel wood may replace the dung fuel, which currently accounts for more than 81% of the biomass energy consumption of rural households in favor of its use as fertilizer. In addition, preservation of indigenous woodland and biodiversity may be achieved when substitutes for indigenous forest products for fuel wood are available (EFAP, 1993).

Ethiopia is amongst the leading top five countries (Brazil, India, South Africa and China) that grow eucalyptus trees. Growing Eucalyptus tree in Ethiopia is largely confined to the highlands (1500-3200 m. a.m.s.l.) where moisture and temperatures are suitable for tree growing. The two eucalyptus species grown in Ethiopia are normally altitude-based where the red eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis) grown more commonly in the lower (warmer) altitudes, that is in upper kolla and lower woina dega zones, and the white eucalyptus ( E. globules) grows in the cooler (higher) altitudes, dega zones. Fast growth and hence, high level of income from large quantity of yield and biomass yield in very short period can be realized if only eucalyptus plantation is given good planting site and good attention and husbandry during establishment, much like that given to agricultural crops (Amare, 2002). This study will attempt to assess and understand the causes of dramatic expansion of eucalyptus tree and its socioeconomic (livelihood), ecological, and land use aspects among farming households in Gurage Zone.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Eucalyptus is a well-known and fast growing tree species in Ethiopia. Because of its fast growing nature bearing high biomass, the local farmers grow it to meet their fuel wood, construction and market demands. The sales of eucalyptus poles and products have been contributing substantially to household income; reduce poverty, increase food security and diversify the small holder farming systems. The other positive contribution of eucalyptus is, perhaps, it has replaced the lost indigenous species of trees used for firewood, thereby, preventing further denudation of existing indigenous natural forests.

Generally eucalyptus in Ethiopia, more specifically in Gurageland, is highly favored tree and it has become common in most of the agro ecological zones. Whilst eucalyptus have such and many other benefits, including fast growth and ability to coppice, of all widely used plantation species, its expansion has attracted by far many criticisms. Some of the criticisms associated with it include: the species do not provide organic matter and depletes water resources; and compete with agricultural crops. The leaves of eucalyptus are not palatable and cannot be used as fodder species; it suppresses undergrowth of vegetation, and resulting unsuitability to soil erosion control. Finally, people raise issues related to depletion of soil nutrients because of its acidic effect (allelopathic effect) (Jagger and Pender, 2000).

Because of such negative impacts, some countries such as Spain and India restricted or banned planting of eucalyptus (Poore and Fries, 1985). Even in Ethiopia, some administrative regions like Tigray have banned the planting of Eucalyptus trees on farmlands (CNST, 1997). However, all eucalyptus species may not have equally adverse effects on the environment on undergrowth of vegetation, soil fertility etc. Their effects may vary in different geographical areas, rainfall regimes and within species. Therefore, to discourage or promote the planting of eucalyptus trees for farm forestry purposes; sufficient observations should be made on its land use competition, and ecological impact on undergrowths, surface hydrology, soil erosion, and fertility, and its socioeconomic contribution for rural livelihoods in the biophysical, cultural and institutional settings of Gurageland.

The Gurage highlands, one of the most densely populated regions in Ethiopia, are currently well known for tremendous expansion of eucalyptus. In the Gurage area relevant information on farm forestry in general and eucalyptus tree farming in particular is quite scanty. It appears a due attention is not given to ecological impacts of eucalyptus tee farming and its land use competition with food crops.

In the study area, Gurage zone, the decision to grow eucalyptus seems predominantly engendered by the need to meet household wood demands and other benefits. In many of rural households the demand for domestic fuel for cooking, lighting and heating and construction is met by woods coming from own lots. Fuel wood forms not only the major source of energy for cooking and lighting but it is also an indispensable source of heating for households particularly during the cold seasons.

Moreover in the study area eucalyptus is the second most preferred wood for roof pillars (some farmers rated first) and underground construction works, next to juniperus procera. Eucalyptus wood also lends itself to many other uses in house construction. Fencing along farm and individual plot boundaries are commonly done with eucalypt poles, branches and twigs. Eucalypt logs are also commonly employed as a heavy duty bridge on most water streams. Farmers intentionally plant eucalypt seedlings mainly for economic and social services. Eucalypt seedlings are planted on degraded and erosion prone grounds such as gully banks and inside gullies to reduce landslide and soil erosion. As Negussie (2004) stated, it should be noted from the outset that any cash generation activity of the households from sales of farm products is part of subsistence livelihood strategy rather than pursuing of market oriented economy. Eucalyptus poles are highly regarded among some households as an important source of cash income. It is often viewed as a living bank account that can be liquidated upon emergencies.

Hence, the other alternative to fulfill such multidimensional importance, instead of growing eucalyptus seems unlikely at the present situation. In the study area, getting adequate information on farm forestry in general and eucalyptus tree farming in specific is quite scanty. Thus, this study is therefore will be considered a pioneer research and thus attempts to fill the information gap in terms of causes/drivers of eucalyptus tree farming expansion, its ecological, land use and livelihood impacts and on-farm tree planting and management practices of the target farm households in selected weredas. Gurage Zone, apart from being little explored in the past, was quite appealing area of study in terms of the rapidly expanding eucalyptus tree farm as a dominant planting species. Interest has grown to find out the rationale behind such a heavy reliance on eucalypt species whose ecological and social merits have been controversy in various parts of the world. It will also be interesting to find out how the farm households of Gurageland perceive the eucalypts and how ideal land use zoning can be designed to safeguard and sustain the environment and livelihood of the community.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study will be to assess the status of eucalyptus tree cover and its expansion and appraise its socio-economic, ecological and land use impacts on the livelihood of farm households in Gurage Zone. The specific objectives will be:-

1. To assess the status and trend of eucalyptus tree and its expansion over time and agroecological extent (spatio-temporal perspective)

2. To identify socio-economic and demographic, and ecological factors that facilitated expansion of eucalyptus plantation.

3. To evaluate the socioeconomic impacts of eucalyptus lots on the livelihood of farm households

4. To assess its contribution to construction industry in urban centers

5. To assess ecological impacts of eucalyptus tree farming on environment

6. To assess impacts of eucalyptus tree farming on the land use and land cover system and its competition with other land uses

1.4 Research Questions

This study will try to answer the following research questions based on the above objectives.

1. What is the trend of eucalyptus tree plantation expansion in terms of agroecological extent and temporal perspective? 2. What are the major factors responsible for rapid expansion of eucalyptus tree farm in the area of study? 3. What are the socio-economic roles of eucalypts tree farming in promoting and diversifying the livelihood of households? 4. How the ecological and land use impacts (positive and/or negative) of eucalypts tree is affecting the environment? 5. What type of farming practices are common in eucalyptus growing? 6. What is the role of eucalyptus tree farms in construction industry? 7. To which land use eucalyptuses tree farms have been most competing?

1.5 Rationale of the Study

In doing a research, after selecting the problem statement the next step is the where of the research undertaking. Therefore, eucalyptus tree farm expansion due to its socioeconomic benefit, ecological and land use effect in many cases is considered (selected) as the research

5 problem and thereafter Gurage Zone is selected (found) to be the study area. The reason to why the area is selected as a study area is that, it is an appealing area in its population pressure and as a result it shows tremendous expansion of eucalyptus plantation stretching from its kolla (lower altitude) to dega (higher altitude) agro ecological zones. The other reason to this is accessibility of road transport for data collection and experience of the researcher in knowing the area well.

1.6 Significance of the Study

In areas of high population pressure being prone to tree plantation now a days is becoming common practice in Ethiopia. Eucalyptus tree plantation in the area of study is also practiced for about one and half century to fulfill household fuel wood consumption, construction and market demand with less attention to its ecological impacts. Availing data and further information can assist policy and decision markers, NGOs and environmental planners about the dramatic expansion of the species and its ecological impacts and so as to do justice to environmental protection. The material also may contribute as source of information for the zonal land use practices and background to undertake other related researches in the zone in particular and other areas of the country in general.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study will confine itself to selected weredas and kebeles in Gurage Zone, which is found in Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS). Out of thirteen weredas of the zone only four (three from West & one from East Gurageland) which represent all the three agroecological zones will be selected as the centers of data collection and assessment of the trend, causes of expansion, positive and/or negative consequences of eucalyptus tree farming on biophysical and socioeconomic settings of the area.

2. Theoretical Framework and Review of Related Literature

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Farm forestry is the integration of trees into farming systems though plantation, regeneration, or conservation forestry through private initiative, either as part of crop production system or planned succession of field cropping system by trees with in the farming system (EFAP, 1991; Tenaw, 2007).

The environmental deterioration caused by combined effect of growing population and the pressure on the natural forests calls for the need to establish plantation forests in tropical regions. Ethiopia is one of the countries badly struck by wide spread decline of environmental stability and productivity due to a rapidly increasing population and long lasting deforestation. In order to stop or slow down the deterioration, large sum of money and manpower have been invested to plant mainly fast growing exotic tree species, mostly in connection with the establishment of plantations for the production of fuel wood. One such exotic group is the eucalyptus, whose popularity, as plantation tree species is attributable to their being generally adaptable, fast growing and with a wide range of productive and a variety of uses (Lisanework, 1994).

There are ongoing arguments on the issues of planting eucalyptus. Some people recognized that eucalyptus trees have many advantages for both small and large operations, particularly their fast growing rates, resistance to browsing, and the significant contribution they can make to farm incomes (Poore and Friees, 1985). On the other hand, the planting of eucalypt has been criticized because it has the effect of depleting soil through enhanced erosion, nutrient depletion and biological changes. Similarly, the view that eucalypt, under certain conditions, has a deteriorating effects on the environment is growing in Ethiopia (Lisanework, 1994).

Livelihood is the way and means of making a living and it also is about creating and embracing new opportunities (Parrota et. al., 2006). In financial terms, eucalyptus tree plantation yields substantial economic returns better than growing food crops under many circumstances (Asaye, 2001; Tenaw, 2007). The mean annual increment of eucalyptus tree production is also greater than many indigenous and exotic tree species. It is also hypothesized that farmers adopt tree plantation practices when there are substantial economic incentives to do so at the regional and household level and as long as associated risks can be managed (Selamyihun, 2004).

2.2 Review of Related Literature

2.2.1 Tree Farming practices

Farm forestry is the integration of tree cropping into the farming systems through plantation, regeneration or conservation forestry through private initiative, either as part of the crop production system or the planned succession of field cropping system by trees with the farming

7 system (EFAP, 1991). Trees are any woody perennial plants regardless of its species, height, thickness etc. Therefore, tree plantation implies the activity of establishing stands of trees (Tagger and Pender, 2000).

Small-holder farming practices in the tropics are faced with constant pressure of change brought about by demographic, economic, technological and social pressures. Population growth, increasing commercialization of products and the use of modern inputs are the most important factors that contributed to land use changes. In many tropical countries, agricultural land use changed following the trajectory from hunter-gatherer life style in rain forests to market oriented mono-culture systems resulting in increased higher per capita food supply at the global scale. Recently, concerns have developed on the long-term sustainability and environmental consequences of the intensification of agricultural systems. Increasing attention is being given to achieving stability in land utilization in the longer term while fulfilling the needs of the local population (Reijntjes et. al., 1992; Swift and Ingram, 1996; Matson et. al., 2002).

Notably, in small holder farming systems in the tropics, the use of modern technologies might not be the first option to improve agriculture. In such areas, better use of local resources and natural processes could make farming move effective and create conditions for efficient, profitable, and safe use of modern inputs (Reijntjes et. al., 1992; Altieri, 1995).

Trees are integral components of most agricultural systems in the tropics playing vital roles in the livelihood of rural and urban populations. They provide fuel wood, the major energy source in these areas, wood for construction and other purposes, and their timber provides cash to many rural families (Fernandez and Nair, 1986; Long and Nair, 1999). With the rapid increase in population, off-farm tree resources in most developing countries are becoming scarce and thus farmers manage trees on their farms (Arnold and Dewees, 1995). The volume of wood in farms varies due to physical and socio-economic factors. For instance, farmers with small land holding cannot have a large stock of trees since the available land is primarily used to produce crops for consumption. Large holders on the other hand, could produce a large volume of wood (Sherr, 1995). A good access to market could encourage farmers to engage in intensive management of trees for marketing (Gilmour, 1995).

One of the features of on-farm tree management is that the biological characteristic of a tree is often taken into account to determine where it should be grown. For instance, trees that 8 contribute positively to agricultural crops are grown dispersed in crop fields, while trees that compete with crops are planted separately. In general farmers select tree species suitable to each tree growing location and vary the density of planting. Arnold and Dewees (1995) have identified five different patterns of planted trees on farms. These are trees grown a) on non- arable fallow land b) around homesteads c) along boundaries d) inter-cropped on arable land and e) mono cropped on farmland (farm woodlots).

Forest plantation in Ethiopia is mainly mono-cultures or exotic species, such as Eucalyptus globules, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, cupressus lustanica, casuarinas cunninghamiana, pinus patula, pradiata, and the native species junipers procera. However, forest plantations in Ethiopia are predominantly mono-cultures of E.globules, which are estimated to cover about 90% of the total plantation area in the country (FAO, 1981b). In 2000, the estimated forest plantation area was 216, 000 hectares, and about 2,000 hectares of new plantations are established each year (FAO, 2001). Forest plantations in Ethiopia are established essentially for fuel wood, and for industrial and environmental purposes, such as soil conservation. The establishment of large- scale forest plantations planned mainly for fuel wood production was started after the two global oil crises in the 1970’s (Pohjonen, 1989).

2.2.2 Forest Plantations in Ethiopia

Forest plantations are defined by FAO (2001) as forest stands established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation.

They are either of introduced species or indigenous species which meet a minimum area requirement of 0.5 ha; tree crown cover of at least 10 percent of the land cover, and total height of mature trees above 5m. Robertson (1971), as cited in Evans (1992), defines a plantation simply as a forest crop or stand raised artificially either by sowing or planting.

Ethiopia has one of the longest forest plantation histories in Africa. To relieve the shortage of fuel wood caused by extensive deforestation, eucalypts were introduced to the country in 1894- 1895 (Pohjonen and Pukkala 1990). Eucalyptus globules were the most successful of the 21- eucalypt species introduced and was quickly adopted by farmers. The reason for the wide-spread, early popularity and success of the blue gum can be attributed to its fast growth, coppicing property, unpalatability of its leaves, and adaptability to a wide range of site conditions (FAO,

1981b; Turnbull and Pryor, 1978). Various kinds of imperial incentives, such as tax relief for land planted with eucalypt trees and the distribution of seeds, have been important factors in the spread of the tree in the early years (Horvath, 1968).

Forest plantations in Ethiopia were established essentially for fuel wood, and for industrial and environmental purposes, such as soil conservation. The establishment of large-scale forest plantations planned primarily for fuel wood production was started after the two global oil crises in the 1970s (Pohjonen, 1989). Most of these fuel wood plantations established after the oil crises were funded by international organizations and owned by the state. Over 90% of the population uses biomass fuels for cooking, heating and lighting (Mustanoja and Taye, 1990), and consequently, fuel wood is by far the major product of Ethiopian forests, woodlands and trees on farms. For instance, in 1992 it consisted over 95% of the wood produced in the country (FAO, 1994). Because of this prime importance of fuel wood to the society, forest plantations were established for fuel wood production purposes. On the other hand, the share of industrial forest plantations was estimated to be 38% of the total plantation area in the country (FAO, 2001).

According to Pohjonen and Pukkala (1990), in order to stop the deforestation of the remnant natural foresters, about 3-4 million hectares of firewood plantations were planned by the year 2000. However, the expansion of industrial and firewood plantations was constrained by the availability of land and the limited capacity of the state bureaucracy to establish and operate commercial forestry undertakings. Furthermore, government policies severely limited private sector activities in the forest sector and this had detrimental effect on the expansion of forest plantations (EFAP, 1994).

In recent years, there has been a controversy on the environmental effects of particularly eucalypt plantations. Eucalypts are alleged to deplete the soil moisture and nutrients and promote erosion by inhibiting the growth of ground vegetation. In fact, in 1997 the regional government of Tigray banned the planting of eucalypt trees on farmlands (Jagger and Pender, 2000). However, the E. globules in the Ethiopian highlands has been found to be high in herbaceous species richness and biomass, and naturally, regenerated woody species have been observed (Holgen and Svensson, 1990; Michelsen et. al., 1996).

Furthermore, it has been suggested that in Ethiopia the positive impacts of tree plantations on the environment far outweigh the negative ones, especially if plantations are established on bare 10 degraded lands and managed properly. According to the Ethiopia Highland Reclamation Study (1986), over 14 million hectares (or 27% of the area) in the highlands is seriously degraded. The establishment of forest plantations on these vast degraded areas and steep slopes will have a major impact in checking land degradation, establishing watersheds and in the long-term it can even rehabilitate these degraded lands. At present, the trend in the country is to shift from exotic monocultures to more diverse plantation forests that also include promising native tree species.

2.2.3 Success of Eucalyptus as an Exotic: A Brief Global Perspective

Eucalyptus is a genus of tropical and sub-tropical evergreen tree native to Australia but widely cultivated elsewhere. Eucalypts are among the tallest trees in the world, 90-100m, fast- growing, drought resistant and important source of timber (Macmillan Encyclopedia, 1981). The genus eucalyptus now (August, 1993) encompasses some 700 species. Despite the proliferation of species names, commercial and rural forestry based on eucalyptus worldwide still depend on relatively few species (Davidson, 1985).

According to Eldridge et. al. (1993), the ranking of the ten most common eucalypts in terms of current annual increment of wood, would include: E grandis, E.camaldulensis, E.terticomis, E.urophylla, E.viminals, E.saligna, E.deglupta, E exerta, and then either E. ciriodora, E.panicula or E.rubusta, of these, the first four mentioned are by far the most important on a worldwide basis (Davidson, 1995).

Several millions hectares of additional equivalent area is estimated to have been planted to eucalypts on farms and in other rural areas along roadsides, canal banks, railway embankments and on common lands as single trees and in lines and small groups. This situation is most noticeable in China, Ethiopia and India. In Ethiopia, equivalent of over 200,000 ha of E. globules and E. camaldulensis have been planted on farms (Saxena, 1991).

Rates of growth of eucalypts are often much faster in the exotic locations than are experienced at place of origin, and usually very much faster than the local indigenous species. The conventional wisdom for this was that insect, and pests, which attacked the trees heavily, and continuously in Australia were absent in the exotic location (Florence, 1990).

2.2.4 Introduction of Eucalyptus to Ethiopia

Emperor Menilik, assisted by his French technical adviser, introduced fast growing tree species from Australia between 1895 and 1898. Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus globules, commonly referred to as red and white eucalyptus, respectively, performed well and their cultivation gradually spread throughout the country, especially in the woina dega and dega zones. Seeds of 15 species were imported in the country, and trial plantations were established. In the 1920’s, some landowners planted small areas in the suburbs of Addis Ababa to harvest small poles and fuel wood. Encouragements made by the government such as tax relief for land planted with eucalyptus and free distribution of seed increased planting. Around 1920 the streets and paths of Addis Ababa resembled coverings in eucalyptus forest. It was even suggested that the name of the city might appropriately be changed into eucalypt metropolis (Anonymous, 1990). Prior to 1974, about 40,000 hectare plantations had been established on private landholdings throughout the country (Anonymous, 1979; Pohjonen, 1989).

At present it is estimated that Ethiopia has over 350,000 ha of plantation forests and most of them are established in the highlands at altitudes over 1500m, where the rainfall is favorable (700-2000mm) (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990). The current focus in the afforestation programs is on planting of mainly exotic tree species and the target plan for the years 1994-2014 indicates 282,000 ha of land to be planted by the government (Anonymous, 1990).

2.2.5 History and Expansion of Eucalyptus in Gurageland: A Brief Survey

Today eucalyptus tree plantations are increasingly dominating the landscape in all dega zones and elsewhere in the Gurageland. Fitawrari Habte Giorgis, one of the warlords of Emperor Menilik II, and others introduced eucalyptus trees to the region, first to areas of old Amhara settlements found in the woina dega areas from where they diffused it to the rest of woina dega areas of Gurageland. The success or failure of plantation forestry development depends on a number of factors. The management system, socio economic, policy and institutional issues are considered essential in this respect. These factors in the course of time and space affected the success of plantation development particularly that of rapid expansion. Negussie (2004) stated the western aspect of the Gurage Highlands is quite appealing area of study in terms of the rapidly expanding farm forestry practice with Eucalyptus as a dominant plant species.

The laying down of motorable all-weather road networks in the region in the late 1960s has also contributed significantly in changing the land use land cover patterns of the area. As such, eucalyptus plantation has increased. The ever increasing need of money for paying taxes as well as to satisfy own household needs and social requirements resulted growing cash crops such as chat, coffee, orange, etc including eucalyptus trees which has attracted more attention as source of cash since about 5 to 7 years back (Muluneh,1994).

The Gurage areas, due to its nearness to Addis Ababa, accessibility and suitable environment emerged as one of the most important supplying regions of eucalypts products. Consequently areas under chat, eucalyptus trees, orange, enset, etc., expanded in the region at the cost of pasture lands. But the rate of expansion is expected to be greater in the dega zone. In woina dega and kola areas the strong land use competition between eucalyptus tree lots and grazing area is likely to continue in the near future. This probably would in turn badly threaten enset production, which is the very subsistence base of the Gurage people (Muluneh, 1994).

2.2.6 Land Use/Land Cover Changes

Land is the principal resource of human beings in general and the agrarian society in particular. Its utilization reflects the reciprocal relationship between the prevailing ecological conditions of a particular region and a kind of permanent and cyclic intervention of man is his environment. Therefore, land use/land cover is thought as an important indicator of the state of natural capital resource base, consequently of the problems and/or possibilities of sustainable development. The fact that, the need of man increases and changes overtime, the nature and degree of interaction between man and his environment also changes. As a result, existing methods of exploitation and hence the land use/land cover patterns change. Accordingly, due to interacting human and natural factors, considerable changes have been observed in the land- use/land cover of Ethiopia, at large and west Gurageland in the last four to five decades (Muluneh, 2003).

The available data, in spite of inconsistency and paucity, shows that there were considerable changes in the land use partners of Ethiopia. Croplands increased from about 9.4 million hectares (7.7% total land area) is 1961 (C.S.O, 1964) to about18.2 million hectares (14.9%) in 1984/86 (FAO/UNDP, 1984/86). Pastureland decreased from about 66.24 million hectares (54.2%) in 1963/64 (C.S.O, 1967/68) to 63.8 million hectares (52.2%) in 1984/86 (FAO/UNDP, 1984/86)

13 and to about 48% more recently. Although land under perennial woody vegetation is expected to considerably decreases, it accounts for nearly 12% of the total land and only a quarter of it (3.5%) is under natural and man-made forests. Nearly one fifth of the total land (19%) is unutilizable for agricultural purposes (FO/UNDP, 1984/86). In West Gurageland eucalyptus wood lots cover increased from 4.2 %( 1957/67/71) to 11.2 %( 1998). The average expansion of the tree was about 169% in the last three to four decades, though the recorded expansion in the three agro climatic zones ranged from about 34% and 26% respectively ( Muluneh 2003).

2.2.7 Economic Importance of Eucalyptus Tree Farming

More and more people are placing ever greater demands on the world’s forest for wood and non- wood products. Diminishing natural forests resources are being compensated by rapid expansion of the use of planted exotic trees worldwide (Davidson, 1995).

There is a multitude of possible uses to which eucalyptus can be put. A paper by Chinese scientist to the 46th annual conference of Appita in Launceston (Yongfang, 1992) gave an insight into products derived from Eucalyptus. He mentioned construction timbers, furniture, farming tools, transmission poles, railroad sleepers, fuel wood, honey, pulp and paper, rayon, fiberboard and plywood. Then he described some less conventional uses such as essential oils, plant growth regulators, tannin extracts, industrial chemical addictives, adhesives, fodder additives, and fabrics (derivatives of rayon).

It is unthinkable to get other tree species, be it indigenous or exotic, that can substitute eucalyptus in its full range of benefits it provides in near seeable future. The heating value of eucalyptus wood (stem and branches) is 19 MJKg-1 (Frederic et. al. 1985; Dalianis et. al., 1996) while that of cow dung is 13.8 MJkg-1 (Newcomb, 1989). Therefore, 0.73 kg Eucalyptus wood can supply the same amount of energy as 1 k.g. of dung (Selamyihun, 2004).

The wood harvest from 8 year old eucalypt boundaries planted on a hectare of land would have a potential to replace 12 ton of dung which could bring back 176 kg N, 156 kg P and 60 kg k organic fertilizer to farming system. Eucalypt boundaries can produce large volume of timber and wood products within a short time without requiring a major shift in land use. This has

14 advantages for land constrained smallholder farmers who cannot spare land for block plantations (Selamyihun, 2004).

As stated by Jagger and Pender (2003), small holders benefit from tree planting by producing timber and non-timber forest products for household consumption as well as for sale and both subsistence. The sale of forest products increases household income, improves their livelihood by contributing to diversifying farming systems and rising farm incomes and thereby increasing food security particularly in less favored areas of Ethiopia.

Moreover, the provision of woody biomass by planting fast growing tree species such as eucalyptus over next 10-15 years could free up dung and crop residues for use in agricultural production and thus reduce land degradation (Holden, et. al., 2003; Jagger and Pender, 2003). Woldeamlak (2003) in his study (North West Highland Ethiopia, Chemoga Watershed) stated that fuel wood and cattle dung accounted for nearly 100% of the domestic energy consumption. Of which cattle dung contributing 34% of the total. Fuel wood and dung combined, per capita bio-fuel consumption was estimated at 511 kg/year, but with variations in the villages and socioeconomic groups.

Tree plantation at household level considerably reduces the time household member mostly women and children travel to collect fuel wood for their household use (Tenaw, 2007).

2.2.8 Environmental Effect of Eucalyptus Trees

Exotic tree species have been introduced into Ethiopia without due consideration to their long- term effects on the environment. Apart from their competitive effects on water and nutrient uptake (Florece, 1986; Malik and Sharma, 1990), eucalypts are alleged to reduce both the diversity and abundance of forbs and graminoids, and the productivity adjoining crops through release of chemical substance i.e. allelochemicals (Poore and Fries, 1985; May and Ash, 1990).

Similar suppressive effects have been reported for indigenous trees and in agro forestry systems in the Himalayas (Bhatt and Todaria, 1990). Evaluation of the allelopathic potential may, therefore, be important for the assessment of the ecological impact of exotic tree species. The information is useful for species selection and plantation management, especially if the aim of tree planting is to implement an integrated land use (Lisanework, 1994).

The presence or absence of under story vegetation in a plantation is a factor of density of the sand, the rainfall regime and management than their origin (House, 1992; Powers et. al., 1997; Mulugeta et. al., 2004). Eucalyptus plantation forests can host richer species and higher seedling/sapling densities than their adjacent disturbed natural forests (Michelsen et. al., 1996; Eshetu, 2001). Even in the native forests of Australia, it is common to find 20 to 30 species of shrubs under eucalyptus plantation, and rather more in early regeneration stages (Pryor, 1992).

Compared to nitrogen fixing tree species plantations, eucalyptus had a lower litter fall (Parotta, 1999). Annual litter fall is generally low during the early stages of crop establishment (Young, 1989). However, an increasing trend in the soil organic matter level may be realized at latter periods since litter fall is higher in older plantations and two thirds of the gross annual nutrient uptake is returned to the soil through the litter (Turner and Lambert, 1983).

Eucalyptus has the potential to develop long deep taproot in dry areas, and mostly develops fibrous roots in moist areas (Zimmer and Grose, 1958). Overall the species have vigorous taproot systems which are able to reach a depth of >20m (Dye, 1996). This helps the species to exploit water reserves from 6 to 15 m deep in the soil horizons than the associated crop (Lawson and Kang, 1990). As a result, many eucalyptuses are well adapted to grow in dry, flooding conditions (FAO, 1988; Evans, 1992; Cannell, 1999) and to areas of high aluminum concentration (Baros and Novais, 1996).

Under conditions of high soil moisture the transpiration of eucalyptus is high, and under conditions of water stress stomata closure occurs, which restricts water loss from the plant (Prabhakar, 1998). Hence, the species adjust its water use to the availability of water (Davidson, 1985).

Although eucalyptus is considered as an allelopathic plant and people deem that the species would not serve for agro forestry purpose, under rain fed conditions, 6x1m spacing, eucalyptus as agro-forestry tree has given the best results (Mathur et. al., 1984). When sweet potatoes was inter- cropped in 208.7ha of eucalyptus plantations in China it gives good results, and brought an income of 1,289RMB/ha (Zeng,1992). No adverse effects were noted in India, Nepal, and Thailand where agricultural and horticultural crops with eucalyptus one to eight years of age and of newly planted crops after felling at seven years (White, 1988).

3. Materials and Research Methodology

3.1 Location and Background of the Study Area

3.1.1 Physical Setting

Location

Gurage Zone Gurage zone has a land size of about 5932 square kilometers and located 7040’ to 8030’North Latitude and 37030’to 38 040’ East Longitude. Oromia Region borders Gurage Zone in the west, north, and east, Yem Special Wereda in the southwest, Hadiya Zone in the south, and Silte Zone in the southeast (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Locational map of the study area

Original Background of Gurageland/Gurage Zone

Gurage Zone is a Zone in the Ethiopian Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS). This zone is named for the Gurage people whose homeland lies in this zone. It is geographically named as Gurageland. The original area of Gurageland (before the Oromo Expansion of the 16th century) stretched from River Gibe in the south to River Awash in the north and from Lake Wonchi in the west to Lake Ziway in the east (i.e., it constituted the former two awrajas of Chebona Gurage, and Haikochna Butajira). Thus, the then areal coverage is

17 probably not more than twenty five percent of the original Gurageland. However, the people of this huge area are inter married and became multination. Such evidences include communities like Chebo and Sedan Sodo in west Shewa, Sodo Jidda and Sodo Dugda in central and south Shewa.

Topography

The highest point in the zone is Mt. Zebidar (3700 meter a.m.s.l. ). It is also named as Mt. Gurage and located in eastern and north western edge of Mihurna Aklil wereda and Butajira town respectively. Its lowest point is found at River Gibe Gorge (1000 meter a.m.s.l.). Thus, topographically the zone lies with in an elevation ranging from 1000 to 3700 meters above mean sea level. Hence, its relief is 8700-meter a.m.s.l. This enabled the zone to have different agro- ecologies.

Geology

Gurageland is part of the physiographic region known as the Shewan Plateau. The crust of the region was covered with Trappean lava following the uplift of Ethiopia swell and the Somali Plateau during the Cenozoic Era in the Tertiary period. The region is expected to have similar geologic structures to the rest of the Shewan Plateau. Gurageland, being part of the central Ethiopian plateau, consists of high and low plateau in the dega, and the lower woina dega and the kolla part, respectively (Muluneh, 2003). Groups of mountains form chains of the Trappeon lava running from Acheber in the northeast of the zone through Wollene, Muher, Eza, Cheha, and joins Mt. Aster in Enemorna Enner, which finally joins the Kembatta Mountains (Muluneh, 1994).

Drainage Pattern

Gurageland is divided in to three drainage basins: Zuway-Abijata, Blate (Abaya) & Gibe /Omo (Turkna or Rudolf). With the exception of minor deviations at local level, the streams in the zone have a dendrite drainage pattern. The direction of flow of the streams may vary depending upon orientation of local relief at micro level. However, all the major streams ultimately drain to west and south-west/east ward following the general inclination of the slope direction of the zone.

Climate

The climate of Gurage zone may be considered hot in the low elevation areas while it is cool in the high elevation zones. It may be conventionally further identified as Afro Alpine (Wurch) Temperate (Dega), Sub-tropical (Woina-Dega) and Tropical (Kolla) climatic regions. Accordingly, Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega & Wurch range from 1000-18000, 1801-2400, 2401- 3300 and greater than 3301 meters a.m.s.l respectively. Based on this altitude, the zone is mainly dominated by Woina Dega agro climate. Average temperature ranges from 280C (Ghibe Gorge and Meskan-Mareko (rift valley)) to below 30C (Zibidar-Acheber mountain chains).

The annual range of rainfall varies from 600 mm to 1900mm. These ranges of agro-ecology have enabled the zone to grow different types of crops such as cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables and fruits with diversified livestock, sheep, goat and pack animal undertakings. Different wild animals and birds inhabit the zone because of this climatic diversity.

The zone has bimodal rainfall distribution that allows two growing seasons, namely the belg, which ranges from March to April & accounts for 35% and summer from June to September & which accounts for 65% of annual rainfall. There is also little rainfall in October and November. The wettest months are June, July & August (>1400 mm rainfall) while the driest season is May (>270C monthly average temperature). Therefore, the agricultural calendar of the peasants is influenced by the annual pattern of the four seasons of winter, spring, summer, and autumn (EWIDP, 2007).

Natural Vegetation

During 1930, about 20% of Gurageland was covered with natural forest, which has since been almost completely cut down, the removal, was especially fast during the years 1991 and 1992. These forest lands are diminished their size due to human intervention. On the other hand, beginning in the early 1960 the inhabitants started to grow eucalyptus on an increasing scale which has increased the amount of land being covered with trees, but due to the unwise selection of site in plantation, it is competing with farmlands and depleting water and soil nutrients. It is one of the most known treats towards environmental degradation on plain (non-rugged) areas.

Soil

The information on the soils of Gurageland is very scanty. No soil survey has been made at a reasonable scale and there only a general compilation has been made by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency in 1983, at scales of 1:10, 00,000. A few writers have reported some general information based on a few qualitative observations. It was reported that soils in the Enset growing regions of Ethiopia are mainly Alfisols (Westpal, 1975; cited in Muluneh, 2003). It was further noted that enset flourishes better on clay loam soils with a fine texture. Similar soil textures are observed in the Gurageland including (Murphy, 1959; Ipcar; 1970; cited in Muluneh, 2003).

As noted by Muluneh (1994) soil colors in the Enset growing areas like Gurageland, range from brown and black to red. Two of the soil groups, Pellic Vertisols and Euric Nitsols, are most common and cover more than 60% of the region. The Pellic Vertisols group alone cover, about 42% of west Gurageland (Muluneh, 2003). Pellic Vertisols in particular and Vertisols in general, develop on basic parent materials, in gently sloping areas that have poor drainage. They are either black or very dark grey, of heavy texture and hence, have permeability. They expand and contract with changes in moisture content. In many cases, Pellic Vertisols are found in association with Uritic Nisosols (EMA, 1983, cited in Muluneh, 2003).

Depending upon the population pressure and local farming systems, vertisols are intensively cultivated and mostly devoted to grain production in the dega, high plateaus. However, they are left largely for grazing in the low plateaus, the lower woinadega and the upper Kolla sections of the region. The soil groups that have the 2nd (20.4) 3rd, (12.2%), 4th (11.2%) 5th (11%) and 6th (2%) coverage in the region are Eutric Nitosols, Orthic Acrisols, Chronmic Luvisols, Lithosols and patehy soil group respectively (Muluneh, 2003).

Nitosols in general and Eurtic Nitosols in particular are clayey. They range in color from reddish brown to red. They have good depths table structure and are very porous. They have a high moisture storage capacity, deep rooting volume, and are well drained and easily workable. Hence in areas with a moderate to high population density, Nitosols are intensively cultivated for perennial crops such as enset, chat, coffee and orange. Nitosols are poorly developed soil groups because of either too steep slopes and/or the geographically too young parent materials that have permitted to significant degree of soil development. The former factor probably appears more

20 important than the latter. They are more widespread in Eza, Muher-Aklil, and Kokir Gedebano weredas of Gurage Zone (Muluneh, 1994).

3.1.2 Socio-economic Setting

Administrative Setting

Gurage Zone consists thirteen woredas and two administrative towns. Namely, Abeshge, Kebena, Eza, Welene-Gedebano-Kutazer, Sodo, Meskan, Mareko, Gumer, Cheha, Enemorna Ener, Mihurna Aklil and Endegagn. The two administrative towns are Wolkite and Butajira. Welkite is the administrative center of the Zone and located at a distance of 158 km southwest of Addis Ababa.

However, the biggest and well established town is Butajira which is located 133 km south of Addis Ababa. The nearest town to Addis Ababa is Tiya which is only 80 km far away. Other known towns with relatively better facility in the zone include, Emdibir, Bue, Agena, Kella, Tiya, and Gunchire.

Demography

Based on the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this zone has a total population of 1,279,646 of whom 622,078 are men and 657,568 are women. The zone has a population density of greater than 450 persons/km2. About 9.36% of them are urban inhabitants and the remaining are rural dwellers. Gurageland is one the most densely populated areas in Ethiopia. High population pressure and a long history of settlement have resulted in an increasing quest for agricultural land, wood for farmhouse construction, fuel, and other uses. This, in turn, has resulted in the degradation of the natural forests and shrubs along river valleys (Muluneh, 2003).

One of the factors which have influenced not only the natural vegetable pattern but also land use system at large in the Gurage history is population pressure (Getent, 1992), cited in Muluneh, 2003). Even now a day, the zone is amongst the most densely populated areas in Ethiopia.

A total of 286,328 households are found in the zone which results in an average of 4.47 per household. The six largest ethnic groups found in the zone are the Gurage people (82%), the Mareko or Libido (4.3%), the Amhara (3.4%), the Kebena (3.3%), the Silti people (2.7%) and

21 the Oromo (1.7%) and all other ethnic groups made up 2.6% of the population. Gurage language is spoken as first language by 80.5% of the population.

Infrastructure (Road Network)

The zone has 783 kms all weather roads and 281kms of dry weather roads with an average road density of 182 kms per 1000 km. This Zone has 803 kilometers of all-weather roads and 381 kilometers of dry-weather roads with an average road density of 184 kilometers per 1000 square kilometers.

Land Use and Resource Potential

Considering the land utilization, 52% of the total area is cultivated land, 13 .4% is a grazing land, 9.9% is a natural and man-made forest land, 7.3% unproductive land and the remaining 17.6% is covered by others. The zone has resource potential exploitable for the development of agriculture, such as floriculture, high land fruits and for establishing agro based industries, such as chip wood from eucalyptus plantation and fiber processing factories from Enset crop. In view of the fact that the high land dwellers of the zone are acquainted with the growing of Enset crops that could be a potential raw material source for fiber processing factory. Welkite town is one of the nineteen towns opted as a center of development (Industry belt) in the SNNPRS.

3.2 Research Methodology

3.2.1 Materials

Existing aerial photos of 1957, 1971, 1978, 1982, and 1998 and more resent satellite image of high resolution will be used to show LULCC in terms of agro-ecological and temporal expansion of eucalyptus tree and its recent trend in land use competition.

Thus, the Landsat images of 2002 (ETM) and 2014 Landsat 8 TIROS which will be obtained from Global land cover facility will be used for this study. The year 2002, was selected because of the current land use was started on this year. The 2014 image will be used to develop the recent LULC. The two years LULC map helps to develop as usual land use scenario.

For each of them, digital image processing operations such as image restoration, georeferencing, image enhancement and image classification (unsupervised and supervised) will be done using

ERDAS Imagine 2011 image processing software. The unsupervised classification will be done before field work. Supervised classification requires a prior knowledge of the scene area in order to provide the software with unique training classes. Correspondingly, representative points believed to represent the various land cover classes will be marked using GPS during the field visit. These points’ uses to sample representative signatures for various land cover types identified during the field visit.

Following this, supervised land use and land cover classification will be carried out using ERDAS Imagine software from Landsat Satellite images. The maximum likelihood image classification will be utilized for the supervised classification.

Various actual photos showing wise and unwise farming practices of eucalyptus tree and its ecological impact in different agro-climatic areas will be used. Soil samples will be taken in different agroecological and land cover units. Thereafter the physical and chemical analysis of soil will be employed in well-organized laboratory to show the ecological impact of the species. The flow volume measurement records of selected rivers and streams in different year spans will be used to know the ground and surface water balance effect of eucalyptus. The result will be analyzed using SWAT (Soil and Water Analysis Tool).

3. 2.2 Secondary Data

To get clear understanding of the concept such as eucalyptus expansion, eucalyptus dilemma, farm forestry practices, land use land cover changes and the like, secondary data from journals, books, theses, and websites will be reviewed critically.

3.2.3 Primary data:

3.2.3.1 Sampling method, procedure and distribution The study area, Gurage Zone has thirteen weredas with 2,000,000 populations (estimate of 2007). For the purpose the study six weredas were selected. To get primary data about the study systematic purposive sampling method will be employed. Three hundred eighty three households from sample weredas will be selected. These households will be representatives of eucalyptus tree farming activities since eucalyptus growing and land holding system are more or less similar in the zone. Thus, after selecting households with eucalyptus tree farms from the list of each

Wereda’s PAs (peasant administrations), closed and open ended questionnaires will be distributed to every 10th households. The main reason for selecting this sampling method is to avoid the inclusion of non-eucalyptus tree farmers and to keep the validity of the representative samples.

3.2.3.2 Sample size determination From the total 143,332 household population living in the four weredas, 383 household respondents will be selected using the following formula n=Z2 (p)(q)/d2 n=1.96(0.5)(0.5)/0.0025 n=1.96*0.0025/0.0025 n=384 S=N-n/N-1(n) =98824-384/98823* 384 S=383 Where, N =number of house hold in wereda S= sample size

Table 1 Sample Size and Sampling Distribution

No. Weredas Agro-climatic zone Types Total No. of No. of No. of Population Kebeles Households sample % Households 1 Cheha 38 Dega, Woinadega and Kolla 115,918 27,527 103 27 2 Enemorna 65 Enner Dega, Woinadega and Kolla 167,745 25,315 100 26 3 Eza 28 Dega, Woinadega and Kolla 84,882 18,950 73 19 4 Sodo 54 28

Dega, Woinadega and Kolla 134,634 29,032 107

Total 503,179 243 100,824 383 100

Source: Compiled from CSA, 2007

As stated in table 1, from the selected four KPAs, 383 households will be surveyed as unit of analysis. These households will be representatives of eucalyptus farming activities since eucalyptus growing and tenure system are more or less the same in the weredas. The number of households interviewed will be 103, 100, 73 and 107 in Cheha, Enemorna Ener, Eza and Sodo respectively which represent kolla, woinadega and dega KPAs. These sample sizes will be selected based on the extent of expansion.

To supplement the information; critical observation, discussions with focus groups and key informants will be taken. Key informants and focus groups will include:

 PA ( Peasant Administration) leaders;

 Wereda Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development officials including DAs (Development Agents);

 Selected model and locally known farmers in eucalyptus tree farming; and

 Wereda Water Desk officials

 Eucalyptus tree pole buyers and middle men

3.2. 3.3 Method of Data Analysis To analyze the various data collected, the study will employ both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The quantitative data will be analyzed using appropriate and higher order statistical software. Thus, R-introduction, which recently developed ecological and environmental data analysis software will be used in appropriate manner. To describe data acquired through observations, group discussions, key informants’ interviews and some questionnaires of socioeconomic and ecological data, critical and logical qualitative data analysis technique will be used.

References

Altieri M.A. (1995). Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture (second edition). West View Press. Amare G. (2002). Eucalyptus farming in Ethiopia: The case of Eucalyptus woodlots in the Amhara Region. In: Natural Resources Degradation and Environmental concerns in the Amhara National Regional state, Ethiopia: Impact on Food security, proceeding, 2003, Bahar Dar, Ethiopia. Anonymous (1979). Eucalypts for planting. FAO Forestry Series. II FAO, Rome Anonymous (1990). Ethiopian Forest Research base: Identification, Conservation and Rational Land use. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Arnold W. and Dewees, P. A. (1995). Forestry Policy and wood fuel markets in Malawi. Natural Resources Forum 19(2): 143-152. Asaye Asnake. (2001). Yield Performance and Economics of Growing Eucalyptus of Small holders in Gonder Zuria Districts of Amhara Regional States. MSc. Thesis, Wondo Genet Collage of Forestry. Unpublished. Barros N.F and Novais R.F (1996). Eucalypt Nutrition and Fertilizer Regimes in Brazil. CSIRO, Australia. Bhatt, B.P. and Todaria N.P.(1990). Studies on Allelopathic Effects of some Agroforestry crops of Garhwal Himalaya. Agroforestry system 12. Bojo, J. and Lassells, D.(1995). Land degradation and Rehabilitation in Ethiopia. A reassement. AFTES working paper 7 Washington, D.C World Bank. Cannell M.G.R.(1999). Environmental Impacts of Forest Monocultures: Water use, Acidification, Wildlife Conservation and Carbon storage. New Forests 17:239-262. CNST (1997). The National state of Tigray Rural and proclamation No. 23 Mekele. CSA (1990). Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Facts and Figures. Addis Ababa. CSO (1964). Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia. Central Statistical Office, Addis Ababa. Davidson J. (1995). Eucalyptus Tree Improvement and Breeding. Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, Addis Ababa. Davidson J. (1985). Setting Aside the Idea that Eucalyptus are Always Bad. Working paper 10 UNDP/FAO. Davidson, J. (1985). Ecological and Social Aspects of Eucalyptus when used as Exotics.

Dye P.J.(1996). Response of Eucalyptus grandis Tree to Soil Water Deficits. Journal of Tree Physiology 16: 233-238. EFAP (1991). Main Report of Tasks, Forces on Farm Forestry Extension. Volume 1 August 1991 Addis Ababa. EFAP (1993). The Challenge for Development. V.II Ministry of Natural Resource Government of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. EFAP (1994). Executive Summary. Volume I. Ministry of National Resources Development and Environmental Protection. Addis Ababa 14p. EHRS (1986). Consultant report: Part II. FAO, Rome. Eldridge, K., Davidson, J, Harwood, C. and VAN WYK, G. (1993). Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Clarendon press, Oxford: 288). EMA (1983). 1:100,000 Geology Soil Maps of Ethiopia. Assistance to Land use Planning Project, FAO/UNDP-Eth/78/003: Addis Ababa. English, J.,M. Tiffen and M. Mortimore (1994). Land Resource Management in Machacos District, Kenya, 1930-1960. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Eshetu Yirdaw (2001). Diversity of Naturally Regenerated Native woody species in Forest plantations in the Ethiopia Highlands. New Forests 22:159-177. Evans J. (1992). Plantation Forestry in the Tropics: 2nd Edition. Oxford University press, New York. EWIDP (2007). Eza Wereda Integrated Development Program, Baseline Study. Salaam Development Consultant in Association with Highway Engineers and Consultants P.L.C. Ethiopian Roads Authority. Eza Wereda Agriculture and Rural Development Office. Working Document, 2008 Eza Wereda Education Office. Working Document, 2008. FAO (1988). The Eucalyptus Dilemma. Rome: 26. FAO (1994). Forest Products Year Book 1994. FAO Forestry Series No. 27: FAO, Rome 336p FAO (2005). State of World Forests. Rome. FAO/UNDP (1986). Assistance to Land use Planning: Economic Analysis of Land Use in Ethiopia :( A.G:DP/ETH/78/2003) Rome: FAO/UNDP FAOs (1981b). Eucalyptus for Planting. FAO Forestry and Forest Products Studies 11, FAO, Rome.

Fernandes E.C.M. and Nair P.K.R. (19866). An Evaluation of the Structure and Function of Tropical Home Gardens. Agricultural Systems 21:279-310. Florence, V.(1986). Cultural Problems of Eucalyptus as Exotics. comm. For Rev 65. Getnet Bekele (1992). Ecology and Society: the dynamic of Social and economic development in Gurage History 1989-1994. Department of History. Addis Ababa: University. Gilmore D.A. (1995). Rearranging Trees in the Landscape in the Middle hills of Nepal: In Arnold J.E.M. and Dewees P.A. (eds). Tree Management in Farmer Strategies: Responses to Agricultural Intensification. Oxford University Press. Oxford. UK. Holgen, P. and Svenson, M. (1990). Loss of inorganic nutrients by whole tree Utilization for firewood in Ethiopia. Swidish University of Agricultureal Sciences. International Rural Development Center, Working Paper 150p. Uppsala. Horvath, R.J (1968). Addis Ababa’s Eucalyptus Forests. Journal of Ethiopian Studies Volume I. Addis Ababa. House, A.N.P.N.(1992). Eucalypts: curse or cure? Australian center for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Ipcar, Charles (1970). The Gurage Caltural Landscape: a System Interpretation. Michigan State University. MA Thesis, Unpublished. Jagger P. and J. Pender (2003). The Role of Trees for Sustainable Management of Less favored Lands; the Case of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia. In: MA Jbbar, J. Pender and S. Ehui (eds) Policies of Sustainable Land Management in the Highlands of Ethiopia. EPTD. Workshop Summary Paper No. 99, 44-49 IFPRI Washington D.C. USA. Jagger P. and Pender J. (2000). The Role of trees for Sustainable Management of less Favored lands: The case of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia. International Food Research Institute, Washington. Lawson T.L and Kang B.T (1990).Yield of Maize and Cowpea in an Alley Cropping system in Relation to Available Light. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 52:347-357. Lisanework Nigatu (1994). Ecological Studies of Plantation in some parts of Ethiopia, with Special Regard to Ecological Effects of use of Eucalyptus Species. PhD. Dissertation, Addis Ababa University Unpublished. Long A.J. and P.K.L. (1999). Trees Outside Forests: Agro-Community, and Urban Forestry. New Forests 17:145-174

Sharma, S.K.(1990). Moisture Extraction and Crop yield as a Function of Distance from a row of Eucalyptus Tereticomies. Agro forestry systems 12(2): 187-195. Mathur, H.N., RAJ, F. H. and Rajagopal, K. (1984). Root studies on Eucalyptus globules. In: Sharma J.K., Nair C.T.S, Kedharnath, S. and Kondas, S (eds.). Eucalyptus in India. Past, present and Future. Karala Forest research Institute, Peechi, Karala India. Matson PA, Parton W.J., Power A.G. and Swift M.G. (20002). Agriculture Intensification and Ecosystem Properties. Science 277:504. May, F.E. and Ash, J.E.(1990). An Assessment of the Allelopathic Potential of Eucalyptus. Australian Journal of Botany 38(3):245-254. Mercer, D.E and Miller, P.R. (1998). Socioeconomic Research in Agroforestry: Progress, Prospects and priorities. Agroforestry system, 38:177-193. Merla, G, E. Abbate, P. Canuti, M.Sagri and P.Tacconi (1973). Geological Map of Ethiopia and Somalia: Geological and Paleontological Institute, Florence University. Michelsen A, Lisanework N., Fries, I. and Holst N. (1996). Comparison of Under story Vegetation and Soil Fertility in Plantations and Adjacent Natural Forests in the Ethiopian Highlands. Journal of Applied Ecology 33:627-642. Michelson, A., N. Lisanework, and L. Fries (1993). Impacts of tree Plantation in the Ethiopian Highlands on Soil fertility; short and root growth, nutrient utilization and mycorrhizal Colonization. Forest Ecology and Management 61:299-234 Mulugeta L., Taye G. and Demel T. (2004). Effects of canopy cover and understory Environment of Tree Plantation on Species Richness, Density and sizes of Colonizing woody Species in Southern Ethiopia. Forest Ecology and management 194:1-10. Muluneh W. (2003). Impacts of Population Pressure on Land Use/ Land Cover Change, Agricultural system and Income Diversification in West Gurageland, Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation, Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, UTNU, Trondheim, Norway. Muluneh W. (1994). Population Pressure, Land Use Change and Patterns of Agricultural Productivity in Sebat Bet Gurageland. M.A. Thesis Addis Ababa University, Unpublished. Murphy, H.F.(1959). A Report on Fertility Status of Some Soils of Ethiopia: Alemaya College of Agriculture Mustanoja, K.J. and Taye Beyene (1990). Ethiopia wood fuel Production development Draft Sectoral Plan. Ministry of Agriculture. Fuel wood Plantation expansion division 22p.

Nair, P.K.R. (1983). An Introduction to Agroforestry. Dordrect, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic publishers. Negussie A. (2004). Farm Forestry Decision making Strategies of the Guraghe Households, Southern Central Highlands of Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation, Germany. Newcomb J. (1989). An Economic Justification for Rural Afforestation: The Case of Ethiopia. Energy Department Paper No. 16 World Bank Energy Department, the World Bank Washington DC. Parrotta J.A. (1999). Productivity, Nutrient Cycling, and Succession in a single and Mixed species plantations of Casuarina equisetifalia, Eucalyptus Robusta and Leucaena Leucocephala in puerto Rico. Forest Ecology and Management 124:45-77. Pohjenen, V. and Pukkala T. (1990). Eucalyptus globules in Ethiopian forestry. For Ecology and Management 36, 19-31. Pohjonen,V.(1989). Establishment of fuel wood plantation in Ethiopia. Forests Ecology Management. Poor M.E.D. and Fries C. (1985). The Ecological Effects or Eucalypts, Forestry paper 59. Rome, Italy. Powers T.S., Haggar J.P. and Fisher R.F. (1997). The Effect of over story Composition on Understory woody Regeneration and Species Richness in 7- year old Plantations in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 99: 43-54? Prabhakar V.K (1998). Social and Community Forestry. Satish Grag, New Delhi. Pryor L. (1992). Shrubby Undergrowth in Natural Eucalyptus Forest in Australia. FAO, Rome. Reijntjes C, Havecort B. and Waters Bayer A. (1992). Farming for the future: An Introduction to low-external-input and Sustainable Agriculture. ILEIA, Leusden. The Netherlands. Saxena, N.C (1991). Marketing constraints for Eucalyptus from lands in India. Agro forestry system 13: 73-85. Scherr, S. J. (1995). Economic Factors in Farmers’ Adoption of Agroforestry. Selamyihun K. (2004). Using Eucalyptus for soil and water conservation in the Highland Vertisols of Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation Wageningen, The Netherlands. Swift, J. and Ingram A. (1996). Desertification : narratives, winners and losers : In Mearns, M. Leach and R. Mearns (ed). The Life of the land: Challenging received wisdom on the African Environment. Oxford: James Currey Tenaw G. (2007). Forestry as an Emergent Economic Strategy and Its Implication on Rural Livelihood, Land Uses and Ecology: A Case of Koga River Catchments Area, Mecha

Wereda, and Western Gojjam Zone, MA Thesis Addis Ababa University Unpublished. Turnbull, J. W. and Pryor, L. D (1978). Choice of Species Seed Sources In: Hills, W.E. and Brown, A.G. (Eds), Eucalyptus Wood Production. CSIRO, Adelaide, Australia pp. 6- 66 Turner J. and Lambert M.J.(1983). Nutrient cycling with in a 27 year old Eucalyptus grandis plantation in New South Wales. Forest Ecology and Management 6: 155-168. Westpal E. (1975). Agricultural System in Ethiopia. Wageningen: Center for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation White K.J (1988). Tree Farming practices in Bhabar Terai of central Nepal, Sagarnath: Manual 2. Ministry of Forestry, Kathmandu. Woldeamlak B. (2003). Household Level Tree Planting and its Implication for Environmental Management in Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia: case study in the Chemoga Watershed, Blue Nile Basin. Land Degradation and Development In Press. Wundgren, B.O. and Raintree, J.B. (1982). Sustainable Agroforestry. In: FAO (2005) state of world forests Yongfang S. (1992). Utilization of Eucalyptus in China. Appita 45(6):382-393 Young A. (1989). Agroforestry for soil Conservation: ICRAF Science and Practice of Agro Forestry: BPCC Wheaton’s Ltd., Exeter. Zeng Q.(1992). An Effective Measure for Controlling soil Degradation in Eucalypts plantation. Chinese Scientific and Technical publishing House, Beijing. Zimmer W.J., Grose R.J. (1958). Root systems and Root/Shoot Ratios of Seedlings of Victorian Eucalypts. Australian Forestry 22:13-18.