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Filipino Martial Arts and the Construction of Filipino National Identity

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Filipino Martial Arts and the Construction of Filipino National Identity Filipino Martial Arts And the Construction of Filipino National Identity A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Faculty of Humanities 2015 Rey Carlo T. Gonzales School of Arts, Languages and Cultures Table of Contents Plates…………………………………………………………………………….........4 Abstract…………………………………………………………….…………………5 Declaration…………………………………………………………………………...6 Copyright Statement……………………………………………..……………….. …7 Acknowledgements and Dedication………………………………………………….8 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………9 Historical Framework……………………………………………………….11 Method and Sources…………………………………………………….…..27 Scope, Structure and Contents………………………………………………32 Chapter I - Old School: Homogeneity, Diversity, and the Early Practice of FMA………………………………………………………………………………..37 Sixteenth Century Warfare in Visayan Barangays…………………………39 Arnis, Kali, Eskrima and the Historical Narrative of FMA………………...45 FMA Old School……………………………………………………………54 Conclusion………………………………………………………………..…69 Chapter II - New School: The emergence of FMA Clubs and the Construction of National Identity from FMA…………………………………………………...71 Emergence of the New School……………………………………………...74 Juego Todo and Martial Prowess as Prestige……………………………….79 Conflicts between and within FMA Clubs, and the strengthening of local FMA identities………………………………………………………………87 Creation of ‘Filipino’ in FMA from abroad………………………………...94 NARAPHIL and ARPI: State Appropriation of FMA and FMA’s Appropriation of Nationalism………………………………….98 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………105 Chapter III - Lapulapu as a symbol of Filipino Identity………………………108 Lapulapu as a link to Philippine pre-colonial National Identity…………...112 Negotiating Lapulapu as National Symbol………………………………...115 2 Reconstructions of Lapulapu before 1946, and in two national monuments………………………………………………..122 Lapulapu in ‘Que Dios le Perdone’ (1614) and the Declaration of Philippine Independence (1898)...………...123 I. Physical Representation of Lapulapu in Monuments……………...128 FMA-based reconstructions of Lapulapu (1953-2012)……………………134 I. 1953 Lapu-Lapu comics and 1955 film……………………………134 II. 2002 Lapu-Lapu film………………………………………………139 III. FMA’s Appropriation of Lapulapu as National Symbol…………..144 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………156 Chapter IV - Negotiating National Identity in FMA films…………………….158 The Historical Context of the Emergence of FMA Films…………………163 Filmic Constructions of the Arnisador Archetype as Representative of National Identity………………………...166 I. Engaging the Filipino with the Foreign Other……………………..167 II. Filmic Representations of Continuing Tradition and Rural Identity as authentications of Filipino Identity..………..176 III. Masculinizing the Filipino, Feminizing the Nation………………..188 FMA Films in the Negotiation over National Identity…………………….192 I. FMA Films as manuals for understanding the composition of FMA…………………………………………..194 II. FMA Films as Instructions for Nationalism……………………….195 III. Changing Contours of FMA and Filipino National Identity in FMA Films……………………………………………………...197 How FMA films mediated negotiations on National Identity among FMA Clubs……………………………………...201 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………205 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...206 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………212 Word Count: 79,900 3 List of Plates Plate No. 1: Book cover of Filipino Martial Arts as Taught by Dan Inosanto……..54 Plate No. 2: Antonio Luna’s School of Fencing, circa 1894………………………..74 Plate No. 3: The National Self-Defense Association, 1927………………………...74 Plate No. 4: Bruce Lee wielding sticks in Enter the Dragon……………………….97 Plate No. 5: Lapulapu Shrine………………………………………………………130 Plate No. 6: Sentinel of Freedom………………………………………………….131 Plate No. 7: Mario Montenegro as Lapulapu……………………………………...138 Plate No. 8: Roland Dantes as Lapulapu…………………………………………..140 Plate No. 9: Lito Lapid as Lapulapu……………………………………………….140 Plate No. 10: Doce Pares Banner………………………………………………….148 Plate No. 11: Two Hall of Fame trophies of Roland Dantes………………………151 Plate No. 12: Two sayaw contestants both dressed as Lapulapu………………….152 Plate No. 13: Filipino Martial Arts Logo………………………………………….155 Plate No. 14: Disarmed, Mori calmly appeals to Ben to end his life……………...171 Plate No. 15: Scenes from The Pacific Connection……………………………….180 Plate No. 16: Scenes from Arnis: The Sticks of Death…………………………….181 Plate No. 17: Johnny fights a poacher using Arnis………………………………..181 Plate No. 18: Fighters training in Kamagong……………………………………...182 Plate No. 19: Costumes from The Pacific Connection…………………………….183 Plate No. 20: Costumes from Arnis: The Sticks of Death and Kamagong………...184 Plate No. 21: Manuel endures hardening training with Maestro Sutero…………..187 4 Abstract This dissertation explores the construction of Filipino national identity by examining the Philippine national government’s appropriation of Filipino Martial Arts (FMA) between 1975 and 2010. FMA’s nationalization offers a window into the larger dynamics of nation-building in the Philippines. Having been colonized for nearly four centuries (1565-1946), the Philippine national government reified the Filipino nation by appropriating older symbols as national ones, and with the purpose of articulating a unique Filipino national identity. The nationalization of FMA is analyzed using Benedict Anderson’s constructivist interpretation of nations as ‘imagined communities’. The dissertation argues that in order to understand the logic behind the national government’s nation-building project using FMA, Filipino postcolonial anxieties over national identity (or their perceived lack of) must be taken into consideration. In this regard, FMA’s nationalization is engaged with Anthony Smith’s concept of the ethnie (ethnic community). Studying the history of how decentralized indigenous martial arts practice became institutionalized in FMA clubs, the dissertation finds that FMA as an ethnographic concept was formulated mainly since the 1970s in consonance with its commercialization, increasing popularity and nationalization. By looking at how national identity is represented in FMA films and in reconstructions of the national hero Lapulapu, the dissertation argues that FMA practitioners seek to highlight their localized identities by inserting their own symbols and interpretations into the national identity being articulated. This process, termed the ‘reverse appropriation’ of nationalism, was a way for FMA clubs to preserve their local institutions and identities from being totally consumed by the nationalization and nation-building project. Keywords: nation, national identity, nationalism, ‘imagined communities’, ethnie 5 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. 6 Copyright Statement The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses 7 Acknowledgements and Dedication I would like to say thank you to: The Almighty for all the blessings enjoyed and the trials endured in the four years it took me to accomplish this endeavour. I pray you guide me in the years to come. My parents, Alice and Rey, for the financial and emotional support they have provided me these past few years. I can’t thank you enough for the sacrifices you made to see me through. To my girlfriend, Julie, for loving me unconditionally, believing in me whenever I doubted myself, and urging me on when things fell apart; and to Julie’s family in Bolton, for making me feel like I never left home. To my supervisors, Steven, Ana, and Yangwen, for the intellectual guidance and above all for being patient with me despite my shortcomings. Thank you for giving me a voice, and for ‘turning my plant into a tree’. This task would not have been accomplished without you. To my friends and colleagues, especially
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