Men on Bikes the Outlaw As the New American Anti-Hero in Sons of Anarchy

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Men on Bikes The Outlaw as the New American Anti-Hero in Sons of Anarchy

Diplomarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer Magistra der Philosophie

an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von Stephanie DIMAS

am Institut für Amerikanistik Begutachter: Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Stefan L. Brandt

Graz, 2017

Eidesstattliche Erklärung

Ich erkläre ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig und ohne fremde Hilfe verfasst, andere als die angegebenen Quellen nicht benutzt und die den Quellen wörtlich oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht habe. Die Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form keiner anderen inländischen oder ausländischen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt und auch noch nicht veröffentlicht. Die vorliegende Fassung entspricht der eingereichten elektronischen Version.

Graz, im August 2017 Unterschrift:

2 Acknowledgement

First of all, I want to thank my family (Mama, Wolfgang, Dimitri, Anna, Oma) for their endless support and understanding. I know it took me longer than expected, but you kept encouraging and believing in me. Noah, a very special thank you goes to you even though you are still too young to appreciate it. You came into all our lives as a blessing in more ways than one. Hopefully, you will want to read this one day.

Thanks, Papa, for being the very first long-haired biker that I ever admired in my life.

Next, I need to give a special thanks to my amazing friends (Angi, Julia, Silke) who gave me the time I needed and still managed to be there every step of the way. I could not have done it without your motivational speeches and helpful distractions.

Finally, I want to thank my supervisor Mr. Stefan Brandt who showed patience and always gave me constructive feedback. Thank you for making my dream to write about my favorite TV series come true.

3 Abbreviations

SoA Sons of Anarchy MC Motorcycle Club

4 Table of Contents

1. Introduction ...... 6

2. Sons of Anarchy – Juvenile Rebellion on Quality TV? ...... 9 2.1. Tough on the Outside, Soft on the Inside ...... 9 2.2. Anarchy in the USA ...... 14 2.3. Where is the Anarchy in SoA? ...... 15 2.4. SoA – The Outsider within TV Genres? ...... 19 2.4.1. Making Quality TV? ...... 22 2.4.2. Scanning the Audience: A Marginalized Group? ...... 25

3. The Biker Motif ...... 28 3.1. Rebels in Leather through (Media) History ...... 29 3.1.1. Where it all began: From Marlon Brando to Jax Teller ...... 31 3.1.2. The Double Edged Road of Rebellion ...... 36 3.2. Being Marked as a Biker: Club Colors & Tattoos ...... 44 3.3. The Motorcycle: Identity Marker and Symbol ...... 46 3.4. The Violent Rebel – An Epitome of Masculinity/Humanity? ...... 49 3.5. With a Little Help from my Brothers: A Sense of Brotherhood ...... 53

4. The Outlaw Biker as Anti-Hero ...... 57 4.1. ‘Social Banditry’ in America: Myth or Fact? ...... 58 4.2. The Outlaw Folk Type in Sons of Anarchy ...... 60 4.3. Rise to Anti-Hero or Demotion to Villain ...... 67

5. Sympathy with the Devil – The Amiable Outlaw in Sons of Anarchy ...... 70 5.1. Personification of Moral Conflict: A Close Reading ...... 72 5.2. Humanizing the Outlaw: A Close Reading ...... 75

6. Conclusion ...... 80

7. Works cited ...... 83 7.1. Primary Sources ...... 83 7.2. Secondary Sources ...... 83 7.3. Electronic Sources ...... 85 7.4. Other Sources ...... 86

8. List of Captions ...... 87

9. Appendix ...... 89 9.1. Overview of the main SoA Characters ...... 89

5 1. Introduction

The general idea of the biker as a freedom-loving individual is deeply rooted within American culture and seems to represent a modernized version of the Western frontiersman. Over time, however, the supposedly rebellious nature of motorcycle riders and the fact that they started forming internationally connected clubs reflected badly on their reputation amongst society. People tended to see them more and more as troublemakers and uncivilized rebels as news about criminal activities of clubs such as the “Hell’s Angels” accumulated. A prejudice that also got picked up by the film (and television) industry, for example The Wild Angels (1966) or Scorpio Rising (1969), and further promoted a stigmatization of bikers as violent people and criminals. Nevertheless, alongside the moral criticism of this particular lifestyle, there still remains an aura of the old Western hero who fights against injustice and manages to free himself of corporate as well as mundane shackles. As a consequence of this duality the biker has become an interesting social type and character offering a myriad of options of how to evaluate his ambiguous behavior. As the anthropologist Daniel R. Wolf points out, “[r]egardless of whether we wish to praise outlaw bikers as heroes or condemn them as villains, we simply cannot explain the nature of their opposition in terms of the conventional stereotype of a sociopath” (1991: 348). In other words, it can be argued that the fascination with such bikers happens because of or despite their violent reputation, which also allows for an alternative to the common impeccable hero figures. The present thesis focuses on the popular FX television show Sons of Anarchy (2008-2014), displaying the outlaw biker as a special kind of flawed hero, or better said, anti-hero that struggles between being bad and doing good or vice versa. By telling the outlaw’s side of the story, the audience receives an insight into his life and is able to witness what makes him as human as us. It is the aim of this thesis to show that as a member of such a minor sub-culture you will have to face both rejection and (limited) acceptance from the rest of society, which is made clear in the case of the show’s protagonist, Jax Teller. Concerning the basic outline, the first chapters will deal with giving an overview of the main themes found in Sons of Anarchy while also trying to explain how certain stylistic features help to establish the setting for the depicted outlaw motorcycle club. A special focus will be given to the concept of ‘anarchy’ as such since the TV series repeatedly draws upon the general understanding of anarchism as a form of rebellion against any oppressing or

6 hierarchical system. The following chapters are then concerned with the question in how far the show in itself can be seen as a generic outsider compared to other television productions. After a short historical prelude about television history and the changes in modern programs, it will be discussed whether Sons of Anarchy counts as ‘quality TV’ or not. Nowadays, this question about a program’s possible qualitative traits seems especially interesting because of the general and ever rising appeal of more serious and violent shows with ‘evil/bad’, but still likeable, characters: the so- called anti-heroes. Another relevant issue has to do with the audience and their personal involvement with the show’s plot and protagonists. Since Sons of Anarchy focuses on social outsiders, it could be argued that viewers of such a show have to be able to identify themselves with that kind of marginalized position. Next, it is important for this thesis to determine the possible origins or prototypes of the biker (motif) as he is known today both in real life as well as on-screen. The respective chapters will look into the first biker movie, The Wild One, with Marlon Brando as well as the popular road film from the 60s, Easy Rider. This is done in order to find out how these American productions have influenced later representations of motorcyclists and in how far they are stylistically and textually connected to Sons of Anarchy. Furthermore, the thesis will establish a link between the societal circumstances of the postwar era and the rising interest in movies with rebellious characters that represent the contemporary mindset. For a better understanding of the biker motif it is necessary to take a closer look at the characteristics of the genre. Alongside visual objects such as his motorcycle and clothes that mark him as part of a particular sub-culture, a biker (especially if he is member of an organized club) is also known to display violent tendencies. It will be discussed whether the supposedly rebellious nature of bikers is related to his masculinity or rather a conscious lifestyle choice. Another chapter supporting the creation of said motif will address the subject of brotherhood amongst members of motorcycle clubs and how this ‘special’ bond between men is represented in the television show. Following the main purpose of this thesis about the biker as a potential anti-hero in Sons of Anarchy, it will be argued that this particular (literary) type has its roots in America’s Old West. Popular stories about heroic outlaws who dare to rebel and fight against oppressive systems have led to a certain glorification of their actions and characters in general. The chapters on social banditry and the outlaw as a folk type

7 will attempt to differentiate between known facts and invented tales, while also showing how it is possible to classify such bandits as being heroic. Then, with the help of pre-established characteristic traits necessary for the creation of the outlaw hero it will be intended to connect them to the depiction of the outlaw biker in Sons of Anarchy. Furthermore, the thesis will also consider the anti-hero’s complicated role as a morally questionable person that would stop at nothing and is, consequently, stuck between being considered either a hero or a villain. Finally, the last chapters will focus on the viewer’s perspective of Sons of Anarchy by analyzing two specifically chosen scenes that involve the show’s protagonist as the alleged anti- hero. The close readings will entail a detailed examination of both textual and technical features and how these affect the emotional engagement of the audience with the depicted outlaw biker.

8 2. Sons of Anarchy – Juvenile Rebellion on Quality TV?

Sons of Anarchy reaches in to the lives of the outlaw biker attitude and gives it a whole new light. Grasping your attention and affection through strong acting and wonderful writing (Drake Logan, Apr 2 2014, taken from www.imdb.com).

2.1. Tough on the Outside, Soft on the Inside

The idea to create a show based on motorcycle clubs with strong outlaw tendencies remains, even today, a unique and risky move within the world of American television production. Jack LoGiudice, one of the co-producers of Sons of Anarchy justifies the decision of confronting the audience with that particular sub-culture by saying that “we’ve seen ‘Sopranos’1, we’ve seen a lot of mob shows but we’ve never seen this world” (Sons of Anarchy. The Making of Season 1, YouTube). While the fate of the TV series was still unknown at its premiere on the cable/satellite channel ‘FX’ in 2008, it steadily formed a growing viewership over the course of seven seasons (and a total of 92 episodes). Overall, Sons of Anarchy focuses on following a concept of double standards: there is the morally good according to the laws of the society and the morally good as per the biker community. Due to this particular discrepancy of morality, namely a constant mixture between right and wrong, it is not easy for the viewer to clearly classify the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ characters. At the same time, this allows for a better understanding of the difficult marginal situation within the society in which bikers find themselves. To begin with, the TV show takes place in a small fictive small town in California, ironically called Charming, where two members of the ‘First 9’2 of the Sons of Anarchy (a local group of bikers) opened their club’s first chapter. John Teller (more regularly referred to as ‘JT’) was the first president until he died in an accident, after which Clay Morrow took over while also marrying John’s widow Gemma Teller- Morrow. Along with Jackson ‘Jax’ Teller, who not only is the vice-president but also the son of Gemma and JT, they operate legal as well as illegal affairs of the club. These involve, on the one hand, official work as an auto shop and towing business and, on the other, national and international gun trafficking with the IRA3 and other clubs or street gangs. In return for ensuring that Charming stays a peaceful town

1 A very popular American television series (1999-2007) about a big mafia family 2 The founding and very first members of the club, originally formed in Northern California, Piney Winston and John “JT” Teller decided to settle down. When the show starts, only four of the First 9 are still alive, one of them being Clay Morrow who is responsible for the death of Piney (Season 4), JT and another founding member based in Belfast, Ireland (Season 3). 3 Irish Republican Army, a violent armed republican movement who hold the belief that their country should be completely independent. 9 without drugs and prostitution, the ‘Sons’ have the chief of the police department on their payroll, who at the same time makes certain criminal activities disappear or serves as the club’s informant. In each season, the show demonstrates how every decision a person makes has consequences and defines his/her path in the future. Especially Jax constantly faces difficult situations and finds himself torn between what is best for his club and family. Furthermore, the profound mother-son or step-father-step-son dynamic also emphasizes family relations outside the club and how those might influence each other. Television shows are generally known to place one or more antagonists alongside its main characters in order to create friction and ongoing disputes. Within the world of Sons of Anarchy, the line between who is good or bad is constantly blurred and certain characters, such as the racist gang leader Ernest Darby or club president Clay Morrow, seem to remain in an undefined grey zone. In fact, until the last season the TV show tries to highlight the ambiguous facets of each character (cf. Mittell 2010: 214f). For instance, Jax is primarily depicted as the show’s moral hero and as an outlaw with a conscience, but then also reveals his more villainous tendencies when seeking retribution for the murder of people that were dear and close to him. On the other hand, there are more obvious villains or antagonists (e.g. ATF4 agent June Stahl) that do not try to hide their evil motives, although they act as representatives of the law and vow to protect innocent people from ruthless criminals like the SoA members. What is more, in Sons of Anarchy the corporate institutions and law enforcements mostly take on dubious roles, giving the outlaw bikers a reason for mistrust that ultimately leads to violent rebellion against them. In the first season, the show’s focus lies on the club members’ established circle of brotherhood and camaraderie, while at the same time foregrounding the hierarchical structure and organization of the SoA motorcycle club. Clay is depicted as a fierce leader who is respected (or partly feared) by every single club member as well as the town’s inhabitants. Due to meaningful interactions between the characters, it quickly becomes clear how important notions such as loyalty and respect are. With regards to the protagonist Jax, the first season marks a huge turning point in his life which leads to him undergoing a character transition that lasts until the final season. In the first few episodes he acts like a juvenile and free-roaming rebel doing whatever he wants unless it would disrespect the club rules or his biker brothers. With the birth of

4 =Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives 10 his son he quickly enters the journey of becoming an adult with responsibilities and a father figure (for his child, but later on also for his club). Another important catalyst for Jax’s emotional change is his dead father’s hidden manuscript about his ideas and dreams for the club. In fact, John Teller’s thoughts are repeatedly expressed through voiceover narration that often reflects on-going plot points and helps Jax handle (internal as well as external) conflicts (cf. Mittell 2010: 206; 221). The different representations of a father-son relationship run as a golden thread through the whole series. Already the title Sons of Anarchy alludes to this by suggesting that their assumed concept of ‘anarchy’ is father to many sons while at the same time giving the show a patriarchal tone. From a viewer’s point of view it seems that the prominent characters are male and women take on more secondary or insignificant roles. A further notion that is constantly repeated on the show is the construction of identity within an established sub-culture like an outlaw motorcycle club. In general, it is assumed that the biker lifestyle serves as a meaningful alternative to the “modern- day urban setting that lacks symbols and activities around which to build a personal identity, […] a sense of community” (Wolf 1991: 31). Sons of Anarchy successfully transmits these concepts by depicting a very well organized club with members that consider it much more than pastime activity or a work place. The majority of the characters’ lives take place in the clubhouse or the auto shop, which is why their actual homes are rarely shown. Nevertheless, it is once more Jax Teller who stands out as an exception here. A great deal of his scenes takes place in his own house, which indicates a certain dichotomy in his life. In fact, throughout the whole series Jax seems to be on an ongoing search for his rightful place inside as well as outside of the MC. As a result of this search for identity, Jax intends to combine his ‘two worlds’ which ultimately ends up being more of an intense collision with repercussions. Finally, in Season 6 he comes close to putting everything in order with reference to himself, his family and club business, only to lose his wife and consequently his (right) way all over again.

Regarding the show’s narrative structure, Sons of Anarchy offers a mixture of omniscient and restricted narration. In other words, there are situations in which the

11 viewers hold more information compared to the characters on screen or vice versa (cf. Mittell 2010: 219f). The ending of season 3, for instance, makes use of such a restriction by letting the audience believe that Jax has betrayed his club. Only during the last few minutes it is revealed that actually all of the members are aware of this and have concocted a plan to outsmart an FBI agent. As mentioned before, the voiceover narration by John Teller serves both as a guideline for Jax as well as a thematic emphasis. This specific type of narration only lasts a handful of episodes during the first two seasons as Jax stops reading his father’s words when doubting their meaningfulness. In season 5, however, it gets picked up again but this time the narrator is Jax himself who started to write a type of memoir or diary for his sons. As a result, solely the viewers are able to gain insight into the protagonist’s thoughts and emotions which he rarely addresses in such manner. In addition, it gives way to more character development and depth while also highlighting Jax’s new role as club and family leader. Another interesting aspect concerns the family name “Teller” which literally alludes to ‘telling a story’ to someone, here the viewers of SoA, and further underlines JT’s and Jax’s role as (voice-over) narrators. In order to genuinely transmit the world and workings of such a big outlaw motorcycle club, Sons of Anarchy makes use of appropriate ‘staging’ that establishes the series’ themes and tone through various stylistic elements(cf. Mittell 2010: 177). By looking at the appearance (longer and unkempt hair, tattoos) and costume choice (black leather and jeans) of the cast ensemble (see Caption 1), the show’s producers intend an immediate association with the biker lifestyle. Additionally, the construction of regularly shown sets, such as the auto shop parking lot or the interior of the SoA clubhouse, is a further visual representation of the show’s essence. Those settings typically include respective paraphernalia (Harley-Davidson products, alcohol, weapons) which once more serve for an authentic staging effect (cf. Mittell 2010: 178ff).

Caption 1: Rough attitude: Part of the SoA cast in their club attire

Another important component of television staging is concerned with the specific choice of lighting. The heavily dramatic undertone of Sons of Anarchy is highlighted with the help of scenes taking place in more darkened surroundings and with dimmed lighting (closed warehouses, garages, small houses with drawn curtains or tinted windows). According to Jason Mittell, this is primarily done to “stimulate emotional responses of suspense and horror” (2010: 181). Nevertheless, the majority of criminal actions (drug trafficking, gun trade, open shootings on streets, etc.), in which SAMCRO5 gets involved, happens during the day and not at nighttime when the ‘bad guys’ are supposedly coming out. Instead, the series relies on very detailed and naturalistic fights whose level of brutality is underlined during the daylight, for example by showing the injuries and bloody wounds.

5 = Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club Redwood Original, refers to the original chapter of the club based in California 13 2.2. Anarchy in the USA I am anti-Christ. I am an anarchist. Don’t know what I want. But I know how to get it. I want to destroy the passerby. ‘Cause I wanna be Anarchy (Sex Pistols 1976).

Before going deeper into the question why and how the title of this television series might be important for further analysis, it is essential to clarify what ‘anarchy’ (and consequently anarchists as representatives of the belief) stands for and how it may have changed over time. From an etymological standpoint, the term anarchy stems from the ancient Greek word ‘anarchia’, which refers to a non-existence of any form of government or being without a leader. Supporters of the anarchist belief feel that political and superior institutions are not needed since they only serve to limit the individual freedom of the people. Hence, they share a common aversion to the state, politics and any institutional system with oppressing powers (cf. “Anarchism”). Generally speaking, the sole purpose of anarchy is to create “a society in which all individuals can do whatever they choose […]” (Rooum 1995: 8), provided that this happens under positive circumstances and without harming anyone who is part of that society. The reality is different and, nowadays, when someone speaks of ‘anarchy’ it is automatically, but also unjustly, connected to disorder, tyranny or even terrorism. On the other hand, historical as well as literary sources (e.g. Shelley) seem to have supported this development to some extent (cf. Rooum 1995: 9). The theory of the classical anarchist ideology has its roots in the late 18th century, namely within the work of William Godwin (1756-1836), an English philosopher and novelist, who wrote Political Justice in 1793. Finally, during the following century, and with the help of Proudhon, Michail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin, anarchism was established as an alternative philosophy to hierarchical mindsets (cf. Bucci 1971: 61-63). Those anarchists certainly believed in a shared set of principles underlying their ideology. Two of those ‘rules’ have turned out to be quite relevant for this thesis and will, therefore, be discussed in more detail in the subsequent chapter. The fact that anarchy is constantly seen as going hand in hand with chaos and social disorder demands further explanation. In the past only a minor group of anarchists thought (or may still think) that the most effective way of getting rid of oppressive institutions was by taking drastic measures, such as bombings or other violent actions. Bucci (cf. 1971: 64) argues that the outcome is the contemporary reluctance of society towards anarchy, adding also the importance of media coverage that labels political terrorists as anarchists. However, anarchism has also

14 undergone a different kind of change over the years, especially after the 1930s and 1940s which were overshadowed by totalitarian governments. On the one hand, there has been a significant influence of people from different fields such as Albert Camus, Michel Foucault, Mahatma Gandhi and Noam Chomsky who aligned themselves with anarchist ideas. And on the other, their ideology has reached feminist, anti-globalist and Green movements all over the world (cf. “Anarchism”). Chomsky himself stated in an interview that “anarchism is […] basically a kind of tendency in human thought which shows up in different forms in different circumstances […]” (Wilson and Chomsky 2013), underlining the dynamic nature of anarchy as an ideology. Since we live in a highly technological world, the Internet has had another potent effect on the concept ‘anarchy’, resulting in the emergence of minor groups who see themselves as part of the anarchist mindset (cf. “Anarchism”).

2.3. Where is the Anarchy in SoA?

While the previous chapter established the etymology of ‘anarchy’ and focused on giving a brief historical overview of its changing meaning, the question that remains is how all of this connects to FX’s television series Sons of Anarchy. Creator Kurt Sutter opens up a whole new world with his motorcycle-riding rebels, which had not previously existed in that way in television history before. As mentioned before, proponents of anarchism do not accept governments or states because they only serve to control the people and view them as subordinates who need restriction. In other words, an anarchist can be seen a social rebel who only seeks his freedom and does not want to be subordinated to any kind of authority (cf. de Brito Serra 2013: 73). In Bucci’s work (cf. 1971: 63) there are eight major principles (or rules if one wants to call it that) given that apply to the philosophy of anarchism in a broader sense. Especially the fifth in this list, concerning the assumption that “the state is both an unnatural entity and a corrupting one […]”, is also represented as a core concept within the world of the Sons of Anarchy (Bucci 1971: 63). While the rest of these principles, primarily brought together by major representatives of the anarchist mindset in the 19th century, partly seem to apply to the TV show’s concept, they do vary in terms of how they are implemented. For instance, the second rule concerns the presumption that “man is a social animal and men naturally seek to cooperate rather than compete” (Bucci 1971: 63), which Sons

15 of Anarchy thematically negates from the very first episode. One of the principal storylines of the show is the power competition between rivaling street gangs and other motorcycle clubs. The only true collaboration happens within the respective clubs or organizations, but even SoA members come to rival one another and, thus, betray their honored codex (e.g. Season 4 shows Juice Ortiz working with the FBI to inform them about the drug trafficking of SAMCRO and later killing another member who has discovered it). It has to be mentioned that the described ‘rules’ underlying the anarchist ideology were not entirely accepted amongst all living anarchists at that time. Therefore, they interpreted the significance in another way so that it suited their line of thinking more closely (cf. Bucci 1971: 63). In the series, John Teller, one of the founders of SAMCRO, was the leading anarchist rebelling against a constricting government after having served in the Vietnam War. He came back as a changed man, deeply disappointed by the politics that had sent him off to fight for them. He now strived after something entirely different – a life of perfect freedom amongst kindred spirits (cf. de Brito Serra 2013: 76f). John certainly stood behind the idea that “[…] The development of society should be by means of voluntary cooperation of members and not by coercion of government.” (Bucci 1971: 63). In search of an alternative way of living, Teller and his former comrade Piney Winston wanted to build a community of their own. A community without any boundaries, unjust laws or overrated morals and where they would be able to share their common passion for riding (cf. de Brito Serra 2013: 76f). In theory, John Teller’s attitude towards an anarchist lifestyle and life as an outsider away from oppressive social norms sounds alluring and even possible. During the fourth episode of the first season (“Patch Over”), Jax Teller is directly confronted with his father’s inspiration for the motorcycle club. This is done in the form of a quote from Emma Goldman, anarchist as well as political activist, which basically states that social order does not necessarily need a higher institution, but must be “[…] based on the free grouping of individuals” (Goldman 1910: 47). In the logic of the show members of SoA joined voluntarily because they feel more accepted within that minor society than elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is the condition that the motorcycle club lifestyle can only work when there are certain rules of their own established. SAMCRO definitely shows hierarchical structures, first and foremost by having a president to whom everybody else in the club looks up to and who acts as a leader that others need to follow. Therefore, Sons of Anarchy has to

16 be seen as a show that significantly acts in contradiction to its own name by implementing another kind of hierarchy, although that is a system against which every anarchist supporter fights (cf. de Brito Serra 2013: 73-79). Apart from the question to what extent the anarchist ideology is grounded within the series, another aspect should be taken into consideration when looking at the title Sons of Anarchy. While the previous chapter tried to deny a natural connection between anarchy and violence, SAMCRO demonstrates the contrary by evoking a clear picture of chaos and disorder. What may have started out as a club with a rebellious spirit looking for social freedom on the road, got lost along the way and turned into a violence-prone anarchist behavior. The club founder, John Teller himself, came to the conclusion that life outside conventional social norms functioned in a far more brutal way. Trying to establish a successful motorcycle club meant an on-going confrontation with others who may try to undermine them (cf. Dale and Foy 2013: 65-69). Furthermore, the opening sequence of SoA calls for a detailed analysis as it is crucial for intensifying the link between violence and anarchy on the show. In the two captions below, the depiction of weapons coupled with the meaningful word ‘anarchy’ in the title only leaves room for one interpretation. Thus, from the very first episode on, viewers are confronted with the fact that this is a TV show about motorcycle riding anarchists who do not shy away from any form of violent behavior. In terms of aesthetics, it is necessary to further look into how the opening is able to successfully transmit the show’s underlying themes. According to Ott and Mack every movie or television production makes use of five different aspects: color, lighting, editing, movement and framing, and sound (cf. 2010: 116f). Employing a distinct light-and- dark aesthetics, the opening sequence of Sons of Anarchy tries to establish a certain ‘mood’ that simultaneously predetermines the whole concept of the show.

Caption 2: The Romance of the Knife: Weapons as symbols of everyday violence

Caption 3: Cold as Ice: Body parts and a gun barrel as signifiers of violence and crime

As can be seen in both captions above, after the initial scene the show’s opening only uses a black background for every shot. In fact, colors are able to convey a myriad of individual emotions and sensations, hence, black also has a dual effect in the example of how Sons of Anarchy is presented in its 36-second title sequence. On the one hand, the preference of this color highlights the aspects of darkness, violence and/or death that are apparent in every episode of SoA, but it also makes it possible to shed more light on other elements. The close-ups of the characters’ body parts or the objects, for instance, are able to stand out much more as a result of the black backdrop. In addition, they are given more significance and capture the viewers’ attention by preparing them for what is about to come (cf. Ott and Mack 2010: 116f). A similar effect is created in terms of the music and sound that accompanies the sequence. During the first 12 seconds of the opening sequence, the images are accentuated with the softer and slower rock tunes of the main theme This Life, which

18 evoke positive rather than negative associations. Without any foreknowledge about Sons of Anarchy, one would not immediately come to the conclusion that the show treats topics such as gun trade, drug trafficking, extreme violence and murder. However, the sudden change in the tempo of the music coupled with harder guitar sounds happens at the exact time that a prison door is shown (see Caption 4). The use of images, such as loading a pump gun or opening a jack knife, distinctly allude to the show’s more violent components (cf. Ott and Mack 2010: 116f).

Caption 4: Behind bars: Image of a prison door alluding to criminal/illegal activities

2.4. SoA – The Outsider within TV Genres?

According to the official Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com), Sons of Anarchy is categorized as being a crime, drama and thriller television show. It is certainly debatable as to which genre this television show about the workings of an outlaw biker club, always walking a thin line between right and wrong, belongs most. Adding to this, there is also the question of whether SoA counts as so-called ‘Quality TV’ and can be placed alongside critically acclaimed series (such as The Sopranos, The Wire or Breaking Bad) or rather has to be seen in a different light – that is to say as the outsider within the modern landscape of television. Before any kind of assumption about associating SoA with one or all of the aforementioned types of television programs can be made, the term ‘genre’ itself has to be pinned down in further detail. Historically, the theory of trying to differentiate between specific types of storytelling has its roots during the time of Greek

19 philosophers who are seen as the forefathers of narrative forms. The possibility to classify literary or cinematic works based on their varying characteristics altered the way books, films and television shows are interpreted by their audience. Within the world of television, however, ‘genre’ can refer to a myriad of differing norms and categories. The most typical categorization pays specific attention to the underlying narrative structure of a TV show, focusing on its plot as well as on the characters’ interactions. A sitcom, for example, may be classified as such because of the common occurrence of funny verbal exchange and misunderstandings, while TV dramas emphasize relationships on an emotionally deeper level. Once these generic conventions are established, the process of identifying a television show is facilitated so that the audience knows what (not) to expect from each genre. In the case of Sons of Anarchy we are confronted with something quite different, since the show uses various generic formulas (namely crime, thriller and drama) but has no forerunners with a similar concept. Although the mixing of different genres is not unusual in television production, it may pose a challenge when it comes to understanding the concept of a show (cf. Mittell 2010: 234f). It can, therefore, be argued that SoA constitutes a hybrid type as it combines specific traits from different genres while focusing on a relatively small sub-culture that has been given very little to no attention over the last few years. The crime aspect of the show is mainly given through the fact that it focuses on a motorcycle club that continuously gets into trouble with law enforcements, but compared to other shows in this category it breaks ranks. Unlike most contemporary crime series, SoA does not solve specific cases per episode nor does it focus on police officers or FBI agents. Nevertheless, within the television crime genre a distinction has to be made between smaller sub-categories such as cop shows, spy fiction or criminal procedurals. The last one puts its main emphasis on “[…] people who are on the wrong side of the law” (“TV Tropes”, online) which applies to Sons of Anarchy without a doubt. Moreover, a rough distinction is made between four types of criminals, whereby the SoA characters would fall into the category of the so-called ‘Hardcore/Organised Criminals’ involved in drug trafficking, extortion and even murder. Essentially, the idea is to create morally corrupt and twisted characters which are not easy to relate to or not likeable at all (cf. “TV Tropes”, online). In how far this idea is implemented in the SoA universe remains open for further analysis and will be explored in later chapters.

20 Next to crime, Sons of Anarchy is also classified as a (family) drama due to its in- depth character development and respective relationships both inside as well as outside the club organization. When it comes to this particular genre, it is necessary for a TV series to create some form of conflict that extends over a longer time period and causes a sequence of complications. A story is only considered dramatic when its characters are suffering and struggling to find a solution to their problems. The audience has to see how a person on the show makes crucial mistakes because of impulsive actions and how everyone deals with the fall-out (cf. “TV Tropes”, online). Sons of Anarchy is a series full of emotional confrontations between its characters and does not lack the emotional turmoil inherent in all dramas. There is, for example, the very intense mother-daughter dynamic between Tara and Gemma, who both seem to constantly alternate between loving and hating each other. Although similar issues are repeated with other character constellations, it never seems to become redundant. On the contrary, the interpersonal disputes are what make this show part of the drama genre. The third category with which SoA is often associated is ‘thriller’, a genre more generally known in terms of movies or books. Typical of this specific category – given that it is made for television purposes – is the foregrounding of suspenseful and action-based scenes as well as the use of cliffhangers at the end of an episode or season. Another important component of thriller shows is the juxtaposition of heroes and antagonists which constitute an important dynamic for the story arc (cf. “TV Tropes”, online). Comparing that with Sons of Anarchy, the show tries to make use of all the above mentioned generic traits: in every episode there is at least one adrenaline-packed chase on motorcycles and several brutal fights. Concerning the occurrence of heroes and antagonists, however, it gets more complex because of the simple fact that the lines between these two types get significantly blurred in the world of SoA. For instance, some police officers and federal agents are displayed with an obvious antagonistic personality trying to bring down the motorcycle club by means of corrupt behavior not caring about innocent people getting hurt along the way. Once again, this is a point which will be given more attention throughout the thesis.

21 2.4.1. Making Quality TV?

We are the dirty white boys people are afraid of […]. […] we’re not an art series, we’re perceived as the big action violent series (Fleming 2013, online).

The fact that Sons of Anarchy possesses various characteristics of at least three genres, plus adding its personal note as the only show about biker club lifestyle to have ever existed, certainly seems to give it a unique role. However, what does this say about the quality of SoA and may it also be considered as part of American ‘quality television’? Historically speaking, television has existed since the 1940’s and has undergone significant changes as well as growth over the decades. It started out as a nationwide broadcasting phenomenon, similar to radio and was owned by only a few networks that targeted the Americans as a mass audience. With the emergence of additional satellite and cable programs in the 80s and 90s, more television shows gradually gained access to smaller but diverse target groups (cf. Mittell 2010: 10ff). It was during that time, in 1996 to be exact, when ‘quality television’ emerged as a term and reference point in Robert J. Thompson’s Television’s Second Golden Age. According to this, there are certain traits a show needs in order for it to be considered qualitatively more valuable than the rest. Over time this theory has been adopted and partly expanded by other scholars, such as John Mittell, who attempts to consider the influence of more contemporary shows. Since television has undergone quite a few changes, during the last five to ten years alone, it is not surprising that Thompson’s predefined categories for ‘quality TV’ have been subjected to critical scrutiny (cf. Nesselhauf and Schleich 2014: 10f). One fact that remains unchanged is the considerably small number of productions that have made it into the highly praised circle of ‘quality TV’ material. With shows such as The Sopranos (which is seen as the prototype for this particular classification), The Wire or Breaking Bad it seems that dramas with complex story arcs are the preferred type. There is no official list of criteria that states clearly where to draw the line between regular and ‘quality television’, making it much more difficult to determine (cf. Nesselhauf und Schleich 2014: 11f). Sarah Cardwell (cf. 2007: 20f) made another attempt to narrow down this obscure ‘super-genre’, by arguing that it is not necessarily the story behind a show that constitutes quality but its identifiable and noteworthy stylistic devices. In other words, the viewer is able to recognize those due to their

22 […] textual characteristics of content, structure, theme and tone. American quality television programmes tend to exhibit high production values, naturalistic performance styles, recognized and esteemed actors, a sense of visual style created through careful, even innovative, camerawork and editing, and a sense of aural style created through the judicious use of appropriate, even original music (Cardwell 2007: 26).

In terms of its content, a ‘quality TV’ show deviates from superficiality and is more likely to focus on depicting profound topics that engage the audience on a higher level while at the same time offering various interpretations (cf. Cardwell 2007: 26). By watching ‘quality television’ a “viewer will be rewarded for seeking out greater symbolic or emotional resonance within the details […]” (Cardwell 2007: 26). Nevertheless, an important distinction has to be made between ‘quality’ and ‘good television’ since the recognition of specific artistic elements within a TV show does not automatically say something about its value. In order to consider something as good television, a connection between both the quality features and the transmission of certain meanings has to be formed. This happens, first and foremost, on behalf of the audience which is then expected to draw individual and subjective conclusions. Good TV relies immensely on a viewer’s critical response to as well as engagement with its content. Therefore, it can be said that while the quality factor of a program refers to the textual framework, a good show is able to elicit strong emotional reactions (cf. Cardwell 2007: 29ff). Next, it remains an interesting issue whether Sons of Anarchy could be considered among the ranks of American ‘quality television’ and why it may be judged as good. Looking closely at the credit sequence of SoA, it relies on specific stylistic choices (evidence for ‘quality TV’ as mentioned before) in order to represent the show appropriately. Already from the very first shot on, showing a group of bikers riding along a country road, the audience is confronted in a very direct and straightforward way with the core themes of this series: motorcycles, brotherhood, camaraderie and freedom. While these are everyday concepts, comprehensible and tangible for every viewer, the blurriness of this one-second scene also has the effect of alienation from real life. As a result, the opening employs a distinctive trait of quality television shows by being able to “[…] place the ideal (in its primary sense) alongside the real […]” (Cardwell 2007: 28). Another key sequence in the credits is the appearance of the American flag as well as parts of a motorcycle, which successfully links the biker culture to a whole nation and alludes to its importance.

Caption 5: American flag in SoA – connecting the nation to ‘anarchy’

Caption 6: Close-up of a motorcycle – emphasizing the inner mechanics of the motorcycle

Furthermore, during the whole credit sequence there are several close-up shots of bikers (arm, chest, side of the head, etc.) but the camera never focuses on a person as a whole nor his/her face. On the one hand, this method creates the feeling that anyone could be or become that person, but on the other it skillfully introduces the characters and their trademarks (e.g. the unique haircut of Theo Rossi’s character ‘Juice’) by adding the actors’ names to each shot. As the theme progresses other meaningful shots are added that give the viewers deeper insight into the more violent-related content of the TV show. For instance, one sequence shows the closing of a prison cell, while others clearly depict people (more precisely club members) handling various types of weapons.

24 Besides the visual features, Sons of Anarchy also makes use of a fitting theme song, written and produced by Curtis Stigers and The Forest Rangers, which emphasizes once again the show’s content and its meanings. This is a common technique in television practices to purposely choose music that reflects the show best – be it simple instrumental chords or a rock song, the music plays a vital role when it comes to a production’s recognition value (cf. Mittell 2010: 207). The following lines taken from the official lyrics of SoA’s theme song ‘This Life’ (and from an extended version of the opening in later seasons) are relevant for what they convey regarding the overall tone.

This life is short, baby that’s a fact Better live it right, you ain’t comin’ back Gotta raise some hell, ‘fore they take you down (Stigers and The Forest Rangers 2011, SoA theme song).

These three lines of the song give an adequate summary of the respective topics inherent in SoA: namely to do whatever you feel like doing before it is too late and to not be contained or controlled by others. In addition, the (colloquial) idiom ‘to raise some hell’ is used to express that someone strongly, maybe even violently, objects to something around them. In other words, it is an indication of an individual’s rebellion which constitutes the framework for anarchistic behavior and therefore the use of that particular expression in the credit sequence brings the show’s basic formula to full circle.

2.4.2. Scanning the Audience: A Marginalized Group?

In the world of American television the Emmys have become known as the equivalent of high-quality and shows that make it into the nomination circle are certainly outstanding productions that deserve the appreciation. The fact that Sons of Anarchy has not been nominated once in seven seasons made television critics question the status and value of the show. In reaction to this, creator Kurt Sutter once acknowledged in an interview that due to a lack of certain aesthetic elements and the depiction of rather gritty looking bikers his show would always be marginalized, but that the growing ratings were proof of its success in captivating viewers (Fleming 2013, online).

25 According to official network press releases6 the final season of Sons of Anarchy reached its all-time record with an average of 7.54 million viewers while at the same time becoming FX’s most-watched ending of a series. The high ratings confirm that the biker drama was obviously watched by a significant number of people, but they do not reveal any information about who the viewers are and why they may have tuned in week after week over the span of seven seasons. There is no doubt that Sons of Anarchy counts as one of those television productions that stand out because of its uniqueness and daring content. In this context, Jason Mittell (2010: 109f) argues that “programmers will occasionally seek to push boundaries of previous content norms to generate publicity, appeal to new audiences”. Although television is, first and foremost, used for entertainment purposes and as a form of escaping ‘real’ life, it has to be seen as an altered representation of the respective culture (or nation). Depending on a show’s genre, some of the depicted issues are closer to everyday happenings than others, which then results in the construction of different meanings on behalf of the audience. Consequently, every American television program unmistakably takes part in forming an image and a sense of national character (cf. Mittell 2010: 269ff). A relevant approach in order to determine the appeal of television shows refers to the concept of ‘hailing’ the audience. In particular, this idea is based on the assumption that every viewer searches for something he or she can relate to within a television program. That type of attachment can either happen through identification or sympathizing with at least one of the characters on the show. As a result, viewers also partially adopt certain underlying truths and/or ideologies, each varying according to the genre, with which they are confronted during the process of watching (cf. Mittell 2010: 277ff). Concerning Sons of Anarchy, we are confronted with an interesting question of what it was that got the audience so wrapped up in its storylines. After all, it is a TV drama that does not shy away from the use of graphic gang violence, foul language and many illegal activities amidst an American small- town atmosphere. When being asked about the success of his show and why people seem to identify so strongly with it, creator Kurt Sutter explained that it is the theme of family, camaraderie, betrayal […] that people plug into. […] They understand the struggle of being a father, the dynamic between a mother and a daughter-in-law. […] violence is a component, but at the end of the day the emotionality within those relationships is very real and relatable (Carpenter 2014, online).

6 published by http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com on December 15, 2014 26 At first glance, the whole concept of Sons of Anarchy primarily seems to appeal mostly to people who have a Harley, tattoos and an inclination towards rebellious (or in a broader sense anarchistic) behavior. To some extent this might be true as the following online reviews (taken from www.imdb.com) written by viewers of the show confirm: I originally began watching the show to see how realistic it would be. Living in that culture for many years, I know most people have no idea of the 'lifestyle' (dburke-27, Aug 27 2009).

As a long time bike enthusiast and a legal professional, I have read countless book [sic] on motorcycle gangs and I like the way the show portrays SAMCRO and its members (Senerik, Sep 4 2013).

However, does the fact that Sons of Anarchy tells the story about a rather small sub- culture of the American society mean that it can only speak to motorcycle lovers and (club) bikers? If yes, then that would mark them as well as a marginalized group of people, as another kind of outsider. The show’s ratings, though, are proof that there has to be a broader range and diversity of regular SoA-viewers. People connect with the show’s characters on a much deeper level that goes beyond the superficiality of the rebellious and violent biker image that is portrayed. Jax’s internal conflict as to whether he is making the right choice along with external disputes with his mother and step-father concerning the club particularly creates a relatable storyline. What is more, the show’s main plot always circles around exactly that topic: the protagonist’s (and other characters’) desperate attempt to find balance between what is right and wrong, morally correct or reprehensible. In other words, Sons of Anarchy manages to portray a popular and contemporary ‘anti-hero’ who is neither a genuine hero with a clean slate nor a despicable villain. Jason T. Eberl attempts at this point an allusion to one of the most influential philosophers, Aristotle, by pointing out that [p]art of the show’s appeal stems from recognizing the members of SAMCRO as kindred spirits who exemplify – albeit to dramatic extremes – the mixture of virtue and vice found in every human being’s moral character (Eberl 2013: 5). The ancient Greek philosopher held the opinion that people acquire both good and bad character traits according to external influences. This can be, for instance, a grouping of individuals maintaining a lifestyle that demands certain demeanor and fosters the development of such traits. However, it is supposed that every person him/herself decides in how far they are willing to adapt and whether this adaptation is considered positive or negative. In Sons of Anarchy, the development of these so- called ‘virtues’ and ‘vices’ can be observed in every character, although in different ways and with a main focus on Jax. Over the course of the seasons it becomes more

27 obvious that there exists a very fine line between good and bad. According to Aristotle one of the key virtues is loyalty, a concept that it is highly valued within the world of SAMCRO and its fellow members. In fact, Jax is so loyal to his club and family that he is able to threaten, harm or even kill others in order to prove it. This is then the exact point when the goodness in him allows him to do bad things – when his virtue turns into a vice, but may be excused due to his rightful intentions (cf. Eberl 2013: 4ff). As well as the biker aspect and the depiction of an outlaw sub-culture, the human part of the TV show has to be seen as equally important and crucial for viewers to become engrossed in that world. The portrayed struggle with morality seems not too farfetched from real life and allows at the same time for an assessment and/or understanding of the ‘biker persona’: This show has some very interesting characters and story lines. Although it is easy to criticize and dislike many of the characters on this show they are all so fascinating it becomes hard to look away. As different as these people may be from everyday citizens, we can all relate to them in one way or another. This show gives a unique perspective on things from the eyes of the people we often neglect the most (peytonri, July 8 2015, taken from www.imdb.com).

3. The Biker Motif

Did it all begin with the cowboy riding his horse through the desert who then slowly turned into a leather-clad biker on the back of a fast machine with a different kind of horsepower? Before the modern depiction of the rebel outlaw in Sons of Anarchy entered US television, he had already appeared, though in varying forms, within the scopes of media. Nevertheless, the man on a bike as such is also deeply connected to a whole nationhood and is considered as “one of America’s most powerful icons. The last American hero/antihero […]” (Osgerby 2005: 8). As an icon, the biker’s origin and image has been idealized in order to turn him into a suitable representative of the American dream. The liberal, but roguish, individual who became the embodiment of an old pioneer culture has to be seen as the end product of a historical, mythical and media synthesis. In other words, there are characteristics associated with the biker persona nowadays which have been either amplified and/or modified by popular culture (including literature, film and television) throughout the last decades (cf. Osgerby 2005: 8).

28 3.1. Rebels in Leather through (Media) History

Until today it remains a difficult task to pin down the exact moment when the biker motif was created and who or what had been its prototype. One of the existing theories proposes a textual, as well as narrative, connection between the Western as a movie genre and biker films. After the Vietnam War, the popular interest in patriotic cowboys on screen seemed to decrease as people did not fully believe in that particular depiction of American morals anymore. Therefore, the younger and rebellious part of society began searching for something different with which they could identify more strongly. The feeling of collective social unrest was then expressed through the man on a motorcycle confronting established social conventions and who is able to redefine himself on the road. What is more, he not only superseded the American cowboy on horseback, but also turned into the resonance of a nation’s dissatisfaction. Filmmakers recognized the expandable potential of the western movie and adopted the basic plot structure that primarily consists of the hero’s balancing act between civilization and savagery. Thus, the biker film can be seen as both a modernization and continuation reacting to different kinds of (societal) problems and changes (cf. Perlman 2007, online): If westerns tout the individualism of their hero, then the biker movies celebrate the fraternity of the motorcycle club that forms the narrative focal point of their stories. If westerns emphatically take place in a mythic past, then biker movies are of the contemporary moment. If the western traverses the barren wilderness, then the terrain of the biker movie is the mechanized highway (Perlman 2007, online). Before the biker was able to enter the movie, and with Sons of Anarchy later also television, screen he had already established a certain reputation amongst the society. According to common belief, the original and first bikers were mostly older soldiers who returned from the Second World War with nothing left to lose. Their desire for all things connected with danger and excitement was acted out on the back of a motorcycle, preferably in the company of kindred spirits that shared the same principles (cf. Mills 2006: 115). However, the history of biker gangs (or gatherings) which often led to the foundation of well organized motorcycle clubs dates back to the 20s and 30s. After the war, some (veteran) club members found themselves excluded from the rest because they started to take on a more rebel-like and anti- establishment mentality. On top of that, they expressed their frustrations through defiant and violent behavior, looking to stir up some trouble everywhere they went. As a consequence, this demeanor quickly led to people characterizing those particular groups of MC’s as outlaws. Instead of denying the association with 29 criminals, the clubs further promoted their image by choosing distinctive names that unmistakably revealed what they stood for (e.g.: Hells Angels, Pissed Off Bastards of Bloomington or The Boozefighters). Apart from their meaningful names and the fact that they were often founded during the late 40s, most motorcycle clubs supposedly have their origins in Southern California – as does SAMCRO, whose first chapter was based in the fictive small town of Charming. Historically speaking there is, although, one specific event that drew negative attention to outlaw motorcycle clubs and fostered their already wavering reputation as rowdies: namely the 4th of July weekend in Hollister (CA) 1947 (cf. Osgerby 2005: 26f). What had originally been planned as a quiet and peaceful convention organized by the American Motorcycle Association (AMA), turned into a serious conflict between town officials and bikers upon the arrival of aforesaid outlaw clubs. The whole incident quickly became a media frenzy after the publication of a photograph, depicting one of the bikers sitting on his motorcycle with a beer bottle in his hand, in the popular magazine Life. From that point on, that specific image, together with an exaggerated article, was burnt into the people’s minds leading them to believe that all bikers and/or motorcycle clubs are the ultimate bad boys of America (cf. Osgerby 2005: 28ff, Perlman 2007, online). Consequently, “this representation of the biker as a menacing ‘bogeyman’ became a recurring media stereotype […]” (Osgerby 2005: 30), serving also as a model for the very first movie based on the happenings in Hollister. In the movie two hostile motorcycle clubs come into a small town and are shown to wreak havoc on its streets while terrorizing the residents. Originally, The Wild One (1953), starring Marlon Brando and produced by Stanley Kramer, was not set out to cast motorcyclists in a negative light, but rather to focus on the town’s narrow-minded people and capitalist shop owners. This first version, however, got censored by the studio and had to be altered in order to send out a different message to the audience. The result was a Hollywood version of the outlaw biker as the embodiment of pointless rebellion which is expressed through wild motorcycle raids as well as violent demeanor towards others. Despite the intention of condemning bikers as society’s black sheep, Brando’s portrayal of a young rebel in leather resonated with real life MC’s while at the same time providing a model for subsequent productions (cf. Osgerby 2005: 32f). Not only was the biker image itself pursued in media, Perlman further mentions that the “emphasis on the cohesion of the biker family and its characterization of the motorcyclists’ disdain for the

30 ‘conventional’ lifestyle would reoccur in later biker movies” (2007, online). In general, cinematic productions involving stories about motorcyclists and their lives, may it be as a loner or in a group/club, seem to reiterate a certain pattern. Hence, the common focus of the plot is mostly on one biker who stands out due to finding himself frustrated with his current lifestyle (cf. Perlman 2007, online). In the case of Sons of Anarchy we are confronted with such a situation, when Jax, as the show’s outlaw hero, rather quickly feels the need to change (or even leave) the motorcycle club he has been born into.

3.1.1. Where it all began: From Marlon Brando to Jax Teller

The following stills from The Wild One and Sons of Anarchy are proof that, since his first appearance on screen, the biker has had an iconic influence on future depictions even after over sixty years. Although the presented style of Marlon Brando’s character did not accurately resemble real life motorcyclists during that time, it considerably contributed to the creation of the outlaw biker motif throughout the following decades. The trademark leather jacket combined with jeans remains, until today, embedded in the people’s imagination of what a typical biker has to look like (cf. Osgerby 2005: 34). In the media, black leather jackets have always been of substantial importance for the depiction of bikers given the fact that they are seen as a symbol of masculinity. Their (past) use in the military field also signifies that the person wearing such jackets is able to withstand whatever may come at him from the outside. The representation of virility and power was reason enough as to why this piece of clothing is now more generally called a ‘motorcycle jacket’ (cf. Alford and Ferriss 2007: 181-184).

Caption 7: Macho pose: Marlon Brando as the first outlaw Johnny Stabler in The Wild One

Caption 8: Neo-macho: Charlie Hunnam in ‘Brando’ pose in SoA

In both images the protagonists, Johnny and Jax, assume quite similar poses and facial expressions that signalize certain arrogance and/or provocation. That, combined with the physical (probably also emotional) closeness to their respective motorcycles emphasizes the machismo inherent in all outlaw types, which especially during post-war times captured the attention of the younger rebellious audience (cf. Mills 2006: 120). Concerning their outfits there is a difference noticeable between the two bikers. Overall, Brando’s character is dressed in more black leather since The Wild One came out during a time where this material, besides being preferred in the military, also had a connotation of sexual power, intimacy and dominance (cf. Alford and Ferriss 2007: 184). Jax from Sons of Anarchy, in comparison, does not wear a long- sleeved jacket nor a cap as his predecessor in the 50s did. Instead, he is mostly shown in a short ‘cut-off’ (or simply called ‘cut’) made out of leather and adorned with the SoA insignia. The cut itself has turned into a symbolic feature of motorcycle club members worldwide through which they publicly declare that they belong to that

33 particular sub-culture. Moreover, the biker, as Steuten states, almost performs a ritual act when he puts on his cut, adopting a threatening presence and distinguishing himself even more as a social outsider (cf. 2000: 34). Apart from the similar looks that the bikers share, there is another noteworthy analogy apparent within the worlds of both productions. On a visual level as well as textual, The Wild One and Sons of Anarchy closely resemble each other regarding the way the viewers are introduced into the respective stories. From the very first scene on, the audience gets acquainted with the feeling of being on, or even part of, the road as can be seen in the screenshots below.

Caption 9: Night shot creating appropriate atmosphere for SoA (Season 1, Episode 1, Pilot, 00:07 sec.)

Caption 10: (Establishing) Long shot of the scenery in The Wild One (01:33 min.)

34 Both opening scenes are long shots of a country road that could be located anywhere in Northern America, since the exact place or state is not known yet. With regards to the perspective, the audience gets the impression as if they were lying in the middle of the road and facing the approaching vehicles. Before the scenes are cut, the bikers are quickly heading directly towards the viewers/camera and finally seem to race through (or over) them. As can be seen in Caption 9, the series debut of Sons of Anarchy starts with a night shot where it is quite hard for the audience to make out anything besides blackness and two ravens (birds that are commonly associated with death and/or loss) feeding on some bread in the foreground. The fact that it is pitch-dark in this medium long shot creates an almost oppressive atmosphere despite the otherwise open setting would it have been daytime. Nevertheless, the awareness that we find ourselves on a road happens because of the bright spotlight, at first still small in the distance, coupled with a roaring engine coming closer second by second. The viewers’ universal knowledge about vehicles, furthermore, allows them to recognize the noise and the single headlight as typical for a motorcycle. In the last moment of the 10-second scene, the ravens are shown flying away before they get run over while the still unknown biker quickly rushes by and out of shot. Ultimately, the connection of the mentioned techniques (night scenery, symbolic meaning of the birds) are an indication for the show’s darker and more violent undercurrent. The Wild One, in comparison, starts out with a bright day shot of an empty road in the middle of nowhere (compare Caption 10). Before the arrival of the motorcycle gang in the far background, the audience has time to get used to the western-like imagery of trees and hills while also receiving an introduction to the movie by the protagonist’s voice-over narration. Marlon Brando’s words that everything started out on this road for him, are used as an explanation for what the movie audience is about to see. As opposed to the initial anonymity in SoA, the film version focuses more on transparency by showing, for instance, every biker as a whole. In both opening versions an interesting effect is created with the addition of fitting background music to accompany the increasing engine sounds. Once more, the selected music reflects the overall theme: in Sons of Anarchy, the heavy metal tones of the song serve to endorse the popular (media) image of a tough hard rock biker in leather. On the other hand, The Wild One makes use of an overly dramatic orchestral intro that does not quite match the mood of the depicted scene, but prepares the audience for what is to

35 come. That is, wild and vicious young motorcycle rebels who, literally, storm through the screen looking to cause some havoc in a small civilized town.

3.1.2. The Double Edged Road of Rebellion

A different approach to the issue of the origin(s) of the biker motif, and what it stands for, is concerned with the general assumption that it emerged out of the American ‘road film’ genre. The core concepts underlying these types of movies are the representation of a “[…] general ideological contradiction between rebellion and tradition” (Laderman 1996: 43). Whereas the typical biker films, as discussed in the previous chapter, distance themselves from long-lived conservative values, road movies, in contrast, tend to revisit and nurture the tradition of the western frontiersman. The growing mobilization through vehicles, furthermore, reinforced the desire for exploration in the post-war society and this was manifested as the renegade on the road with an expansionist philosophy. In addition, the fusion of these two opposing ideas can also be found in literary works emphasizing cross- country traveling as truly American. Hence, the novel On the Road by Jack Kerouac (1955) is seen as one of the forerunners of the road film concept due to its focus on two rebelling men that undergo transformation through their journeys. On the one hand the story celebrates the leaving behind of conservative and/or constricting mindsets in favor of a more bohemian way of living, while on the other it revisits the traditional spirit of the Western (cf. Laderman 1996 41ff). With this in mind, road films made in the 60s and 70s seemed to put an emphasis on exactly those contradicting aspects, though it happened in a variety of ways. For instance, at the core of each on-screen road story obviously lays the act of social rebellion as well as the rejection of any form of constraint. Yet, the characters ironically depend at the same time on the vehicle as a materialistic object in order to fulfill their desire for freedom (cf. Mills 2006: 111). One of the best known representatives of this genre is undoubtedly Easy Rider (1969), with Dennis Hopper and Peter Fonda, which managed to convey the country’s feelings of anxiety towards its own cultural identity. By following the two protagonists, Wyatt (Captain America and Billy) through their journey across America on the back of their motorcycles, the film aesthetically implements road travel as a way of rediscovering both their own land and self in the narrative. This particular focus on two lost and lonesome

36 individuals trekking vast scenery is what makes film scholars and critics call it a modernized Western (cf. Laderman 1996: 46ff; Perlman 2007, online). It is not only the imagery that resembles America’s Old West; Hopper’s character also shows a cowboy-like appearance with the exception that he rides a bike instead of a horse. Wyatt (Peter Fonda), in comparison, is dressed in black leather representing the typical biker image and rides a motorcycle with the American flag on it. Easy Rider, therefore, underlines an obvious juxtaposition of tradition and patriotism versus the manifestation of an identity crisis followed by rebellion against America as an establishment (cf. Perlman 2007, online). Although Easy Rider had been an important milestone and road films seemed to generally gain more acknowledgement as a genre, the depicted topics underwent a significant change in postmodern times. The priority was not ambiguity or complex messages anymore, but rather the preference that “visual thrills often overcompensate for a lack of historical, social, or political grounding […]” (Laderman 1996: 51). If there were movies that approached controversial subjects, it was done by means of subtle irony or humor. Generally speaking, the stories about a ‘maverick’ roaming the roads took on a more conservative stance, which in turn reflected the social environment at that time (cf. Laderman 1996: 50f). Despite all that, Mills (2006: 111) points out the great importance of “the cultural work of the road story […] to update familiar tropes of rebellion for subsequent generations, technologies, and economies”. This statement implies that even though the road film may have lost its popularity and impact, it will always possess a socio-critical allusion. Easy Rider may not have contributed, as much as Marlon Brando obviously did before, to the looks or demeanor of the bikers that we see in Sons of Anarchy. However, the course of the show’s storyline, but especially its ambiguous ending, offers an interesting point of comparison. At the beginning of Easy Rider the two protagonists deliberately choose the biker lifestyle of constantly being on the road and gladly leave the confinements of everyday life behind. After overcoming different obstacles along their journey to alleged freedom, they finally reach their goal, New Orleans, only to find themselves still deeply disillusioned. The final “We blew it” comment of Fonda’s character, Wyatt, emphasizes his recognition that they had failed. It required, though, the brutal and unexpected death of a short-time travel companion, for Wyatt to come to this epiphanic realization towards the end of the movie (cf. Perlman 2007, online).

37 Comparatively, SoA starts out in a similar way with an outlaw motorcycle club as the social outsider whose members follow an unusual (and criminal) way of life. In later seasons, there are certain moments of disillusionment for the protagonist Jax, which slowly lead him to seriously question his path and lifestyle choice. “I've had a hard time feeling any love or brotherhood since Opie died.” (Season 5, Episode 12 Darthy). He expresses these feelings of despair and scruple after drastic incidents that, like in Wyatt’s case, cause a moment of epiphany. “Love, camaraderie, freedom all the things I want from this life are lost in the din”; “Since my best friend was killed, I've lost my center” (Season 6, Episode 13 A Mother’s Work). In addition, Jax’s admission of self-doubt mostly occurs in final episodes, which then serves as a new starting point for his ‘road to freedom, change and redefinition’ in the following season. During the last episodes, the vicious cycle finally gets broken after Jax finds out that his own mother (Gemma) is his wife’s killer: “I was wrong. That mistake is mine and mine alone. Everything that happened as a result of that mistake […] everything that jeopardized this club was my fault.” (Season 7, Episode 11 Suits of Woe). Jax recognizes his wrongdoings and his final solution to make it right by everyone leads to the series’ symbolic ending. The cinematic way in which this is done, once more, corresponds to how Easy Rider was concluded.

Caption 11: Long shot of Jax’s final ride (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods, 01:11:26 hr.)

Caption 12: Long shot of Wyatt’s final ride similar to SoA (01:31:55 hr.)

During the last minutes of both film and television show, the audience follows the bikers on their motorcycles while they are almost serenely speeding along empty highways. With the use of a dynamic long shot the camera is able to capture more of the surrounding countryside; hence the free-roaming nature underlying the biker lifestyle is highlighted. Moreover, the camera is following the two characters, changing perspective from medium to close-up shots, and seems to mimic their movements with every turn in the road. The fact that there are no other vehicles on the road underlines once more the bikers’ desire to get away and to enjoy a carefree existence as “an asphalt cowboy who is the last remaining heir to America’s original frontier spirit” (Osgerby 2005: 38). Regarding the close-ups, the particular use of a frontal angle in SoA contributes to a detailed portrayal of Jax’s facial expression and feelings only minutes before his death. As shown in Caption 13 and 14 below, even though being chased by dozens of police cars, literally representing the justice system going after the criminal, Jax neither looks concerned nor anxious. On the contrary, he transmits a certain aura of tranquility, even peace with what is happening around him, which contradicts the precarious situation.

Caption 13: Frontal medium long shot of Jax (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods, 01:09:12 hr.)

Caption 14: Frontal shot of Jax to emphasize emotions (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods, 01:15:06 hr.)

In both productions the protagonists ultimately die, to a greater or lesser extent, due to their previous actions which allows a myriad of interpretations. On the one hand, it could be seen as society’s punishment for their outlaw behavior, and thus, an obligatory consequence. There remains, on the other hand, the question as to what extent the bikers’ deaths are an equivalent for their redemption (cf. Perlman 2007, online; Laderman 1996: 48). In Sons of Anarchy, the ‘outlaw-hero’s’ death by suicide happens in a surprising, yet meaningful, way. After securing his family’s and club’s safety by killing the last so- called ‘bad boys’ that threatened their existence, Jax is being hunted by the police (see Caption 13 and 14). The radical decision to kill himself by letting go of his 40 motorcycle and crashing into the approaching truck, brings the show’s plot to full circle: John Teller, founder of SAMCRO and Jax’s father, whose manuscript served as his son’s ‘guiding concept’ during the first two seasons died in the same way. By choosing to end his life, Jax ultimately achieves two things at the same time. Namely, he sacrifices himself in the form of an ‘outlaw martyr’ (cf. Mills 2006: 128) for the wellbeing of others and by doing so implicitly admits to his faults accumulated over time. After everything that happened in the show the audience, but also Jax himself, finally comes to the conclusion that he cannot have a normal happy ending. Regarding Easy Rider, in contrast, the deaths of both protagonists do not assume the same symbolism of self-sacrifice, but still manage to glorify the biker(s) anyhow. After Wyatt’s admission that they “blew it” the friends continue their travels and are shot by two hillbillies, who come across them on the road. This final act of unjustified brutality can be seen as a depiction of how the common society holds the upper hand and deals with outsiders. Despite the triumph of the superior Establishment, the bikers are nonetheless successful in finding redemption for their previous actions. The dramatic conclusions are, furthermore, reinforced on a visual level through the use of specific camera angles and perspectives. As the screenshots below reveal, both Sons of Anarchy and Easy Rider rely on significant as well as ambiguous imagery to convey their outlaw heroes’ cathartic demises.

Caption 15: Medium long and low angle shot of ravens feeding on bread (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods, 01:15:36 hr.)

Caption 16: Close-up of flowing blood signalizing Jax’s death (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods, 01:15:50 hr.)

With a medium long shot of two ravens picking on a seemingly blood-SoAked piece of bread (Caption 15) followed by a close-up of actual blood flowing towards it (Caption 16), SoA alludes to its very first scene from the first season. As opposed to the pilot episode, the depicted scene is a day shot which makes it possible for the viewers to be aware of every small detail. For instance, the contrast between the black birds and the asphalt as well as the police in the background becomes more obvious and emphasizes their importance as symbols of death and punishment. Additionally, the streak of red on the bread could be seen as a foreshadowing, before the camera changes to a close-up and focuses on Jax’s blood which is also the last shot before the screen fades to black.

Caption 17: Long shot of Wyatt’s bike & body burning (01:33:41 hr.)

Easy Rider, in comparison, partly concludes in a very distinctive but also similar way, although not less significantly. While SoA chooses a detailed close-up of the protagonist’s blood, the film delivers its last take through a long shot with bird’s eye perspective slowly zooming farther out (Caption 17). Here, the fire does not only signify Wyatt’s death, but also underlines the end of his ‘beloved’ motorcycle which was supposed to bring him closer to freedom. Nevertheless, the ascension of smoke can also be interpreted as Wyatt’s and Billy’s spirits being set free in order to finally find what they were searching for during the whole movie. This particular interpretation of the ending applies as well to Sons of Anarchy, where Jax’s path to complete freedom can only be obtained through him dying. The fact that the motorcycles are put in the foreground in their owners’ final moments is an indication of their essential function in a biker’s life. Other important components, alongside the highly treasured chrome companion, are appropriate clothes as well as other accessories with which a biker not only determines but also assumes a whole new identity. Looks, attitude and motorcycle, have to reflect the rebellious spirit he has become while they also serve as an indicator for the sub- culture he now belongs to.

43 3.2. Being Marked as a Biker: Club Colors & Tattoos Pull the trigger, man. That's the only way this leather's coming off my back (Jax, Season 2, Episode 8 Potlach).

In order to become a full-fledged member of a motorcycle club and to be accepted as such, it is not enough to simply own or love riding a bike. Once having gained the membership, it means that the biker has agreed to adopt both the identity and specific style of the sub-culture. The most obvious change concerns his physical appearance which may include tattoos, piercings, all types of studs and a respectable amount of black leather. What bikers essentially attempt by adorning their bodies is to visually emphasize their chosen marginalization from ordinary society. Every member will try to individualize his looks according to his personal taste, but always with the aim of creating a certain image. The most important accessory for a biker, however, is the leather ‘cut-off’ (as seen in Caption 18) with the name and official logo of the motorcycle club. In general, it is worn as a top layer, meaning no other jacket should cover the cut-off, so that it is clearly visible for everyone. In addition to the club insignia (usually a skull, burning wings or other symbols connected with death, freedom, power and rebellion) on its back, the garment also indicates the respective location where the MC is placed. The front side of the cut-off is typically completed with more personal or biker-related patches and a badge that stands for the member’s position within the club (President, Vice President, etc.). A club member is expected to treat his ‘cut’ as if it were an indispensable part of his body (cf. Steuten 2000: 34f; Wolf 1991: 118f). Should it be necessary, the biker will defend and fight for it as it is his “[…] most prized and tenaciously guarded possession” (Wolf 1991: 127). In Sons of Anarchy, the significance of a club member’s cut-off is addressed several times and losing it automatically equals a disgrace for the whole MC. It is made clear that this piece of clothing stands for their established biker identity, and thus, counts as vulnerability. A fact which rivaling motorcycle clubs take advantage of in order to damage SAMCRO’s image: “How could you let those bitches take your cut? You're an embarrassment […]” (Season 3, Episode 6 The Push).

Caption 18: Medium shot of Jax’s leather ‘cut’ with Caption 19: Medium shot of Jax’s SAMCRO SAMCRO lettering and insignia (Season 1, Episode 1 back tattoo (Season 3, Episode 8 Lochán Mór, Pilot, 41:03 min.) 44:41 min.)

The (full-time) biker wearing his cut-off as an act of self-fulfillment and reinforcement of his self-concept is comparable with a superhero putting on his costume in order to adopt his alter ego. Colours inject his life with intensity and intrigue, and reduce the frustration of ordinary roles by evoking heroic imagery. They bestow upon the patch holder a personal and public image of male independence, power, and adventure (Wolf 1991: 124). It is almost as if he becomes someone else – braver, tougher and more confident – as soon as the club colors touch his back. What is more, the biker leaves the constraints of his mundane life behind and incorporates himself into a community that understands his desire to break free. In addition to the construction of an enhanced awareness of his individual (biker) identity, the club member will also adopt a specific kind of group affiliation. In other words, club values as well as specific ethics inherent in the biker scene will automatically become his own and are to be internalized. Especially within outlaw motorcycle clubs, members are known to place great importance on what the display of their cut-offs entails. That is, to say, that these bikers wear the club colors with a feeling of pride and honor, risking verbal and/or physical attacks from others. Hence, with the acceptance of the cut-off comes time an unconditional and emotional commitment to the club (cf. Wolf 1991: 124-127). The biker’s decision to permanently mark his body with appropriate tattoos is another visual expression of his devotion to that sub-culture. Generally speaking, it has long become tradition amongst bikers to get tattoos that represent their rebellious and freedom-loving natures. With regard to active motorcycle clubs, it is not too rare to see long-time members walk around with the whole insignia on their backs (see Caption 19 of Jax) or other club-related tattoos. Some symbols may simply stand for a biker’s personal history (e.g. ex-marines have maritime tattoos), while others clearly refer to his MC membership. However, there seems to exist a

45 preference for certain imagery such as crossed bones, skulls, wings and warrior symbols (swastika, circle ‘A’ for anarchy) (cf. Wolf 1991: 120f).

3.3. The Motorcycle: Identity Marker and Symbol

The history of the motorcycle began with the invention of the simple bicycle in 19th century Europe. It was there in Germany, and later also France, where engineers (like Otto, Daimler and Bouton) tried for the first time to enhance the two-wheeler by attaching a gasoline engine strong and stable enough to produce propulsion. At first only popular in European countries, the modern motorcycle did not make an appearance in America until the early 20th century. A team of young pioneers from Wisconsin spearheaded first attempts at an engine-driven bicycle which would quickly bring them into mass-manufacturing under the world-renowned name Harley Davidson (Motor Company) (cf. Alford and Ferriss 2007: 15-20). After the company’s founding in 1907, the nationally and internationally growing demand resulted in the production of stronger and improved bikes. Despite the existence of other motorcycle companies in the United States, it remained primarily the ‘Harley’ that quickly adopted the iconic status of representing freedom on the road. Even today, the classic look of a Harley model is extremely popular within the biker community and to own one equaled inheriting a certain kind of status and mindset. Contrary to the main purpose of the automobile bringing you from A to B, the act of riding that unique motorcycle was a display of self-definition and reviving the old frontier spirit. However, the established image and sale figures suffered a severe blow by the time of World War I, where specially manufactured motorcycles were used in different areas, immediately followed by the Depression. The implementation of the American Motorcycle Association (AMA) in 1924 was the intent to regain the previous popularity through officially registered clubs and legal racing competitions. Nevertheless, the appearance of stereotyped rebellious bikers as social outsiders after WWII put the motorcycle on the sidelines once again (cf. Osgerby 2005: 12-19). Even nowadays people still seem to either reduce the two- wheeled vehicle to an adrenaline-raising leisure time activity or consider them only interesting when it comes to official racing competitions. What is more, motorcycles assume an outsider position regarding their technical constitution which requires certain know-how and experience from the owner to ‘master’ it. In that sense, a biker

46 then somehow defies the capitalist car-driving majority and at the same time joins the vehicle’s marginalized position (cf. Benesch 2010, online). As already discussed in previous chapters, the generalized outlaw/rebel biker image was mainly a creation of the media, but still found resonance within American society. Especially the period of the hippie movement showed a considerable boom regarding motorcycle sales and later statistics revealed that those people were passionate long-time riders. This particular generation was born during a time of growing mistrust towards authoritarian establishments and politics. Thus, the free- spirited symbolism of the motorcycle as part of an alternative culture was in some way a solution to their problem (cf. Maxwell 1998: 270f). More importantly, it turned into “a border marker between acceptance of the status quo and the lionization of a sub-culture” (Wolf 1991: 32). “I love my bike […] it becomes an extension of you because you ride it so much” (Sons of Anarchy Extra-The Bikes, YouTube). Theo Rossi (actor impersonating Juice on Sons of Anarchy), is, like the majority of the show’s cast not only an on-screen biker, but also pursues the joys of riding in his personal life. His description of the intimate bond between a man and his motorcycle demonstrates that it is considered as much more than just an ordinary vehicle. In other words, the biker develops a deep admiration which in turn results in a personification of the object (cf. Opitz 1990: 83). Consequently, the highly praised motorcycle also receives extraordinary care and maintenance from its owner since it occupies such a special place in his life. Every biker who is fully immersed in that marginalized culture strives to customize his motorcycle in order to further emphasize (also externally) his personality. Moreover, what is given the most priority are the sensual feelings that one experiences when being on the mechanical source of power and speed (cf. Steuten 2000: 33). Motorcycling involves straddling an internal combustion […]. It is the interposition of such a machine between a person and his or her environment and the control of such power which gives motorcycling its distinctive ethos. Motorcycling’s ethos is very much about this relationship, its tactile nature and its immediacy (Maxwell 1998: 289). Besides the intense feeling of controlling that kind of heavy machine in terms of speed and motion, the mentioned aspect of immediacy created when riding contributes as well to the identity construction of the biker. While being on the motorcycle its owner needs to merge with it and, hence, gets directly confronted with the surroundings. Unlike the more protected car drivers, a motorcyclist is always exposed to the weather conditions and feels every single turn in the road he is on. The act of riding requires a biker’s complete physical commitment to the movements

47 of his motorcycle, which in turn makes him much more vulnerable and prone to danger (cf. Wolf 1991: 49). The resulting experience of ‘living on the edge’ is felt more intensely and, to a certain aspect, reflects the (rebellious) background on which the lifestyle is built. However, even the risks and dangers with which a biker may be faced are something that can be controlled up to a certain point. The special thrill of leaning themselves and their motorcycles into a sharp turn in the road is something unique that only bikers can relate to. Everything depends on a combination of confidence, self-assessment, self-control and a good sense of equilibrium. It is certainly a fine line between the excitement and the fear of overestimating himself that the biker walks on every time he straddles his ‘chromed power horse’ (cf. X 2003: 78f; Wolf 1991: 54f). Apart from the act of traveling in its literal sense, a biker undergoes at the same time an emotional journey involving a diverse spectrum of sensations. Jax also addresses these emotions in an episode of Sons of Anarchy and highlights in this way the established man-machine bond: Something happens at around 92 miles an hour – thunder-headers drown out all sound, engine vibrations travel at a heart’s rate, field of vision funnels into the immediate and suddenly you’re not on the road, you’re in it. A part of it. Traffic, scenery, cops – just cardboard cutouts blowing over as you pass […] All your problems, all the noise, gone. Nothing else to worry about except what’s right in front of you (Season 5, Episode 1 Sovereign). The show’s protagonist expresses these thoughts in a diary he is writing for his two sons, after having accepted to become the new president of the SOA motorcycle club. Jax’s ascension in rank happened as a consequence of his step-father’s corruptive methods of leading, although he had been planning to leave the outlaw life behind. Therefore, at the beginning of Season 5 Jax finds himself at a metaphorical crossroads; conflicted about his new role as the MC’s president and the broken promise to his wife (and children). The quote above suggests that during a time of emotional turmoil, the act of riding a motorcycle is able to convey solace for the tortured biker. For Jax, the steady acceleration allows him to temporarily forget about his troubles, since “there is no conflict or deceit while riding his bike” (Wolf 1991: 51). In other words, being on a motorcycle can open and, therefore, heal the mind of the individual in question. During this self-chosen solitude on the road, driving away from all things that may constrict a person in everyday life, a biker has time to reflect and see things in an objective way once more. The problems slowly vanish along with the change of scenery followed by a renewed assertion of freedom to do as one pleases (cf. Wolf 1991: 50ff).

48 Since Sons of Anarchy focuses particularly on the outlaw business part of biker clubs, their road to freedom is inevitably covered with violent acts (of power and/or rebellion) towards other criminal organizations and law enforcements. The literal representation of the descendants of anarchy, the ‘sons’, are men who affirm their masculinity by riding motorcycles and using violence as a general problem solver.

3.4. The Violent Rebel – An Epitome of Masculinity/Humanity? Most of us were not violent by nature. We all had our problems with authority, but none of us were sociopaths. We came to realize that when you move your life off the social grid you give up the safety that society provides. On the fringe, blood and bullets are the rule of law and if you’re a man with convictions violence is inevitable (John Teller, Season 1, Episode 2 Seeds).

In a voice-over narration John Teller talks about the club members’ strong inclination towards violence and how it cannot be avoided within the outlaw world they live in. He considers it as a side effect of the rebellious path and life that they have chosen for themselves. Sons of Anarchy, however, is a television series that manages to convey violent behavior as an intrinsic characteristic of masculinity, especially concerning the biker persona. In addition, the fact that all of the male characters ride impressive motorcycles with which they embark on action-filled trips, fuels the generalized media representation of men as being the more active gender. Their masculinity is emphasized through a combination of physical action and display of strength, which SoA successfully implements from the very first second on. Despite the continued assertion of their male ‘activeness’, the club members also contradict mediated gender stereotypes regarding their roles as the logical type and the sexual subject. Particularly Jax, as the protagonist, shows quite often (stereotyped) traits more commonly applied to female characters, namely being more sensitive and an object of sexual admiration. Nevertheless, he is able to combine these characteristics accordingly with the respective counterparts of masculine prowess, rationality and dominance over the other gender (cf. Ott and Mack 2010: 182-186). The fusion of contradictory stereotypes becomes not only apparent in specific episodes, but also through the way Jax is represented in promotional stills used to announce a new season. The TV show successfully sells the image of the ruthless and sexy biker with a soft side:

49 Caption 20: Jax – combining feminine and masculine media stereotypes (Season 7, Episode 1 Black Widower, 01:13:33 hr.)

The caption above is an example of how Sons of Anarchy manages to convey Jax’s combination of being objectified through his body and acting on emotions. At the same time, however, the presented image has to be seen also as a confirmation of the character’s more dark and violent side. In detail, the medium shot shows a shirtless and bloody Jax standing with raised arms behind a gagged man. The only lighting in this scene comes from the window behind Jax, since all the lights are turned off which allows for a rather dooming and gloomy atmosphere. The protagonist is only seconds away from brutally killing the man with a meat fork, which is out of shot in this caption, in order to take revenge for his wife’s murder. The entire scene lasts for about 10 minutes, during which Jax tortures the man in such a meticulous way that it almost seems to be like a karmic and cleansing ritual for him. Although the audience is confronted with a very graphic depiction of murder which normally would not be justifiable, Jax’s motive of avenging and ‘doing right’ by his wife alleviates his otherwise condemning actions. His main incentive for doing this is the love he had for Tara as well as loss and rage he is feeling now. According to Ott and Mack, Jax’s strong reaction “is concerned with family and nurturance, and […] defined by irrational or emotional impulses” (2010: 185), traits typically associated with femininity within media representations. Another gendered stereotype is concerned with drawing attention to a person’s body, which consequently reduces him/her to a sexual object (cf. Ott and Mack 2010: 186). Moreover, in Caption 20 and 21 Jax is the center of attention in more ways than one: firstly, both stills show him protruding and (literally) overshadowing everything

50 else. Secondly and most importantly, Jax is highly sexualized through his bare- chested state and exposed posture, which at the same time makes him seem more vulnerable. However, his alleged vulnerability gets diminished quickly due to the presence of weapons highlighting his dominance and, in Caption 21, the image of a skull on his back representing destruction and death. The fact that Jax is posing with his back to the camera/audience while turning his face halfway creates an interesting dual effect. That is, to say, seen from a frontal perspective one would simply see an attractive young man without a shirt, not knowing what he actually ‘hides’ behind his back. The main focus of the respective viewer would be Jax’s naked chest. As soon as he turns around, however, he would reveal his true ‘outlaw’ colors. This particular promotional still was used for the final season of Sons of Anarchy and is a rather accurate visualization of the protagonist’s constant moral conflict. What is more, it can be argued that in spite of harboring mentioned feminine characteristics of serving as a sexual object, Jax’s masculinity is once more validated through appropriate components associated with violence and/or dominance.

Caption 21: Jax as the sexually objectified ‘violent rebel’

51 As discussed before, the concept of anarchy remains ambiguous when it comes to using violence as a form of defiance. The TV show further nurtures the image of the ‘violent rebel’ while at the same time portraying this particular “male violence […] both as ‘natural’ […] and barbaric […]” (Kirkham and Thumin 1993, qtd. in: Beynon 2002: 65). Consequently, the viewers perceive the characters’ toughness and brutality as an equivalent for masculinity, although some of their actions may often seem exaggerated or rash. Donald (cf. 1992, qtd. in: Beynon 2002: 67) claims that the mediated image of men ought to include a combination of unrestricted courage, fearlessness, dominance and resilience. Although these characteristics were given for describing the depiction of masculinity in war movies, it also applies to the SoA club members since they adopt ‘warrior’-like behavior: following orders of their club president, fighting alongside their comrades, defending their territory and what they believe in. Within the world of Sons of Anarchy the concept of violence is depicted in a myriad of different ways which calls for a more detailed discussion. The quote by John Teller at the beginning of this chapter is an indication that the founder of the outlaw club himself did actually believe that violence is acquired through circumstance and is not innate. JT’s view is more generally concerned with the question whether humans are naturally good or bad and what might coerce someone to become as violent as the SoA characters are portrayed. On the one hand, philosophers, such as Hume or Rousseau, advocated the view that every person is born with good morals and with a tendency to help or feel sympathy for others. There are, on the other hand, opponents who believed that the nature of human beings does not necessarily constitute goodness or a sense of morality. The actual danger arises when we follow our basic/innate instincts or allow them to overrule reasoning. Regarding the ‘inevitable’ violence which SAMCRO members sooner or later have to face, however, the theory of Thomas Hobbes seems the most applicable. Similar to John Teller, the English philosopher from the 17th century saw an unhealthy or dangerous environment as the main condition for men to become violent. Hence, the absence of society’s safety net can be viewed as such an environment that potentially allows a man/human being to act upon his more (immoral) natural instincts in order to protect and defend himself or others (cf. Dunn 2013: 54-60). For instance, when Jax brutally shoots the FBI agent that stalked and tried to rape Tara (Season 1, Episode 8 The Pull), he does not do it out of an enjoyment for killing but rather to prevent further

52 damage. Later, Jax even shows remorse and needs to constantly remind himself that he had no other choice and that it was the right thing to do. I have tremendous remorse for the acts of violence I've committed, both planned and spontaneous. But I think what brings me the most sorrow is that I've learned to justify this behavior. I always find a reason, a cause, a need that allows me the karmic lubrication to stuff my guilt into its savage compartment (Season 6, Episode 13 A Mother’s Work). Comparatively, in the fifth season he desperately seeks out revenge on the people responsible for his best friend being beaten to death and directly threatens a prison guard with what he will do: “I’ll find out who you are, and where you live, and then I’m gonna kill you” (Season 5, Episode 3 Laying Pipe). The uncontrolled rage he feels makes him blind to any logic or reason, which temporarily turns him into a killer without a conscience. Only after his need for retaliation is satisfied, Jax can think clearly once again and tries to ‘move on’ as before. Despite having read his father’s memoir and being aware of JT’s fears, he does not acknowledge the vicious cycle where “each savage event was a catalyst for the next. And by the time the violence reached epic proportion […]. Blood was every color” (John Teller, Season 1, Episode 9 Hell Followed). The main reason behind Jax’s path of revenge that he takes numerous times during all seasons is his unwavering sense of loyalty towards both his fellow club members and his family. With each loyal act that he commits, he risks sacrificing part of his integrity and morality in order to ensure the safety of SAMCRO because, ultimately, that is what you do for your ‘brothers’. How far the characters are indeed willing to go because of those feelings of fraternal bond and companionship will be covered in the following chapter.

3.5. With a Little Help from my Brothers: A Sense of Brotherhood

One way to better understand the meaning behind the term ‘brotherhood’ is to look for its synonyms. According to an online dictionary (cf. Merriam-Webster, online), a brotherhood can also be called a fellowship or alliance, which all defines the grouping of individuals with common interests and principles. The use of the word ‘brother’ indicates how strong of a connection this group of people establishes – a brotherhood equals family and is also treated as such. Nowadays, it is popular amongst the younger male generation in the U.S. to address their closest friends as ‘bro’. This specific term of endearment once again highlights the concept of

53 camaraderie and solidarity, having each other’s back and trusting your ‘brother’ unconditionally (cf. Urban Dictionary, online). Just as one’s brothers come to represent the good times – riding, partying, hunting, and drinking together – the brotherhood also provides assistance in times of duress, be it jail, hospital, or personal threats (Wolf 1991: 97).

Concerning Sons of Anarchy, the first MC chapter was founded because the ‘First 9’ members believed in exactly those notions of brotherhood, loyalty and respect. John Teller formed with SAMCRO his own family of fellow bikers that all share a passion for riding and understand what it means to be a ‘brother’. It is important to mention that this concept of brotherhood does not only exist within the television show, but is also a quite authentic morale followed by existing motorcycle clubs all around the world. Becoming a member of an outlaw organization demands a deep involvement and responsibility from each person. Since they have chosen a life on the margins of society, club members are now part of a sub-community where nothing is done single-handedly anymore. In a broad sense, individualism has to be sacrificed to some extent in order to be fully incorporated within the brotherhood of bikers (cf. Wolf 1991: 16f). As a result, the establishment of such a deeply connected fraternity happens at the expense of cutting ties with other parts of society. The biggest ‘sin’ a club member can commit is betrayal and that is something that everyone has internalized from the beginning. Jax also confirms that on the show when simply saying that “brothers don't turn on each other […] it’s all we know. It’s in our DNA.” (Season 1, Episode 5 Giving Back). Furthermore, the bigger motorcycle clubs draw up their own set of rules and bylaws, which are (or must be) accepted and strictly followed by each member as if it were their own holy dogma. As soon as those regulations are acknowledged and internalized, the bikers’ commitment to the club becomes almost irrevocable. Consequently, the club’s influence outreaches daily motorcycle and outlaw business, affecting a member’s personal life and relations. ‘Brothers’ know everything about each other, inside as well as outside of the MC and they are always prepared to help the others when necessary. Personal problems, such as money, are not private anymore, but are taken to the club where a solution is to be found as a community. Apart from the material and emotional support, club involvement equals a certain amount of protection that also includes a member’s family. Once accepted or

54 ‘patched in’7, a brother’s most important duty is to be ready to defend his club and its members against possible prejudices and/or threats. This can either happen while being on the road, where single motorcycle riders sometimes get run off the road, or during confrontations with other (criminal) gangs/organizations and the police. Especially since an outlaw biker is treading dangerous and illegal grounds, he has to be sure “that he can always count on support from his brothers in threatening situations” (Wolf 1991: 99). This type of solidarity seems to have no limits or conditions and no member would ever dare to ignore his duty within the ‘brotherhood’. Some motorcycle clubs tend to include their expected responsibilities in the book of rules. This means that the neglect of such strict regulations will be dealt with accordingly, mostly with expulsion and general contempt (cf. Wolf 1991: 96-101). Therefore, each member soon realizes that “to be loyal is to discriminate in favor of fellow members of one’s group and against outsiders” (Mahon 2013: 35). Despite sharing a certain consensus about their principles, a motorcycle club always has to be seen as a coming together of sometimes very different personalities. As loyal as they might be, the dynamic within the group is regularly put to the test when members with various backgrounds or sometimes incompatible attitudes clash. The ability to overcome such obstacles and internal differences due to a common interest is what lies at the core of their alliance (cf. Wolf 1991: 24f; 103). In Sons of Anarchy, Jax and Clay’s complicated president-vice president/step-father- son relationship is one of the most obvious conflicts between two opposing characters. While Clay is rather harsh, merciless, deceitful and always looking to benefit himself, Jax represents a perfect counterpart with his more honest, moral and good-hearted ways. Especially during the second season their differences about how club business should be handled culminates with Jax’s decision to leave the SoA chapter in Charming. However, the arrival of an ‘Aryan Brotherhood’, which tries to get rid of the MC through (violent) provocation and attacks on their families (raping Gemma Teller-Morrow), leads to a temporary reconciliation. Without hesitation both men put the safety of the club and town first, leaving behind their disputes in order to become ‘brothers’ once more. The importance of brotherhood is further dramatized on the show for entertainment reasons and in order to elicit strong reactions from the audience. The basic ideas of solidarity and a shared bond, on which the MC was founded, remain a

7 When a biker gets patched into a motorcycle club, he receives the official club cut-off (mostly made out of leather) with the respective insignia and club colors. 55 steady undercurrent throughout the series. Viewers are able to witness the up and downs of the club as well as the different levels of commitment that each SoA member brings into it. There is the character of Opie Winston, for instance, who left the club for his family, but soon realizes that life outside the MC is less satisfying and not necessarily easier. He finally joins SAMCRO again and becomes more involved in it than ever before until protecting the club becomes his main priority. Although his very strong sense of loyalty and obligation is admirable and rare, it is at the same time what marks his undoing. The choices that I make are not because I'm afraid, or because I have any doubts about this club. I watched my best friend get his head caved in to protect what we have here. We've all watched brothers die in the service of this club. There's two things you can do when that happens. You can run from the pain, bail. Or you can allow it to burn into your heart... to leave its mark. A constant reminder of the love that brought us all here (Season 6, Episode 6 Salvage). In this quote, Jax is speaking about the sacrifices each member is willing to make and has already made, even at the expense of his own life (referring to Opie). However, also quite important is the ‘love’ he mentions. This brotherhood of men that SAMCRO has become over time is mainly based on a truthful and meaningful understanding as well as appreciation and love for one another. Thus, the TV show emphasizes this fraternal affection not only with the characters’ actions, but also through the way the club members tend to communicate and address each other. Over the course of seven seasons viewers are able to witness first-hand the changing relations between SoA characters: some fall apart such as the Clay/Tig friendship which seems quite strong until Clay takes advantage of his friend’s loyalty, while others, like Jax and Chibs, develop a mutual bond of trust and respect. It becomes clear rather quickly that the SAMCRO members actually see and treat their fellow colleagues as if they were real brothers by blood and not choice. On more than one occasion the audience will witness conversations ending with ‘I love you’ or ‘love you brother’. An embrace, or even a kiss on the cheek, is also quite normal amongst the inner circle of the MC members (see Caption 22 & 23) and underlines the close- knit community that they have formed over the years.

Caption 22: Close-up of two SoA members Caption 23: Close-up of SoA’s emphasis on the showing affection brotherhood bond The characters’ straightforward way of showing affection is not a simple fabrication of the TV series in order to speak to the viewers on an emotional level, although that is undoubtedly a positive side-effect: I am not a very social person but seeing the brotherhood and love that this bikers have for each other really makes me want to be in that kind of weird relationship (Matias, Jan 27 2015, taken from www.imdb.com). On the contrary, this ‘weird’ relationship and special bond that club members develop between each other has often been subject to speculation about the bikers’ sexuality. It was first and foremost during the late 50s and 60s when society misinterpreted the open affection that motorcyclists displayed in public, which then resulted in overstated media representations. The controversial theme of gay bikers was quickly picked up by alternative movie producers who combined two often criticized sub- communities. Especially Kenneth Anger’s film Scorpio Rising (1963) dared to address the homoeroticism supposedly inherent in motorcycle clubs and managed to mock the country’s superficiality (cf. Osgerby 2005: 101).

4. The Outlaw Biker as Anti-Hero

A passionate biker, especially when being part of a motorcycle club, in addition to establishing a new and ‘wilder’ identity, will also gain a certain self-image. In other words, he starts to see himself, his fellow ‘brothers’ and all their actions related with club business in a quite different light than the rest of society. On the back of their mechanical horses bikers are able to embrace freedom and reject all institutional restrictions, if only for a little while. What is more, by renouncing purely materialistic views and ‘Uncle Sam’s’ tight control, they feel that this is the rightful way to escape the mundane world and become something or someone else. Consequently, this way

57 of thinking provokes the construction of the biker as a heroic figure, always ready to secure his independence and risking his societal position. Because of the majority’s condemnation and critique of their lifestyle, the bikers mostly take on an inverted attitude that marks the ‘others’ as the ones without any respect or tolerance (cf. Wolf 1991: 56f). Hence, “[o]utlaw bikers see themselves in a continuous struggle to defend their lifestyle from an unfriendly society. They protest and rebel against regulations […]” (Wolf 1991: 57). Alongside their like-minded comrades bikers not only develop a feeling of belonging and acceptance, but soon also a concept of being modern heroes on the road who need to reinforce their way of living at any cost. The thesis focuses on exactly this question, whether the outlaw as portrayed in Sons of Anarchy could be considered as a (contemporary) hero. If yes, in the following chapters it needs to be clarified which type of hero the biker resembles or stems from. Howsoever, the TV show does not hesitate either to create a textual connection between its characters and their allegedly heroic image. Particularly during the first season viewers are confronted with the various ‘good’ deeds they have performed and still continue to do so. The local police officers, in comparison, are often depicted as more inept due to lawful restrictions of which the club members take advantage. They feel that they will get away with everything since they are mostly doing bad things for the right reasons. “You guys. Cruising around here like heroes. And you and I know the truth. You're white trash thugs holding on to a dying dream.” (Jacob Hale, Season 1, Episode 2 Seeds). Deputy Chief Hale is the first to address SAMCRO’s apparent self-righteousness as well as their self-appointed image of heroism, but also harshly insinuates that sooner or later reality (and probably justice) will catch up to them.

4.1. ‘Social Banditry’ in America: Myth or Fact?

Looking at America’s (or any other country’s) history, the aforementioned outlaw demeanor and group dynamic that some bikers show is not new and dates back to the times of the Wild West. During that time outlaws were also called bandits and people either feared or celebrated their primarily criminal behavior. Until today and in spite of their, at times, reprehensible crimes, they still remain a popular theme for entertainment purposes. In comparison to the nobler English version of an outlaw, namely Robin Hood, these bandits seemed to display a rather self-beneficial demeanor and rarely acted without any ulterior motives. Nevertheless, they generally

58 received more positive than negative appraisal, which raises the question as to why society accepted them back then as so-called ‘bandit heroes’ (cf. Curott and Fink 2012: 470f). An argument in favor of outlaws being seen as heroes is concerned with the fact that “praising them is sensible if bandits help to mitigate harms stemming from dysfunctional and predatory governments” (Curott and Fink 2012: 471). In fact, people in the Old West knew of their illegal activities, but soon realized that there existed much more exploiting institutions that needed to be feared. Since Western bandits used to rebel against such constricting and unjust governments, they became a convenient means to an end for the oppressed society. However, whether outlaws were actually considered more as heroes than actual criminals is an issue that contemporary scholars, such as Eric Hobsbawm (cf. 1969, cited in Curott and Fink 2012: 471), have tried to tackle. On the one hand there is the theory of the ‘social bandit’, who shows more heroic tendencies by helping out the lower and powerless classes. Opposing theories, on the other hand, see the bandit hero image as part of the American Western mythology that has been modified and accumulated with partly exaggerated stories throughout centuries (cf. Curott and Fink 2012: 470ff). In the case of Sons of Anarchy, the latter theory about the glorified and mythologized bandits seems especially relevant for the present thesis. Curott and Fink (cf. 2012: 477) argue that criminal outlaws in the past served as a model to construct benevolent bandit heroes. Furthermore, people were continuously searching for a way to escape their somber and hard lives which started to become more interesting with the mesmerizing stories about rebellious men. Comparing that assumption with the SoA audience, it can be concluded that people seem to idolize criminals (with a purpose) to a certain degree. The television show, furthermore, bestows its outlaw characters the specific role of “alternative providers of protection and legal services” (Curott and Fink 2012: 486) for the inhabitants of their hometown Charming (CA). In greater detail, this means that SAMCRO is able to aid their fellow citizens and neighbors whenever the local police or the law might fail. Clay is aware of the fact that they all depend on the people’s tolerance and sympathy in order to continue with their business, both on the right and the wrong side of the law:

You know, people get jammed up in this town, they don't go to the cops…They come to us […] and that means something to me (Clay Morrow, Season 1, Episode 3 Fun Town).

Clay has some of the locals convinced his brand of outlaw justice keeps away the corporate bogeyman (Jacob Hale, Season 1, Episode 4 Patch Over).

59 Certainly, the outlaws’ way of handling more complicated situations always implies a deviation from everything that is legal. As a consequence, the whole MC adopts an ambiguous relationship with Charming’s people where they are either scorned or praised for their actions and behavior. Regarding the audience of SoA, the situation is basically the same and viewers find themselves constantly torn between judging and justifying the characters. This ambivalence is emphasized whenever the club members exert revenge by using extreme and cruel violence, but at the end of the day are still excused and seen as ‘heroes’. For instance, in Season 6 (Episode 6 Sweet and Vaded) Jax is asked to help a befriended transsexual who wants to free his/her son from a child porn ring. At the end they catch the ring leader and instead of delivering her to the police, Jax takes matters into his own hands by brutally shooting her in the head. Nevertheless, the club’s form of ‘civil courage’ normally does not come without a price or a specific kind of reward. As mentioned before, outlaws tend to have ulterior motives behind every action and will look for ways to benefit from it. In Sons of Anarchy the club members regularly promise to keep drugs and human trafficking away from the town as long as the Chief of Police, Unser, looks the other way concerning the gun dealings. When a local businessman’s daughter is raped, SAMCRO catches the responsible man so that street justice may be served but not without any conditions. Through blackmail Clay ensures that the girl’s father will stay forever indebted to the club, using him to receive information and later to gain land without any corporate intervention. All of the abovementioned characteristics indicate that the life of an outlaw means a constant ambivalence: walking a fine line between right and wrong as well as mythology and facts.

4.2. The Outlaw Folk Type in Sons of Anarchy

After having established the outlaw’s role within past (and present) American society, it seems necessary to discuss more detailed parameters for this distinctive folk type and how he is represented within the world of SoA. Names such as Billy the Kid or Jesse James have at least two very important things in common: firstly, they were hunted by law enforcements for being ruthless outlaws. Secondly, it was exactly that kind of lawless life that turned them into celebrated folk heroes who remain popular until today. As mentioned before, the creation of heroic outlaws contains a mixture of historical truths and folklore tales but there has to be something more essential to it.

60 According to Richard E. Meyer, the answer to how and why the transition from outlaw to hero happens lies within a specific classification system of twelve characteristic elements (cf. 1980: 96-112). The following section will deal with each one of those traits in order to clarify in how far they apply to Sons of Anarchy, especially regarding the protagonist Jax.

1) The first element concerns the assumption that the outlaw comes from the common folk and, thus, does not place himself above the rest of society. On the contrary, he sees himself as yet another victim of oppressing and powerful systems and decides to fight against them. In older times, Jesse James robbed from exploiting railroad companies and now there is Jax Teller who goes against a corporate shark to avoid the construction of luxury apartments in his hometown. He recognizes that this project would only mean benefit and enrichment for people with money who do not care about the ‘ordinary’ people of Charming. Furthermore, SAMCRO is not only a motorcycle club, but they also work as mechanics in the Teller-Morrow auto-shop, another fact that again places the outlaws as blue-collar workers amongst the common folk. Over the course of seven seasons, the club is only ever seen to go against other criminal organizations (drug cartels, mafia, etc.) or higher institutions (FBI, ATF, lawyers, etc.), but never do they intentionally harm or exploit innocent town people. The only exception is Clay who, from the very beginning, is depicted as an immoral opportunist mostly looking to fill his own pockets.

2) The outlaw’s transformation to hero is marked by his first real crime against an oppressing system, committed to protect something or someone that is very important to him. Meyer states at this point that “the provocation is manifested in the physical abuse of a close member of the hero’s family, usually a female such as wife, sister or mother” (1980: 99). In Sons of Anarchy it is, first, the crazy stalker of Jax’s love interest and later his mother’s rape that serves as an incentive for him to brutally kill the men who did it. Both times, the men involved in those attacks were either federal agents or hired by a corrupt businessman that acted out of spite against the protagonist. Therefore, it is argued that the outlaw’s association with criminal activities began as a direct result of another unjust crime against his family or friends. Regarding the case of Jax in SoA, however, it is a different situation since he has been involved in the outlaw business of the MC for years. Nevertheless, the murders

61 of his girlfriend’s and mother’s attackers are still significant for Jax’s development because he has never killed like that before.

3) The third element deals with the general assumption that outlaws act as a form of ‘Robin Hood’ by serving the poor and needy. Although most stories about famous American outlaws treat the subject of stealing from the rich in order to bring justice economically speaking, it remains a theme basically untouched in Sons of Anarchy. Instead of giving money to the people in need, the club members offer physical protection and more often find a solution in violent behavior or threats of murder. Clay in particular constantly insists on the club’s duties: “We got an obligation to this club, to this town, to crush this threat. Retaliation must be harsh and immediate. That's what we do. It's what we've always done” (Season 2, Episode 5 Smite). As a consequence, this may be a reason for de-glorifying the outlaw and comparing him more with the ‘ordinary’ criminals. At the beginning of the TV series the people of Charming seem to blindly trust in SAMCRO members and their actions. However, their on-going involvement with drug trafficking generates fear and contempt for the bikers as well as the whole club.

4) One of the more important reasons for outlaws to be considered as heroes is their “good-natured, kind-hearted, and frequently pious” (Meyer 1980: 5) character in contrast to cold-blooded killers. On the TV show, it is Jax’s hold onto his humanity and morals that distinguishes him from other characters (especially Clay or the drug kingpin Damon Pope) that show less compassion and act without any conscience. When Clay wants a young girl murdered for witnessing something that could incriminate the club, it is only Jax who dares to defy his president and decides to save her. On another incident, he shows pity and generosity towards a troubled teenager, who smashed in a club house window, by offering her small jobs (babysitting, working as waitress for the MC). The only trait that does not at all resemble any of the club members’ personality is the one about being a religious person. During the times of the ‘original’ outlaws in the American West religion was an important factor and often the only principle they held onto. SAMCRO members, in contrast, seem to not even recognize any type of faith despite referring to their daily meetings as ‘church’. Even the main club room itself is called the ‘chapel’ where only MC members are allowed to go in and strict seating rules apply. Therefore, it can be argued that within the world of SoA the bikers strongly believe in their club as

62 if it were their own personalized form of religion: they regularly go to church to meet kindred spirits, live by a certain code and always help others in their community.

5) Since the fifth and sixth characteristics are closely connected, especially with regard to SoA, they will be combined as one element. Generally, the outlaw tends to have a reputation of being extremely smart, cunning and experienced with handling all types of weapons which benefits him when confronting his enemies. In the old tales about Western outlaws, the protagonists seem to always be one step ahead of their opponents. This theme of outsmarting “lawmen, and thus symbols of the power and authority wielded by the oppressive system” (Meyer 1980: 106) is regularly addressed in Sons of Anarchy. Already when being on the road, the club members are often seen tricking police officers that try to catch them for speeding or disturbing the traffic. The fact that they are always able to get away without any problems strongly undermines the authorities. What is more, Jax’s clever plan to trick a federal agent into reducing a prison sentence for several club members (end of Season 3), emphasizes the outlaw’s upper hand as a trickster. Since SAMCRO is involved in the gun dealing business, all of the club members are depicted as highly skilled when handling such weapons. As an outlaw motorcycle club the members carry guns and knives on a daily basis which also means that they do not hesitate in using them. Hence, in armed fights they often remain the ones with the advantage except when they face other outlaw groups with similar skills.

6) In addition to his skills and cleverness, the outlaw can normally always count on his closest friends’ and family’s support. With them, he establishes relationships that are mainly based on unconditional loyalty as well as respect and admiration for his courage. The viewers of Sons of Anarchy can witness that primarily with Jax and his main confidants within the club: Opie and Chibs, two members who follow his lead at all times, but are also brave enough to tell him whenever he goes too far, for instance, when going on a vengeful killing spree to find his wife’s murderer in the final season. In such times, they seem to be his moral compass that show him the right way despite their own involvement in outlawry.

7) Another essential element that accompanies every outlaw is his ability to escape the common justice system. In other words, law enforcements not only have a hard time catching him, but it remains equally difficult to properly punish the outlaws. The same applies to the SAMCRO members who, if actually caught, never 63 stay imprisoned for too long due to ongoing deals they have struck. The most significant incident that highlights the impossibility of catching the outlaw-hero occurs in the final few minutes of Sons of Anarchy. This particular scene, already analyzed in detail in Chapter 3.1.2., shows Jax on the run from a whole police force on an open country road after killing several people (criminal and corrupt gang leaders). Ironically, not one police car or motorcycle manages to detain him and it looks like Jax might be able to get away only to end up committing suicide. Not only does he escape conventional justice again, but he also puts emphasis on the fact that only he can decide what will happen to him.

8) Following the last statement, the ninth characteristic element concerns the death of the outlaw-hero which, according to most stories, happens as a result of a friend’s betrayal. Probably the most famous outlaw death is the one of Jesse James through the hands of Robert Ford, a fellow gang member. Meyer termed this accordingly as the “Judas motif” (1980: 108) or the person who “assumes the role of inside betrayer” (1980: 109). Although SoA’s heroic outlaw Jax does not die at the hands of a friend, he does experience disloyalty within his club and family on several occasions throughout the later seasons. There is the case of club member Juice who starts working as an informant for the CIA. After Jax finds out, he gives him another chance only to get betrayed again when Juice helps Gemma covering up the murder of Tara. The double-sided betrayal of a ‘brother’ and his own mother affects Jax deeply, but also allows him to stand out as the suffering hero.

9) The next element is once more associated with the outlaw’s (heroic) death, albeit the focus lies more on the people who are left behind to grieve their unfortunate loss. In most folklore tales (and songs) the death of the glorified outlaw hero serves as a dramatic climax underlining how important he was for the society. Sons of Anarchy does this in a similar way with the help of scenes in slow motion that focus on the mourning club members after they have all said their goodbyes to Jax. The difference here is that the characters at this point do not yet know about his death, but only think that their ‘brother’ and president left town and the club. The intensity of the outlaw hero’s (physical) disappearance and how each member deals with the loss, however, is still portrayed quite authentically on the TV show.

10) Relatively important for the conception of the outlaw-hero is the penultimate characteristic that describes how he manages to remain present in people’s minds 64 even after his demise. The typical American Western outlaws often became more popular after they had died, since admirers started to spin exaggerated stories of faked deaths and mysterious sightings. This was a way to keep the celebrated myth partly alive and to create a heroic image of the (criminal) outsider rebelling against greater injustice and corrupt authorities. The TV series ends with Jax’s suicide and, hence, only leaves some clues as to what might happen to the town, SAMCRO and his family after that. The viewers are, therefore, put into the unique position to speculate how the story continues: will the club be able to break the cycle of violence and finally secure the legitimate business that Jax has strived for from the very beginning? However, Sons of Anarchy deviates at one point quite significantly from the glorification of the outlaw from earlier times. During the last episode, right before leaving town, Jax has a scene in which he tells a friend what he should say to his two sons: “[…] tell my sons who I really am. I'm not a good man. I'm a criminal and a killer. I need my sons to grow up hating the thought of me” (Season 7, Episode 13 Papa’s Goods). Having Jax admit and ultimately accept how he sees himself is a very interesting change in the show’s tune, since up to that point every violent act was justified in some way or another. Jax, above all, is mostly depicted as the conflicted and tormented hero who got dealt a bad hand and is a victim of his criminal environment: “It’s in my DNA.” (Season 6, Episode 13 A Mother’s Work); “The only thing I ever did well was outlaw” (Season 4, Episode 1 Out). Now at the end of the series, however, in order to remove every reason that could mean a ‘false’ glorification of his actions, he even burns the diary he has been keeping for his sons. It becomes clear that his intention is to not be seen as the so-called ‘outlaw-hero’ that people tend to create after time.

11) Finally, the last characteristic trait of an outlaw-hero stands in contrast to all the others mentioned until now. Despite the typical celebration of the American outlaw in written and oral folklore, there is also the flipside where people judge him for the criminal he is. The display of and inclination toward violence “may upon occasion elicit everything from mildly stated criticisms and moral warnings to outright condemnation […]” (Meyer 1980: 111). With regard to Sons of Anarchy, over time the inhabitants of Charming start doubting the club’s benevolent intentions when it comes to the protection of their town. “The whole town is spooked, Jax. The council meeting next week, there folks are talking about how to get rid of the MC” (Mayor

65 Jacob Hale, Season 6, Episode 6 Sweet and Vaded). As of Season 4, the majority of the people mistrust the bikers when realizing that the MC’s illegal associations produce more chaos and violence, something that they always promised to keep away. After looking in detail at every single element that constitutes the formation of the outlaw-hero within people’s mind, it can be confirmed that the contemporary outlaw in Sons of Anarchy presents traits of the one found in the Old West. Nevertheless, men such as Jesse James or Billy the Kid were being worshipped primarily during times when people felt socially and economically insecure. Their defying and daring personality resonated within an unstable society, serving as a springboard to heroism (cf. Meyer 1980: 116). Concerning the situation of the TV show, viewers are neither confronted with an overly predatory government nor with an oppressed group of people in need of a lawless and brave outsider. The biker outlaw Jax, however, despite engaging in illegal businesses still manages to fulfill the necessary conditions for earning the status of hero as opposed to criminal. In fact, the line between those two types is very thin and at times hard to make out, though essential when it comes to the distinction of the outlaw-hero. According to Meyer [o]nly certain types of extralegal activities are acceptable; when the lawbreaker transcends these limitations he ceases to be an outlaw and becomes a criminal – i.e., one whose acts are unmitigatingly reprehensible to all sectors of society […] coldblooded and calculated murder, crimes against women and children, acts of sadism and terrorism […] (Meyer 1980: 116). In the case of Sons of Anarchy, the TV show regularly depicts its protagonist (and other characters) trying to walk a tightrope between being a good outlaw and a ruthless criminal. For the viewers it becomes difficult at times to determine at what point the outlaw crosses the line, which allows for an interesting moral dichotomy. Assuming that the outlaw-hero is an alternative version to the conventional hero, he seems to be also closely related to the ‘anti-hero’ type which will be discussed in more detail in the following chapter.

66 4.3. Rise to Anti-Hero or Demotion to Villain

Before going deeper into the possible textual and formulaic connection between the outlaw as portrayed in Sons of Anarchy and the anti-hero image, it is necessary to start with more basic definitions. The ‘ordinary’ hero represented in literature or on film is generally considered as a superhuman of extraordinary abilities and without any flaws – in other words a moral prototype outshining everyday people. A hero has not been and will never be a person of the common folk, but always the ideal of humanity who only possesses admirable characteristics (cf. Klapp 1954: 57). The anti-hero, in contrast, distinguishes himself through an “amalgamation of both good and evil” (Literary Devices, online). In more detail, he certainly does not radiate pure ‘goodness’ but rather tends to show immoral behavior and violent tendencies when trying to do good things. Contemporary anti-heroic characters are more likely to fall into criminal ways, revealing their darker sides, in order to get what they want. Therefore, “it may be the general state of uncaring ruthlessness that makes moments of emotion and compassion so compelling” (Jonason et al. 2012: 196). What is more, anti-heroes gain attention through being in stark contrast to the flawless hero that almost seems too good to be true. From a historical standpoint, the distinctive characteristics of the ‘anti-hero’ as a trope are not a simple creation of contemporary media texts but have been present in classical American literature for quite some time. Such a character was, however, also termed as the so-called ‘Good Bad Boy’ constituting “America’s vision of itself, crude and unruly in his beginnings, but endowed by his creator with an instinctive sense of what is right” (Fiedler 1966: 270). Particularly interesting for this thesis are the following three characteristic circumstances supposedly inherent in the Good Bad Boy’s life: a unique relationship with his mother, a satanic figure and a good angel. All of them are also represented in SoA’s protagonist Jax, which is one more reason to consider his status as an anti-hero. From the first episode on, Gemma Teller- Morrow is depicted as a matriarchal character that has a huge influence on her only son Jax. On the one hand, he worships the ground she walks on and it seems that only she knows how to properly handle him, while on the other he regularly tries to break free of her overly controlling tendencies. At the end of the TV show their difficult mother-son relationship culminates in her telling Jax to shoot her since she is his wife’s killer. This shows how, even up to her own death, Gemma guides her son and forgives him for what he is about to do: “I love you, Jackson. From the deepest,

67 purest part of my heart. You have to do this. It's who we are, sweetheart. It's okay. My baby boy. It's time. I'm ready” (Season 7, Episode 12 Red Rose). Furthermore, Fiedler also confirms at this point that “the Good Bad Boy does what she really wants him to do: deceive, break her heart a little, be forgiven” (1966: 270). Regarding the ‘satanic figure’, he/she often represents something or someone that the Good Bad Boy desperately avoids turning into. No matter if this particular figure is a real person or only a symbolic threat, the character in question fears that there is a certain similarity between them. One way to escape this destiny is to rid himself of the danger so that the Good Bad Boy may continue on his own chosen path (cf. Fiedler 1966: 281). “I'm not Clay. I never will be” (Jax, Season 6, Episode 4 Wolfsangel). In Sons of Anarchy, it can be argued that the satanic figure exists as both a symbol as well as in the form of a specific character in Jax’s life. As soon as he realizes the extent of his stepfather’s immorality and coldblooded character, he goes beyond his ways to make Clay step down as club president. Jax, at first still unwilling, accepts to become the new SAMCRO president being aware of the responsibilities he will have to bear. After Season 5, viewers can follow the protagonist’s continuous struggle against the seemingly inevitable fate of wearing the president’s patch: “The gavel 8corrupts. You can't sit in this chair without being a savage” (Season 5, Episode 12 Darthy). Although accepting the truth that as Clay’s successor he is in danger of becoming a ‘copy’ of his stepfather, Jax’s introspection is the one thing that strongly marks the difference. “I've become the thing the one I hated. And with that awareness comes periods of days, sometimes weeks, when I have to avoid looking into a mirror” (Season 6, Episode 13 A Mother’s Work). In contrast to Clay who refused to see the error of his ways until it was too late, Jax ultimately manages to get back on the ‘right’ track by sacrificing himself for both club and family. Finally, there is the ‘good angel’ that serves as an obvious counterpart to the aforementioned satanic figure by being a positive constant for the Good Bad Boy. It is mostly a woman who takes on a specific dual role of strict critic and moral supporter (cf. Fiedler 1966: 281f). Thus, she will find herself conflicted about what “she admires more […], his badness […], which it will give her pleasure to subdue, or his goodness […], which she calls forth and will sustain” (Fiedler 1966: 282). On the TV series it is undoubtedly the character of Tara Knowles who represents Jax’s ‘good

8 The ‘gavel’ is only used by the president of the MC during meetings. Similar to a judge’s gavel, it signalizes that a final decision has been made and that the meeting is over. 68 angel’, since she is the only woman with whom the outlaw can actually imagine settling down. After their second son’s birth, Jax is ready to leave his beloved club and brothers behind so that he can be with her, away from the life of a criminal. He even interprets her return to Charming as a sign to eventually cut all ties with outlawry: I realized you being with me, it's not some kind of accident. It sounds crazy, but I think you were put into my life to get me out, Tara. I'm done with SAMCRO. We both know, if I stay, I end up back in prison or dead (Season 4, Episode 1 Out). Unfortunately, Jax cannot keep his promise since he becomes the next club president which consequently entails a permanent stay in Charming. As his ‘good angel’ Tara stands by him and even admires his unconditional loyalty to SAMCRO, but she also reminds him that he has other duties that lie outside of his club and outlaw life. I know why you couldn't walk away a few months ago. The club's been your whole life, you couldn't let it die. I think I fell in love with you even more because of that. You're a beautiful, loyal man, Jax. […] you have put the MC on the right track. You've done everything you wanted to do, baby. It's your turn, now (Season 5, Episode 11 To Thine Own Self). Despite Tara’s plea to renounce his criminal ways, Jax seems to get more deeply involved after his best friend’s death. He may act partly out of obligation, but also because it seems that he does not know anything else than this life of crime and violence. Apart from the suggested theoretical as well as textual relatedness of the Good Bad Boy and the anti-hero, there remains another aspect which ought to be given more attention. Given the fact that anti-heroic characters mostly display a lack of morals and an inclination toward unbridled violence, it may become difficult to not see them as common villains. This is a broader issue of classification already approached in detail by the American sociologist Orrin E. Klapp , who tried to give an overview of existing villain types. Furthermore, he distinguishes two main groups, namely the highly visible villains who are easy to recognize and the villains of low or delayed visibility. With regard to Sons of Anarchy, the former is much more relevant since it contains the specific sub-types called ‘Desperado’ or ‘Outlaw’, ‘Rebel’ and ‘Trouble-Maker’. According to Klapp’s description, the Outlaw type is marked by a marginalization from the common society because of his violence-prone personality. When it comes to the other two villain types, the Rebel and Trouble-Maker, they are more generally characterized as the lesser evil but still always looking to create havoc. Thus, they are either defying institutions that try to control them (Rebel) or

69 simply trying to stir up a conflict wherever they go (Trouble-Maker) (cf. Klapp 1956: 337f). The general construction of such villain types happens in a similar way to society’s glorification of the classical Western outlaw. Klapp argues at that point that villains mostly start out as social outsiders who embody the opposite of what is accepted or considered as ‘normal’ (cf. 1956: 340). In the end it can be said that even though the outlaw-hero (as discussed in Chapter 4.2.) and the villain have the same initial situation, it depends entirely on their social environment how their actions are interpreted. Sons of Anarchy operates in the same way by leaving it entirely up to its audience whether to celebrate or condemn the characters for what they are doing. It is, first and foremost, Jax who regularly alternates between staying the good guy for his family and becoming a bad one to save the club: “I'm trying to give us a future. And yes, if that means stepping outside the lines, or making a couple calls on the fly, then that is exactly what I am gonna do” (Season 6, Episode 1 Straw). The TV show manages to perpetuate this uncertainty throughout all seven seasons, although there are situations in which Jax clearly acts either more heroic or quite the opposite. Chief Unser, who has been around since the MC was founded, comes straight to the point when stating that “Jax Teller is formidable, as smart as he is dangerous” (Season 7, Episode 2 Toil and Till). For the audience it is maybe exactly this combination of good and bad virtues that makes the character much more interesting and believable.

5. Sympathy with the Devil – The Amiable Outlaw in Sons of Anarchy […] the characters are so well developed that viewers can relate to them--perhaps even respect them, in spite of their obvious flaws, weaknesses, and challenges that draw us to them (fidgee, Sept 8 2010, taken from www.imdb.com).

The previous chapters have tried to focus on the allure of the outlaw, who often portrays anti-heroic and villainous tendencies, and why the society is tempted to glorify or admire such personalities. Sons of Anarchy offers its audience fictional characters that regularly alternate between being morally depraved criminals and then again more relatable suffering human beings. It seems that viewers quickly respond to this specific dichotomy of good versus bad, even going as far as to start sympathizing with a character that would normally not be favored but rather despised for his/her actions.

70 According to Keen et al. the audience can (unwillingly) come to like characters despite “initially disapproving of them for what we see, this may fade with time as we have the opportunity to reflect on the situational factors” (2012: 133). Therefore, it is more than likely for someone to understand, sympathize or identify with a specific person on film or television even though they may portray questionable moral inclinations. In order for this to happen, Cohen claims that a viewer “ceases to be aware of his or her social role as an audience member and temporarily (but usually repeatedly) adopts the perspective of the character with whom he or she identifies” (2001: 251). A closer look at the question how it is possible for viewers to come to this point of engagement reveals that it often requires a few simple preconditions. One of those amounts to an active knowledge about the fictional character’s textual and social circumstances, which later on leads to a deeper insight into his/her individual values and goals. Therefore, in order to sympathize the audience is not expected to approve of the entire value system, but rather reacts appropriately to a specific (emotional) situation through the eyes of the other (cf. Giovannelli 2009: 90). On television the process of creating sympathy is further encouraged with the help of different textual as well as narrative techniques. For instance, the viewer’s attention is being deliberately drawn to specific characters through the use of camera angles (point-of-view shots or close-ups), focus of plot development, voice-over narrators (like JT and Jax on SoA) and so on (cf. Cohen 2011: 192). As the creator and writer of Sons of Anarchy, Kurt Sutter focuses on transmitting the protagonist’s difficulty to find a form of moral balance between his outlaw and family life. More than once, Jax comes to realize that what is good for his club might affect his wife and sons in a negative way or vice versa. Every time he manages to succeed at one side, the other suffers the consequences of his actions. As a result, for viewers it means that they are always alternating between the roles of sympathizer and critic of the protagonist. Hereinafter, two particular scenes have been chosen for a detailed analysis concerning their textual and technical features in order to determine how these contribute to a positive construction of Jax’s anti- hero/outlaw image. This is mainly done with regard to the stylistic (film and television) features as outlined by Jason Mittell (2010: 183-202), as well as relevant media aesthetics according to Brian L. Ott and Robert L. Mack (2010: 116f).

71 5.1. Personification of Moral Conflict: A Close Reading The true outlaw finds the balance between the passion in his heart and the reason in his mind. His solution is always an equal mix of might and right. (John Teller, Season 1, Episode 3 Fun Town)

The following sequence, starting from 47:44 min. until 50:25 min., to be described and analyzed is taken from the final episode of Season 6, called A Mother’s Work. In short, it shows a clarifying conversation between Jax and his wife Tara after she has secretly tried to leave him and incriminate the club so that she can be free of this life. Before she can do any of that, he finds her and they have a long overdue talk. The scene takes place in a public family park outside of Charming, offering a relatively open space with good views of the surrounding environment. Despite the expansiveness of the setting, the characters’ emotionally heavy conversation creates a feeling of constriction. The given setting, generally, offers a familiar or even domestic feeling since there is a playground visible in the background behind Tara. Hence, Jax clearly stands out wearing his club patch and colors in a place where ‘ordinary’ families regularly spend their time. From a viewer’s standpoint, the whole composition of the scene underlines the protagonist’s outsider position as a biker and outlaw. The fact that Jax maintains a very stern and fierce demeanor puts him even more into contrast with the otherwise carefree environment. Jax and Tara are sitting opposite each other at the end of a picnic table that marks a physical border. While Tara’s body is slightly turned away as if she intends to run away any second, Jax assumes a forward looking pose with his forearms lying in front of him and his hands clasped. They maintain those positions throughout the whole sequence, showing only minimal movement of their heads and hands. At the beginning, both their body language reflects their respective emotional states: Jax seems quite serious and dominant, whereas Tara appears frightened and broken. Over the course of their conversation their roles change with her getting angrier while he is the one being talked into submission. When Tara talks about him changing more and more into the ruthless criminal he was always afraid of becoming, Jax’s expression starts reflecting realization and finally guilt. This specific feeling is accentuated at the end of the sequence when he can barely look into Tara’s eyes anymore after she scold’s him about what he is doing to their sons: You were gonna pull them out of this, remember? You were gonna break the cycle. I know the turmoil you live with, Jax. I feel the pain you wake up with every day. And now you condemn your sons to that same torture.

72 Regarding the camera framing, the sequence consists mostly of medium shots which are typically used in dramas and for scenes with an emphasis on the conversation and the characters’ facial expression. It starts out with an over shoulder shot from behind Jax, putting Tara’s reaction onto display. Over the course of their talk the show makes use of a so-called shot/reverse shot pattern (Mittell 2010: 197), alternating between the two characters according to the one who is talking at the moment (see Captions 24 & 25). Furthermore, occasional close-ups of their faces constitute for a dramatic effect and “allow a high degree of intimacy and emotional expression” (Mittell 2010: 192). The camera angle remains at eye level at all times, making it possible, especially during medium shots, to feel as if the audience is sitting right there with them at the table. A similar effect is created concerning the camera movement, which can be described as natural because it seems to imitate normal head movements.

Caption 24: Shot/reverse shot used to follow Caption 25: Shot/reverse shot with focus on Jax conversations (47:48 min.) (47:52 min.)

Since the scene was filmed during the day there is no use for any additional artificial light. The fact that the sun is shining allows for a contrasting effect of sunlight and shadow. In Jax’s case there is one moment that stands out because of its visual significance (see Caption 26): a split effect is created since the left side of his face is partly lit up by the sun, while the right remains more obscured. Considering Jax’s ongoing struggle between doing bad things and staying a good man, the play between sun and shadow is an appropriate allusion to this moral conflict. What is more, the light on Jax’s face is not permanently fixated but can change in an instant – the sun may brighten up his face more or disappear completely, leaving him in the dark. That kind of uncertainty corresponds to the aforementioned balancing act of every outlaw, or anti-hero, between good and bad or might and right.

Caption 26: Light and shadow contrast on Jax’s face, emphasizing his split morality (49:04 min.) With regard to sound specifics, the sequence has no musical background whatsoever and relies solely on the effect of realistic noises. Those are mainly the chirping of birds and distant chattering of playing children which helps to reinforce the authenticity of both the location as well as the TV show as such. As a result, viewers are more likely to relate to the given situation and can even draw upon their own experiences in a similar setting. Overall, the volume remains on a steady level but especially during moments of silence their intensity seems to increase, which puts extra emphasis on those pauses. Moreover, there is a mentionable ambiguity at the core of this particular sound pattern. Apart from serving an authentic purpose, it can be argued that the constancy of the mundane background noises represent Jax’s ties to the part of him that is more ‘family-man’. To be more precise, a man that does not operate within the violent world of SAMCRO, and is rather a good father than a good outlaw. Finally, it remains to be said that the chosen sequence does play a significant role within the respective episode of the sixth season and, hence, also for the continuation of the plot. The preceding analysis, however, is an attempt to prove how the protagonist fluctuates daily between being a more heroic and good version of his outlaw self and the criminal he ultimately has become. There are times when one of his two ‘identities’ has a stronger pull than the other which then leaves Jax at a symbolic crossroads. Throughout this thesis it has been mentioned several times how bikers tend to encounter troubles with establishing an identity amongst a society that does not fully accept them. Jax’s situation is a manifestation of this suggested problem: he can never fully be a family man as long as he is involved with SAMCRO,

74 but neither does he ever get completely accepted as an outlaw biker by his wife or the rest of the town for that matter. Therefore, it seems that Jax is destined to live as an outsider wherever he goes as long as he is not able to detach himself from either club or family. His suicide at the end of the TV series is a final confirmation of him realizing that he can never have both at the same time. From a viewer’s perspective, the depicted struggle is not too farfetched from real life. Almost every day people try or need to adapt to other communities and sub-cultures with established values that might differ from theirs. This can cause problems of acceptance and, additionally, identification seems to be a recurring consequence. Therefore, for the audience to put themselves in the shoes of Jax can be easy - through certain textual techniques, as the analysis has proven, even highly probable.

5.2. Humanizing the Outlaw: A Close Reading I never really wanted this chair. I guess some part of me knew it would happen, but I always dreaded the weight of it. The responsibility. The truth is I can barely make the right choices for myself. I've been trying to take this club in a direction I thought made sense. To move us away from all the outlaw shit. That hasn't worked. I think some part of me was trying to buy back all the bad shit I've done. The people I've hurt. That's a false pardon. It's dangerous. And it's selfish. JT did the same thing. And those choices took away everything from my old man. His family and his patch. I already lost the woman I love. I'm not gonna lose my club (Jax, Season 7, Episode 1 Black Widower).

Sons of Anarchy repeatedly manages to maintain its protagonist’s positive appeal to the audience despite all the horrible things he has done. Jax actually never loses touch with his sense of morality; it simply gets clouded in later seasons making it hard for him to find his way back to his ‘better’ self. In the following sequence (32:24 min. – 34:03 min.), from the first episode of Season 7, the focus primarily lies on Jax’s feelings of remorse and guilt that he expresses during a club meeting. Already the title, Black Widower, allows for a myriad of interpretations. While it refers to the fact that Tara actually has died which makes Jax the widower, there is also the association with the poisonous spider species. Hence, viewers are led to believe that in spite of being weakened and in mourning, Jax does not cease to be dangerous. In the above-noted monologue he begins with talking about the club decisions he had to make and how they have affected everything else in his life. Especially noteworthy in this sequence are the specific camera movements and angles chosen to further intensify the overall mood.

Caption 27: Elevated long shot of the SAMCRO club room (32:24 min.)

First, the camera establishes the sequence with the help of a slightly downward tilted long shot, offering a good overview of the present characters and more details about the surroundings (see Caption 27). Due to the higher angle it allows the audience to feel as if they were an outsider looking in on a private club meeting. Furthermore, the scene takes place in a closed setting and in a room that was part of the SoA set in California. The club room as such is a frequently displayed location, and thus coincides with the show’s tune. All of the depicted characters are shown to sit comfortably in their assigned seats around the iconic wooden table with the SAMCRO reaper insignia engraved in it. The very first shot transmits a certain level of objectivity which gives viewers time to examine the rest of the room. A look at the walls, windows and floor makes it clear that the building is old and could have been a warehouse of some sort. This observation brings up the assumption about the club’s preference of simplicity and practicality, contrasting them to the majority of people nowadays who are quite materialistic. After a short but pregnant silence, the camera changes to a dolly shot that steadily zooms in on the sequence as soon as Jax starts talking. As can be seen in Caption 27 above, there is a relatively large gap between the two characters at the bottom of the shot. While it certainly may seem like a coincidence that Bobby, on the right, is sitting sideways, the aim behind that is to leave enough room for the in-coming camera. The following screenshots (Caption 28 to 30) show how the technique of wheeling into the scene works: it goes from long to medium shot, only to finally stop at a close-up of Jax’s face. Not only does his character gain center stage through this, but it is also intended to “heighten emotional engagement” (Mittell 2010: 194).

Caption 28: Medium shot with slightly lower angle & focus on Jax (33:03 min.) In addition, the whole time the camera keeps zooming in on Jax, he remains in the very center of the shot. Comparatively, the other characters are slowly being faded out both visually and metaphorically. The closer the camera draws to Jax, the more it feels like he is holding a monologue, expressing and sharing his most personal thoughts with the viewers. Regarding the content of his speech, the moment he starts referring to the people he has hurt the camera arrives at a medium shot (see Caption 29). What is more, Jax also mentions his father JT and the fact that after the loss of his wife he cannot bare to lose his club, his brotherhood and second family, too. The last shot (see Caption 30 below) of the given sequence, which also marks the end of his speech, is another attempt to completely tap into the viewer’s compassion in order to provoke and establish an emotional connection with the protagonist.

Caption 29: Medium shot focusing on Jax to emphasize emotions (33:19 min.)

Caption 30: Final close-up of Jax’s expression to intensify emotion (33:56 min.)

Other important factors that contribute to the establishment of the emotionally-laden mood during this scene are concerned with the effects of lighting and sounds. Since the sequence takes place in a closed location without any direct sunlight, the room is displayed in a slightly dimmed atmosphere. Nevertheless, there is one particular area that is illuminated by a beam of light: the ‘Grim Reaper’ visible in the table. Its symbolism, bringing death and ‘slayer’ of the living, during this scene is literally highlighted and undeniable. Hence, next to Jax as the focal point in most shots, the image of the club’s insignia receives almost as much attention from the camera as he does. The established atmosphere is further heightened with the help of prevailing darker colors of, for example, the clothes and general furnishing of the room. As a result, this tends to evoke rather negative and/or depressing connotations but at the same time indicates and prepares for the emotional intensity of the scene. Overall, Sons of Anarchy prefers to use colors that represent the more serious storylines and heavy themes of the show. With respect to the sound effects, the whole sequence lacks of any background music or other noises, which means the audience has the chance to completely concentrate on Jax’s voice alone. What is more, the absence of both sound effects and music once again puts a significant emphasis on the protagonist’s words and their meaning. Despite the physical presence of eight (!) additional characters, not one is saying anything nor making other kinds of noises allowing viewers to almost forget about them entirely. Finally, this sequence is a good example of how certain techniques, such as the described camera movements, contribute to a viewer’s respective evaluation of the given situation. Since Jax is the protagonist of the TV show that is mainly presented from the point of view of the outlaw bikers, initial sympathy with these characters is

78 presupposed. This effect of audience positioning is, furthermore, nurtured through the aforementioned stylistic and narrative elements. Especially the final season shows a morally unhinged Jax who, out of revenge, acts more violently than ever. However, all of his actions are still to some extent excusable on behalf of the viewers because they have enough background knowledge to realize why Jax has become like this. The chosen sequence also highlights the fact that despite all the unspeakable crimes he has committed he remains a sensitive and compassionate person. Jax always demonstrates and acts on his feelings, which makes him more relatable since it is something that everyone experiences.

79 6. Conclusion

The aim of this diploma thesis was to determine the anti-hero status of outlaw bikers in the television series Sons of Anarchy. I tried to find an answer to the question of why people/viewers seem to glorify morally questionable characters and what caused them to see those as more of a hero than a villain. Furthermore, I have also focused on the social marginalization of bikers and what the (historical and cultural) trigger was that put them in this position. The show’s creator, Kurt Sutter, has been a biker himself since his youth and, thus, knows about the hardships of being considered a social outsider and a potential criminal. Over time, the biker has assumed a rather ambiguous role within the American culture: he is either condemned due to his particular lifestyle choice or admired for daring to defy the rest of society. In the first part of my thesis, I have focused on stating the main themes of Sons of Anarchy and how the show portrays the harsh world of outlawry and motorcycle clubs that act as criminal organizations. Since the word ‘anarchy’ is an important keyword for the television series, I found it necessary to look for thematic and stylistic connections to this concept. My findings have shown that at the core of an anarchic mindset does not (always) lie violence, but rather rebellion and a refusal to being oppressed by others. While the rebellious part is definitely picked up in SoA, the show also demonstrates that being part of a motorcycle club means an inevitable commitment to violent behavior. The fact that Sons of Anarchy represents a never before seen topic for a television production, namely to focus on bikers and their involvement in an outlaw MC, has caused me to examine the genre as such. By analyzing the different traits which can be recognized and applied to a specific TV genre, my findings show that SoA, as the biker, once more assumes an ambivalent role. Because of the program’s official classification as a family drama, thriller and crime show, it can easily be seen as a generic hybrid that unites different characteristics in order to create something new. What is more, I wanted to emphasize the show’s distinctive character by arguing that certain stylistic elements indicate that Sons of Anarchy can also be considered as ‘quality TV’. What I have discovered is that even though television producers nowadays strive for implementing artistically valuable traits, it is also the emotional engagement of the viewers that counts. In the case of SoA, it is the protagonist’s internal struggle of good versus bad and his emotional development from a reckless individual to a responsible leader, husband and father that resonates with the audience.

80 The next section of my thesis has been aimed at finding the origins of the biker motif that until today is being used, in varying forms, in many on-screen productions. On the one hand, I have pointed out that the interest in motorcycle riders stems from the American’s loss of identity and general frustration with their country’s old-fashioned morals after experiencing several wars. Marlon Brando’s portrayal of the nation’s first rebellious biker in The Wild One not only served as an upgraded version of the Western cowboy, but has also had a strong effect on following depictions of outlaw bikers. On the other hand, however, it has been found that later biker films such as Easy Rider focused again on addressing the Western pioneering and frontiersman themes. The comparison of said movies with the modern depiction of bikers in Sons of Anarchy has revealed, among other things, that there are certain characteristics inherent in every production: namely the symbolic significance of the motorcycle, a biker’s visual appearance, his tendency to violent behavior and the importance of the brotherly bond formed between members of a motorcycle club. Throughout my thesis I have tried to demonstrate that all of the aforementioned elements are ultimately pivotal for the creation of a heroic version of the outlaw biker, as happens with Jax Teller in SoA. Furthermore, I have laid focus on connecting and contrasting the outlaw as shown on the TV show to popular social bandits from Old Western folk stories. What I have come to realize is that people tend to mythologize and glorify those social outsiders that fearlessly stand up to injustice and follow their instincts because it is something that they cannot do in ‘real life’ – at least not without serious consequences. My findings throughout the chapters on the outlaw hero brought me to the conclusion that he resembles in many ways the anti-hero: essentially, they are both flawed and often go to extreme lengths in order to get or do what they want. Therefore, my focus has also been on looking for a possible relation between the (contemporary) anti-hero and the literary trope of the ‘Good Bad Boy’ through a detailed analysis of his defining traits and where those can be found in Jax Teller’s character. While the given comparative approach concerning common elements point to a confirmation of their connection, I have also attempted to explain that the complicated moral status of outlaw heroes often make them look more like villains. In my final chapters, I have addressed the outlaw biker’s dichotomy between good and bad and how it affects the audience of Sons of Anarchy. The TV show offers us a detailed insight into the brutal world of an outlaw motorcycle club and focuses on

81 ruthless characters that have been born into a very violent environment. Despite their obvious indifference towards violence and murder, we as viewers are still able to sympathize with them on some level. This is especially true for the protagonist Jax Teller who is always displayed as the tortured anti-hero fighting an inner battle between his good and bad side. My close readings of two particular scenes foreground this moral dilemma of the outlaw biker. I have analyzed in detail the specific technical and stylistic elements that contribute to an emotional response to and a possible identification with the protagonist’s situation. in the end, the TV show successfully manages to emphasize Jax’s ‘true’ heroic character by letting him die as a martyr who sacrifices himself for others. Last but not least I want to point out that I started watching Sons of Anarchy by accident and not because I am particularly interested in outlaw motorcycle clubs. I have to admit that it did not take long for me to become completely fascinated by the depicted bikers and their struggle to live a somehow ‘normal’ life amongst chaos and daily violence. It was, especially, the human part of the storylines, Jax’s emotional transformation and his fight to do right by everyone that brought me back each season. There were certainly situations that made me strongly criticize and dislike his character, but then every time the circumstances brought me to better understand and even excuse his actions or wrongdoings. The TV show has taught me that anti- heroes, or outlaw heroes, as characters are definitely more interesting and relatable because they are far from perfect. Their imperfections and immoral ways to achieve something is often questionable, but their ultimate goal to do good reinforces our belief in them while it also distinguishes them from typical villains.

82 7. Works Cited 7.1. Primary Sources

Benedek, László, Director (1953). The Wild One [Film]. Columbia Pictures.

Hopper, Dennis, Director (1969). Easy Rider [Film]. Columbia Pictures.

Sutter, Kurt et al. (2008-2014). Sons of Anarchy [Television]. Sutter Ink and FX Productions.

7.2. Secondary Sources

Alford, Steven E. and Ferriss, Suzanne (2007). Motorcycle. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.

Beynon, John (2002). Masculinities & Culture. Buckingham/Philadelphia: Open UP.

Bucci, John (1971). “Searching for the Meaning of Anarchism”. The Journal of Education. Vol. 154, No. 2, IDEAS NEGLECTED IN EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY (December): 61-68.

Cardwell, Sarah (2007). “Is Quality Television Any Good? Generic Distinctions, Evaluations and the Troubling Matter of Critical Judgement”. In: Janet McCabe and Kim Akass, ed. QUALITY TV. Contemporary American Television and Beyond. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. 19-34.

Cohen, Jonathan (2001). “Defining Identification: A Theoretical Look at the Identification of Audiences with Media Characters”. Mass Communication and Society 4.3: 245-264.

Cohen, Jonathan (2011). “Audience Identification with Media Characters”. In: Jennings Bryant and Peter Vorderer, ed. Psychology of Entertainment. New York/London: Routledge. 183-198.

Curott, Nicholas A. and Fink, Alexander (2012). “Bandit Heroes: Social, Mythical, or Rational?”. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 72.2: 470-497.

Dale, Timothy M. and Foy, Joseph J. (2013). “’The Rat Prince’ and The Prince. The Machiavellian Politics of the MC”. In: George A. Dunn and Jason T. Eberl, ed. Sons of Anarchy and Philosophy: Brains Before Bullets. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. 65-72.

De Brito Serra, Bruno (2013). “Chaos and Order. Anarchy in the MC”. In: George A. Dunn and Jason T. Eberl, ed. Sons of Anarchy and Philosophy: Brains Before Bullets. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. 73-84.

83 Dunn, George A. (2013). “SAMCRO versus the Leviathan. Laying Down the (Motor)Cycle of Violence”. In: George A. Dunn and Jason T. Eberl, ed. Sons of Anarchy and Philosphy: Brains Before Bullets. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. 53-64.

Eberl, Jason T. (2013). “Virtue and Vice in the SAMCROpolis. Aristotle Views Sons of Anarchy”. In: George A. Dunn and Jason T. Eberl, ed. Sons of Anarchy and Philosphy: Brains Before Bullets. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. 3-15.

Fiedler, Leslie A. (1966). Love and Death in the American Novel (Revised Edition). New York: Stein and Day.

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Mahon, James Edwin (2013). “Tig Needs an Escort Home. Is Loyalty a Virtue?”. In: George A. Dunn and Jason T. Eberl, ed. Sons of Anarchy and Philosphy: Brains Before Bullets. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. 29-37.

Maxwell, Andrew H. (1998). “Motorcyclists And Community In Post-Industrial Urban America”. Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development 27.3/4: 263-299.

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Mills, Katie (2006). The Road Story and the Rebel. Moving Through Film, Fiction, and Television. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP.

Mittell, John (2010). Television and American Culture. New York: Oxford UP.

Nesselhauf, Jonas and Schleich, Markus (2014). “Watching too much television”. In: Jonas Nesselhauf and Markus Schleich, ed. Quality-TV. Die narrative Spielwiese des 21. Jahrhunderts?!. Berlin: LIT Verlag. 9-24.

84 Opitz, Martin G. (1990). Rocker im Spannungsfeld zwischen Clubinteressen und Gesellschaftsnormen. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre.

Osgerby, Bill (2005). Biker. Truth and Myth: How the Original Cowboy of the Road Became the Easy Rider of the Silver Screen. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press.

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7.3. Electronic Sources

"Anarchism" (n. d.). New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. [Online] Encyclopedia. http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press- releases/anarchism [2017, April 15].

“Anti-Hero” (n. d.). Function of Anti-Hero. [Online] Literary Devices. Definition and Examples of Literary Terms. https://literarydevices.net/anti-hero/ [2017, July 5].

“Bro” (n. d.). [Online] Urban Dictionary. http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=bro [2017, June 10].

“Brotherhood” (n. d.). Definition of Brotherhood. [Online] Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/brotherhood [2017, June 10].

“Criminal Procedural” (n. d.). TV Tropes. [Online] http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CriminalProcedural [2017, April 22].

“Rule of Drama“ (n. d.). TV Tropes. [Online] http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/RuleOfDrama?from=Main.Drama [2017, April 22].

“Thriller” (n. d.). TV Tropes. [Online] http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/Thriller [2017, April 22].

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85 Carpenter, Susan (2014, Sept 4). “Sons of Anarchy creator talks outlaw bike culture, show’s popularity as last ride nears”. The Orange County Register. [Online] http://www.ocregister.com/2014/09/04/sons-of-anarchy-creator-talks-outlaw-bike- culture-shows-popularity-as-last-ride-nears/ [2017, April 22].

Fleming Jr., Mike (2013, June 24). “Emmy Q&A: Fleming Interviews Sons of Anarchy Creator Kurt Sutter”. Deadline. [Online] http://deadline.com/2013/06/emmy- qa-fleming-interviews-sons-of-anarchy-creator-kurt-sutter-528035/ [2017, April 22].

Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays. New York 1910. The Anarchist Library. [Online] https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/emma-goldman-anarchism-and- other-essays.a4.pdf [2017, April 16].

N. D. [nm205]. (2011, June 6). Sons of Anarchy. The Making of Season 1. [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pHjSd1p5QYo&list=WL&index=2 [2017, June 10].

N. D. [Riders and Wrenchers]. (2012, November 6). Sons of Anarchy Extra-The Bikes [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcnwb6W7ch8&t=371s [2017, May 20].

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Wilson, Michael S., and Noam Chomsky (2013, May 28). “Noam Chomsky: The Kind of Anarchism I Believe in, and What’s Wrong with Libertarians”. Alternet. [Online] http://www.alternet.org/civil-liberties/noam-chomsky-kind-anarchism-i- believe-and-whats-wrong-libertarians [2017, April 15].

7.4. Other Sources

Sex Pistols (1976). Anarchy in the U.K. EMI.

Stigers, Curtis and The Forest Rangers (2011). Songs of Anarchy: Music from Sons of Anarchy Seasons 1-4. Columbia.

86 8. List of Captions

Caption 1: Rough attitude: Part of the SoA cast in their club attire taken from http://media.comicbook.com/2017/02/sons-of-anarchy-june-wedding-233245- 1280x0.jpg [Online] [2017, May 10] ...... 13

Caption 2: The Romance of the Knife: Weapons as symbols of everyday violence N. D. [CircleHunter]. (2015, Dec 20). Sons of Anarchy: Complete Intro/Opening Credits (All Series Regulars, Seasons 1-7). [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W01L74Q_VTE [2017, April 22] ...... 18

Caption 3: Cold as Ice: Body parts and a gun barrel as signifiers of violence and crime N. D. [CircleHunter]. (2015, Dec 20). Sons of Anarchy: Complete Intro/Opening Credits (All Series Regulars, Seasons 1-7). [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W01L74Q_VTE [2017, April 22] ...... 18

Caption 4: Behind bars: Image of a prison door alluding to criminal/illegal activities N. D. [CircleHunter]. (2015, Dec 20). Sons of Anarchy: Complete Intro/Opening Credits (All Series Regulars, Seasons 1-7). [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W01L74Q_VTE [2017, April 22] ...... 19

Caption 5: American flag in SoA – connecting the nation to ‘anarchy’ N. D. [CircleHunter]. (2015, Dec 20). Sons of Anarchy: Complete Intro/Opening Credits (All Series Regulars, Seasons 1-7). [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W01L74Q_VTE [2017, April 22] ...... 24

Caption 6: Close-up of a motorcycle – emphasizing the inner mechanics of the motorcycle N. D. [CircleHunter]. (2015, Dec 20). Sons of Anarchy: Complete Intro/Opening Credits (All Series Regulars, Seasons 1-7). [YouTube]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W01L74Q_VTE [2017, April 22] ...... 24

Caption 7: Macho pose: Marlon Brando as the first outlaw Johnny Stabler in The Wild One N. D. (2016, May 27). “The Wild One: Marlon Brando. British customs profiles the great actor and motorcycle icon.“ Motorcyclecruiser. [Online] http://www.motorcyclecruiser.com/wild-one-marlon-brando [2017, May 12] ...... 32

Caption 8: Neo-macho: Charlie Hunnam in ‘Brando’ pose in SoA N.D. (2012, Feb 19). “Charlie Hunnam en ‘Hijos de la Anarquía’.” Formula TV. [Online] http://www.formulatv.com/fotos/charlie-hunnam-hijos-de-la-anarquia/ [2017, May 12] ...... 33

Caption 9: Night shot creating appropriate atmosphere for SoA (Sons of Anarchy, 1.01, “Pilot”, FX 2008) ...... 34

Caption 10: (Establishing) Long shot of the scenery in The Wild One (The Wild One, Columbia Pictures 1953) ...... 34

Caption 11: Long shot of Jax’s final ride (Sons of Anarchy, 7.13, “Papa’s Goods”, FX 2014) ...... 38

Caption 12: Long shot of Wyatt’s final ride similar to SoA (Easy Rider, Columbia Pictures 1969) ...... 39

Caption 13: Frontal medium long shot of Jax (Sons of Anarchy, 7.13, “Papa’s Goods”, FX 2014) ...... 40

87 Caption 14: Frontal shot of Jax to emphasize emotions (Sons of Anarchy, 7.13, “Papa’s Goods”, FX 2014) ...... 40

Caption 15: Medium long and low angle shot of ravens feeding on bread (Sons of Anarchy, 7.13, “Papa’s Goods”, FX 2014) ...... 41

Caption 16: Close-up of flowing blood signalizing Jax’s death (Sons of Anarchy, 7.13, “Papa’s Goods”, FX 2014) ...... 42

Caption 17: Long shot of Wyatt’s bike & body burning (Easy Rider, Columbia Pictures 1969) ...... 43

Caption 18: Medium shot of Jax’s leather ‘cut’ with SAMCRO lettering and insignia (Sons of Anarchy, 1.01, “Pilot”, FX 2008) ...... 45

Caption 19: Medium shot of Jax’s SAMCRO back tattoo (Sons of Anarchy, 3.08, “Lochán Mór”, FX 2010) ...... 45

Caption 20: Jax – combining feminine and masculine media stereotypes (Sons of Anarchy, 7.01, “Black Widower”, FX 2014) ...... 50

Caption 21: Jax as the sexually objectified ‘violent rebel’ Deggans, Eric (2014, Sep 9). “‘Sons of Anarchy‘ Succeeds As A SoAp Opera Geared Towards Guys.” NPR. [Online] http://www.npr.org/2014/09/09/347106628/sons-of-anarchy- succeeds-as-a-SoAp-opera-geared-toward-guys [2017, June 15] ...... 51

Caption 22: Close-up of two SoA members showing affection (Sons of Anarchy, 6.13, “A Mother’s Work”, FX 2013) ...... 57

Caption 23: Close-up of SoA’s emphasis on the brotherhood bond (Sons of Anarchy, 6.13, “A Mother’s Work”, FX 2013) ...... 57

Caption 24: Shot/reverse shot used to follow conversations (Sons of Anarchy, 6.13, “A Mother’s Work”, FX 2013) ...... 73

Caption 25: Shot/reverse shot with focus on Jax (Sons of Anarchy, 6.13, “A Mother’s Work”, FX 2013) ...... 73

Caption 26: Light and shadow contrast on Jax’s face, emphasizing his split morality (Sons of Anarchy, 6.13, “A Mother’s Work”, FX 2013) ...... 74

Caption 27: Elevated long shot of the SAMCRO club room (Sons of Anarchy, 7.01, “Black Widower”, FX 2014) ...... 76

Caption 28: Medium shot with slightly lower angle & focus on Jax (Sons of Anarchy, 7.01, “Black Widower”, FX 2014) ...... 77

Caption 29: Medium shot focusing on Jax to emphasize emotions (Sons of Anarchy, 7.01, “Black Widower”, FX 2014) ...... 78

Caption 30: Final close-up of Jax’s expression to intensify emotion (Sons of Anarchy, 7.01, “Black Widower”, FX 2014) ...... 78

88 9. Appendix 9.1. Overview of the main SoA Characters

Club members Other characters

Clay Morrow Jackson ‘Jax’ Teller Gemma Teller-Morrow Club President (until Vice President, later Club Clay’s wife & Jax’s mother Season 5) President

Alexander ‘Tig’ Trager Filip ‘Chibs’ Telford Tara Knowles Sgt. at Arms & Clay’s best Club President after Jax’s Jax’s main love interest & friend, later joint Vice death later wife President Juan Carlos ‘Juice’ Ortiz Wayne Unser ‘Happy’ Lowman Club’s hacker & Chief of the Charming PD Sgt. at Arms intelligence officer & old friend of the club

Bobby ‘Elvis’ Munson Harry ‘Opie’ Winston Dave Hale Treasury Secretary, later Jax’s best friend Deputy Chief of the Vice President Charming PD

Piermont ‘Piney’ Winston Co-founder of the club, father of Opie