The Impact of Early Childhood Education on Child Development in Selected Schools in Lusaka Urban

THE IMPACT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED SCHOOLS IN LUSAKA URBAN

Submitted By Sarah Shamoya 018-885 BDS

Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Study Background ...... 3 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 6 1.4 General research objective ...... 7 1.4.1 Specific objectives of the study ...... 7 1.5 Main Research Question ...... 7 1.5.1 Specific Research Questions ...... 7 1.6 Assumptions ...... 8 1.7 Significance of the Study ...... 8 1.8 Justification of the Study ...... 8 1.9 Delimitations ...... 9 1.10 Limitations of the study...... 9 1.11 Definitions of key terms and concepts ...... 9 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11 2.1 Introduction ...... 11 2.2 The origins of Early Childhood Education and Aims ...... 11 2.4 Relevance of ECCED to development ...... 13 2.4.1 Children have a right to live and develop ...... 13 2.4.2 Transmission of societal values ...... 13 2.4.3 Economic benefits ...... 13 2.4.5 It helps to reduce inequalities ...... 14 2.5 Early Childhood Education and Its Impact on Child Development – Global View ...... 14 2.5.1 Japan ...... 14 2.5.2 China ...... 16 2.5.3 Australia...... 16 ii

2.5.4 Canada ...... 17 2.5.5 Zambia ...... 18 2.6 The components of good Early Childhood Education ...... 19 2.7 Effective Early Childhood Care Education Implementation...... 20 2.7.1 Environment ...... 20 2.7.2 Curriculum for ECE...... 21 2.7.3 Assessment in Pre-school ...... 22 2.7.4 Materials and Equipment ...... 23 2.7.5 Comprehensive ECE Services ...... 24 2.7.6 Professional Development ...... 24 2.7.7 Staff Qualifications ...... 24 2.7.8 Leadership and Administrative Supervision...... 25 2.9 Theoretical Framework ...... 25 2.9.1 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ...... 25 2.10 Conceptual Framework ...... 26 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...... 28 3.1 Introduction ...... 28 3.2 Research Design ...... 28 3.3 Sampling techniques (population, sample and sampling procedure) ...... 28 3.3.1 Target Population ...... 28 3.3.2 Sample Size ...... 28 3.3.3 Sampling Procedure ...... 29 3.4 Instruments for Data Collection ...... 29 3.5 Procedure for Data Collection ...... 29 3.6 Data Analysis ...... 29 3.7 Ethical Consideration ...... 30 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION ...... 31 4.1 Overview ...... 31 To ascertain the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District; ...... 31 4.1 Social Demographics...... 31 4.1.0 Number of Years Worked in Current Position by Respondents ...... 31 4.1.1 Highest Qualification of Respondents ...... 31 iii

4.1.2 Parents and Guardians ...... 31 4.2 Study Findings...... 32 4.2.0 Ascertaining of the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District...... 32 4.2.1 Factors that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District...... 34 4.2.2 Impact of Early Childhood Education On Child Development in Selected Schools and Households of Lusaka District...... 35 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ...... 37 5.0 Overview ...... 37 5.1 Ascertaining of the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District...... 37 5.2 Factors That Determine the Impact of Early Childhood Education On Child Development in Selected Schools and Households of Lusaka District ...... 38 5.3 The impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District ...... 40 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 42 6.1 Conclusion ...... 42 6.2 Recommendations ...... 44 REFERENCES ...... 45 APPENDIX ...... 54 Appendix A ...... 54 Introduction/Consent Letter ...... 55 General research objective ...... 55 Specific objectives of the study ...... 55 Appendix B ...... 56 Interview Guide for Parents of the Pre-School Children and Other Stakeholders ...... 56

ABSTRACT

This research proposal will aim to provide foresight on the impact of early child hood education on child development.

The research aims to draw attention to the need to create various ways of improving the delivery of early child hood education services in various schools in Lusaka.

The results of the study will be shared with the intended ministry and stake holders to draw awareness of the importance of early childhood education on child development as we build on already existing research on the matter to influence policy decisions and standards that shape the professional learning of care and education that encompasses the foundational knowledge and competencies needed to support high-quality practices for child development and early learning in organizations.

DECLARATION

I Sarah Shamoya do hereby declare that this work is my own, and that all the work of other persons used in this thesis has been duly acknowledged and that this work has not been previously presented at Cavendish or any other University for similar purposes.

Signature…………………………….. Date…………………..

DEDICATION

I sincerely dedicate this project to my family and above all to the almighty God. My family have always believed in me and have been there for me and they have also been a source of encouragement throughout my academic life. I extend my gratitude to all my lecturers specifically Mrs Nkantha for the much needed time and encouragement she offered and my friends Mr martin Moyo and Kaoma Sumaili.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Lord almighty for seeing me through this course. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor and lecturer Mrs Caroline Nkatha for her guidance during the period of undertaking this research.

Utmost appreciation goes to the members of staff at DEBS in Lusaka, teachers as well as the other participants in the questionnaires.

My gratefulness is extended to all the lecturers at Cavendish University, school of Adult Education, social sciences who taught me in various disciplines.

I would also like to thank my employers for according me the opportunity to access time to pursue my education during the course of my work schedule. Lastly many thanks to my husband Lemmy simichelo for the encouragement and support during my education and my parents for laying a strong foundation in my education and the encouragement they gave me throughout my studies.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome CBO Community Based Organization CDC Curriculum Development Centre CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CSEN Children with Special Educational Needs DEBS District Education Board Secretary DESO District Education Standards Officer ECCDE Early Childhood Care Development and Education ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education ECD Early Child Development ECDC Early Childhood Development Care ECE Early Childhood Education ECEC Early Childhood Education and Care EFA Education for All ESO Education Standards Officer FBO Faith Based Organization FBO Faith Based Organizations FGD Focus Group Discussion HIV Human Immuno Virus ISCED International Standard Classification of Education MoE Ministry of Education NGO Non-Governmental Organizations OECD Organization of Early Childhood and Care Development OVC Orphan and Vulnerable Children SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund UPE Universal Primary Education ZPA Zambia Pre-School Association

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Emerging science makes clear the importance and complexity of working with young children from infancy through the early elementary years. Young children thrive when they have secure, positive relationships with adults who are knowledgeable about how to support their development and learning. Childcare or preschool education has been used as an intervention strategy to improve the lives and development of specific groups, particularly children living in deprived circumstances. Children from disadvantaged/impoverished family backgrounds often experience particular difficulties at school. They enter school with fewer academic skills than their more advantaged peers, and they often lag behind in their cognitive development during the later school years (Stipek & Ryan, 1997). More than 40 years of research have convinced scholars and policy makers that quality pre-school experiences benefit children from impoverished environments and help prepare them for school entry (see, for example, reviews by Barnett, 1995; Brooks-Gunn, 2003; Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning et al., 2000; Frede, 1995; Haskins, 1989; Heckman, 2006; Melhuish, 2004b; National Research Council, 2001; Yoshikawa, 1995).

Early childhood education (ECE) aims to improve the cognitive and social development of children ages 3 or 4 years. ECE interventions can improve all children’s development and act as a protective factor against the future onset of adult disease and disability. Children disadvantaged by poverty may experience an even greater benefit because ECE programs also seek to prevent or minimize gaps in school readiness between low-income and more economically advantaged children. All ECE programs must addresses one or more of the following: literacy, numeracy, cognitive development, socio-emotional development, and motor skills. Some programs may offer additional components, including recreation, meals, health care, parental supports, and social services (CDC, 2006).

Jenkins (2005:6) alluded that “critical brain development in one’s life occurs in the first five years of life.” He further indicates that studies in brain development have shown that most childhood vulnerabilities in the first three years are preventable. Using both formal and non-formal approaches, ECCED must take into account the needs of the poor, the most disadvantaged, remote rural dwellers and nomads, ethnic and linguistic minorities, children, young people and adults

1 affected by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health; and those with special learning needs (UNESCO, 2000).

According to Teguma, M et.al (2012: p.12), “Common challenges which developed countries face in enhancing the quality of ECCED include:1) improving staff qualifications, education and competences; 2) recruitment; 3) professional development; 4) staff evaluation and monitoring; and 5) working conditions and retention.” Developing nations may have other challenges in addition to the list, such as lack of appropriate infrastructure, inadequate learning and teaching materials, long distances between schools and homes, illiteracy among parents, poor health conditions, among others. Studies in developing countries, however, show that Early Childhood Care Education (ECCED) programs lead to higher levels of primary school enrolment and educational performance, which in turn positively affect employment opportunities later in life. On the contrary, children who start school late and lack the necessary skills to be able to learn constructively are more likely to fall behind or drop out of school completely, often perpetuating a cycle of poverty. Tegumaet.al (2012: p.16) argues that “ECE lays the foundation for subsequent stages in life, such as better student performance, less poverty, more equitable outcomes, less dropouts and greater labour market success.”

Though the requirements of mothers and children from pregnancy to age eight include “early education and care” as well as parent education, home visits on nutrition, health and infant stimulation, community-based services, and a plethora of health, nutrition, sanitation and protective services, the author has opted to use the term “ECE”. As commented by Baron (2005: 13), “Early Childhood Education is widely employed, embraces all sub-fields related to young children and permits the use of an integrated approach for achieving holistic child development.” As such it covers all areas of child growth and development within his/her setting. Previous studies suggest early years of child development to be critical in the formation of intelligence, personality and social behaviour, Baron (2005). As a result, investment in ECE provides greater returns through increased enrolment, retention, achievement, and completion of primary school level.

1.2 Study Background

Education has always been high on the agenda of the government in Zambia, and several studies have been conducted on the provision of Early Childhood Education in private institutions. This study, however, emanates from the government’s introduction of Early Childhood Education (ECE) in the mainstream education system. Many terms have been used in policies, frameworks, strategies, researches and reports to refer to services for children’s early years. For example UNICEF (2001) uses Early Childhood Care development (ECCD), World Bank uses Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE), World Vision International (2002) uses ‘Early Childhood Care for Development (ECCD)’ while UNESCO (2004) uses ‘Early Childhood Development Care (ECDC)’. The Government of the Republic of Zambia is using Early Childhood Education (ECE). Much as they appear to differ in certain aspects, all of them are focusing on the same thing, the early years of a child to ensure proper growth and development. While these terms may be used interchangeably, it would be important for these organizations and researchers to come up with an agreed terminology for easy understanding.

Early Childhood Education (ECE) has emerged as a theme in the African dialogue on education in recent years. Although much research has been done, concerns and issues in early childhood education exist throughout the world. Most importantly, the quality of these early childhood education programs needs to be examined. While the development and expansion of early childhood programs has greatly increased (Barnett, 1995), there have been only a limited number of instruments to monitor their implementation and measure their overall quality (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2000). Education is, therefore, perceived as a vehicle for tapping each individual’s talents, potentiality, and develops their personalities so that they can improve their lives and transform their societies (Jomtien 1990). Furthermore, it is “an organized and sustained communication designed to bring about learning” (UNESCO, 1976). Pre-school education is called pre-primary education in the ISCED (International Standard Classification of Children who participate in pre-school are more likely to enroll and remain in primary school, and achieve better results than those who cannot access comprehensive early childhood care (UNICEF, 2009). Further, early gains in school readiness due to early childhood education have been shown to have enormous positive economic and social impacts lasting well into adulthood, from higher educational

3 attainment and less chance of involvement in criminal activity, to higher status employment and higher earnings (Schweinhart, 2007).

Pre-school should be included within the mainstream education system because not only does it serve the purpose of giving the child daily care while the parents are at work, it also contributes towards the child’s social and intellectual development. One solution to keeping track of differences among pre-primary programs is to distinguish between ‘all pre-primary programmers’ and ‘pre- primary programs with special staff qualification requirements’. The first area covers all forms of organized and sustained activity taking place in schools or other institutional settings (as opposed to services provided in households or family settings). The second refers to programs where at least one adult has a qualification characterized by training covering psychological and pedagogical subject matter.

The MOE (1996:8) refers to Early Childhood Education as “an organized form of education provision for children between the ages of three and six.” Such provision is made in the form of pre-schools. Early Childhood Education makes a positive contribution to children’s long term development and learning by facilitating an enabling and stimulating environment in these foundation stages of lifelong learning. The program, at the early childhood stage, helps to ensure opportunities for holistic learning and growth. The ECCED program needs to be determined by children’s developmental and contextual needs, providing for more need based inputs and an enabling environment.

Early Childhood Care Education (ECCED) is not a new phenomenon in Zambia; it started in the colonial era. Historically, the Zambian government’s participation in Early Childhood Education has been minimal. The Day Nurseries Act of 1957 was the first innovative step towards recognition of the importance of Early Childhood Care Education (ECCED) by the colonial government. This Act is still in effect and provides legal backing for anyone capable of offering Early Childhood Education. Despite gaining independence in 1964, Zambia did not include Early Childhood Education in the mainstream education system; it was operated at the discretion of social welfare departments by local authorities, local communities, nongovernmental organizations, private individuals and families (MOE, 1996). The declaration of the achievement of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2015, as alluded to by the Education for All goals, required that nations provide 4

Early Childhood Education. At the 2000 World Education Forum in Dakar, governments were called on to develop and implement policies to achieve the six EFA goals (UNESCO, 2007).Hence it has become a fundamental requirement for Zambia and other nations of the world (UNESCO, 2010) to provide Early Childhood Education.

In 1972 the Zambia Pre-school Association (ZPA) was created as an umbrella organization to look into issues of Early Childhood Education by taking charge of the nursery and preschool matters in the country (ZPA, 1975). Since then, the ZPA has broadened its mandate to include training of teachers for Early Childhood Education. It is worth noting that in the past and for many years, no single organization was mandated with the responsibility of running the activities of Early Childhood Education. The local authorities merely maintained registers of all Childhood Centres within their localities without monitoring and evaluating their performance. The Education Reform (1977) indicated that pre-school education would not be available to every child for a long time to come but its development, through provision of more facilities to cater for more children, both in rural and urban areas, would be encouraged.

All the activities of Early Childhood Education have been placed under the authority of the Ministry of Education, as outlined in the National Education Policy “Educating Our Future” (1996). The emphasis on provision of Early Childhood Care, Development and Education in Zambia strengthened after the resolve of the Jomtien Conference on Education for All (1990) and the Dakar Framework of 2000 in Senegal. The Dakar Framework on Education for All (EFA) reaffirmed the Jomtien recommendations and committed national governments to provide comprehensive ECCED policies and to address challenges of child development. Children have a right, as expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, to receive education (UNICEF, 1990), and Early Childhood Education must be considered part of that right. Early Childhood Education provides a sound basis for learning and helps to develop skills, knowledge, personal competence and confidence and a sense of social responsibility. Therefore, every child, including children from deprived socio-economic backgrounds and other disadvantaged groups, should have access to Early Childhood Education services of good quality.

The role of the Ministry of Education (MOE) is to encourage and facilitate the establishment of pre-school programs especially in rural areas, train teachers, develop curriculum materials and monitor standards in the effective implementation of Early Childhood Education. Using the concept ‘Annexing’, the Government of the Republic of Zambia has introduced ECCED centres in the mainstream government primary schools and private one are have been set up also all with the hope of creating and harnessing a sound base and foundation for children. A number of primary schools have begun implementing of Early Childhood Education in Zambia. It is therefore the major objective of this study to the impact of early childhood education on child development.

1.3 Statement of the Problem There are varied established impacts of early child education on childhood development which mainly centres on presumed academic performance, which in other ways offers a narrow perspective of the intended and whole purpose of early childhood education, when in the actual sense childhood development is broader as it encompasses academic life and life at home.

Early childhood education (ECE) has emerged as a theme in African dialogue on education in recent years. Although much research has been done, concerns and issues in early childhood education exists throughout the world. Most importantly the quality of these early childhood education programs needs to be examined. While the development and expansion of early childhood programs has greatly increased (Barnett, 1995), there have been only a limited number of instruments to monitor their implementation and measure their overall quality (NICHD Early child care Research Network, 2000). Education is therefore perceived as a vehicle for tapping each individual’s talent, potentially, and develops their personalities so that they can improve their lives and transform their societies (Jomtien 1990). Further early gains in readiness due to early childhood education have shown to have enormous positive economic and social impacts lasting well into adulthood, from higher educational attainment and less chance of involvement in criminal activities, to higher status employment and higher earnings (Schweinhart, 2007).

In Zambia many children suffer from poor nutrition, inadequate health services, luck of clean water and sanitation, inadequate education opportunities and increased child abuse. The majority live in very difficult conditions in rural and poor peri-urban areas. Presently in rural and poor peri-urban areas only a few households ca afford to take their children to pre-schools as most are privately 6 owned and aim to meet their cost through fees that only a few can manage to pay as a result most children are denied a well-rounded program to enhance their positive growth. There are 59% of the young children below the age of five who are stunted and chronically malnourished, only 17% of the young children between the same ages have access to some type of organized early childhood care and education services nationwide (The Zambia Early Childhood Development project, 2010 Assessment Report).

Therefore, it is this reason, this study sought to investigate the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban.

1.4 General research objective

To find out the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban?

1.4.1 Specific objectives of the study

▪ To ascertain the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban?

▪ To investigate factors that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban?

▪ To highlight the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban?

1.5 Main Research Question

What is the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka Urban?

1.5.1 Specific Research Questions

1. What are the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka Urban?

2. What are the determinants of the impacts of early childhood education on child development in selected schools Lusaka Urban?

3. What are the highlights of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka Urban? 1.6 Assumptions

1. Many people in the community do not know the importance of early childhood education

2. Maybe early childhood education has no impact on child development

3. People in the communities think that it is not important for children below the age of five to attend school.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The study provides valuable information on the impact of early childhood education on child in selected schools and households. The findings of the study will be useful to educational policy makers, stakeholders/funders and practitioners. The study will furthermore add to the current body of knowledge on the impact of early childhood education on child in selected schools and households.

1.8 Justification of the Study

This study aims to investigate the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and household levels. Therefore, its purpose major purpose is to broadly establish the impacts at school level and household level so as to get a clear and complete picture and set the course of studies on early childhood education and child development on level not limited only to academic performances.

1.9 Delimitations

The procedures investigating the impact of early education on child development that was chosen by researcher as several more sensitive procedures are available that was used to gain valuable data from participants.

1.10 Limitations of the study • Overall this study may provide little evidence of impact, due to its methodological limitations and sample procedure, such as some participants fearing the unknown and shunning from participating in the study, especially with the prevail COVID-19 situation and recent gassing incidents across Lusaka city.

• Further, respondents such as head teachers and the DEBS may not be willing to release information that might expose their failure to implement Early Childhood Education in their schools and the district respectively.

• Furthermost importantly, being a case study with a limited number of respondents, generalization of the findings may not be feasible; it was conducted out in a small area with limited number of participants, this made it difficult to generalize the finding on a broader spectrum such as national or regional level. 1.11 Definitions of key terms and concepts

Child Care education for children from birth to 2 years old.

Early Childhood Development (ECD) refers to the physical, cognitive, linguistic, and socioemotional development of a child from the prenatal stage up to age eight.

Child development refers to the sequence of physical, language, thought and emotional changes that occur in a child from birth to the beginning of adulthood. Child development is strongly influenced by genetic factors (genes passed on from their parents) and events during prenatal life.

Illiteracy not being able to read and write.

Pre-school organized education for children below the age of seven.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction The chapter presents a review of relevant literature on Early Childhood Education and childhood development. The literature surveyed is presented under the following headings: Origins of Early Childhood Education and aims, Relevance and impact of Early Childhood education, a global view of the early childhood education and child development, and components of a good ECE, effective ECE provision and Policy concerns on ECE.

2.2 The origins of Early Childhood Education and Aims According to Houson (1980, p.3), “Early Childhood Education, as a distinct form of education, was non-existent prior to the 1800s. It was during the 1800s that people began to think of children as anything more than ‘small adults’ and to recognize that they needed to thrive upon special attention and consideration.” The concept of Early Childhood Education was brought into focus, as the nineteenth century began, by Johann Pestalozzi. Working with young children in Switzerland for thirty years and through his theorizing, writing and teaching, Pestalozzi became one of the famous and influential champions of Early Childhood Education in Europe. His first concern was that of care and education of the poor; most of his students were poor. He felt that education was the key to improving lives of the less privileged in society.

The emerging field of early childhood education was profoundly changed by Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel in 1837, when he opened the first Kindergarten in Germany (Houson, 1980). Froebel was deeply concerned about children. He rejected the idea that children were merely small adults to be treated as adults. He believed that children needed care and protection, in addition to instruction. He was very concerned with their moral development.

Froebel’s thinking concerning the education of young children was extremely progressive. For instance, he believed that a child’s early experiences have a profound effect upon the development of an adult personality. He further stipulated that childhood has value in itself, and is not just something people pass through on the way to adulthood. According to Froebel, children deserve the same rights and respect as adults and must be treated as individuals passing through a unique phase of life; parents and teachers must be patient and understanding. Froebel understood, as did Pestalozzi, that the emotional quality of a child’s life is important, and that the child’s emotional 11 life is heavily affected by the quality of parental love. He realized that individual differences in interests and capabilities should be considered in devising a curriculum, and that any educational curriculum had to be related to the child’s own experience. Froebel proposed ‘play’ as the most important activity for the optimum development of a child. All these ideas still permeate early childhood education thought globally. By the end of nineteenth century, the Froebelian-type of Kindergartens were wide-spread. “The first American Kindergarten was opened in 1855 in Watertown by Mrs. Carl Schurz, who had studied in Germany under Froebel himself” (Houson 1980, p.9).

In the twentieth century, Early Childhood Education was further pursued by a female Italian physician, Maria Montessori, who was born in 1870. Her medical practices permitted her an interest in observing how children learn and in what capacities. Montessori ascertained that when offered freedom to follow their own interests, children are inspired to pursue education. Children need a prepared environment, a classroom complete with beautiful materials to entice their senses. They must be allowed to follow their own interests at their own pace. In 1907, she opened her first ‘Children’s House’, to international acclaim, in Rome. Pioneering a new form of education, centred specifically on the child, her principles and method spread throughout the world, producing a global vision for education that persists to this day.

Montessori programs are now to be found over the entire globe. They have been adapted to many different languages and cultures. While some adhere to Montessori’s original program, others have modified and expanded her techniques and materials. Psychologists have also contributed greatly to the advent of Early Childhood Education. Houson, J.P. (1980, p.14) says, “Sigmund Freud’s work, although basically psychological and not educational is often taken as important within the field of early childhood education.” Sigmund, founder of the psychoanalytic approach, emphasized the importance of the child’s early years in the development of a full-blown, adult personality. It is disheartening to note here that early childhood education began long ago, yet not gained great importance in most of the Sub-Saharan African countries. It seems education is not solving problems that have faced mankind throughout history. In other words, the problems of the past continue to grow. Even so, Africa should wake up to implement early education for the betterment of generations to come.

2.4 Relevance of ECCED to development World over, there is now an increasing recognition of the importance of ECCED, as this sets the basis for learning, behaviour and health through the school years and into adult life. The short and long-term benefits of ECE programs for children are enormous and cannot be over emphasized. As alluded by Young (2002), the benefits have been noted across the board by educators, socialists, behavioural scientists, economists, neuroscientists, biologists and even politicians. Young and Enrique (2009) observed that by providing basic health care, adequate nutrition, nurturing and stimulation in a caring environment, it helps to ensure children's progress in primary school, continuation through secondary school, and successful entry into the work force. Myers (1999) examines various reasons why societies and governments should invest in ECE and most of which have greater impact in the country’s development.

2.4.1 Children have a right to live and develop From the human rights perspective, he argues that children have a right to live and develop to their full potential. This is in support to the EFA goal on education (UNESCO 2000) that indicates that education is a fundamental human right that has to be supported by all people. Every individual should be accorded an opportunity to get education as much as possible. As such, denying children a chance to participate in ECD is in essence denying them an opportunity to get the best education for their lives.

2.4.2 Transmission of societal values From the moral and social values argument, he says that, through children humanity transmits its values beginning in infancy. That is to say that quality investment in children has a lasting impact on continuation and passing on of societal values and development agenda. ECCED effective implementation is a viable means of passing on the future development potential of any country (Young & Mustard 2008).

2.4.3 Economic benefits Myers (1999) adds on to say that society benefits economically from improved early development through greater productivity in later life. This is possibly because quality and early development in individuals results in quality leaders and citizens who economically contribute to their societal development. According to Young & Enrique (2002:8), “early interventions help children to escape the web of poverty.” Amongst the world’s 6 billion people, 1.2 billion live on less than US$1 a day 13

( Government of Malawi 2002) As such ECE helps to not only attack the worst effects of poverty on children but it also effectively helps to break the vicious cycle of poverty transmitted across generations (Myers 1999). This is then a key factor if countries are to move towards attaining the MDG on education, health, gender as well as on poverty reduction. Van der Gaag (2002), from his research, also noted that investment in ECE helps to build social capital and equity which are crucial for prosperity and reduction of poverty across the globe. In his economic theory on ECE, Heckman, J. (2010) supported government intervention in early childhood programs to reduce achievement gaps. He also suggested that governments engage the private sector, for resources: According to Heckman, despite strained government budgets, it would be possible to fund effective new programs if they replaced the numerous ineffective programs that currently receive government support. 2.4.5 It helps to reduce inequalities According to social equity guru’s perspectives, ECCED services help to modify distressing socioeconomic beliefs, practices and gender related inequalities (Myers 1999). As it has also been argued elsewhere (World Vision 2002, UNICEF 2000), ECCED programs are valuable platforms for child participation in development programs. ECCED focuses on learning through play, social interaction, sharing, exploring, questioning and problem solving. It helps to develop the capacity of young children to explore and learn about their social-economic and political environment hence making informed contributions to the society. Children who have gone through proper ECE become responsible adults as they grow up while shaped to make meaningful contributions to the development of their community.

2.5 Early Childhood Education and Its Impact on Child Development – Global View According to UNESCO (2009), “Recently, national governments have begun to recognize the power of ECE to develop equitable educational provision for all children. Ghana, Gambia and Kenya plan to develop ECE for poor, remote and disadvantaged children. Cambodia has gone a step further by including ECE in its National Plan for achieving universal basic education by 2015.”

2.5.1 Japan Teguma, et.al (2012: p.11) indicates that “ECE is a topic of increased policy interest in Japan, where improving quality in the ECE sector is a subject of growing importance The OECD has identified five effective policy levers to encourage quality in the sector: 1) quality goals and regulations; 2)

14 curriculum and guidelines; 3) workforce; 4) family and community engagement; and 5) data, research and monitoring.” Of the five aspects, Japan considers improving quality in the workforce as a priority; it considers well-educated, well-trained professionals the key factor in providing high- quality ECCED with the most favourable cognitive and social outcomes for children. According to Teguma, et.al (2012), Japanese preschool education has been influenced more or less by foreign educational philosophies and methods, such as the Frobelian Method, since the latter half of the 19th century; child-centred education from America and Europe since the 1920’s, including that of Dewey and Montessori; nursing theory from the Soviet Union from the 1930’s to the 1950’s; and the Reggio Emilia approach from Italy since the 1990’s. In any case, they have been digested and adapted to conform to the Japanese climate and context, and are in the process of changing. Zhang Yan (1998), visited Japanese ECCED settings in 1996 as a researcher from China, and described the characteristics of Japanese pre-school education and care as follows:-

1. Free playtime is much longer than that of Chinese ECE institutions, and teachers tend to play with children just like their peers, playing the hidden role of activating children’s play. This approach is quite different from that used by Chinese ECE teachers. 2. Japanese ECE does not overprotect young children, letting them wear less clothes with the feet often bare, experience small and slight injuries, etc. On the other hand, teachers keep contact with parents about children’s daily health, behaviour, and learning, using notebooks for two-way communication. 3. On the playground there are slopes, small hills, some tall trees, various places where children can play with sand, water, and small animals and plants, and where children can enjoy trying and erring. Outdoor activities as well as indoor activities are very well facilitated. 4. Educational content is greatly related to seasonal events or things. Some traditional festivals, which were transported from China a long time ago but have already vanished, are still alive in Japanese kindergartens and day nurseries. 5. Kindergarten pupil’s lunch boxes made by their mothers are beautiful like fine art. Many daily personal items used in kindergarten are mothers’ handmade.

2.5.2 China In China, Preschool education is vital and begins at age of three (3). According to Emily and Albert (2007), pre-school education was one of the targets in the1985 education reform. This reform articulated that pre-school facilities were to be established in buildings made available by public enterprises, production teams, municipal authorities, local groups, and families. The government announced that it depended on individual organizations to sponsor their own preschool education and that preschool education was to become a part of the welfare services of various government organizations, institutes and collectively operated enterprises. Costs for pre-school education varied according to services rendered. Officials also called for more preschool teachers with more appropriate training.

Although the Ministry of Education is officially responsible for promoting ECCED in China, only a small number of ECCED institutions are run by government departments and few of them are located in rural China. With only low levels of support from local governments, most ECE institutions in rural China suffer from unqualified teachers, poorly developed curricula and inadequate and poorly maintained facilities. Studies exist that describe the nature of China’s ECE in both urban areas and rural areas (World Bank, 1999; Yu, 2005; Zeng, Zhu, & Chen, 2007) (Accessed 15/07/2013).

2.5.3 Australia According to the Commonwealth of Australia (2011), the Australian Government’s agenda for early childhood education and child care focuses on providing Australian families with high- quality, accessible and affordable integrated early childhood education and child care. The agenda has a strong emphasis on connecting with schools to ensure all Australian children are fully prepared for learning and life. Investing in the health, education, development and care of our children benefits children and their families.

Historically, policy and funding responsibility for Early Childhood Education and the licensing of education and care providers has resided with state and territory governments, Commonwealth of Australia (2011). They have continued to make substantial investment in the early childhood sector, including in providing or funding preschools/kindergartens, early childhood intervention services, child and maternal health services and family support services.

The Commonwealth Government first became financially involved in child care upon institution of the Child Care Act of1972. Over the years, it also has invested substantially in the early childhood sector. This has included a national system of subsidies for families using long day care services, and supports to and an accreditation system for these services; health (e.g. nutrition programs); and family support (e.g. Family Tax Benefit, and more recently Paid Parental Leave, parenting programs and community development initiatives). 2.5.4 Canada

Compulsory schooling in Canada may start as early as age 5 but usually starts at age 6. Every province/territory provides publicly funded kindergarten (which is compulsory in three provinces) for children who are age 5. While it tends not to be a legislated entitlement, in practice, kindergarten is available to virtually all 5-year-olds whose parents wish to use it.

Like elsewhere, Early Childhood Education prepares children for elementary school. Doherty (2003) mentions that readiness for Grade 1 is identified as a primary goal for kindergarten in all provinces/territories and school readiness is often identified as a goal for child care. In Canada, the term “school readiness” is usually understood to mean more than the development of pre-academic skills. It includes the need for good physical and emotional health, a positive self-concept, a willingness to try new things, and the communication, social and cognitive skills to take advantage of the learning opportunities that the formal school setting provides.

The main ECE services are kindergarten and child care. Other services within the parameters of this report include Aboriginal Head Start and nursery schools/preschools in those provinces/territories where such programs are regulated under child care legislation, Doherty (2003). Young children and their families are also supported by the publicly funded health care system, public education, by various government income transfers such as the National Child Benefit (NCB), maternity and parental leave benefits, and child and family services such as family resource programs. Child care in Canada was first established as a service to enable women to engage in paid employment; this remains the primary goal for child care for governments in many provinces/territories, Doherty (2003). In contrast, nursery schools/preschools and kindergartens

17 were established to provide educational experiences for children. This dichotomy between care to support female labour force participation and education for children continues and is central to Canadian ECEC. A third goal for child care that sometimes emerges is that of providing a developmental program for children deemed to be at risk. The extent to which an ECEC program is accessible for a child depends upon several factors. First, there has to be an available space and then, if there are eligibility criteria, the child or family has to be able to meet them. In addition, if there is a fee, the parent has to be able to afford it. Finally, the program must be appropriate (i.e. able to meet both the child’s and the family’s needs). 2.5.5 Zambia The Jomtien World Declaration on Education for All of 1990, the Dakar Conference of 2000 and the 2000 Millennium Conference emphasized the need to provide Education For All by the year 2015 (UNESCO Report, 2003/2004). Since this was an important milestone in the history of education, Early Childhood Education fraternity was not an exception in many, if not all African countries. Zambia was among the African countries that acknowledged the ECE inclusion in the main education system.

The Zambian government has considered Early Childhood Education as of great importance to the nation’s Ministry of Education (MoE). Currently, under the MoE, educational provision is guided by the national education policy document, Educating Our Future, which focuses on equitable access to quality education at all levels (MoE, 1996). The Fifth National Development Plan 2006- 2010, a policy paper outlining educational provision by the MoE, defines Early Childhood Care, Development and Education as the level of education, both informal and formal, which a child from birth to age six undergoes prior to reaching the compulsory age (seven years) of entry to a primary or basic school (MoE, 2006). This policy paper outlines critical strategies to develop a national Early Childhood Care, Development and Education curriculum framework and to produce and distribute teaching materials for early learners. Additionally, it states the need to develop monitoring and evaluation instruments for this level of education. Regarding the development of ECE, it further notes major challenges in this sub-sector in past years: fragmented curriculum; lack of standards, monitoring and supervision; and the confinement of ECE to pre-schooling instead of offering a more comprehensive learning experience (Kamerman, 2006).

The MoE states, in its Strategic Plan 2003-2007, that Early Childhood Care and Education is an integral part of basic education, especially in the rural areas. Pre-schools are operated by local authorities, Faith Based Organization, local communities, NGOs and private individuals (UNESCO, 2006). However, because education at this level is in the hands of private providers, financing of early childhood care and education has remained unclear. Home-based pre-schools in urban areas have mushroomed, albeit at the expense of quality education. It has been documented that much of the curricula of private pre-schools are outdated and inadequate for this age group and the home environments are not conducive to learning (UNESCO, 2006).

The Curriculum for Early Childhood Education in Zambia does not aim at teaching children so that they are able to do certain things, but to achieve and acquire life skills that would be useful in their later life. Therefore, Early Childhood Education is not only necessary but also vital for total development of the child. The curriculum includes social studies, Environmental Science, Literacy and Languages, Mathematics and Expressive Arts as the learning areas at this level of education. The syllabi are divided into two sections. Section one provides syllabi for ages 3 to 4 years where as section two is syllabi for children aged 5 to 6 years. Children learn through play. Teachers and caregivers should provide adequate play opportunities for children to explore the environment (Government of the Republic Zambia, 2013). A well designed curriculum can enable preschool children to attain primary education with less difficulties.

2.6 The components of good Early Childhood Education While parental and family care is an important component of ECE development, a good quality ECE program should be a multi-dimensional educational program with a focus on the holistic development of children in the early stages of their childhood. One of ECE's goals is to enable children to be "more ready" for primary school education. It has been shown that ECE can be a major input into a child's formal education. A number of studies link ECE to increase in school readiness for primary school, and it has been shown that school readiness is an important predictor of early school achievement (Forget 2007). There are various elements which make a desirable Early Childhood Education or programme. According to Bowman, B., M Donovan and M. Burns (2001, p.7), a good ECE program should have the following characteristics:

i. it should begin at an appropriate starting age, 19

ii. it should be provided in a physical space that is safe and one that has certain specialized facilities,

iii. it should be given by professional care givers, attentive to the individualized needs and progress of the child,

iv. it should include the involvement of parents.

v. it should be built around a good learning environment with an effective, well-thought out curriculum; While no single curriculum or pedagogical approach can be identified as best, (Bowman, p.8) asserts that children who attend well-planned, high-quality ECE programs in which the curriculum aims are specified and integrated across domains tend to learn more and are better prepared to master the complex demands of formal schooling.

In Zambia, ECE is beginning at the age of three (3). The Zambian government has begun providing ECE in the already existing infrastructure that includes facilities which were designed for children above the age of six (6). Most of the ECE centres do not have care givers who can be attentive to the needs of children. Notably, also, parents of ECE children seem not to be very much involved in the education of their children. It is vital, therefore, that the government considers such important requisites in every ECE centre.

2.7 Effective Early Childhood Care Education Implementation The following are some quality-elements in ECCED effective implementation which must be exhibited by every successful pre-school education programme:-

2.7.1 Environment Environments for young children must be physically safe, socially enhancing, emotionally nurturing, and intellectually stimulating. Classrooms are well equipped, with sufficient appropriate materials and toys. This carefully designed setting promotes self-selection by children from a wide array of age appropriate materials. Both the classroom and the playground invite children to engage in active learning whereby they construct their own knowledge through interaction with adults, other children and materials. The equipment and materials that support this learning are easily adapted to the diverse interests, needs and abilities of children. Children and adults with special needs have easy access to the indoor and outdoor spaces and materials. Within this setting, the

20 teaching team creates a climate of acceptance and they are attentive and responsive to individual children, that is, their interests, strengths, capabilities, culture, race and gender.

One of the ECE proponents, Maria Montessori, emphasized the need for an appropriate educational environment. Montessori's education method called for free activity within a "prepared environment", meaning, an educational environment tailored to basic human characteristics, to the specific characteristics of children at different ages, and to the individual personalities of each child, Paula Polk Lillard (2011). The function of the environment is to allow the child to develop independence in all areas according to his or her inner psychological directives. In addition to offering access to the Montessori materials appropriate to the age of the children, Standing (1957) explains that the environment should exhibit the following characteristics:-

a. Construction in proportion to the child and his/her needs,

b. Beauty and harmony, cleanliness of environment,

c. Order,

d. An arrangement that facilitates movement and activity,

e. Limitation of materials, so that only material that supports the child's development is included.

Therefore, the ECCED annexed centres should exhibit some of these characteristics for a desirable effective implementation of Early Childhood Care Education in rural schools.

2.7.2 Curriculum for ECE The pre-school curriculum enables children to reach a deeper understanding of a subject when they can make meaningful connections across several disciplines. These connections are achieved through the implementation of inquiry-based projects or themes. Curriculum content is based on the observations of children’s interests and questions children ask or shared experiences within the natural environment. While resource books and curriculum guides can be helpful, one need to bear in mind is that authentic early childhood curriculum comes from children themselves, Jayne (2006). Opportunities for art, music/movement, science, mathematics, block play, social studies, sand, water, dramatic play and outdoor play are provided daily. Pre-kindergarten learning experiences 21 are integrated across content areas and are augmented with a variety of multicultural and non-sexist activities and materials that are adapted to meet the special needs of individual children, English language learners and children with disabilities. The teaching approach is well planned and intentional to help children cumulatively master more complex skills and knowledge. Communication occurs throughout the day, with mutual listening, talking/responding and encouragement to use reasoning and problem-solving skills. The primary focus of the curriculum is to emphasize the importance of developing the whole child, in the learning domains, of social, emotional, physical, creative expression/aesthetic and cognitive development that includes language/literacy development, mathematical and scientific thinking.

The Curriculum for ECE in Zambia emphasises, “hands-on experiences through manipulation of objects and models, interaction with nature through observation of living and non-living things in their environment” (MoE: 2013). The learning areas are in line with those offered at primary education to promote and support the linkage between the Early Childhood and primary education. It is, therefore, hoped that this curriculum will make learning in ECE centres more meaningful and enjoyable as it is highly activity oriented.

2.7.3 Assessment in Pre-school Assessment is the systematic process of gathering relevant information so that legal and instructional decisions are arrived at (Sternberg, 1998). Child assessment is an attempt to find out what a child can do and how he/she does it, and also to realize the effectiveness of the teacher. After all, teaching and learning are reciprocal processes that influence each other and only through assessment can it be determined how well the teacher is teaching and how well the student or child is learning (Kellough & Kellough, 1999). An assessment tool with a clear protocol that measures children’s progress in all learning domains is critical.

In Montessori schools, assessment is done through teacher observations, anecdotal records, and parent-teacher conference forms. The results of Roemer’s study (as cited in Dunn, 2000) indicated that besides those methods, 90% of Montessori schools used some form of standardized tests. In ‘Montessori House’, early childhood education settings, anecdotal records, informal conferences with students, observation of students, one-to-one interviews with students, checklists of lessons,

22 demonstration of skill mastery and standardized achievement tests are used to assess each child’s development areas independently (Dunn, 2000).

In early childhood years, development is so rapid that it is very difficult to assess development of young children appropriately (Gober, 2002), and because of this reason assessment in early childhood education is different from the concepts of education in older ages. Finding out appropriate ways to assess development of young children might be very difficult for both teachers and researchers. There is, however, need for the MoE to provide guidelines on assessment of preschool children in the ECE centres annexed to government primary schools.

2.7.4 Materials and Equipment In early childhood stage, a child learns through interacting with the immediate environment, hence environment should be stimulating and should have a variety of materials to arouse and sustain the child’s curiosity, interest and promote his learning. According to the Ministry Of Women and Child Development, Government of India (Curriculum Framework, 2012, p 14-15), an effective Early Childhood Education program should exhibit some essential play and learning materials that include:- i. adequate supply of developmentally appropriate play materials to foster all round

development,

ii. Materials and equipment which are safe, clean and in good conditions,

iii. sufficient quantity of materials to enable learners work in small groups and should easily be accessible by the child,

iv. Materials which promote gross and fine motor development and help the child to discover and explore including constructing and reconstructing.

v. It should promote sensory exploration and social interaction along with creative expressions through arts, painting, etc. Adequate space is required when setting up classroom teaching/learning centres. Three basic settings are needed: a place for the whole class to work together, a place for students to work independently, and a place for teacher-directed small group work. It is helpful to use a map of the classroom with scale cut-outs of furniture and equipment to try different arrangements. 23

There is need to arrange the room in a way to better accommodate children’s needs; this should be characteristic of the annexed ECE centres in the government primary schools in Zambia.

2.7.5 Comprehensive ECE Services Comprehensive services are an integral part of an effective early childhood program. They include health services, physical examinations, disease prevention, vision and hearing screening, nutrition services, social services and counselling. These services are designed to build upon the strengths and alleviate the needs of young children and their families. Comprehensive services in the child’s home language must be provided for children who come from homes where the predominant language spoken is other than English. There is need for such services in the annexed ECE centres in the main primary school system for safety and health of pre-schoolers. 2.7.6 Professional Development Professional development services, specifically geared towards early childhood education are an essential component of high-quality developmentally appropriate practices. These services must be rigorous, content relevant, organized, strategic, as well as sustained throughout the year to ensure the effective implementation of standards-based developmentally appropriate early education instruction. Professional development is supposed to be provided by the Ministry of Education, in collaboration with the district standards officers, to ensure that the teaching staff and administrators are provided with information to strengthen overall program implementation in terms of instruction, assessment, family involvement, support services, transition and continuity. A minimum of four (4) professional development days for staff must be provided each year in the ECE centres to improve on quality effective implementation of the program.

2.7.7 Staff Qualifications The critical relationship between staff experience, high quality training, commensurate compensation and the effectiveness of a program is well documented. Staff, teachers, social workers, and administrators, must have in-depth knowledge of child development and how young children learn. All teachers providing instruction in pre-school must have a certification valid for service in the early childhood grades. A special education certification or license is required where instruction is provided to students who are classified as Children with Special Educational Needs (CSEN). The government should adequately deploy ECE teachers with valid qualifications in all the ECE centres, with a minimum of Diploma.

2.7.8 Leadership and Administrative Supervision The school leadership should articulate the pre-school philosophy to parents, staff and the community, and it also serves as a source of support for staff and families by facilitating ongoing opportunities for learning and development. Alongside these responsibilities, the supervisor continually assesses program quality, institutes measure of accountability to strengthen the instructional practices and promotes curriculum implementation. Therefore, there is need for head teachers of ECE centres to undergo training in Early Childhood Education for proper implementation of the program.

The right to education imposes an obligation upon countries to ensure that all citizens have opportunities to meet their basic learning needs. As such governments have a task of ensuring that each human being has the opportunity to attain some basic education. Such opportunities can best be attained when proper policies are formulated and supported by both politicians and the government. A policy is typically described as a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes (Althaus, Bridgman & Glyn, 2007). It is developed to guide actions toward those that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome. According to the MoE Strategic Plan 2003-2007, the EFA Framework of Action (2004) and as reflected in the National Development Plan for Education 2006-2010, “Early Childhood Care, Education and Development (ECCED) is the level of education (informal, non-formal or formal) which a child (0-6 years) undergoes before he/she attains the compulsory age (7 years in Zambia) of entry to a primary/basic school.” The existing National Policy of the Ministry of Education (MoE, 1996) focuses on children 3-6 years old, and not on the age group 0-2 years. In line with the 2004 GRZ Gazette, the Ministry’s concern has been the establishment of Early Childhood programmes for children living in rural areas and poor urban areas. According to the GRZ Gazette, the Ministry of Education resolved to work with partner ministries, district and urban councils, local communities, NGOs, religious groups, families and individuals in order to increase access at this level. 2.9 Theoretical Framework 2.9.1 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory This study was guided by the early childhood and Education theory of lev Vygotsky’s which stresses the fundamental role of social interaction in development of cognition as he believed that

25 community plays a central role of the process of making meaning and that children learn actively and through hands on experiences. In Vygotsky “s theory of education and development he believes that learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an individual’s understanding of the world. This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development which is the gap between what a person can do with help and what they can do on their own. It is with the help of the more knowledgeable others that people are able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of understanding. In the experience of speech community the child’s mind was patterned and the child learned to work with his/her own mind. ”The true development of thinking is not from the individual to the social, but from the social to the individual” (Vygotsky, 1986, p.36)

2.10 Conceptual Framework This study was guided by the Early Childhood Education perspectives of the following scholars Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, and Froebel. Rudolf Steiner founded the first Waldorf schools in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1919 (Ashley, 2008). The major goal of Waldorf schools was to help young children to adjust to both physical and spiritual facts of their existence and use them in the best way. In Waldorf schools, a teacher was seen as a gardener of the child’s soul and cultivator of environment (Ogletree, 1996).

In the Montessori approach to education and child development, the teacher, the child, and the environment created a learning triangle. The classroom was prepared by the teacher to encourage independence, freedom within limits, and a sense of order. The child, through individual choice, made use of what the environment offers to develop himself or herself, interacting with the teacher when support and/or guidance was needed.

An illustration below shows the hallmarks of the Montessori Method:-

INTERRACTIONS IN 26 ECE

The Montessori approach offered a broad vision of education as an aid to life. It was designed to help children with their task of inner construction as they grew from childhood to maturity. It succeeded because it drew its principles from the natural development of the child. Its flexibility provided a matrix within which each individual child's inner directives freely guided the child toward wholesome growth.

From the above perspectives, there is need for an authentic policy to guide the ECCED effective implementation in Zambia. According to a UNESCO Policy Brief on Early Childhood Curriculum (2004), Early Childhood Education poses a dilemma for curriculum designers. The UNESCO Policy Brief states that, on one hand, there is need to guide the personnel in early childhood centres, especially when they have low certification and little training because a curriculum helps to ensure that staff covers important learning areas, adopt a common pedagogical approach and reach for a certain level of quality across age groups and regions of a country. More so, it is noted that a curriculum can be a focus for further training. On the other hand, it is widely recognized that the aims of the ECE curriculum must be broad, and contribute to the child’s overall development as well as to later success in school. This problem seems to be prevalent at present in Zambia.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the research methodology which was employed in conducting this research. It covers methods, design, instruments, and collection techniques, sampling techniques, analysis and ethical considerations.

3.2 Research Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring the researcher effectively addresses the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data (Yin, 1994).

The Study is aimed at information from respondents on the impact of early childhood education on child development and the study employed qualitative approach in order to convert the data to be collected and also to give an opportunity to the researcher to use multiple source of evidence which increased validity and reliability in the findings. However, the main research design that is going to be used is descriptive survey since the use of research questions were employed as opposed to the hypothesis and respondents’ views might be subjective. Descriptive survey was helpful to facilitate an in-depth analysis of findings and logical explanations and also help in yielding qualitative data. 3.3 Sampling techniques (population, sample and sampling procedure)

3.3.1 Target Population The study targeted members of the PTA board and the district education authority members in selected schools in Lusaka district and a total population of Approximately 240 from the four selected school was drawn. The schools are namely Firdausi trust school in chawama, Lady Diana School in Kanyama, Sembo Park PVT School in Garden compound and saint Francis of Assisi School in makeni.

3.3.2 Sample Size A sample is a small proportion of the selected population for observation and analysis. By observing the characteristics of a sample which is diverse, representative, accessible and knowledgeable in a 28 study area, findings can be generalized (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). A sample of 24 participants was drawn from four schools, comprising 6 teachers, 3 head teachers, 3 ECE teachers, 2 District Education authorities and 10 parents.

3.3.3 Sampling Procedure Sampling procedure refers to the part of the study that indicates how respondents will be selected to be part of the sample. Purposive sampling and simple random sampling will be used in this study. Purposive sampling was used to select key informants such as Head teachers, ECE class teachers, the DEBS and parents of pre-school children. According to Kombo and Tromp (2006), purposive sampling targets only the people believed to be reliable for the study. Newbold (2007) asserts that when the desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate and recruit for a study, purposive sampling may be the only option. He further argues that purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where a sampling for proportionate is not a primary concern. Simple random sampling was used to select primary school teachers and parents of preschool children. White (2002) states that random sampling includes any technique that provides each population element an equal probability of being included in the sample. 3.4 Instruments for Data Collection Data was collected using questionnaires from primary school teachers, Head teachers and from ECE class teachers while interview guides was utilised to gather information from parents and the District Education Management officers.

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection Questionnaires were distributed to all respondents. Respondents who were visually impaired were assisted by reading out the questions to them. Questionnaires was then collected from respondents by the researcher for data analysis. Interviews will be recorded using a digital camera, the use of interviews in this case allowed individuals to express themselves freely.

3.6 Data Analysis The qualitative data which will be collected from the informants using open ended questions were be analysed using thematic analysis. The analysis involved going through the contents of the in- depth explanations given by the key informants and presenting them in a narrative form.

A pilot study, pilot project, pilot test, or pilot experiment is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to performance of a full-scale research project (Blackwell, 1994). The researcher will conduct a pilot project before actual field work to test data collection instruments and see how effective they can be used depending on the out of the pilot study.

3.7 Ethical Consideration

This study was conducted in an ethical manner possible, hence it observes this in the following manner.

• Respondents participated on the basis of informed consent. This involved the researcher in providing sufficient information and assurances about taking part to allow individuals to understand the implications of participation and to reach a fully informed, considered and freely given decision about whether or not to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or coercion.

• There was no use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language needs to be avoided in the formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.

• Privacy and anonymity or respondents is of a paramount importance.

• Acknowledgement of works of other authors used in any part of the study.

• Maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in discussions and analyses throughout the research.

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION

4.1 Overview

The chapter presents findings on the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District. The findings are presented according to the following objectives;

• To ascertain the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District;

▪ To investigate factors that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District; and

▪ To highlight the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District. 4.1 Social Demographics 4.1.0 Number of Years Worked in Current Position by Respondents

The data revealed that 2 of the head teachers had served about 7 years, many teachers had been working for years in the ranges of 2 to 5 years and for the DEBS officials they had been in the same position for more than ten 10 years. 4.1.1 Highest Qualification of Respondents

The data revealed that seven 7 of the teachers had diploma holders, three 3 were certificate holders and 2 were degree holders.

4.1.2 Parents and Guardians

The field study engaged 10 parents and guardians from selected households. These were randomly and purposively sampled.

4.2 Study Findings 4.2.0 Ascertaining of the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban

4.2.0.0 Teachers’ and School Administrators perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development

The data showed that all the ten 10 respondents agreed that the impact of early childhood education on child development on children from different ECCDE centres cited by teachers and head teachers were that children had rich and firm educational backgrounds; they entered the regular schools with pre-reading and writing skills. Moreover, children who at an early age, developed high interest in school work, easily socialized when they went to regular schools, were prepared to learn and able to speak English. Good discipline was also instilled in them at an early age and that developed long life interest for school. One of the Teachers Said:

“it was very necessary for the children to have an ECCDE background before they went to regular schools. This was because of the numerous benefits which both the teacher and the child got after acquiring an early education. The children easily understood concepts, got equipped with learning skills and were focused on their work” (Head Master, participant 12).

“In the social skill segment, we discuss with the learner’s important social skills and practical’s kills such as hygiene and interpersonal skills” (Teacher Participant 3).

“The education given in early childhood shapes foundation of the life and helps mental and academic development of child. It is very essential to recognize importance of early childhood education and how it effects to person’s life” (Debs Official, Participant, 7). 4.2.1.1 Parents and Guardians perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development.

The views of focus group discussions held with parents of the children who attended ECCDE centres revealed that they were happy and appreciated the services given to their children. The 32 common views were that their children had strong and firm foundation in education. The education at the centres also removed fear in them and enabled them to socialize, unlike other children who did not pass through the centres.

“My children have benefited a lot because they do not mess themselves as they go to regular school like what other children who do not pass through ECCDE do”

By proving proper education in early childhood, children learn basic foundation of their whole life and also develop social, mental, and academic activities. Among many benefits of early childhood education, most fundamental reason is that education provided in five to eight years is very influential to what kind of person a child would grow up and is vital for academic and mental development of an individual.

“Children taught at an early age usually benefit in the following ways: Improved social skills, there are less or no need for special education instruction during subsequent school years, better grades, and enhanced attention spans and fewer behavioural problems, and do not become involved with crime in their adolescent and young adult years” (DEBS Official 1).

“With the coming of ECCDE my children have shown the zeal and the desire to learn” (Parent, Participant 2).

4.2.1 Factors that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District.

This section covers factor that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District. Respondents provided answers that would ensure success to meeting the intended impacts of ECE on child development.

Summary of Determinants Factors for Key Intended Impacts Determinant Factors EDC on Child Development

Encouraging both community and private efforts in the provision of early childhood education

Making provision in teacher education programmes for specialisation in early childhood education

Ensuring that the medium of instruction will principally be the mother tongue or the language of the immediate Cognitive Development, community Curricular and pedagocal continous Language development, improvement; Good and nurturing Social-emotional, Health Ensuring that the main method of teaching in the environment; multi-sectroal inovlment; Promotions childhood education centres will be through play, and that professional development the curriculum of teacher education is appropriately oriented to achieve this

Regulating and controlling the operation of early childhood education to this end, the teacher-pupil ratio is set at 1:25

Setting and monitoring a minimum standard for early childcare centres in the country

Table 1: Factors That determine the positive impacts of ECE on Child Development.

Source: Self-Generated, 2020.

Table 1 shows the determining factors of that ensure ECE impacts on child development as provided by study respondents the major ones are:

• Encouraging both community and private efforts in the provision of early childhood education.

• Making provision in teacher education programmes for specialisation in early childhood education.

• Ensuring that the medium of instruction was principally be the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community.

• Ensuring that the main method of teaching in the childhood education centres were through play, and that the curriculum of teacher education is appropriately oriented to achieve this.

• Regulating and controlling the operation of early childhood education – to this end, the teacher-pupil ratio is set at 1:25.

• Setting and monitoring a minimum standard for early childcare centres in the country.

• Ensuring full participation of government, communities and teachers’ associations in the running and maintenance of early childhood education facilities.

Using most responses from teachers, school administrators and DEBS officials, these determining factors are mostly supported by key factors which are curricular and pedagogical continuous improvement; Good and nurturing environment; multi-sectoral involvement and professional development. 4.2.2 Impact of Early Childhood Education On Child Development in Selected Schools and Households of Lusaka District.

The study under this section analysed the responses on the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District. Overall it presents the picture of what the study participants have experienced depending outcomes for children.

Highlighted Domain of Impact Specific Impact on Child Development Academic” aspects which include mathematics, literacy, intelligence tests, and also school readiness, grade Cognitive Development retention, and special education placement decisions usually based on cognitive/knowledge performance.

Learning dispositions and orientations such as Dispositional and social-emotional independence, perseverance, good attitudes and behavior, participation, curiosity, and social competence. Hygiene is developed in learners and development of Health Promotion health habits.

Develop language skill and ability to acquire vocabulary Language Development for children learning to speak properly.

Table 1: Highlighted Impacts of ECE on Child Development.

As presented in the table above respondents highlighted the impacts of ECE on child development which have been grouped under the main domains of cognitive development, dispositional and social-emotional, health Promotion and language Development. Under cognitive development the major responses were that ECE had impacts related to academic aspects such as mathematics, literacy, intelligence tests, and also school readiness, grade retention, and special education placement decisions usually based on cognitive/knowledge performance. On dispositional and social-emotional major responses were related to earning dispositions and orientations such as independence, perseverance, good attitudes and behaviour, participation, curiosity, and social competence. Many study participants talked about language development by stating that ECE impact on child development is that it leads to development of language skill and ability to acquire vocabulary for children learning to speak properly. The last and not least, was health promotion, respondents as Language Development Some of these responses linked ECE on child development to good hygiene developed in learners and development of health habits.

“Children make greater progress on early number concepts and pre- reading measures during ECE participation” (Teacher, Participant, 5).

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.0 Overview

This chapter basically gives a narrative discussion of the findings that have been presented in the previous chapter. The researcher endeavors to discuss the findings in relation to the research objectives that have been presented early in the study.

5.1 Ascertaining of the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District.

From the findings of this study, the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households suggest, that attendance of early childhood education is associated with better physical and cognitive development and greater likelihood of on-time transition to primary school. The results presented in this paper suggest that the school readiness effects of center attendance are largest for letter naming and task orientation owing to the parents’ full perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households. While most centers do not have highly- trained teachers, its curricular focus on letters and early literacy skills, early numeracy concepts and group play help prepare children for primary school. Given that attendance seems to improve from the parent perceptions and awareness which have improved task orientation, the study believes that the impacts of ECE school attendance would be visible to parents. Therefore, the study strongly agrees with the findings of Kingdon & Theopold, (2006), that beginning primary school on time is the first step in children’s educational careers, and starting late can be a risk factor for dropout, as late starters will be above-age for their grade. Furthermore, social and economic pressures to leave school increase with age, as alternatives to school, including paid work and marriage, become more compelling.

Parents, teacher and school administrators have perception and an awareness that the implications from a high-quality, early learning settings are broad, including academic benefits, social skills, and positive attitudes. The evidence from the study, has demonstrated that impacts come from both benefits and outcome effects of ECE on child development. Learning social skills early in life is predictive of children’s ability to adjust to society and be productive members of their culture. There are now 5 years of evidence that Early Learning Centers have provided a means for this to occur. These perceptions and awareness comes from the fact that children have shown ability to behave 37 appropriately, establish social relationships, engage in social interactions, and provide evidence of emotional maturity. When comparing students with other children in their classes, they behave significantly better than their peers, they have significantly more competent social interactions, and they are more emotionally mature than their peers from 1st through the 4th grades. Not only does this evidence begin at ECE, it grows, develops, and matures.

5.2 Determinants of the Impact of Early Childhood Education On Child Development in Selected Schools in Lusaka urban

The research demonstrates that the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools are mostly determined by quality characteristics of early years provision are the factors that determine important for enhancing children's development; such as adult-child interaction that is responsive, affectionate and readily available; well-trained staff who are committed to their work with children; facilities that are safe and sanitary and accessible to parents; ratios and group sizes that allow staff to interact appropriately with children; supervision that maintains consistency; staff development that ensures continuity, stability and improving quality; and a developmentally appropriate curriculum with educational content.

To promote stronger impacts, ECEC should be characterized by both structural features of quality and ongoing supports to teachers to assure that the immediate experiences of children, those provided through activities and interactions, are rich in content and stimulation, while also being emotionally supportive. In addition, teachers who encourage children to speak, with interactions involving multiple turns by both the teacher and child to discuss and elaborate on a given topic, foster greater gains during the preschool year, across multiple domains of children’s learning. In addition to in-classroom professional development supports, the pre-service training and education of ECEC staff is of critical concern. However, here evaluation research is still scant. There are a range of recent innovations – for example, increasing integration of in classroom experiences in higher education teacher preparation courses; hybrid web-based and in-person training approaches; and attention to overlooked areas of early childhood teacher preparation such as work with children with disabilities, work with children learning two languages, or teaching of early math skills. This finding is supported by studies (Kellough & Kellough, 1999; Jayne, 2006; Lillard, 2011), that found out that facilitating environments provide conditions for the kind of teaching and learning that lead

38 to quality outcomes for children, especially qualified staff, low child: adult ratios, small group size, and staff professional development opportunities

In addition, the study has determined that the positive impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District is that an effective curriculum and education in early childhood encourage and develop language skill and ability to acquire vocabulary for children learning to speak properly. This finding is in agreement to early childhood education research journal, most capacity of language skill of learning vocabulary, which is a foundation for literacy, develops by ages of three. In line with the finding, Bouchard and Gilles (2011), studied the importance of encouraging language skills in early childhood and argued that educators who are in daycare services by age of five have lots of opportunities of stimulating practice that helps children to acquire language skills. Therefore, in line with this finding it would go a long way if policymakers should be clear about what they expect children to be able to do when they enter school so that early education can be geared toward specific measurable goals. More coordination is needed of the full range of early childhood programs in Lusaka should work to ensure adequate teacher training and curriculum development.

The study further establishes that qualified teachers are likely to draw on their knowledge and experience of children and pedagogy to offer the kinds of cognitively challenging adult–child interactions that are linked with gains for children a critical component to determining the intended impact of ECE on child development. A mediated path from structural indicators of quality teacher qualifications and staff, child ratios through process quality to cognitive competence and caregiver ratings of social competence move as a whole volume to ensure positive impacts of ECE on child development. Studies have also established this fact by suggesting that more caregiver training may lead to better interactions between children and adults, while lower ratios may lead to more interactions for a more determined and focus impact intervention that ensure a positive impact on child development (). Furthermore, curricula can play a crucial role in ensuring that children experience high quality care which facilitates their development of cognitive and academic skills, and thus helps them to acquire school readiness skills during the preschool years. Curricula vary widely in their design and focus, and in their recent review, global curricula tend to have a wide scope, and refer to activities which are thought to promote development in all areas of learning, and developmentally focused curricula which are designed to promote learning in specific content areas. 39

A number of Studies (Gober, 2002; Althaus, et. al, 2007), have in line with this finding established that, developmentally focused curricula are generally better placed to bring out the best of impacts on children.

The study has furthermore uncovered that as key determinant to positive impact of ECE on child development there is need for kinds of institutional, funding, and regulatory arrangements that support provision of good quality ECE will enable these features to be achieved, such as through regulating recommended standards for staffing in terms of qualifications, ratios, and group size, opportunities for professional development for all teachers, opportunities for teachers to investigate teaching, learning using inquiry approaches, and support for good quality provision to be available in all communities. This review gives substantial support for continuing to give good quality ECE priority in not only in Lusaka but all over the country of Zambia.

5.3 The impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools in Lusaka urban.

From the findings of study, development in early childhood does not only affect to academic and physical activities, but also involves relationship with other people and emotional and cognitive development. The study demonstrates that people easily think children struggle to find their ego in adolescence; however, children actually start to realize their identity in first eight years and inner capacity of imagination and self-image of gender roles start to develop. Early childhood education has impact on early brain development make it clear that quality care and early education should be vital components of every child’s life. New knowledge about child development should be incorporated into early childhood curricula and parent education. Continued scientific research on brain development and early learning is needed.

The study furthermore, shows positive outcomes cognitive, learning dispositions, and social emotional of ECE participation for learners in the short and long term. These were most evident in centers rated as good quality in respect to responsive and stimulating adult–child interactions and rich learning environments, and in centers employing qualified teachers, with adult: child ratios and group sizes that enabled teachers to work with small groups of children or interact one on one with individual children. This finding resonates with consistent evidence from various studies which have found ECE participation is positively associated with gains in mathematics and literacy, school 40 achievement, intelligence tests, and also school readiness, reduced grade retention, and reduced special education placement; learning dispositions and key competencies are seen as combinations of ability, inclination, and sensitivity to occasion, and refer to the competencies and skills that enable children to keep learning; and emphasizes that later, successive, educational contexts are significant influences on the enduring effects of learning orientations and dispositions (Ashley, 2008).

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

Early childhood is a critical time for cognitive socioemotional development. For children under the age of five, cognitive and psychosocial stimulation may be especially important for psychological and neurological growth. The study has established that Early Childhood Education (ECE) impacts positively child development in the long term and shorter. ECE help children gain skills necessary for child development in educational success later in life by ensuring they are fully developed cognitively and socially.

The research evidence supports the contention that better quality child care is related to better cognitive and social development for children. While these effects of child care quality are in the modest to moderate range, they are found even after adjusting for family selection factors related to both the quality of care and to children’s outcomes. This finding was supported by numerous studies have found short-term effects of child care quality on children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development during the preschool years. Longer-term effects lasting into the elementary school years have also been found, although fewer longitudinal studies have been conducted to examine this issue. Moreover, these results indicate that the influences of child care quality are important for children from all backgrounds.

As a whole, these findings suggest that policies which promote good quality child care during the early childhood years are important for all children. The study has determined that good quality care is expensive to provide; it is associated with well-trained and educated staff, low staff–child ratios, low staff turnover rates, good wages, and effective leadership. Given the high cost as well as the relative paucity of good-quality care, consideration needs to be given to both the availability and the affordability of care. The most successful policies will need to take all these factors into account, so that good quality care is a realistic option for all children. Given the high usage rates of child care during the preschool years, such an investment would seem to be an important path to explore in improving children’s readiness for and success in school.

Findings on the ECEC and children’s cognitive, language and academic outcomes are more conclusive when it comes to over-threes in ECEC. The study adds to the evidence that shows that ECEC participation boosts cognitive development and school readiness skills, as well as school 42 achievement, some of them lasting into later childhood, and adolescence. Thus, despite the large number of possible combinations which define individual preschool experience, enrolment to routine preschool for the over-threes provides developmental benefits to children. This is an impressive finding, considering that it has provided clear evidence for impacts of ECE programs on child development with substantial effects for both cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes, and possibly through to possibly adulthood.

Increasingly common, early childhood care plays an important role in children’s development and provides a valuable support to families with young children. It is therefore important to understand the impact of these services and to ensure their quality and accessibility. Early childhood is a time when developmental changes are happening that can have profound and lasting consequences for a child’s future. The study has highlight that more is going on cognitively, socially, and emotionally in young children than previously known. Even in their earliest years, children are starting to learn about their world in sophisticated ways. Development proceeds in ways that are both rapid and cumulative, with early progress laying the foundation for future learning. Enriching experiences in the early years will support children’s healthy development. In contrast, serious stress or adversity can have harmful effects on the growing brain and a child’s developmental progress. While it is claimed that ECCE has the potential to provide positive cognitive outcomes, it seems difficult to imagine that quality instruction and, therefore, cognitively challenging instruction, will occur in these dire educational environments.

However, the study has demonstrated that there are no one-size fits all instruction best suited for all children. While some children benefit immensely from pre-school, it may not be the best educational setting for other children. In most cases, children benefit most by receiving educational instruction from their parents. Parents must evaluate a child’s unique personality before determining which program is best suited for a child since not all programs benefit children the same way. In group settings, early childhood education provides kids with special skills. Children in these settings learn how to work well together, as a group or a team. This is particularly important for children without siblings at home. Goal setting is another topic that is taught through these learning programs. Children see the benefit of trying hard, focusing, and paying attention. Each of these will soon be crucial to future education years.

6.2 Recommendations

The system for educating children from birth through age 8 can be improved to better support care and education professionals in acquiring and using the competencies and knowledge they need. The following recommendations are of particular relevance in line with study findings:

• The government through MOE should strengthen competency-based qualification requirements for all care and education professionals working with children from birth through age 8. • The MOE through the DEBS office should develop and implement comprehensive pathways and multiyear timelines at the individual, institutional, and policy levels for transitioning to a minimum bachelor’s degree qualification requirement, with specialized knowledge and competencies, for all lead educators working with children from birth through age 8. • The MOE through the DEBS office should strengthen practice-based qualification requirements, including a supervised induction period, for all lead educators working with children from birth through age 8. • The government through MOE should develop a new paradigm for evaluation and assessment of professional practice for those who work with children from birth through age 8. • The government and major stakeholders should Improve consistency and continuity for children from birth through age 8 by strengthening collaboration and communication among professionals and systems within the care and education sector and with closely related sectors, especially health and social services. • The government and the major stakeholders should ensure that policies and standards that shape the professional learning of care and education leaders encompass the foundational knowledge and competencies needed to support high-quality practices for child development and early learning in their organizations.

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APPENDIX

Appendix A Timeframe The study will run from February 2020 to July 2020. Data compilation will begin by mid May 2020 which will be concluded by report submission. This is given in details in the work plan below.

Description of February March April 2020 May June July 2020 2020 2020 2020 Activity 2020 Research Proposal writing Data collection Data analysis Research/report writing Submission of report

Appendix B Introduction/Consent Letter

Dear Sir/Madam,

You are one of the few research participants who have been randomly selected to participate in this study, entitled ‘The impact of early childhood education on child development’. Which is guided by the following objectives:

General research objective

To find out the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District.

Specific objectives of the study

▪ To ascertain the perspectives and awareness of the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households in Lusaka District.

▪ To investigate factors that determine the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District.

▪ To highlight the impact of early childhood education on child development in selected schools and households of Lusaka District.

The exercise is purely for academic purposes. You are therefore requested to freely answer all questions in this paper for your responses will be treated highly confidential.

This study is being conducted under the supervision of The Cavendish University.

Your cooperation and truthful responses to this questionnaire will be highly appreciated.

Appendix C Interview Guide for Parents of the Pre-School Children and Other Stakeholders

Instructions:

1. Do not write your name on this questionnaire

2. You are free to answer some questions by ticking

3. Explain in the spaces provided

Personal Details

1. What is your sex?

a) Male

b) Female

2. What is your marital status

a) Single

b) Married

c) Divorced

3. What is your educational level…………………………………………………………………...

4. Why do you take your child for ECE? ……......

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …..

5. What do you understand by ‘Early Childhood Education? …………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …...

6. How do you think ECE helps child/children develop? ……………………………………......

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ….

7. What role do you play, as a parent/guardian, in ECE development of your child? ……….

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

8. Why do your take your child for ECE? …………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. Does the school often call you to discuss your children’s progress?

a) Yes

b) No

10. How do you fair your child’s/Children’s progress? …………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………. .

11. What do you think are the benefits of ECE? …………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …

12. Make some suggestions on the better ways of providing ECE. ……………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …..

13. Explain ways of how you are involved in your child’s pre-school education …………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …..

14. What methods/ways can the school use to encourage child development in Early Childhood Education? ………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …...

15. What suggestions do you have to improve child development in the spheres and aims of ECE?

......

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR THE ECE CLASS TEACHERS

1. What is your sex?

a) Male 58

b) Female

2. Which age group do you belong to?

a) 15-20

b) 20-25

c) 25-30

d) 30-35

e) 35 and above

ACADEMIC DETAILS

3. What is your educational Qualification level?

a) Grade 7 certificate

b) Grade 9 certificate

c) Grade 12 certificate

4. What is your professional qualification?

a) College certificate

b) Diploma

c) Degree

5. Do you have enough teaching materials?

a) Yes

b) No

I. If your answer is yes in question 5 where do you get these teaching materials? ………………………………………………………………………

6. What is the enrolment of your class? Boys...... Girls...... Total……….

7. How are children performing in class and how is their behaviour

and attitude? ……………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

8. To you what is ECE and Child development? ......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. How does ECE benefit the child and their families? ......

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. How long have you worked in the ECE as a teacher/school administrator/policy maker and how has been your experience in child development? ……………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …

11. What do you think are the intended main outcomes of ECE? ………………………………………. 60

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12 How does ECD contribute to child development? ………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. .

13. In your experience how have you observed the impacts of ECE on child development? ………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. .

14. What feedback do you get from the parents and guardians of ECE on child development? …..

……………………………………………………………………………………………… …

15. How favourable/prepared is your classroom environment? ………………………………………

16. How has it impacted on child development? ………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

17.In which ways are parent’s involvement in the provision of ECE?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….