DOCSLIB.ORG

Global Food Price Volatility and Spikes: an Overview of Costs, Causes, and Solutions

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Global Food Price Volatility and Spikes: an Overview of Costs, Causes, and Solutions A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics von Braun, Joachim; Tadesse, Getaw Working Paper Global food price volatility and spikes: An overview of costs, causes, and solutions ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 161 Provided in Cooperation with: Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung / Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn Suggested Citation: von Braun, Joachim; Tadesse, Getaw (2012) : Global food price volatility and spikes: An overview of costs, causes, and solutions, ZEF Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 161, University of Bonn, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/84801 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, If the documents have been made available under an Open gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. www.econstor.eu ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 161 Joachim von Braun and Getaw Tadesse Global Food Price Volatility and Spikes: An Overview of Costs, Causes, and Solutions Bonn, January 2012 The CENTER FOR DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH (ZEF) was established in 1995 as an international, interdisciplinary research institute at the University of Bonn. Research and teaching at ZEF addresses political, economic and ecological development problems. ZEF closely cooperates with national and international partners in research and development organizations. For information, see: www.zef.de. ZEF – Discussion Papers on Development Policy are intended to stimulate discussion among researchers, practitioners and policy makers on current and emerging development issues. Each paper has been exposed to an internal discussion within the Center for Development Research (ZEF) and an external review. The papers mostly reflect work in progress. The Editorial Committee of the ZEF – DISCUSSION PAPERS ON DEVELOPMENT POLICY include Joachim von Braun (Chair), Solvey Gerke, and Manfred Denich. Joachim von Braun and Getaw Tadesse, Global Food Price Volatility and Spikes: An Overview of Costs, Causes, and Solutions, ZEF- Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 161, Center for Development Research, Bonn, January 2012, pp. 42. ISSN: 1436-9931 Published by: Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung (ZEF) Center for Development Research Walter-Flex-Straße 3 D – 53113 Bonn Germany Phone: +49-228-73-1861 Fax: +49-228-73-1869 E-Mail: [email protected] www.zef.de The authors: Joachim von Braun, Center for Development Research (ZEF). Contact: jvonbraun@uni- bonn.de Getaw Tadesse, formerly with Center for Development Research (ZEF), now with IFPRI, Ethiopia. Contact: [email protected] ii Contents Tables ............................................................................................................................................... v Figures .............................................................................................................................................. v Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................... vi Summary ........................................................................................................................................ vii 1. Global food price dynamics ...................................................................................................... 1 The state of international food prices ........................................................................................... 1 Food price changes ........................................................................................................................ 3 Nonlinearity in global food price dynamics ................................................................................... 5 2. Price volatility and the poor ...................................................................................................... 6 Underlying factors and their diverse effects ................................................................................. 6 Empirical estimates on poverty and hunger .................................................................................. 8 Malnutrition impact ....................................................................................................................... 9 3. Macroeconomic impacts of food prices ................................................................................. 12 Inflation and public finance ......................................................................................................... 12 Foreign exchange ......................................................................................................................... 13 Distortions and misallocations ..................................................................................................... 13 Political unrests ............................................................................................................................ 14 4. Supply and demand shocks ..................................................................................................... 16 Global food price drivers .............................................................................................................. 16 Supply shocks ............................................................................................................................... 17 Biofuel demand ............................................................................................................................ 19 5. Food stocks and trade policies ................................................................................................ 22 Stocks and food prices ................................................................................................................. 22 Trade policies ............................................................................................................................... 22 6. Speculation in commodity futures .......................................................................................... 24 The speculation effect ................................................................................................................. 24 Why does the volume of futures trading affect the futures price? ............................................. 25 Empirical evidence on the speculation effect .............................................................................. 27 Regulating speculation ................................................................................................................. 29 7. Volatility and spike effects of supply, demand, and market shocks ...................................... 30 Effects on food price spikes ......................................................................................................... 30 Effects on volatility....................................................................................................................... 32 iii 8. Policies and further research .................................................................................................. 34 Policies ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Further research .......................................................................................................................... 36 References ...................................................................................................................................... 37 iv Tables Table 1 - The relationship between price levels and price spikes for maize and wheat, January 1986– June 2011 ................................................................................................................................................ 5 Table 2 - Share of food expenditures in total expenditures (%) ............................................................. 7 Table 3 - Weight of food in CPI in some developing countries ............................................................. 12 Table 4 - Changes in cereal trade, 2002–04 to 2008 ............................................................................. 14 Table 5 - Correlations between supply shocks and volatility of prices ................................................. 18 Table 6 - Changes in cereal area and production (three-year average
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Food Speculationspeculation Ploughing Through the Meanders in Food Speculation
    PloughingPloughing throughthrough thethe meandersmeanders inin FoodFood SpeculationSpeculation Ploughing through the meanders in Food Speculation Collaborator Process by Place and date of writing: Bilbao, February 2011. Written by Mónica Vargas y Olivier Chantry from the (ODG) Observatori del Deute en la Globalització (Observatory on Debt in Globalization) of the Càtedra UNESCO de Sostenibilitat Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (Po- lytechnic University of Catalonia’s UNESCO Chair on Sustainability) and edi- ted by Gustavo Duch from Revista Soberanía Alimentaria, Biodiversidad y Culturas (Food Sovereignty, Biodiversity and Cultures Magazine). With the support of Grain www.grain.org and of Mundubat www.mundubat.org This material may be freely shared, although we would appreciate your quoting the source. Co-financed by: “This publication has been produced with the financial support of the Spanish Agency for International Co-operation for Development (AECID). The contents of this publica- tion are the exclusive responsibility of Mundubat and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the AECID.” Index Introduction 5 1. Food speculation: what is it and where does it originate from? 8 Initial definitions 8 Origin and functioning of futures markets 9 In the 1930’s: a regulation that legitimized speculation 12 2. The scaffolding of 21st-century food speculation 13 Liberalization of financial and agricultural markets: two parallel processes 13 Fertilizing the ground for speculation 14 Ever more complex financial engineering 15 3. Agribusiness’
    [Show full text]
  • The Global Food Challenge Towards a Human Rights Approach to Trade and Investment Policies Table of Contents
    The global Food Challenge Towards a Human rigHTs approacH To Trade and invesTmenT policies Table of ConTenTs The Global food Challenge: Introduction 3 Sophia Murphy and Armin Paasch Executive summary 6 Sophia Murphy and Armin Paasch A. FundamenTals 13 I. A Human Rights Approach to Trade and Investment Policies 14 Olivier De Schutter II. Agricultural Trade Liberalization in Multilateral and Bilateral Trade Negotiations 29 Tobias Reichert B. Case StudIes on Trade, InvesTmenT and The rIGhT To food 39 III. World Agricultural Trade and Human Rights – 40 Case studies on violations of the right to food of small farmers Armin Paasch IV. Foreign Investment and the Right to Food 50 Rolf Künnemann V. Women at the Center of the Global Food Challenge 60 Alexandra Spieldoch C. New ChallenGes and ThreaTs 67 VI. The Role of Speculation in the 2008 Food Price Bubble 68 Peter Wahl VII. Deepening the Food Crisis? 79 Climate change, food security and the right to food Thomas Hirsch, Christine Lottje and Michael Windfuhr 1 THe GLobal FooD CHALLenge – Towards a human rIGhTs approaCh To Trade and InvesTmenT polICIes D. Human rIGhTs based alTernaTIves and Tools 91 VIII. An overview of Human Rights Instruments to Raise Concerns 92 About Trade and Investment Policies Elvira Domínguez Redondo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona IX. Towards a Convention on the Rights of Peasants 102 Christophe Golay X. Bridging the Divide: A human rights vision for global food trade 112 Sophia Murphy and Carin Smaller List of abbreviations 125 List of authors 127 Imprint 128 2 The Global food ChallenGe: InTroduction t started with the tortilla crisis in mexico.
    [Show full text]
  • Tackling Hunger and Protecting Consumers Curbing Excessive Speculation on Food April 2013
    MP Briefing Tackling hunger and protecting consumers Curbing excessive speculation on food April 2013 • Excessive financial speculation in food commodity with food prices reaching record highs during 2011. derivatives has significantly increased price volatility • The US has enacted new regulations to curb excessive and inflation for staple foods. This has had negative speculation on food but the implementation is being impacts for consumers and businesses in the UK and delayed by legal action from the financial lobby. The EU has contributed to significant increases in hunger and is in the process of agreeing new regulations. It is vital poverty globally. for the UK government to support effective international • This effect was most clearly seen in the food crisis in legislation rather than promoting failed self-regulation. 2007-2008, when the price of maize rose by 180 per cent. Speculation continues to contribute to food price spikes High and volatile food prices The cause of high volatility – excessive In 2008, food prices reached record levels rising 80 per cent speculation in 18 months then declining rapidly. Since 2009 prices have Between 1996-2011, financial speculators’ share of major climbed again reaching a new record peak in early 2011 and commodity derivative markets for basic foods such as wheat have been at high levels since. has risen from 12 to over 60 per cent. Meanwhile, the value of assets held by financial institutions has nearly doubled Food Price Index 1990 to 2012 (2002-2004=100) from US$65 billion to $126 billion between 2006-2011. 250 Research by the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, 200 UN Conference on Trade, Aid and Development (UNCTAD), the World Development Movement and others demonstrates 150 the central role of financial speculators in the 2007-2008 food crisis and other recent price spikes.
    [Show full text]
  • Rising Food Prices ARE HIGH FOOD PRICES HERE to STAY?
    OCT. 18, 2011 VOLUME 5, NUMBER 20 PAGES 499-524 WWW.GLOBALRESEARCHER.COM Rising Food Prices ARE HIGH FOOD PRICES HERE TO STAY? lobal food prices reached record highs early this year, sending millions around the world into pover- ty and contributing to starvation in East Africa. Many blame the government-subsidized growth in the market for biofuels, such as ethanol. Biofuels are expected to consume 40 percent of this year’s corn crop from the world’s largest producer — the United States. Others say commodities specula- Gtors caused food prices to ricochet wildly. Europe is considering adopting restrictions on speculation similar to a new U.S. law, but Wall Street is lobbying hard to weaken the American regulations. Perennially high food prices may be the first sign that changing climate is handicapping agriculture. To feed the world’s growing population, experts say farmers must double their food output by mid-century — a tall order to fill without destroying more rain forests and further boosting planet-warming carbon emissions. The solution may be a combi- nation of two warring philosophies: high- tech agriculture and traditional farming methods that are kinder to the environ- ment. Protesters carry a man waving a baguette in Tunis, Tunisia, on Jan. 18, 2011. Anger over rising food prices mobilized many of the thousands of people who took to the streets in Tunisia, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East during the “Arab Spring.” PUBLISHED BY CQ PRESS, AN IMPRINT OF SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC. WWW.CQPRESS.COM RISING FOOD PRICES THE ISSUES Biofuels Linked to Future 503 Food Price Hikes • Are government incen- A humanitarian group says Oct.
    [Show full text]
  • Food Investments
    Food Investments Food Prices Soared Over Past Decades Increasing demand in particular from the above-average growing population in emerging countries, the increasing competition with biofuel and the negative impact of climate changes are seen as contributing factors. At times food prices rapidly advance. Especially in those periods it is debated passionately to which extent the increased investments in food commodities have not only supported those higher food prices but also increased volatility. The general upward price trend remains unbroken, though (see chart 1 below). Chart 1: International Monetary Fund (IMF) Food Price Index. Monthly data in USD. Source: www.imf.org/en/Research/commodity-prices Is it Acceptable to Speculate in Food? In the public view ‘betting on food’ and ‘food speculation’ are two highly negatively occupied phrases. It is both popular and easy to blame the ‘ruthless’ speculators for higher staple food prices, in particular when prolonged unfavorable weather conditions already induce a shortage of supply. Understandably the topic is emotionalized because millions of human beings’ lives are potentially affected in an existential way. But the topic is also more complex than meets the eye. 1 The fact is that raising food prices have a disproportionate impact on the world’s poor. People in the developing countries spend 50%-90% of their income on food, while it is only on average 10%-15% in the developed countries. Lobby groups are demanding stricter position limits for speculators in food or banning financial institutions altogether to participate. Commerzbank, DZ Bank and its subsidiary Union Investment, Barclays, BNP, Nordea plus a number of other banks already announced to refrain from issuing staple-based Exchange-Traded Funds (ETFs).
    [Show full text]
  • Documents/20110124 Background-Note-Food-Price- Situation En.Pdf> 1
    Chadwick, A. (2017) Regulating excessive speculation: commodity derivatives and the global food crisis. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 66(03), pp. 625-655. (doi:10.1017/S0020589317000136) This is the author’s final accepted version. There may be differences between this version and the published version. You are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/150921/ Deposited on: 31 October 2017 Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk REGULATING EXCESSIVE SPECULATION: THE GLOBAL FOOD CRISIS AND ‘[T]URNING THE PAGE ON AN ERA OF IRRESPONSIBILITY’? Anna Chadwick* Evidence suggests that commodity derivatives speculation contributed to extraordinary patterns of grain price volatility that led to a global food crisis in 2007-11. People in countries throughout the world are increasingly dependent on international commodity markets for access to food. Almost everywhere, now, the value of food is determined by a single condensed symbol of its worth—its price. Persuaded of the need to ensure that this measure of value is not put at risk of distortion in the pursuit of financial profit, governments in the US and in the EU are now implementing new regulations designed to curb ‘excessive’ levels of speculation in derivative markets. Carrying out an analysis of these regulatory measures, the article demonstrates that both sets of reforms suffer from a critical limitation: They are predicated on an inaccurate understanding of how activity in commodity derivative markets can impact on underlying food prices. If the new regulations for commodity derivative markets are not up to the task, as this article argues that they are not, a more fundamental revision of global economic structures may be required if the basic needs of human beings are not to be subsumed to the interests of financial capital in the years to come.
    [Show full text]
  • Sustainable Focus Banks and Food Speculation March 2014C.Pub
    SUSTAINABILITY F CUS MARCH 2014 BANKS AND FOOD SPECULATION: A LESSON FROM THE NGO CAMPAIGNS INTRODUCTION KEY TAKEAWAYS NGOs’ campaigns have influenced or On January 14, 2014 the EU Parliament and the EU anticipated the EU recent Council announced the introduction of specific announcement of rules to curb speculation on commodities. measures to curb speculation on commodities by Half of European diversified banks financial institutions, as part of the larger financial rated by Vigeo have been challenged by NGOs on their involvement in food market reform Markets in Financial Instruments speculation. Directive (MiFID II)1. In particular, position limits will Banks’ core role is to finance the real cap the size of the net positions in commodity economy. Involvement in activities with negative societal impacts can derivative contracts that traders can held, thus affect the credibility of banks’ efforts in this regard. reducing their potential influence on prices. In addition, trading on derivative contracts in private, AUTHORS unregulated “over the counter” operations and high- Cristina Daverio: frequency trading, that may contribute to destabilize [email protected] the financial markets, will be regulated with specific Stefano Ramelli: [email protected] frameworks. These measures have been warmly received by the many civil society groups and NGOs (including Oxfam, the World Development Movement, Friends of the Earth, Foodwatch) which worked in recent years to raise the public and regulators’ awareness on the role of speculation and passive investments in increasing the price volatility of agricultural commodities, such as rice, corn and wheat. VIGEO RATING • www.vigeo.com • March 2014 1 However, as also pointed out by Oxfam2, the new European rules are far from being perfect because of some remaining loopholes due to the lobbying of financial institutions.
    [Show full text]
  • Food. Riots and Rights
    Food. Riots and Rights Luca Colombo and Antonio Onorati Reclaiming Diversi T Y & Ci T izens H ip Food. Riots and Rights Food. Riots and Rights Luca Colombo and Antonio Onorati Luca Colombo is the Secretary General of the Italian Foundation for Research in Organic and Biodynamic Agriculture. Previously, he led Greenpeace Italy’s campaign against genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and was head of research at the Foundation for Genetic Rights. He teaches on the Masters course in Human Development and Food Security at the University of Roma Tre. Between 2005 and 2008 he was a member of the Ethical Sponsorship Committee for the City Council of Rome, and in 2011 he formed part of the steering committee for the Nyéléni European Forum for Food Sovereignty. His other published works are Fame, produzione di cibo e sovranità alimentare, (Hunger, Food Production and Food Sovereignty; Jaca Books, 2002), and Grano o grane. La sfida Ogm in Italia (Wheat or Trouble. The GMO Challenge In Italy; Manni, 2006). Antonio Onorati has been President of the Centro Internazionale Crocevia (The International Centre Crocevia) since 1988. He was co-chair of the non-government and civil society forums for food sovereignty that took place in parallel to the FAO World Food Summits of 1996, and had responsibility in the forums of 2002 and 2009. He has also been International Focal Point of the International Committee for Food Sovereignty (IPC), which facilitates the emergence of the movements representing small food producers. Awarded the prize of Custodian of Mediterranean Diversity by Biodiversity International, he is also the author of many widely-publicised articles and reports in Italy and abroad.
    [Show full text]
  • The Unnatural Coupling: Food and Global Finance
    The Unnatural Coupling: Food and Global Finance Jayati Ghosh The Unnatural Coupling: Food and Global Finance Jayati Ghosh1 Abstract: The dramatic world food price spikes in 2007-08 were largely a result of speculative activity in global commodity markets, enabled by earlier financial deregulation measures and the flight from Wall Street. Despite the recent fall in agricultural prices in world trade, the food crisis has exacerbated in many developing countries where food prices remain high and even continue to increase. The financial crisis increases food insecurity by constraining fiscal policies and food imports in balance of payments constrained developing countries, causing exchange rate devaluation through capital flight, and adversely affecting employment and incomes, thereby reducing the ability to purchase food. Keywords: food, agriculture, commodity trade, financial liberalisation, speculation, crisis JEL Classification: E44, F13, F14, F36, G13, G38, O13, Q13, Q17, Q18 Note on author: Professor, Centre for Economic Studies and Planning, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. [email protected]. 1 I am indebted to participants in the IDEAs Conference on “Re-regulating global finance in the light of global crisis”, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 9-11 April 2009 for discussion, and especially to Jan Kregel for Chart 3 and other helpful comments. 1 It has been clear for some months now that the global food crisis, which has been simmering for some time even if it first attracted international attention only around a year ago, is not something that can be treated as discrete and separate from the global financial crisis. On the contrary it has been intimately connected with it, particularly through the impact of financial speculation on world trade prices of food.
    [Show full text]
  • Accurate Market Price Formation Model with Both Supply-Demand
    Accurate market price formation model with both PNAS PLUS supply-demand and trend-following for global food prices providing policy recommendations Marco Lagi, Yavni Bar-Yam, Karla Z. Bertrand, and Yaneer Bar-Yam1 New England Complex Systems Institute, Cambridge, MA 02139 Edited* by Thomas C. Schelling, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, and approved September 16, 2015 (received for review July 16, 2014) Recent increases in basic food prices are severely affecting vulnerable The analysis of food price changes immediately encounters populations worldwide. Proposed causes such as shortages of grain one of the central controversies of economics: whether prices are due to adverse weather, increasing meat consumption in China and controlled by actual supply and demand or are affected by India, conversion of corn to ethanol in the United States, and investor speculators who can cause “artificial” bubbles and panics. Com- speculation on commodity markets lead to widely differing implica- modity futures markets were developed to reduce uncertainty by tions for policy. A lack of clarity about which factors are responsible enabling prebuying or selling at known contract prices. In recent reinforces policy inaction. Here, for the first time to our knowledge, years “index funds” that enable investors (speculators) to place we construct a dynamic model that quantitatively agrees with food bets on the increase of commodity prices across a range of com- prices. The results show that the dominant causes of price increases modities were made possible by market deregulation (58). The are investor speculation and ethanol conversion. Models that just question arises whether such investors, who do not receive delivery treat supply and demand are not consistent with the actual price of the commodity, can affect market prices.
    [Show full text]
  • A Geographical Investigation of the Egyptian Context
    The International Food Crisis: A geographical investigation of the Egyptian context Mizhar Mikati A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN GEOGRAPHY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO July, 2020 © Mizhar Mikati, 2020 Abstract This dissertation is a study of the link between international and national economic crises and food insecurity. This dissertation approaches food insecurity from the vantage point of a historical-geographical materialist approach to capitalist crisis and food insecurity. In doing so, this dissertation is divided into two parts; the first part is a conceptual review and development of food provisioning under capital accumulation and the second part is an empirical discussion of the general development of international food crisis of 2008 and the case study of Egypt and food insecurity. In the first part, this dissertation seeks to theoretically examine and conceptually develop a normative approach to the social theory of food needs that runs counter to the general assumptions of capitalist development. In addition, this dissertation reviews the major approaches to food insecurity in order to bring to forefront their approach to economic crises and food insecurity. In doing so, this dissertation develops a value-form analysis to the contradictions of global capital accumulation in the provisioning of general human needs and food needs. This conceptual task is to focus on fundamental contradictions involved in capital accumulation that cannot fully abolish food insecurity in its many forms. In the second part, this dissertation examines the contradictions of capital accumulation in the case study of the international food crisis of 2006-08 and in the Egyptian context.
    [Show full text]
  • Investing in Food Security As a Driver of Better Jobs1
    Investing in food security as a driver of better jobs1 Main findings • Given that food prices have tended to increase over the past few years, the pur- pose of this chapter is to examine the employment and distributional impacts of this trend in developing countries. On the positive side, higher food prices could benefit many developing and emerging economies where a large propor- tion of the labour force is engaged in agriculture (the “agricultural-income effect”). On the negative side, higher food prices could aggravate the income inequalities identified in Chapter 1 and poverty within vulnerable groups, such as urban net buyers and rural smallholders (the “poverty effect”). • The chapter finds that the (positive) agricultural-income effect has been small. First, the gains from higher food prices have accrued disproportionately to intermediaries and operators in financial markets, rather than to small pro- ducers. Indeed, food commodities have become a major financial product. The amount invested in commodity funds has risen from US$13 billion in 2003 to US$352 billion in May 2011. The rates of return from commodity funds of seven major investors in 2011 range between 6 and 38 per cent. The total com- modity return for one of the big investors rose by 84 per cent between 2003 and 2008. In general, during the same period, the prices paid to food pro- ducers increased less. For example, producer prices for staple foods increased by between 10 and 20 per cent in Brazil, Cameroon and Mali; and by between 10 and 30 per cent in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Kenya.
    [Show full text]