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KHUTBA IN ARAB LITERATURE AS THE FIRST LITERARY PROSE GENRE
Feruza Shukurovna Djuraeva
Department of Arabic Philology, Tashkent State Institute of Oriental Studies, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Phone: +998 909309497,
Abstract This article discusses the views on the importance of khatabah in arabic literature as the first literary life. The play discusses the art of rhetoric in Arabic literature, which is one of the oldest genres of prose. Attempts have also been made to shed light on the debate about whether literary prose existed among Arabs in pre-Islamic times.
Keywords: khutba, khatabah, Arabic literature, genres of prose.
INTRODUCTION Qutbuddun [7], Nicolson M.A. [13], Hanna al'-Fahuri No nation in the world would be as proud of the artistic [4], An nassu, Ihsaan [14], Gibb H. [16], and others. expression as the Arabs, and would not be able to copy themselves in the art of speech, whether written or oral, Admittedly, until recently, historians of Arabic as much as Arabs [1]. literature, literary critics, literary critics and writers, as well as orientalists in the world, have not paid as much The word is a great mystery [2]. Man's ability to speak attention to the study of literary prose in the Arabs as has made him superior to all other beings. Thousands of they did to the study of poetry. peoples around the world are still arguing with each other on the question of which nation was the owner of The Arab writer Zaki Mubarak even says with deep the first human speech and numerous scientists and regret that Arab critics did not analyze any prose work researchers are researching the origin of speech. or genre from the early medieval literature other than the Qur'an [3]. Speech also underlies the earliest knowledge in the history of the world. The word has its own destiny, and However, it is also incorrect to analyze the Qur'an as a its destiny is inextricably linked with the art of public work of fiction, and such an analysis cannot be speaking, which can change the lives of societies, considered a literary work. Everyone who has written peoples, nations and peoples. about the Qur’an has shown only their high intelligence and talent in unraveling the mysteries hidden in this In Arabic literature, khutba, the art of oratory is one of great book, and there is no criticism to be found in these the most ancient genres of prose. However, whether works [3]. literary prose existed among the Arabs in pre-Islamic times has been the subject of much debate. "Historians of Arabic literature have different views on the emergence of fiction in the Arabs. Some literary MATERIALS AND METHODS historians say that prose originated in the Arabs shortly Literature Review before the revelation of the Qur'an and that it existed Views on the importance of khatabah in arabic literature before Islam and continued to evolve until Abdul Hamid as the first literary life are discussed in the scientific al-Katib and Ibn al-Muqaffa fully endorsed fiction, works of the following researchers as Abu Nasr Forobi while others claim that absolutely no prose existed in [17], Philip K. Hitti [1], Al Kalkashandi Ahmad ibn Ali the Arabs before Abdul Hamid al-Katib and Ibn al- [18], Hashim Aliwey Al-Husseini [8], Parandovskij Ja. Muqaffa. [2], Al Zhahiz,Abu Amr bin Bahr [12], Zakij Mubarak [3], I.M. Fil'shtinskij [5], Steel, C. [9], Sulajmonova F. There is no doubt that prose, by definition, was not [10], Mahmud Shaki [11], Reynold A. [13], Tahera popular among Arabs in the pre-Islamic times. The Arabs borrowed prose from the written works of the 1106
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ancient Sami, and these works were in colloquial field under study. In that case, how reasonable is the language that did not follow any order or rules. They view that there was no Arabic prose at all in the early were a set of unrelated words, composed of unrelated Middle Ages? What genre was oratory, what is the basis phrases, and did not have a whole meaning. It was not for the skeptical view that it is a literary genre, and what until Islam appeared in the Arab society that prose is its place in Arabic literature? became more widespread, and elements of artistic mastery began to appear in it, albeit to a lesser extent,” It is not surprising that any researcher or literary wrote the famous Arabic literary critic Hannah al- enthusiast gets confused by views of modern European Fakhuri [4] in his time. However, since the time of the scholars such as "the reason for the lack of interest in scholar, a lot of work has been done on the deep study Arab literature in the genre of oratory is probably that of Arabic studies, especially Arabic literature, and some medieval Arabic critics did not have a clear approach to scientific views have begun to reflect. oratory," oratory (khutba) in Arabs does not deserve serious attention as “it was not sufficiently developed But many scholars who have studied the history and and of low quality” [7, 1]; “oratory relates to not literature of the Arabs acknowledge that the Arabs had literature, but to philosophy” [7] or, as the famous literary prose genres as early as the time of ignorance historian Albert Knowz put it, the first khutbas were [5]. “fabrications from beginning to end [7]. "Many modern European studies on rhetoric have reacted to the According to many scholars who have studied the traditions of the khutba genre as if they did not exist at history of Arabic literature, the Arabs have long been all." [7] masters of the art of eloquence. "The traditions of oratory trace back to a long way in Arabs. Even in pre- Perhaps all these contradictory views are explained by Islamic times, Arabs - nomads and settlers of the oases - the fact that the genre of speech in the Arabs has not organized exhibitions at certain times of the year, where been extensively and comprehensively researched over Bedouin poets and orators competed with each other in the years, perhaps by the need for in-depth and thorough poetry and oratory. Such competitions were accepted by analysis of the issue from a direct perspective of Arabic the Arabs throughout the Middle Ages [6]. literary criticism. In fact, the Arabs are famous in the world for their eloquence and miraculous language and "The Arabs have long valued oratory and the skillful use we believe that Arabic oratory, khutba, fully reflects of the word. There is no doubt that the culture of Arabic these two qualities of the Arabic language, and has risen speech, which existed in the days of ignorance and from a simple word to a higher-level art. So, what could reached us, indicates that the Arabs were highly be the reason for the indifference to studying, analyzing developed in the first centuries AD, so to speak [7]. and the issue of delivering it to the Arabic public, as Sources about the early socio-political and literary life well as to millions of people who find it interesting and of the Arabs during the period of ignorance, important? unfortunately, have not reached us in full except the few sources made it to this day. However, these two factors Of course, in recent years, the Arabs have paid more do not mean that the Arabs did not have literature in attention to the study of the genre of khutba, but they during the period of ignorance. The fact that the Arabs have preferred to focus their studies more on the paid great attention to the genres of prose in pre-Islamic mechanisms of influence of khutbas on the audience, times is evident in the sources that have reached us. The the behavior of the speaker (khatib), or the emotional or uniqueness of this prose became known through the political nature of public speaking in today's fast-paced sermons of the orators and the pamphlets of the world. secretaries” [8]. In the mass media, some articles analyze individual "While it is true that there was not a great need for prose khutbas on their own. In some encyclopedias [7] the genres before Islam, the fact that they were not of descriptions and information about khutbas are similar sufficient size does not mean no attention was paid to to small but useful sections on oratory. prose in pre-Islamic times," he said [3]. At the same time, Takhira Kutbiddin, who has It should also be noted that such scientific views are extensively studied the genre of Khataba oratory, says found in almost all written and published works in the that: “the reason for Albert Noose’s such negative views 1107
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on khutbas, which reflect great talent in reality, is the down, memorized, narrated, and all or some of them consequence of the assumptions that the samples of would have come down to us as they were done in khutbas presented to the European scientists were made Persia, India and Rome.” In response to Marceau's up and not from real life” [7]. comments, Zaki Mubarak said in his letter that, "Their disappearance does not deem such prose works non- However, R.V. Sergeant, on the other hand, argues that existent. The Qur'an itself is enough for us as a great the initial khutbas were exactly true and that they were example of literary prose, which contains traces of pre- in a language unique to only Arabs [5]. Islamic Arab life” [3].
In the course of our research, we encounter a variety of At this point, we also reject the view that many conflicting views which claim that “There was no prose examples of speeches in a number of ancient historical before Islam at all”, “Even if prose existed in pre- and literary Arabic sources are not original as Islamic times, it was hard for people to memorize so it mentioned above, because such literary sources were has not reached to our time”, “Many of the literary written, collected and passed down to us at different works that are now portrayed as the prose of the Age of times, by different people and in different regions. It is Ignorance were invented during the post-Islamic times probable that the authors of such collections entered into in the process of creating written works”, and that this work without the knowledge of each other, and, of “Greek and Roman cultures influenced Arabic khutbas” course, collected them from various narrators. However, [5]. the text of the high-level khutbas, which are denied to have existed in the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, may Such thoughts are expressed by Zaki Mubarak as be exactly the same, sometimes in a slightly different follows: Many historians of the Arabic language and form, without change in the content. We think that such literature have unanimously acknowledged that there uniformity cannot be accidental, and we do not doubt was no political or literary reality among the Arabs until the authenticity and originality of the Arabic khutbas. the age of prophethood. Only Islam revived the Arabs as if after death and awakened them from indifference. However, during our research, we came across an even Such an alliance of scholars is based on two different more unreasonable scientific view. reasons: Muslim historians who study the history of Islam are proponents of religious features, arguing that “According to the views of Marceau and his allies, only Islam created the Arabs as a people, bringing them Arabs led a very primitive lifestyle in the Age of from darkness to light - from non-existence to existence, Ignorance. There was no need for prose in their life, as and attempt to prove this point of view. And similarly, the prose was the language of high intelligence, and historians of Arabic language and literature, in addition during the pre-Islamic times, poetry was preferred over to this, are skeptical of many texts of khutbas, excerpts prose due to the former being the language of emotion. with saj’, and proverbs preferred by pre-Islamic Arabs. However, these views point to the 5th AD, during which, according to them, existed literary prose in the One such thinker was Khalil Mitran, who actually neighboring nations such as Persians, Hindus and pointed out with Muhammad Haykal in 1928 that the Greeks. These nations had used prose since as early as literary collection (khutbas) that the Arabs preferred in the 5th BC, and it is illogical to claim that the same did pre-Islamic times did not even exceed a single edition not happen in the Arabic nation even after the 5th BC, [3]. as believing so would mean that Arabs had stagnated way behind their neighbors in intelligence, logic and At a time when the question of whether the genre of imagination” [3]. khataba oratory existed among the Arabs before Islam is becoming so problematic and controversial, "the And certainly, when it comes to the art of speech, what Western criticism has been able to curb its feelings comes first to the mind of any reader is Aristotle, about the khutba. The French scholar Marceau believes ancient Greece, and Rome, since a closer look at history that there was khutba during the Age of Ignorance, but reveals that the science of public speaking was first denies that it is a work of fiction, i.e., that the khutba is invented by the ancient Greeks, later to be translated nothing more than a person's need to express an opinion, and shaped into Latin. The Latin style was the most or to dispel doubts, or to explain a problem. If the Arabs basic form of speech in the world for centuries, before had prose at that time, they would have been written 1108
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the Roman orators helped to develop the modern style left an indelible mark on the history of the peoples of and content of speech [8]. Europe and the East, playing a major role in shaping later cultures [10]. According to a brief description of the Steel, the art of public speaking, as phenomenon of oral speech, was Even if we assume that the claims that pre-Islamic Arab directly linked to politics and government in Rome. In nobiles were unaware of the events occurring around his view, this art held a critical focus on Rome in them, or that they were influenced by their neighbors general, and values and morals among Roman nobiles in [11] were reasonable to some degree, we would be particular. The high status in oratory was a skill peculiar judging a nation naturally talented in oratory by the to these aristocrats, serving them as a means of standing level of awareness of a certain class within that nation, out in the congregation [9, 15]. and doubting the talent and the verbal skills of a large number of people. But what similarities could there be of the public speeches of Rome or Greece, which had been born and Al-Jahiz says that "We know of nobody else with matured far away in history and far before Islam, to the khutbas except the Arabs and Persians... As for the khutbas of the Arabs, and how could the former have Indians, no other nation has granted given the ability to influenced the latter? write such topics and brilliant books as theirs. The Greeks have mastered philosophy and logic, but Of course, khatabah oratory is a speech, and as defined Aristotle, the author of logic, has not described as a in Chapter 1.1, it must be delivered orally to the speaker. The Persians also have speakers in addition to audience. This means that the speaker (khatib) has a the speeches of the ajams, but these are the result of clear purpose as he speaks. It is natural for a speech long observations and reading. As for the Arabs, their offered to the public, with the intention to influence khutbas (speeches) are created without any preparation, them, should be described as a khutba, regardless of the as if created by a simple, unexpectedly sudden nature of the time and the audience. It is feasible for any inspiration [12; 9-27]. individual equipped with logical thinking to come to this conclusion. Furthermore, as the same truths are The most important point in this description of al-Jahiz's simultaneously discovered by a number of people, or if speech, and the most basic and undeniable fact of the art certain natural laws are repeated over and over again in of public speaking in the Arabs, is that "Arabic khutbas some societies at some point in time, the finding is are created without any preparation, as if created by a associated with the first individual or nation to declare simple, unexpectedly sudden inspiration" [12]. it, which, however, does not mean that others are incapable of doing so. We believe that the early And for such a high-level speech with powerful medieval Arabic khutbas we analyzed were influenced inspiration, "the khataba oratory in the Arabs is nothing neither by the Greek, nor the Roman. Not only the but a devotion to the exaltation of the Arabic language historical and political situation of the Arabs at the time, in all its essence, and in which the word must have its but also their social circumstances would have allowed audience. That is how the words flow" [12; 28]. such a conclusion. To assume that the nomadic Bedouin Arabs living in adverse natural conditions must have We do not agree with the opinion that Hellenistic heard of Aristotle, his rhetoric, and other similar works culture has an influence on the emergence or formation and could have memorized them to narrate them to their of khataba oratory among the Arabs, and support the own tribes is not just illogical, but unrealistic. Perhaps views of the scholar T. Kutbuddin. The khataba oratory those who claim that the Arabic khutbas were inspired is so ingrained in its original culture that the Arabic by the art of oratory in the ancient world were implied khutbas contain very few significant traces of foreign by the fact that the ancient Arabs and the Hellenic states culture. he rhetorical traditions of the Greeks, Persians, lived side by side. For thousands of years, as the Arabs Indians, and Babylonians had little influence on the took actively the intermingled with the Hellenic states, development of the sermon, both before and after the and the Greco-Macedonians with the peoples of the advent of Islam [7]. East, signs of interaction began to be felt in all aspects of life. The economic and political unity that Alexander Before addressing the question of the role of khataba and his successors sought to establish did not last long, oratory in Arabic literature, we would like to mention but Hellenistic culture as a mixture of different cultures, that this genre embodied the art of full expression, the 1109
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boundless possibilities and beauty of language in the had dominated Arabic literature alongside the Qur’an pre-Islamic, early Islamic and Umayyad centuries. As and its miraculous authority as the highest prose genre we have discussed in chapter 1.1, khutbas were uttered of Arabic literature with many spiritual and secular in a mature manner and had a high degree of style and influences [16]. art that could captivate their listeners, were able to transcend the fame of the khutba through the barriers of Indeed, we reiterate that the art of public speaking was space and time. Assessing the development of the well developed among the Arabs in the days of khutba in the period under study and its influence in ignorance. On the basis of this foundation, the first Arabic literature, we need to consider how important Islamic period, later, in the age of the Umayyad’s, this these khutbas were for their time, the reality of that genre was further perfected and matured. Of course, in period, the way of life of the people who created it, their each period, the specific purpose of the khatabah - the customs and, of course, their literary talent. tasks, methods, themes - differed from each other.
“In Arabic literature, the various ideas that embody the In the following chapters, we will examine in detail the Arabs before our eyes are closely connected with the issues of the centuries-old leadership of the khatabah history of this nation at that time. Therefore, these ideas genre in Arabic literature and its significance in each mean nothing beyond the situations in which they were period. born, ascended, and occurred” [13]. However, interpreting the khutbas as examples of early By the 7th-8th centuries AD, the Arabs had surpassed medieval literary prose and the khatabah genre as early the art of speech better than painting, sculpture, and medieval literary prose, we decided to deeply analyze music — with skillful eloquence, metaphorical, the opinion that poetry and prose have always been melodic, and in-place speech. It is well known that the compared in the history of Arabic literature, that poetry main genre of such oral traditions was poetry, and the prevails in in the age of ignorance and that there was no first prose genre of such art was khutbas or speeches prose in Arabic literature. We briefly touched on such [14]. conflicting views above, but since the khatabah had been a leader in Arabic literature for centuries and The khutba was the most important piece in the deserves to be analyzed as an excellent example of landscape of Arabic literature and one of the keys to literary prose, a closer look at the debate between poetry political and spiritual leadership. The khutba was also and prose in Arabic (the concept of prose in the study influential in the pre-Islamic and post-Islamic periods of period mainly refers to khatabahs) we decided to take a the Arabs. The khutbas had specific political, social, and closer look at the debate. religious functions. It encouraged warriors to fight, upheld the law in civil and criminal matters, warned of Al-Sa’libi wrote about the advantages of prose and Ibn imminent death, and taught the importance of living a Rashid responded to it on the advantages of poetry. Al- pious life, calling for a new religion called Islam, and Saalibi expresses his opinion as follows: “The level of was involved in even religious traditions [14; 7-46]. writers was higher than that of poets” and continues: “Indeed, the languages of writers are the languages of For a long time, it was the only prose genre that existed. these kings. Only tax collection, fortification of borders, It included sermons, proverbs, [7; 177] and the sajds - construction of buildings in the city, correction of speeches in rhyming prose of the priests. Very small corruption, incitement to jihad, evidence of looting, number of letters, pamphlets, and written agreements calling for unity, or refraining from sectarianism, that do not claim to be of high quality have also reached congratulations on gifts, condolences in times of us. The khutbas that have come down to us from ancient disaster, great deeds of great importance and most sources have formed the most beautiful and powerful whatever the form of any of the works to which it is expressions of the laws of Arabic literature. frequently referred, it was all in the language of the people of prose. In addition, the first khutba had a great influence on the literature of later periods, especially fiction. Indeed, the People were in great need of it, and prose was the Qur’an itself embodied the stylistic features of the art of language of those who wants to learn many lessons and oratory: parallelism, vivid imagery, direct appeal, knowledge” [3; 20]. rhyme, and melody. For more than a century, the khutba 1110
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The truth is that, thanks to prose, administrative, thoughts to the extent that they would satisfy others. political, and vital interests are pointed out. It (prose) is They expressed those satisfactory considerations in a a very acceptable tool for understanding war and peace, poetic way. As a result, they accepted it as a work of trade and agriculture, industry (crafts) and landscaping. poetry because it was written in poetry in the eyes of The mistake is that As-Sa’alibi describes the prose in a many. However, in fact, it was a rhetorical statement, poetic way, calling for unity and refraining from and the poets deviated from the poetic path and turned sectarianism, congratulating on gifts, and sympathizing to the rhetorical path. Speakers often combine these two with disasters. For them, poetry, which is superior to situations in their speeches” [17; 17]. This conclusion is prose in the expression of passions and emotions, and in due to the fact that Al-Farobi was well acquainted with the conquest of hearts, is the worthiest and powerful the rules of ancient Greek rhetoric, had his own rhetoric means [3; 22]. in Greece, but the scholar generally compares rhetoric and poetry, and the comments of the speaker and the At this point, it is necessary to recall the statement made poet that the themes are radically different from each at the beginning of our chapter: "The Arabs did not have other, but that the speaker should have a deep intellect prose, because prose was the language of deep intellect, and wisdom along with a sensitive heart like that of a so in the age of ignorance only the language of emotions poet. (So poetry and oratory have their own definite and free poetry was allowed." Indeed, according to As boundaries, and the orator must incorporate both of Sa’alibi, writers engaged in prose should also have a these arts.) wide range of knowledge and artistic knowledge from different angles, but due to the lack of such multifaceted It should be noted that at the stage that we are studying, knowledge, poets continue to dominate in Arabic writer or prose writer did not look so much like the literature. In his view, all of the leading poets in the literary world that existed in Arabic literature in the Arabs are artistic poets (writers, prose writers). Abu early Middle Ages, especially during ignorance. The Nuwwas, Bashar bin Burd, Muslim bin Walid, Ib al reason for this was that during those periods, the main Mu’taz, Ibn Ar Rumi, Abu Tammam, Al Bukhturi, Ash types of prose, in addition to folk oral literature, were Arif Ar Radii, Al Mutanabbi are the ones who can speeches, so we use the term "prose representatives" compete with the greatest scholars. They were all from a with the term speaker (khatib). group with deep, multifaceted knowledge. And in addition to that, they had great interest in countries, Al Kalkashandi was one of those who believed that the kings, and politics. Their interest was such that they weight of prose was heavier than poetry. In his opinion, would never sleep until any state or political secrets the poem had a peculiar quality: its parts should be were revealed or the case was closed”. equal to the head, parts should be equal in weight, rhymes should be equal to the end, and rhymes should By this definition, Sa'alibi points to the idea that the be changed regularly. That was why poetry was easily people of prose should have a deeper intellect and transferred from the languages of storytellers to the different knowledge than the poets, and that great poets languages of other storytellers, because it was easy to could also be great writers if they wished. remember, and poetry was a symbol of beauty and elegance even at king’s gatherings. But the status and Our compatriot Al Farobi expresses his views on the art prestige of prose were higher, respectable, and the order of oratory and poetry, poet and orator: “Khatabah - in it was better [18; 75]. rhetoric also uses imitations. The fact is that these kinds of things are very close, obvious and popular to many. Accordin to him, it is foremost for poets to pay more Perhaps this is why most speakers, by their very nature, attention to form than to content. That is, the meaning had the ability to think poetically, and had tried to use obeys the form of the words. In prose, there is no need imitation to a greater extent than rhetoric requires, and for such things, in which the words obey the meaning thus made mistakes. However, no one believed their [18, 75]. comments, and on the contrary, their words were considered by many to be very exaggerated speeches. Another aspect that Al Qalqashandi emphasizes in his However, in fact, these words of theirs were only poetic preference for prose over poetry was the importance and considerations, in which the speakers not only followed prestige of these themes. In his view, prose themes were the path of speech, but also inclined to the path of the basis of the rulers and the interests of the people, poetry. Many poets were also able to express their such as the correspondence of kings, what were the best 1111
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duties in the religious affairs of the people, what should 2. They had high-level khutbas even before the advent have been the most appropriate action for the situation, of Islam. and the things of sword rulers and penmen (correspondence) were also added [18, 59]. 3. Such khutbas can undoubtedly be considered as examples of the first Arabic literary prose. Al-Qalqashandi, speaking of the purpose of the speaker's utterance, admited in particular that some 4. The Arabic oratory (khutbas) are authentic, they were Arabs feeld that the rank of poetry had fallen below the not created by the narrators after the writing appeared. word prose. For example, the famous ignorant poet Imru In many ancient historical and literary sources, in the ul Qays was said to have tried to kill his father when he collections, the names of the specific orators who heard him spoke at a drinking party, or that Nabiga al- delivered such speeches and the historical situations in Jadi was the leader of his tribe and his people did not which the khutbas were recited are repeated many make a decision without him because he was so revered, times. however, it was narrated that poetry sometimes degraded his career [3; 20]. 5. In the early Middle Ages, the genre of khatabah always existed side by side with poetry in Arabic In the Arabs, khutbas, pamphlets, and testaments are literature, and in some periods it even had a higher included in Safut's "Arab Khutbas Collection." That is, prestige than poetry. in many ancient sources, it can be found notes that the khutba and the pamphlet are the same genre. Abu Hilal 6. Early medieval oratory was broader than poetry and al-Askari paid more attention to poetry and khutba than contained topics directly related to public life. al-Sa'libi. In his view, treatises and khutbas are figirative - that is, copies of one thing (one is the form 7. The khatabah of the early Middle Ages can be of the other). In both of them the word does not obey considered not only as an example of a work of art, but rhyme and weight, yet in both of them there is formality also as an important historical and artistic source. in terms of words and melody. The words of the orators are similar to those of the writers in their ease and 8. The Arabs had an art of deep intellect and thinking charm. That is, the melody of the sermons is the same as even in the age of ignorance, because the speaker was the melody in the pamphlets of the secretaries. Here the required to be more responsible than the poet. sermon is only oral, and the pamphlet is written - there 9. The influence of Greek, Roman and foreign culture in is no other difference. A khatabah is made from a Arabic khutbas is almost non-existent. The Greek and pamphlet, and a pamphlet is made from khatabah. The Roman orators sought to decide the truth mainly by difference is, it is easier to make a pamphlet than a logic, by presenting a great deal of evidence, and the khatabah. There are so many difficulties in turning a Arab orators paid much attention to the utterance of poem into a khatabah, a khatabah into a poem [3]. their words with maturity. While Abu Hilal analyzes poetry and prose in terms of art and influence in his work, he eventually comes to the 10. Early medieval Arabic speech (khatabah) had a conclusion that prose is the sultan’s power, but nothing strong influence on the literature of the following that important is required of a poet than a beautiful word period, and has not lost its relevance in Islamic societies [3; 103]. even today.
But we consider that, the similarities and differences between pamphlets and sermons may be the subject of REFERENCES: 1. Philip, K. Hitti “History of the Arabs” The third edition. another scientific study. revised. Macmillan and Co., Limited.St. Martin’s street, London 1946.Part 1, Pre Islamic age /p-90 Available at: CONCLUSION www.thecsspoint.com. Our scientific conclusions from this chapter are as 2. Parandovskij Ja. Alhimija slova Moskva: Pravda. follows: “ ” 1990g. p-131.
1. The Arabs were originally people of oratorical nature, 3. Zakij Mubarak “An nasr al fannij fil qarn ar robi" al and therefore attached great importance to speech. hizhrijji” Muassasatul Hindavi, Al Qohira 1934. 1-zhild. – p. 57. 1112
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4. Hanna al'-Fahuri. Istorija arabskoj literatury.Tom 1. Per.s arabskogo. M. Izd-vo inostrannoj literatury. 1959. - p. 244. 5. Arabic literature to the end of the umayyad period The Cambridge history of arabic literature © Cambridge University Press 1983. 6. I.M. Fil'shtinskij Istorija arabskoj literatury V-H veka. Moskva glavnaja redakcija vostochnoj literatury, 1985. str.245 7. Tahera Qutbuddun, “Khutba: The Evolution of Early Arabic Oration”in Classical Arabic Humanities in their own Terms: Festsschrift for Wolfhart Heinrichs, ed. Beatrice Gruendler and Michael Cooperson, Brill, 2008, pp.176-273. 8. Hashim Aliwey Al-Husseini “The Rhetoric of Oratory in English and Arabic: An Applicable Study to One of Imam Ali's Oration” by Enas Naji Al-Mussawi? 2009. Available at: http://academia/edu/. 9. Steel, C., Roman Oratory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 10. Sulajmonova F. “Sharq va Garb” Tashkent “Fan” nashrijoti 1991. – p.138. 11. Mahmud Shakir at tarihul islamiyyu .3. Al- hulafaau ar raashiduna. Al maktabul islamiyyu. Chapter 6, p. 5. Bayrut.Mahmud Shaakir The history of islam. Orthodoh khalifs. 12. Al Zhahiz,Abu Amr bin Bahr”Al bajaan vat tabjin” Tahqiq Abdus Salam Muhammad Horun.Maktabatu Al Zhahiz,Bajrut,Lubnan,zhuz". 13. Reynold A. Nicolson M.A. “A Literary History of the Arabs”,New York CharlesScribuer’s Sons,153- 157,Fifth Avenue,1907. – p. 90. 14. An nassu, Ihsaan “Al hitaabatul arabijjatu fii asriha az zahabijji”. Al Qahiratu,Daarul maarifi,1963, pp.7-46. 15. Robert Irwin, “A blithe unawareness of the literary qualities of pre-Islamic khutbas, or perhaps of their very ehistence,is suggested in the anthology of classical Arabic literature by Robert Irwin 2001,29/See also Swartz’s 1999,36 discussion. 16. Gibb,H.A.R.,(1963)”Arabic literature: an introduction”.2nd ed.Oxford:OUP 17. Abu Nasr Forobi, “She’r san’ati” Gafur Gulom Publishing House,Tashkent, 1979. 18. Al Kalkashandi Ahmad ibn Ali AE 2, Q 34 V.T. “Kitaab subh al a’sha” 1/75.
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