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Table of Contents ACCESS, QUALITY, AND OPPORTUNITY: A CASE STUDY OF ZAMBIA OPEN COMMUNITY SCHOOLS (ZOCS) By Michelle Mwalimu A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Educational Policy 2011 ABSTRACT Access, Quality, and Opportunity: A Case Study of Zambia Open Community Schools (ZOCS) By Michelle Mwalimu Community schools and other approaches to Alternative Primary Education or APE have increased access to primary education for underserved populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America as a major goal of the Education for All (EFA) movement. In Zambia, a country where an estimated 20 percent of the basic education enrollment now attends community schools, such efforts are undoubtedly the most significant responses to the Zambian government‘s incapacity to provide a sufficient number of school places to primary-aged children. While community schools make meaningful contributions to the goals of EFA by increasing access for various populations, it remains unclear how Zambia‘s estimated 2,500 community schools are monitored and evaluated. Indeed, while advocates have praised community schools more generally for their focus on disadvantaged children, community control, and relevance to students‘ everyday lives, critics argue that these schools are ―second-rate education for second-rate students‖ that perpetuate a system of inequality in which country governments play a minimal role in ensuring both access and quality for all students. In this case study, I attempt to understand how various community schools in Zambia function, raising questions about why some families send their children to community schools and what lies ahead for community school students upon completion. In addition, I assess various successes and challenges faced by Zambia‘s largest community school organization, (Zambia Open Community Schools or ZOCS) analyzing perceptions, expectations and outcomes of schooling among students, teachers, and representatives of agencies who work directly or indirectly with ZOCS specifically and other community schools more generally. Considering multiple actors and perspectives within schools, communities, and ZOCS as an organization, I apply my understanding of community schools within Zambia‘s larger social, political, and economic context to argue that despite national statistics illustrating the discouraging odds of progression through public secondary school and onto college or university, community school students in Zambia‘s urban and rural areas maintain a steadfast belief in the power of schooling to ultimately improve their living conditions by securing access to higher education and skilled employment. Utilizing interview and survey data collected over 14 months in the context of literature to date, I build a case for both praise and critique of community schools and the role of educational non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in a southern African context. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Most thanks and praise to God, eternal source of life, love, and wisdom, without whom I would not have the strength, courage, patience, and determination to embark on such an ambitious, long-term project. Words cannot express how blessed I am to be a product of such a phenomenal union of two brilliant, daring, and gifted individuals who took more risks to live and love as they wished than I could ever imagine. To my mother and father, I am eternally indebted to you for your unending support, encouragement, and care. To my loving siblings: Desiree for her endless compassion and understanding, Rehana for her ferocious strength and will, Charlie for always indulging me with the fun-loving optimism of youth. To my family in Zambia for keeping me safe and sane: the Chibilitis, Mwondelas, and Aunty Aziza and Fazila for housing me, feeding me, and helping me feel at home for the first time in Zambia. Many thanks to my big sister, Patricia Chibiliti who nursed me back to health each time I fell sick, cooked me dinner on days I was too lazy, and spent her last dime to show me a great time in Lusaka. Zambia is not Zambia without her. To the Alloo family, especially Uncle Iqbal and Aunty Rokea, Uncle Yusuf and Aunty Aisha, Uncle Nazir and Aunty Shaheen, Uncle Amin and Aunty Juby, Uncle Faruq and Aunty Naseema, Yankee, and Aunty Fatima. Special thanks Dr. Mulla for his fatherly love and support throughout my journey. To the faculty and staff at Michigan State University: Dr. Michael Sedlak for believing in me and supporting me from my first steps onto MSU‘s campus in the winter of 2006 to my preparation to graduate this year. To Dr. Jack Schwille, my advisor and friend who read this iv dissertation word for word, provided invaluable feedback, and allowed me to maintain my vision for the project while pushing me to think more deeply and critically. Many thanks to committee members Dr. John Metzler, Dr. Amita Chudgar, and Dr. Reitu Mabokela: Dr. Metzler for visiting me in Lusaka, spending time with me in my temporary home and at community schools, and providing the father-like guidance I needed; Dr. Amita Chudgar for nurturing my development through coursework and encouraging me to think of my skills in the context of my individual career and professional development; Dr. Mabokela for mothering me and reminding me that there is a life to be had after one‘s dissertation! Many thanks to Dr. Sharif Shakrani, Dr. Sonya Gunnings, Anne Schneller, Marlene Green, and staff at the Office of Academic Affairs for your unending patience and willingness to share resources and support. Many thanks to Miss. Harriet Miyato, Luchele Chisunka, Charles Chama, and the entire Zambia Open Community Schools (ZOCS) staff for allowing me into your organization and offering me unlimited access to your work, your schools, and your resources. I sincerely hope that this study will be useful to your work in some capacity and that this project marks only the beginning of future collaboration on projects to strengthen your phenomenal schools. I cannot express my gratitude enough to all the study participants, including students, teachers, members of Parent Community School Committees (PCSCs), and community members who offered their time, effort, and suggestions. I must recognize the Fulbright-Hays Commission, Zambia‘s Ministry of Education, the Examinations Council of Zambia, including Joe Kanyika, Teza Nakazwe, and staff at the Zambia offices of USAID and UNICEF for your gracious financial, technical, and human support of my project. v To my best friends, Chontae Coleman and Leshia Jones for travelling to Michigan to visit, listening to my worries and complaints, and reading my articles on the way to work: I love you guys! To Kayra Hopkins, my best MSU friend and travel companion who spent many hours and thousands of dollars coming to visit me and embark on outlandish journeys over the last four years. Special thanks to Kiazi Malonga without whom I would not have been encouraged to attend MSU, apply for the Fulbright-Hays fellowship, and travel to Zambia for a year. For moving me in and out of Michigan, listening to my stories, helping me prepare all of my presentations, and being my best friend. Finally, thanks to Michigan State University‘s Black Graduate Student Association (BGSA) for providing a constant source of love and community. To any and all that I have failed to acknowledge, please know that I appreciate you and everything you have done to contribute to my success. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER 1: ................................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION, STUDY RATIONALE, AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................. 1 Study Rationale ....................................................................................................................4 Research Questions ..............................................................................................................5 Study Outline .......................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER 2: ................................................................................................................................. 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 8 Overview ..............................................................................................................................8 Literature Review Part I: Historical Background to Zambian Education ............................8 Pre-Colonial Education ..................................................................................................9 Colonial Education.......................................................................................................10 Post -Independence Education: The Kaunda Years .....................................................13 The Structural Adjustment Period ...............................................................................15 The Chiluba Years and BESSIP ..................................................................................16
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