1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Assistant Professor, Graduate School of The Quality and Quantity of a Engineering, University of Tokyo 1-1 Changing Mobility Kiyoshi Takami We now have the basic data on the movement of people and goods. In regards to the flow of people, in recent years, the number of trips per person is on an upward trend, while the distance traveled is on a gradual decrease . The data also reveals an upward trend in the motor vehicle share of trips of the elderly and women, and in the number of private trips. Regarding the flow of goods, the tonnage per person has been constantly decreasing since the latter half of the ‘90s; transportation in ton-kilometers has been almost flat although there some periodicity is observed. In ton-kilometers, the share of motor vehicles is increasing noticeably.
□ Passenger transportation in the past 35 years. In regards to motor vehicles, the number of trips and the distance traveled per person per year have been generally increasing, although the distance traveled started to decrease from FY 1999, then became stable. Railways, after their peak in the early 90’s, decreased to the lowest level in FY 2004, then began another upward trend. There has been a near- constant decrease in travel on passenger ships, and an increase in air travel, but for the past several years, both have remained almost stable. The cumulative total of all those transportation modes shows that the number of trips has been generally on an upward trend, while the distance traveled has shown a generally downward trend. (Fig. 1 & 2)
Fig. 1 Annual number of trips (per person) Fig. 2 Annual distance traveled (per person) (trips/person/year) (km/person/year) FY FY 㪉㪊㪉㩷 㪈㪌㪏㩷 㪇㪅㪈㩷 Motor vehicles 㪉㪃㪎㪋㪇 㪉㪃㪎㪏㪌 㪐㪇 Motor vehicles 㪈㪅㪎㩷 Rail 㪋㪍 Rail 㪉㪏㪍㩷 㪈㪌㪋㩷 㪇㪅㪊㩷 㪊㪃㪍㪏㪏 㪉㪃㪍㪏㪎 㪉㪌㪋 㪈㪅㪋㩷 Passenger ships 㪌㪉 Passenger ships 㪉㪏㪍㩷 㪈㪌㪏㩷 㪇㪅㪋㩷 Air 㪋㪃㪇㪋㪉 㪉㪃㪎㪉㪎 㪉㪎㪋 Air 㪈㪅㪊㩷 㪋㪏 㪋㪌㪈㩷 㪈㪎㪎㩷 㪇㪅㪌㩷 㪍㪃㪐㪇㪈 㪊㪃㪈㪊㪌 㪋㪈㪏 㪈㪅㪊㩷 㪌㪈 㪋㪏㪏㩷 㪈㪏㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪍㩷 㪎㪃㪊㪇㪍 㪊㪃㪈㪏㪍 㪌㪈㪏 㪈㪅㪉㩷 㪋㪌 㪋㪐㪌㩷 㪈㪎㪈㩷 㪇㪅㪎㩷 㪎㪃㪋㪐㪌 㪊㪃㪇㪉㪐 㪍㪉㪏 㪇㪅㪐㩷 㪊㪋 㪌㪈㪍㩷 㪈㪎㪉㩷 㪇㪅㪎㩷 㪎㪃㪈㪏㪋 㪊㪃㪇㪐㪐 㪍㪎㪈 㪇㪅㪏㩷 㪊㪇 㪌㪉㪊㩷 㪈㪏㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪎㩷 㪎㪃㪇㪐㪋 㪊㪃㪈㪍㪏 㪍㪊㪋 㪇㪅㪏㩷 㪉㪎 Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition, Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Note: “Motor vehicles” includes small-engine vehicles (“light motor vehicles”) since 1987, which explains the noticeable change in the figures beginning around that year.
□ In regards to freight transport, the annual transportation tonnage per person has been decreasing since around 1970 for railways, and since the ‘90s for motor vehicles and coastal shipping; for aircraft, the figures have remained flat in recent years. In annual transportation ton-kilometers per person, there is an upward trend for motor vehicles and a downward trend for coastal shipping; for railways and aircraft, the figures have been flat for the last ten years or so. (Fig. 3 & 4)
Fig. 3 Annual freight transport tonnage (per person) Fig. 4 Annual freight transport ton-kilometers (per person) (ton/person/year) (ton-kilometers/person/year) FY 㪉㪅㪋㩷 FY 㪋㪌㩷 㪊㪅㪍㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪈㩷 㪈㪃㪊㪈㪇 㪍㪇㪏 㪈㪃㪋㪌㪏 㪇㪅㪎㩷 Motor vehicles 㪈㪅㪋㩷 Rail 㪋㪌㩷 㪋㪅㪊㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪊㩷 㪈㪃㪌㪉㪏 㪊㪉㪇 㪈㪃㪏㪐㪏 㪉㪅㪌㩷 㪇㪅㪏㩷 㪈㪏㪈 Coastal shipping 㪋㪉㩷 㪊㪅㪎㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪋㩷 㪈㪃㪎㪇㪈 㪈㪃㪎㪇㪇 㪋㪅㪇㩷 Air 㪇㪅㪎㩷 㪉㪉㪇 㪋㪐㩷 㪋㪅㪎㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪎㩷 㪉㪃㪉㪈㪐 㪈㪃㪐㪎㪏 㪍㪅㪌㩷 㪇㪅㪍㩷 㪉㪇㪇 㪋㪏㩷 㪋㪅㪋㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷 㪉㪃㪊㪋㪍 㪈㪃㪏㪐㪏 㪎㪅㪋㩷 㪇㪅㪌㩷 㪈㪎㪋 Motor vehicles 㪋㪌㩷 㪋㪅㪉㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪐㩷 㪉㪃㪋㪍㪎 㪈㪃㪐㪇㪋 㪏㪅㪌㩷 㪇㪅㪋㩷 㪈㪎㪐 Rail 㪊㪐㩷 㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷 㪉㪃㪍㪉㪉 㪈㪃㪍㪌㪍 㪏㪅㪋㩷 Coastal shipping 㪇㪅㪋㩷 㪈㪎㪋 Air 㪊㪎㩷 㪊㪅㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷 㪉㪃㪎㪈㪊 㪈㪃㪋㪎㪈 㪏㪅㪋㩷
Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition, Source: Transportatio-related statistics data collection (latest edition, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
□ The number of trips per person per day is decreasing for males 54 and younger and females 34 and younger, while it is increasing for the elderly. For the total of all age groups, it has been decreasing year by year until recent years, when the trend flattened out. (Fig. 5 & 6)
Fig. 5 Changes in the number of trips per male per day Fig. 6 Changes in the number of trips per female per day (nationwide, weekdays) (nationwide, weekdays) 㪊㪅㪌㩷 㪊㪅㪌㩷
㪊㪅㪇㩷 㪊㪅㪇㩷
㪉㪅㪌㩷 㪉㪅㪌㩷 ) 㪉㪅㪇㩷 㪉㪅㪇㩷
㪈㪅㪌㩷 㪈㪅㪌㩷
㪈㪅㪇㩷 㪈㪅㪇㩷 (trips/person/day (trips/person/day) 㪇㪅㪌㩷 㪇㪅㪌㩷
㪇㪅㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪇㩷 75 and over 75 and over Age 5-14 Age 5-14 Age 15-24 Age 35-44 Age 45-54 Age 25-34 Age 55-64 Age 65-74 Age 45-54 Age 15-24 Age 25-34 Age 35-44 Age 55-64 Age 65-74
1987 1992 1999 2005 1987 1992 1999 2005 Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
□ Looking at the modal share of motor vehicle by gender and by age, we see that for males, there was a greater increase among the elderly; for females, the increase was through most age groups. This tendency is more noticeable in local city areas than in the three major metropolitan areas. The modal share of motor vehicle by females aged 25 to 44 in local city areas has increased to that of males. (Fig. 7 & 8)
Fig. 7 Changes in the modal share of motor vehicle by males Fig. 8 Changes in the modal share of motor vehicle by (by age, weekdays) females (by age, weekdays) 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪐㪇㩼 㪐㪇㩼 㪏㪇㩼 㪏㪇㩼 The 3 major metropolitan The 3 major metropolitan areas (1987) 㪎㪇㩼 areas (1987) 㪎㪇㩼 The 3 major metropolitan The 3 major metropolitan 㪍㪇㩼 areas (2005) 㪍㪇㩼 areas (2005)
㪌㪇㩼 Local city areas (1987) 㪌㪇㩼 Local city areas (1987) 㪋㪇㩼 㪋㪇㩼 Local city areas (2005) Local city areas (2005) 㪊㪇㩼 㪊㪇㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪈㪇㩼 㪈㪇㩼 㪇㩼 㪇㩼 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ge 5-14 ge ge 45-5 ge 55-6 ge 25-3 ge 35-4 ge 65-7 ge 15-2 Age 5-14 Age A A A A A A A Age 15-2 Age 35-4 Age 45-5 Age 55-6 Age 65-7 Age 25-3 75 and over 75 and over Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Fig. 9 Changes in the modal share(based on the main/ Fig. 10 Changes of the trip purpose representative mode) (weekdays) ■ The motor vehicle share is on an upward trend both in the ■ As for the trip purpose, here is a downward trend for “going three major metropolitan areas and in local city areas. Motor to school” and “business.” while “personal matters” is on an vehicle use is even higher on holidays than on weekdays. upward trend. 㪇㩼 㪈㪇㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪊㪇㩼 㪋㪇㩼 㪌㪇㩼 㪍㪇㩼 㪎㪇㩼 㪏㪇㩼 㪐㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪇㩼 㪈㪇㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪊㪇㩼 㪋㪇㩼 㪌㪇㩼 㪍㪇㩼 㪎㪇㩼 㪏㪇㩼 㪐㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪈㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪐㪅㪌㩷 㪋㪇㪅㪍㩷 㪉㪋㪅㪇㩷 The 3 major 1987 㪉㪉㪅㪋㩷 㪉㪍㪅㪊㩷 㪈㪐㪅㪎㩷 㪉㪏㪅㪊㩷 Weekdays 1987 㪈㪉㪅㪍㩷 metropolitan areas 㪊㪅㪉㩷 㪈㪋㪅㪊㩷 㪏㪅㪌㩷 㪈㪇㪅㪋㩷 㪋㪇㪅㪐㩷 㪉㪌㪅㪐㩷 1992 㪉㪌㪅㪍㩷 㪉㪐㪅㪇㩷 㪈㪍㪅㪐㩷 㪉㪌㪅㪉㩷 1992 㪉㪅㪏㩷 1999 㪉㪊㪅㪐㩷 㪊㪊㪅㪋㩷 㪈㪏㪅㪉㩷 㪉㪈㪅㪎㩷 1999 㪈㪌㪅㪎㩷 㪎㪅㪉㩷 㪐㪅㪊㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪌㩷 㪉㪍㪅㪉㩷 㪉㪅㪌㩷 2005 㪉㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪊㪊㪅㪎㩷 㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷 㪉㪉㪅㪇㩷 2005 㪈㪌㪅㪏㩷 㪎㪅㪈㩷 㪏㪅㪊㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪎㩷 㪉㪎㪅㪈㩷 㪋㪅㪌㩷 Local city 1987 㪉㪅㪌㩷 㪋㪇㪅㪌㩷 㪉㪌㪅㪐㩷 㪉㪍㪅㪎㩷 Holidays1987 㪊㪅㪋㩷 㪋㪅㪊㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪐㩷 㪋㪏㪅㪉㩷 areas 㪋㪅㪌㩷 㪉㪅㪊㩷 1992 㪉㪅㪐㩷 㪋㪏㪅㪉㩷 㪉㪈㪅㪋㩷 㪉㪉㪅㪐㩷 1992 㪊㪅㪇㩷 㪈㪅㪎㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪏㩷 㪌㪈㪅㪌㩷 㪊㪅㪏㩷 㪉㪅㪇㩷 1999 㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪌㪈㪅㪋㩷 㪉㪇㪅㪋㩷 㪉㪈㪅㪈㩷 1999 㪊㪅㪐㩷 㪈㪅㪏㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪌㩷 㪌㪉㪅㪈㩷 㪊㪅㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪎㩷 2005 㪊㪅㪍㩷 㪌㪍㪅㪋㩷 㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷 㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷 2005 㪋㪅㪇㩷 㪉㪅㪐㩷 㪋㪈㪅㪈㩷 㪌㪈㪅㪉㩷 㪇㪅㪐㩷 Motorcycles Walking and Railroads Buses Vehicles Going to Personal and bicycles other Commute Business Going home school matters Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Road Network Today Chief Researcher, The Institute of Behavioral Sciences 1-2 Tsutomu Yabe
The length of our roads has been steadily extended thanks to ongoing road improvement, yet it is not still sufficient for traffic demand. As a result, the average speed on roads remains unchanged at a lower level. A case in point: in city centers such as Tokyo and Osaka, and in DID(Densely Inhabited District) areas , there is still chronic traffic congestion. Given that background, road network improvements (e.g., the ring road improvement plans that are proceeding in the three major metropolitan areas) are obviously playing a significant role.
Fig. 1 Changes in the length of completed roads by road type Fig. 2 Changes in traffic volume and road length
■ For all types of roads, the length of completed road (i.e., with ■ The figure for traffic volume in vehicle-kilometers, after improvements completed) is increasing steadily. peaking in 2001, is on a downward trend; but the figure for light motor vehicles is on an upward trend. Road length 㪍㪇 nationwide is steadily increasing.
㪋㪐㪅㪈 㪌㪇㪅㪇 㪈㪃㪉㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇 㪌㪇 㪋㪏㪅㪇 Vehicle-kilometers (passengers + freight) 㪋㪋㪅㪊 㪋㪊㪅㪍 㪋㪊㪅㪇 Traffic volume of light motor vehicles out of the above 㪈㪏㪇 㪋㪈㪅㪇 㪋㪈㪅㪌 㪋㪈㪅㪐 Length of completed road (5.5m and wider in width, 㪊㪏㪅㪋 㪊㪏㪅㪌 㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇 with improvements finished) 㪋㪇 㪈㪍㪇 㪊㪊㪅㪐 㪈㪋㪉 㪈㪋㪊 㪈㪋㪋 㪈㪋㪌 㪊㪊㪅㪊 㪊㪉㪅㪏 㪈㪊㪎 㪈㪊㪏 㪈㪋㪇 㪈㪋㪈 㪈㪊㪊 㪈㪊㪋 㪈㪊㪍 㪈㪉㪎 㪈㪉㪐 㪈㪊㪈 㪈㪋㪇 㪊㪇 㪏㪇㪇 㪈㪉㪊 㪈㪉㪌 㪉㪍㪅㪋 㪈㪈㪎 㪈㪈㪐 㪈㪉㪈 㪈㪉㪇 㪍㪋㪇 㪍㪊㪋 㪍㪈㪇 㪍㪈㪌 㪍㪈㪋 㪍㪉㪍 㪍㪊㪈 㪍㪉㪐 㪍㪈㪇 㪌㪎㪍 㪌㪐㪍 㪌㪐㪉 㪌㪏㪇 㪉㪇 㪍㪇㪇 㪌㪌㪈 㪌㪍㪍 㪌㪍㪐 㪌㪎㪋 㪈㪇㪇 Road length (1000km) 㪌㪉㪏 㪌㪊㪎 㪏㪇 㪈㪇 㪍㪅㪍 㪎㪅㪋 㪎㪅㪍 㪋㪅㪎 㪋㪇㪇 㪉㪅㪍 㪍㪇 㪇 㪋㪇 Road length (1000 kilometers) (1000 length Road Traffic volume (billion vehicle-kilometers) (billion volume Traffic National expressways National highways Major regional roads Prefectural roads 㪉㪇㪇 㪉㪇 (Type of road) 㪈㪌㪈 㪈㪌㪍 㪈㪍㪌 㪈㪎㪈 㪈㪎㪍 㪈㪏㪉 㪈㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪌 1980 1990 2000 2005 2008 㪈㪇㪈 㪈㪇㪍 㪈㪈㪉 㪈㪈㪌 㪈㪈㪏 㪈㪉㪋 㪈㪉㪏 㪈㪉㪐 㪈㪊㪉 㪈㪊㪐 㪈㪋㪌 㪇 㪇 Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪈 㪈㪐㪐㪉 㪈㪐㪐㪊 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪌 㪈㪐㪐㪍 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪈 㪉㪇㪇㪉 㪉㪇㪇㪊 㪉㪇㪇㪋 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪎 㪉㪇㪇㪏 (FY) Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Source: Transportation–related statistics data collection (Transport Research and Statistics Office, Information Security, Research and Statistics Division, Information Policy Headquarters, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Fig. 3 Comparison of road length density in ordinance- Fig. 4 Changes in average traffic volume and average travel designated cities speed by type of road ■ The greater the area of the city the DID (Densely Inhabited ■ The average traffic volume on expressways has been on a District) occupies, the higher the percentage of improved (vs. downward trend since 1997, partly because of the newly unimproved) road length on the road length density scale. constructed ones with less traffic. However, traffic is on an upward trend for national ordinary roads and regionsl roads. 㪈㪉㪇 The average travel speed for either type of road remains level 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪐㪊㩼 㪏㪋㩼 㪎㪐㩼 㪎㪇㩼 㪌㪊㩼 㪋㪋㩼 㪋㪊㩼 㪊㪉㩼 㪉㪎㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪈㪎㩼 㪈㪎㩼 㪈㪌㩼 㪈㪋㩼 㪎㩼 㪍㩼 ) 2 or is on a slightly downward trend. m 㪈㪇㪇 Unimproved Already 㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪈㪇㪇 improved 㪏㪇 㪋㪈㪅㪉 㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪏㪇 㪍㪇 㪊㪉㪅㪈 㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪇 㪍㪇 㪈㪊㪅㪌 㪈㪍㪅㪐 㪋㪅㪊 㪌㪐㪅㪎 㪋㪅㪋 㪋㪅㪍 㪐㪅㪍 㪍㪅㪍 㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪅㪏 㪉㪅㪍 㪋㪅㪈 㪉㪅㪐 㪍㪅㪍 㪈㪈㪅㪇 㪈㪇㪅㪊 㪉㪇 㪍㪅㪊 㪈㪇㪅㪋 㪊㪌㪅㪉 Road length density (kilometers/k density length Road 㪉㪉㪅㪊 㪉㪉㪅㪌 㪈㪐㪅㪐 㪉㪈㪅㪈 㪉㪈㪅㪌 㪉㪌㪅㪉 㪋㪇 㪈㪍㪅㪊 㪈㪌㪅㪊 㪈㪋㪅㪌 㪈㪏㪅㪎 㪈㪌㪅㪐 㪈㪍㪅㪌 㪈㪐㪅㪌 㪈㪍㪅㪎 㪈㪍㪅㪏 㪈㪋㪅㪎 㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪇
a Kobe Sakai Kyoto Chiba 㪉㪇 Osaka Niigata Sendai Nagoya Saitama 㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 Average travel speed (km/hour) Sapporo Fukuoka Shizuok Kawasaki Hiroshima Yokohama Kitakyushu Hamamatsu Wards of Tokyo Average traffic volume (vehicles/12 hours) (vehicles/12 volume traffic Average 㪇 㪇 * Road length density = road length per area of DID 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌
* Among roads as defined by the Road Act; excludes national Average traffic volume on expressways Average traffic volume on national highways Average traffic volume on local roads expressways. Average travel speed on expressways Average travel speed on national highways Average travel speed on regional roads * Number of lanes and road widths are not taken into account. * The figure in the square is the DID area percentage of the total city area. Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Source: road length: taken from data of each municipality (Apr., 2008) DID area: 2005 National Population Census
10 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 5 Average travel speed on national ordinary roads Fig. 6 Average travel speed on expressways (Nationwide, (Nationwide, Tokyo, & Osaka) Tokyo, & Osaka) ■ For years there has been almost no change in the national ■ For years the national average has been on a slightly downward average. The average travel speed in the wards of Tokyo and trend. Though there had been changes through the years in the in Osaka City is about half the national average; there is still average travel speed in the wards of Tokyo and in Osaka City, severe traffic congestion. the speeds were always lower than the national average. 㪌㪇 㪈㪇㪇
) 㪊㪐㪅㪋 㪊㪎㪅㪊 㪊㪎㪅㪊 㪎㪐㪅㪋 㪎㪐㪅㪈 㪏㪇㪅㪍 㪋㪇 㪊㪍㪅㪋 㪊㪍㪅㪐 㪊㪍㪅㪎 㪊㪍㪅㪎 㪊㪍㪅㪎 ) 㪎㪍㪅㪎 㪎㪍㪅㪈 㪊㪍㪅㪇 㪏㪇 㪎㪌㪅㪌 㪎㪌㪅㪈 㪎㪊㪅㪎 㪍㪍㪅㪍 㪊㪇 㪍㪇 㪌㪋㪅㪈 㪉㪈㪅㪌 㪋㪎㪅㪋 㪋㪍㪅㪍 㪋㪍㪅㪍 㪈㪐㪅㪌 㪉㪇㪅㪈 㪉㪇㪅㪈 㪈㪐㪅㪏 㪈㪐㪅㪈 㪈㪏㪅㪇 㪈㪏㪅㪉 㪊㪐㪅㪊 㪋㪈㪅㪐 㪋㪇㪅㪐 㪉㪇 㪈㪎㪅㪊 㪊㪍㪅㪊 㪉㪈㪅㪋 㪋㪇 㪋㪍㪅㪉 㪈㪏㪅㪊 㪋㪈㪅㪏 㪉㪏㪅㪋 㪈㪍㪅㪍 㪈㪍㪅㪎 㪈㪎㪅㪇 㪈㪋㪅㪏 㪈㪌㪅㪏 㪈㪌㪅㪐 㪊㪌㪅㪏 㪊㪋㪅㪈 㪈㪇 㪊㪈㪅㪉 㪉㪏㪅㪌 㪉㪐㪅㪇
Average travel speed (km/hour 㪈㪈㪅㪍 㪉㪇 㪉㪍㪅㪇
Average travel speed (km/hour 㪈㪌㪅㪌 㪇 㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌 Nationwide Tokyo Osaka (FY) Nationwide Tokyo Osaka (FY) Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land, Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Note: For expressways in Tokyo and Osaka, the Metropolitan Fig. 7 Degree of congestion of expressways and national Expressway and Hanshin Expressway include segments ordinary roads (by roadside condition) managed by NEXCO. ■ The degree of congestion exceeds 1.0 on national ordinary Fig. 8 Average 12-hour traffic volume on ordinary roads roads along densely inhabited areas (DID). by type of vehicles 㪈㪅㪋㪇 ■ On ordinary roads, the traffic volume of passenger cars is on 㪈㪅㪉㪇 㪈㪅㪈㪏 㪈㪅㪈㪏 㪈㪅㪈㪏 㪈㪅㪈㪌 an upward trend.
㪈㪅㪉㪇 㪈㪅㪈㪈 ) 㪏㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪇㪅㪐㪎 㪇㪅㪐㪍 㪇㪅㪐㪏 㪈㪅㪇㪇 Ordinary trucks Small trucks 㪍㪃㪇㪇㪇 Buses 㪇㪅㪏㪇 䋨㪌㪃㪊㪉㪐䋩 䋨㪌㪃㪋㪈㪌䋩 䋨㪌㪃㪋㪍㪊䋩 Passenger cars 䋨㪌㪃㪇㪎㪊䋩 䋨㪋㪃㪍㪎㪇䋩 㪇㪅㪍㪇 䋨㪋㪃㪋㪈㪐䋩 䋨㪊㪃㪐㪊㪏䋩䋨㪋㪃㪇㪇㪋䋩 㪋㪃㪇㪇㪇 䋨㪊㪃㪍㪎㪌䋩 㪇㪅㪋㪇 Degree of congestion
㪇㪅㪉㪇 㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌
Expressway (DID) Ordinary road (DID) Expressway (non-DID city area) Ordinary road (non-DID city area) 㪇 Expressway (level terrain) Ordinary road (level terrain) 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌
Expressway (mountain area) Ordinary road (mountain area) Average traffic volume (vehicles/12 hours Source: Road Traffic Census (website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Note: Figures in parentheses are the average traffic volume of Transport and Tourism) all types of vehicles. Note: Congestion level is given by the traffic volume per road Source: Road Traffic Census (website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, capacity (in daytime 12 hours). Transport and Tourism) Fig. 9 Road network improvement plans and road conditions in the three major metropolitan areas (from left: Tokyo, Kinki , and Chukyo area) ■ To cope with chronic congestion in the three major metropolitan areas, road network improvement plans (e.g., ring roads and expressways) are being carried out.
Ring road Legend Metropolitan Inter-City Expressway Tokai Ring Expressway In use
Under construction
Under planning
Tokyo Outer Ring Road
Nagoya Ring Expressway 2 Metropolitan Expressway Central Loop
Osaka City Revival Ring Road Kansai Greater Ring Expressway Osaka Bay Ring Road
Kansai Central Ring Expressway
Ring road Legend Ring road Legend In use In use ※※ ※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Under construction Under construction As of May 1, 2010 Under planning As of May 1, 2010 Under planning As of May 1, 2010 Source: website of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
11 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Associate Professor, School of Commerce, Freight Road Transport Today Senshu University 1-3 Eiichiro Iwao Freight road transport today has several features. For ordinary trucks in commercial use, there has been almost no change in distance traveled, but total cargo weight is on a downward trend. At the same time, for ordinary trucks in private use, the distance traveled and the weight transported are both on a downward trend. In the number of trucks owned, there has been a constant decrease of private trucks and an increase in commercial trucks. Such data would indicate that freight transport is shifting from private trucks to commercial trucks. Also, the fact that package and mailing handling, as well as regular parcel post delivery, are increasing indicates that small-lot freight transport is on the rise.
□ Distance traveled by vehicles: For passenger transport, there has been a downward trend since 2001 for passenger cars (private use). For freight transport, there has been a continuous decrease for small vehicles (private use). However, almost no change has been seen for other types of motor vehicle. Fig. 1 Changes in distance traveled in passenger Fig. 2 Changes in distance traveled in freight transport, transport, by vehicle type by vehicle type 㪌㪇㪇 ) 㪐㪇
㪋㪌㪇 㪏㪇
㪋㪇㪇 㪎㪇
㪊㪌㪇 㪍㪇
㪊㪇㪇 㪌㪇
㪉㪌㪇 㪋㪇
㪉㪇㪇 㪊㪇
㪈㪌㪇 㪉㪇 㪈㪇 㪈㪇㪇 Total distance traveled (billion kilometers
Total distance traveled (billion kilometers) (billion traveled distance Total 㪌㪇 㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪈 㪉㪇㪇㪉 㪉㪇㪇㪊 㪉㪇㪇㪋 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪎 㪉㪇㪇㪏 㪇 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Ordinary vehicles (commercial) Small vehicles (commercial) Special use vehicles (commercial) Light vehicles (commercial) Buses Passenger cars Buses Passenger cars Light motor Ordinary vehicles (private) Small vehicles (private) Special use vehicles (private) Light vehicles (private) (commercial) (commercial) (private) (private) vehicles (private) Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Fig. 3 Changes in cargo weight, by vehicle type Fig. 4 Changes in distance traveled per working day per vehicle, by type of use (private vs. commercial) 㪉㪃㪌㪇㪇 㪉㪌㪇 )
㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪇 㪈㪃㪌㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇 㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇 Total weight transported (million tons 㪌㪇 Distance traveled (kilometers) traveled Distance 㪌㪇㪇
㪇
㪇 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Ordinary vehicles (commercial) Small vehicles (commercial) Special use vehicles (commercial) Ordinary vehicles (commercial) Small vehicles (commercial) Special use vehicles (commercial) Light vehicles (commercial) Light vehicles (commercial) Ordinary vehicles (private) Small vehicles (private) Ordinary vehicles (private) Small vehicles (private) Special use vehicles (private) Light vehicles (private) Special use vehicles (private) Light vehicles (private) Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and and research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Transport and Tourism) Fig. 5 Number of freight businesses, by number of Fig. 6 Number of freight businesses, by number of vehicles owned (mixed load services) vehicles owned (general freight services) 㪐㪇 㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪏㪇 㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 s 㪎㪇
㪍㪇 㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪌㪇 㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪇
㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 Number of businesse of Number 㪊㪇 Number of businesses of Number 㪉㪇 㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪈㪇
㪇 㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008 㪇 FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008 10 vehicles 20 vehicles 50 vehicles 100 vehicles 200 vehicles 201 vehicles or less or less or less or less or less or more 10 vehicles or less 20 vehicles or less 50 vehicles or less 100 vehicles or less 200 vehicles or less 201 vehicles or more Data: assembled from data of Cargo Transport Division, Road Transport Bureau Data: assembled from data of Cargo Transport Division, Road Transport Bureau Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
12 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 7 Changes in private and commercial truck ownership Fig. 8 Changes in the amount of package and mailing handling, as well as regular parcel post delivery 㪐㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪍㪇㪇 㪏㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪎㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪌㪇㪇 㪍㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪇㪇 㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪊㪇㪇 㪊㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇
Truck ownership (1000 trucks) (1000 ownership Truck 㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪇 㪈㪇㪇 Amount handled (10,000 parcels/mailings) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 㪇 Trucks in commercial use Trucks in private use Total FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008 Delivery services (truck) Delivery services (air, etc.) Mailing delivery Source: Annual Land Transport Statistics (Information and Reserch Department, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Source: website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection Tourism; statistics data of Japan Post Service Co., Ltd. (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Fig. 9 Changes in percent of capacity loaded (trucks) Fig. 10 Changes in average distance transported per ton by mode ■ The percentage loaded on trucks was on a downward trend 㪈㪃㪉㪇㪇 until 2003; since then, it continues to fluctuate. The percentage )
is higher for commercial use than for private use. 㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪌㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪌㪇㪅㪇㩼 㪏㪇㪇
㪋㪌㪅㪇㩼 㪍㪇㪇 㪋㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪊㪌㪅㪇㩼 㪋㪇㪇 㪊㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪉㪌㪅㪇㩼 㪉㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪈㪌㪅㪇㩼 (kilometers freight of ton per transported distance Average 㪇 㪈㪇㪅㪇㩼 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 JR rail containers JR bulk transport Commercial trucks Private trucks Coastal shipping Domestic air 㪌㪅㪇㩼 Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information 㪇㪅㪇㩼 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport Commercial trucks Private trucks Total trucks and Tourism) Note: 1) Coastal shipping includes private ships. Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and 2) Figures for Japan Railway are the total transport distance with research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) fee and without fee before 1986, and (since 1987) with fee Note: Percentage of capacity loaded is derived from transported ton-kilometers only. per capacity ton-kilometers. Excludes vehicles for special use. 3) Figures for domestic air (regular flights only) include figures for overweight checked baggage and mail.
□ Fuel consumption per ordinary truck (commercial) per day is on a downward trend regardless of fuel type.
Fig. 11 Changes in fuel consumption per truck per day Fig. 12 Changes in fuel consumption per truck per day (gasoline) (diesel) 㪉㪌 㪎㪇 ) ) 㪍㪇 㪉㪇 㪌㪇
㪈㪌 㪋㪇
㪊㪇 㪈㪇
㪉㪇 㪌 㪈㪇 Fuel consumption per truck per day (liter day per truck per consumption Fuel Fuel consumption per truck per day (liter day per truck per consumption Fuel 㪇 㪇 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Ordinary trucks (commercial) Small trucks (commercial) Special use trucks (commercial) Light trucks (commercial) Ordinary trucks (commercial) Small trucks (commercial) Special use trucks (commercial) Ordinary trucks (private) Small trucks (private) Special use trucks (private) Light trucks (private) Ordinary trucks (private) Small trucks (private) Special use trucks (private) Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and Reserch Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
13 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Public Transport Today Chief Researcher, Institute of Transportation Economics 1-4 Kazuya Itaya In general, automobile passenger-kilometers are decreasing; while railways and buses have been increased slightly since around 2002. The passenger moving between cities on public transport is increasing, and there is a particularly noticeable increase in the number of passengers of Shinkansen lines. The role of public transport is increasing, especially for long distance travel. In the three metropolitan areas, the railway congestion rate continues to decrease; then too, many new lines have been built. Trough – operation of railway service using tracks of different company’s railway line is also being taken. By contrast, the bus industry in general is becoming unprofitable; nevertheless the number of businesses is increasing. Finally, the total number of traffic fatalities with public transport is very small; public transport is safe transport.
Fig. 1 Number of passengers of railways and buses Fig. 2 Railway and bus passenger-kilometers ■ In recent years, the use of railways is gradually increasing; but ■ While automobile passenger-kilometers are gradually the use of buses is almost unchanged. decreasing, railway and bus passenger-kilometers are gradually increasing, after having reached their lowest level in 2002. 100 million passengers 100 million passenger-kilometers 600 9000 537.3 538.3 Railway Bus Automobile 518.0 523.1 527.2 527.6 512.7 7566.3 500.1 8000 7411.5 7525.3 7550.6 7506.2 7376.2 7238.7 7245.9 500 479.4 7131.4 430.6 7000 6646.3
5755.1 400 362.0 Railway Bus Automobile 6000
5000 300 259.0 3843.6 236.1 4000 3212.7 3238.0 4000.6 3959.1 4055.4 4045.9 176.8 3874.8 3844.4 3854.2 3822.4 3849.6 3851.6 3911.5 200 228.4 229.8 3000 219.4 226.3 216.5 217.2 215.6 217.6 216.9 219.6 222.4 3145.4 3300.1 190.8 175.9 180.0 2000 2508.0 100 107.3 99.0 87.8 85.6 1000 76.2 1100.6 1104.0 1049.0 1103.7 66.4 64.9 62.9 61.9 60.0 58.9 59.1 59.6 59.3 972.9 873.1 863.5 861.8 863.9 862.9 880.7 887.0 889.7 899.2 0 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport; Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport; Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport
Fig. 3 Operating kilometers and number of passengers Fig. 4 Number of intercity passengers, by mode of Shinkansen ■ In 2008, the use of Shinkansen and aircraft decreased; but ■ Use increased over a long period, then decreased in 2008. the use of express buses continues to increase.
Operating kilometers (km) Number of passengers (millions) (×100,000 passengers) 3000 350.0 3500 Operating kilometers Number of passengers 315.8 310.3 3158.5 3102.9 301.4 305.1 3014.1 3050.9 290.7 2906.9 280.6 282.5 282.5 300.0 3000 2809.6 2820.7 2804.6 2806.1 2825.4 2825.4 2500 275.9 278.4 2774.4 2783.8 260.1
250.0 2500 2000 Shinkansen Express buses Aircraft 179.8 200.0 2000 2387.1 2387.1 2387.1 1500 157.3 2249.5 2152.9 2387.1 2387.1 2387.1 150.0 1500 125.6 2036.5 2152.9 991.8 1013.5 1000 2032.9 929.3 942.1 956.6 966.9 937.7 944.2 963.4 852.4 867.9 905.9 2011.8 100.0 1000 811.5 955.4 1176.51176.5 856.0 834.6 843.6 839.4 500 769.6 790.5 50.0 500 666.9 660.6 696.9 550.1 576.9 597.1
0 0.0 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Before 1985: Railways 2008: the numbers. Source: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport; Railways 2008: the After 1990: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport numbers; Annual Statistical Report on Air Transport (each year)
Fig. 5 Modal share by distance traveled Fig. 6 Bus industry income vs. expenditures ■ Comparing 2002 with 2007, on the whole the transport share ■ In the past 18 years, the balance ratio overall has never exceeded 100. of motor vehicles decreased while the share of public transport [Balance ratio = (current income / current expenditure) × 100] increased. 䋦 100% 0.1 3.5 3.4 100 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 2.0 1.7 13.9 Public Private Total 19.6 96.2 95.6 95.9 1.5 95.5 95.3 95.0 94.7 94.6 94.4 94.6 94.3 94.2 94.4 94.7 80% 95 2.9 93.5 93.1 93.2 10.7 51.6 92.2 51.7 61.3 74.7 75.3 63.9 43.6 93.0 92.6 93.0 92.9 93.0 92.5 60% 77.1 77.2 92.3 91.9 92.0 88.1 90 91.1 91.0 93.7 Aircraft 90.7 89.9 0.6 Passenger 89.2 89.5 89.7 ships 88.5 88.8 Motor 88.2 40% 1.3 vehicles 87.1 3.8 Railways 85 86.1 66.8 27.9 85.5 86.0 84.9 84.8 20% 42.9 41.1 82.8 82.9 33.7 82.3 31.0 0.2 80 81.7 25.2 24.6 22.5 22.5 0.1 80.6 20.0 7.3 0.3 79.4 5.8 4.4 79.1 79.1 0% 78.5 78.3 78.5 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 2007 2002 (Survey FY) 75 less than 100km 100-300km 300-500km 500-750km 750-1000km 1000km and more 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Source: Analytical data from Survey on Flows of Freight and Source: Bus industry income and expenditures - FY2008 Passengers (2007 edition)
14 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 7 Number of businesses engaged in public transport Fig. 8 Number of traffic fatalities with public transport ■ In recent years, the number of businesses has been on an upward ■ Numbers of fatalities with buses, hired cars, and taxis continue trend. The number of charter bus businesses had been noticeably to decrease. Compared to the number of traffic fatalities with increasing, but it decreased in FY 2007. In FY 2006, the number motor vehicles (5155 in FY 2008), public transport safety is of taxi companies and hired car businesses decreased markedly; outstanding.
(Number of fatalities with public transport) Number of fatalities with motor vehicles however, in FY 2007, they were on the rise again. 1200 12000 11227 Number of businesses 70000 10792 10679 Motor vehicles 193 Railways 1185 1000 10000 190 189 928 Buses 188 193 9261 9066 60000 187 186 513 192 Hired cars & taxis 135 146 177 181 511 516 4024 8760 8747 142 485 3923 8326 355 377 404 444 450 3581 1087 364 350 3281 3524 3743 1206 1537 2864 4110 7702 661 755 904 800 7358 8000 50000 6871 6352 5744 40000 600 574 6000 474 5155 416 423 30000 54438 400 337 344 347 340 4000 53285 56374 57613 322 309 314 299 304 299 53797 54344 53705 52097 55126 228 53657 196 20000 54314 53163 179 54527 200 265 2000 68 70 165 43 58 56 46 53 49 38 50 10000 131 123 Hired cars Charter Buses Railways 0 0 & taxis buses 27 20 22 19 23 29 24 26 25 13 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (FY) 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Source: White Paper on Traffic Safety in Japan 2010:,Statistics on Source: FY 1975 to FY 2005: Annual Land Transport Statistics (2006 edition) Traffic Accidents of Motor Vehicles for Business Use (2008) FY 2006-: Transportation-related statistics data collection
Fig. 9 Railway Congestion rates in the three metropolitan Table 1 History of through – operation of railway service areas using tracks of different railway companiess in ■ Railway congestion rates kept decreasing in all three areas; in the three metropolitan areas the Tokyo area, however, the rate has flattened out in recent ■ In Japan, some railway companies operate suburban railway years. On the other hand, in the Nagoya and Osaka areas, it service directly connecting to lines in the central area using decreased noticeably even in 2008. tracks of other company based on a mutual agreement for the 䋦 240 sake of passenger convenience. The table shows the history of such practices between metro 221 Tokyo area Nagoya area Osaka area lines in the city centers and major private railways in the three 220 214 212 major metropolitan areas. 205 204 203 Year of start City area Lines involved Tokyo Toei Asakusa Line, Keisei Line, Keikyu Line, Hokuso Line, Shibayama Railway Line 200 192 192 1960 199 1962 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Tokyu Toyoko Line, Tobu Isesaki Line 183 1966 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Tozai Line, JR Chuo Line & Sobu Line, Toyo Rapid Railway 188 1968 Osaka Hankyu Kobe Main Line, Hanshin Main Line, Sanyo Main Line 180 187 175 175 173 171 171 170 170 171 171 1969 Osaka Osaka City Sakaisuji Line, Hankyu Kyoto Main Line, Hankyu Senri Line 165 1971 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, JR Joban Line, Odakyu Odawara Line & Tama Line 171 1978 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Hanzomon Line, Tokyu Denentoshi Line, Tobu Isesaki Line & Nikko Line 160 150 149 1979 Nagoya Nagoya City Tsurumai Line, Meitetsu Toyota Line, Mikawa Line, Inuyama Line 157 147 146 147 146 145 146 1980 Tokyo Toei Shinjuku Line, Keio Line 139 1983 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line & Fukutoshin Line, Seibu Yurakucho Line, Tobu Tojo Line 140 Osaka Osaka City Chuo Line, Kintetsu Keihanna Line 144 142 1986 Kyoto City Karasuma Line, Kintetsu Kyoto Line 138 137 136 1988 Osaka 134 134 133 130 2000 Tokyo Tokyo Metro Namboku Line, Toei Mita Line, Tokyu Meguro Line, Saitama Railway 120 2009 Osaka Hanshin Main Line & Namba Line, Kintetsu Nara Line 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Note: Lines with short distances have been omitted. Lines are those Source: Railways 2009: the numbers involved as of July, 2010. Source: based on The Facts about Major Private Railways (2009)
No㪅 Name and Section of New Lines 㩿䃂㪀 2007 1 Sendai Airport Transit Natori – Sendai Airport Fig. 10 Newly-established / discontinued lines of railways 2 Osaka Monorail Handaibyoinmae – Saitonishi ■ New lines in the Tokyo and Osaka areas are 2008 3 Kyoto City Transportation Bureau Nijo – Uzumasa Tenjingawa 4 West Japan Railway Hanaten – Kyuhoji quite noticeable. At the same time, the number 5 Tokyo Transportation Bureau Nippori – Minumadaishinsuikoen of discontinued lines has been on a downward 6 Yokohama City Transportation Bureau Hiyoshi – Nakayama 7 Tokyo Metro Kotakemukaihara – Shibuya trend over the past several years. 8 Keihan Electric Railway Nakanoshima – Tenmabashi Examples between 2007 and 2010 2009 9 Hanshin Electric Railway Nishikujo – Osaka Namba 10 Heisei Chikuho Railway Mojiko Retro Kanko Line 11 Toyama Chihou Tetsudou Marunouchi – Nishicho Keisei Electric Railway, Narita Airport Line Keisei Takasago – Narita Airport 2010 12 㪈㪊 Discontinued lines㧦٤ East Japan Railway, Tohoku Shinkansen Hachinohe – Shinaomori Newly-established lines㧦٨ 13 No 㪅 Name and Section of Discontinued Lines 㩿䂾㪀 C 10 2 3 E H 11 2007 A Kurihara Denen Railway Ishikoshi – Hosokura Mine Park Mae A B Kashima Railway Ishioka – Hokota C Nishi-Nippon Railroad Nishitetsu Shingu – Tsuyazaki 1 2008 D Shimabara Railway Shimabaragaiko – Kazusa E Miki Railway Yakujin – Miki F Nagoya Railway Inuyamayuen – Dobutsuen D B G Takachiho Railway Makimine – Takachiho G 2009 H Hokuriku Railroad Tsurugi – Kaga Ichinomiya 4,8,9 F 12 6 5,7 Source: Author’s investigation
15 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama Recent Trends in New Urban National University 1-5 Transport Systems Fumihiko Nakamura In response to the ever diversifying transport demand , various forms of new technology have been developed and introduced into urban transport systems. Utilization of the DMV (Dual Mode Vehicle) on a pilot basis; amphibious motor vehicles; the battery-powered LRV (Light Rail Vehicle); trial operation of the electric-powered mini-bus; getting the lithium-battery LRV into mass production; car sharing systems, and so on — new transport concepts and different ideas for using existing public transport (trams, buses, etc.) are typical of various developments that can be seen both inside and outside the country. At the same time, it is worth noting that new legislation promoting local public transport has been enforced, and financial aid programs have been established.
Table 1 Recent trends in new urban transport systems Fig. 1 Inaugural ceremony for the electric community bus in Toyama City ■ A variety of new urban transport systems have been gaining ■ New electric low floor community bus was introduced. nationwide attention.
Targeted demand Road-based system Guideway system Short-distance Community cycles Inclined elevator trip inside the Velotaxi Sky rail community Park & Cycle LRT (Light Rail Transit)
Inside the city Car sharing LRT (Light Rail Transit) overall On-demand bus Wireless tram Shared taxi service BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) Articulated bus
Guided bus, IMTS (Intelligent Multimode Transit System), DMV (Dual Mode Vehicle)
Fig. 2 Lithium-ion LRV manufactured by Kinki Sharyo Table 2 Trends in public transport (from the website of Kinki Sharyo) ■ New ideas are being tried for various problems in urban public ■ This tram can run with or without a catenary . Production transport. started in 2010 for use in North America.
Field of Typical examples in recent years improvement Vehicles Low floor articulated bus, domestically produced low floor streetcar Shelter covered with advertisements; bus terminal shelters provide more Station/stop information Access Transfer between LRT and bus on the same platform (system used in Toyama, etc.) Bicycle-loading bus (used in Chigasaki)
Services Flexible fare, discount for transfer (used in Fujisawa, Yokohama, etc.) Environmental Electric vehicles, low gas emission vehicles improvement Systems Public response test programs (e.g., “free day” on city train in Kagoshima), improvements Local Public Transportation Revitalization Act
Fig. 3 DMV trial run (Akechi Railway) Fig. 4 Transfer between streetcar and bus Fig. 5 Twin Liner in Atsugi City (website of Ena City) (Hiroshima Electric Railway, (articulated bus made by Benz) Hatsukaichi-shiyakusho-mae Station)
Night trial run of JR Hokkaido’s new DMV, moving Transfer to the feeder bus on the same platform. The bus is over 2.5 meters wide. Despite being oversized, it is operated by from the rails to the road. Also operates in Toyama City and Nagasaki City. special exception. Chiba City followed this example, and Gifu City soon will.
16 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 6 Changes in the number of car Table 3 Recent examples of car sharing businesses(as of January 2010) sharing systems ■ In the past ten years or so, both the numbers ■ The trend in the past several years is for various types of businesses (e.g., of systems and users have been expanding railroads, rental car companies) to get involved.
tremendously. Operating organization, related Name Date of start Operating area No. of No. of No. of organization, etc. (name of business / system / stations vehicles members Changes in numbers of car sharing vehicles and members in Japan operation) (vehicles) (persons) Car Share Kanazawa [Hokusei Car Share Kanazawa Nov., 2006 Kanazawa 11 12 93 Sangyo Inc. / Tsuji Shoji, Co., City, Nonoichi Ltd. / Orix Auto Corporation Machi, Nomi (cooperation in joint business)] City (Ishikawa)
Eco village Tsurukawa Kinokanoie VS club Apr., 2007 Machida City, 1 2 6 households Kinokanoie (vehicle section) Tokyo
Eburika K.K. Eburika Car Sharing Oct., 2007 Osaka City 4 4 50 Toyota Motor Corporation / Toyota Car Share Club Nov., 2007 Wards in 5 15 95 Toyota Tokyo Rental & Leasing Tokyo / Co., Ltd. / Toyota Rent-A- Nagoya City / Lease Aichi Co. Ltd. / Toyota Toyonaka City, Rent-A-Lease Shin Osaka Co., Osaka Ltd. 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Eki Rentacar Shikoku Company Car Share Shikoku Mar., 2008 Takamatsu 6 6 158 City, Kagawa Nippon Parking Development Ecoloca Car Sharing Mar., 2008 Tokyo, Osaka 22 29 500 Co., Ltd. City, Nagoya Number of vehicles Number of members City Dism Inc. QuiCar May, 2008 Setagaya 6 9 55 Ward, Itabashi Source: website of Foundation for Promoting Ward, Shinjuku Ward, Bunkyo Personal Mobility and Ecological Ward, Koto Transportation Ward (Tokyo) Car Sharing Japan Co., Ltd. careco car-sharing club Jan., 2009 Wards in 105 110 1100 Tokyo, Yokohama City, Kawasaki Fig. 7 Car sharing pictogram (Germany) City Be-R Inc. Wilca Jan., 2009 Osaka City 3 3 70 Cleaty Co. Ltd. Withree Mar., 2009 Chuo Ward, 9 12 120 ■ Car sharing that can be found at stations is Shinagawa Ward, Koto gaining popularity. A pictogram points to the Ward (Tokyo) JR East Rental & Lease Co. eco renta Mar., 2009 Chiyoda 3 6 Recruiting access point. The photo is from the central Ltd. Ward, Tokyo / Hachioji City / station in Freiburg. Kawasaki City comuca Inc. Comuca Mar., 2009 Setagaya 21 21 400 Ward, Meguro Ward (Tokyo) Gulliver International Co., Ltd. Gulliver Car Share Mate Apr., 2009 Ichikawa City, 9 9 162 Urayasu City (Chiba) Leo Gulliver Car Sharing Nov., 2009 Tokyo, 117 117 Recruiting Kanagawa, Saitama Nissan Car Rental Solution, Nissan Rent-a-car Sharing Club Jul., 2009 Yokohama City 1 2 Recruiting Co., Ltd. Rhyme Auto Lease Inc. Car Sharing Osaka Aug., 2009 Osaka City 1 1 5 Aktio Corporation Aktio Car Sharing (AKTIO e Oct., 2009 Edogawa 2 2 9 DRIVE) Ward, Tokyo Japan Car Sharing Inc. i share Oct., 2009 Setagaya Ward, 9 9 100 Koto Ward, Katsushika Ward, Shinagawa Ward, Ota Ward, Adachi Ward (Tokyo) / Yokohama City / Kawasaki City Shares Inc. Ekispress Nov., 2009 Shinjuku Ward, 5 10 150 Setagaya Ward, Suginami Ward (Tokyo) Meitetsu Kyosho Co., Ltd. Meitetsu Kyosho Car Share Nov., 2009 Nagoya City 13 17 Recruiting cariteco Sanpuku Sogo Fudosan K.K. Sanpuku Car sharing Nov., 2009 Matsuyama 3 3 19 Fig. 8 Outline of the Integrated Project for department City, Ehime Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K. Machinorikun Dec., 2009 Nerima Ward, 4 5 Recruiting Local Public Transport Revitalization, Suginami Ward, Setagaya Ward and its progress to date (Tokyo) ■ In order to reconstruct and revive local Source: website of Foundation for Promoting Personal Mobility and Ecological Transportation public transport from the ground up
through a united and efficient effort, 2009 initial budget: 4400 million yen we need to determine the following: Integrated Project for Local Public Transport Revitalization revised budget: 2524 million yen (1) the basic policies determined by In order to achieve the goals of the Local Public Transport Revitalization Act — to apply the law and to respond to various needs in the local area —, the Integrated Project promotes creative and voluntary efforts in the local area, assisting the area council with a single unrestricted aid package the responsible Minister; (2) integrated for implementing a variety of projects (e.g., railways, community buses, shared-ride taxis , passenger ships). cooperative plans for local public transport made by the municipalities, which are Law regarding construction and revival of local public transport (enforced on Oct. 1, 2007) • Participation obligation if requested Official council • Includes consideration of public comments at the time of making based on local citizen involvement; (3) planning decisions • Devises mechanisms for hearing suggestions during the planning special provisions in respective laws in City/town/village Public transport businesses Local corporations Residents process, etc. • Council members are obliged to respect the outcome of discussions. order to expedite specific local public Local shop keepers Residents’ organizations (NPO , etc.) Schools, hospitals, etc. etc. Decided on by Assistance from the Integrated Project for transport projects; and (4) required city/town/village Local Public Transport Revitalization exceptions in order to permit ordinal Local Public Transport Integrated Cooperative Plan (legal plan)
17 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Transport Services for Technical Chief, Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd. Atsushi Matsubara 1-6 Everyone Social conditions have changed to the point where we need to approach transport problems by considering the elderly, the disabled, children, pregnant women, and nursing mothers as a collective majority, rather than as individual minorities. Thanks to the Transport Accessibility Improvement Act (Transport Barrier-free Act) ,the improvement of facilities is steadily progressing. However, an improvement project is often limited to a single transport mode or facility. Now that care giving and rehabilitation activities are provided more and more outside the home, the provision of transport services can stimulate not only more mobility, but also the vitality of entire neighborhoods where many people can live to even more advanced ages. Various transport services for disabled persons(e.g. social welfare transport services, electric wheelchairs etc.) are expected to be employed. Furthermore, enactment of the basic transport legislation that would be the backbone of the above is being considered. It is now time for our society, too, to get serious about the right to access transport — the right to move around.
Fig. 1 Future population by age group Fig. 3 Changes in the number of persons with physical disabilities ■ The total population of our country is decreasing. It is 㪋㪇㪇㪇
estimated that the numbers for children in particular (14 Total 㪊㪌㪇㪇 Visual impairments and younger) and working people (15 to 59) will decrease Hearing impairments / 㪊㪇㪇㪇 speech impediments noticeably. Physical disabilities
Age 75 and over Age 70 - 74 Age 65 - 69 Age 60 - 64 Age 15 - 59 Age 0 - 14 ) Internal disorders Total population 㪉㪌㪇㪇 (overlapping) More (1000 persons) than one of the above 㪈㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇 Estimated future population by age group 㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇 㪈㪎㪃㪌㪉㪈 㪈㪍㪃㪋㪎㪐 㪈㪋㪃㪏㪋㪈 (1000 persons 㪈㪈㪃㪐㪌㪍 㪈㪌㪇㪇 㪈㪇㪃㪌㪈㪉 㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇 㪐㪃㪇㪊㪍 㪎㪃㪌㪈㪍 㪈㪇㪇㪇 㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪍㪏㪃㪋㪇㪏 Number of persons with physical disabilities 㪎㪌㪃㪌㪋㪏 㪎㪈㪃㪉㪐㪇 㪍㪊㪃㪊㪎㪊 㪌㪊㪃㪏㪇㪉 㪋㪍㪃㪇㪌㪊 㪌㪇㪇 㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪇㪃㪇㪌㪐
㪇 㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇 㪎㪃㪌㪏㪎 㪐㪃㪈㪈㪎 㪍㪃㪐㪋㪍 㪌㪃㪏㪐㪉 㪐㪃㪐㪐㪌 㪏㪃㪊㪐㪐 㪎㪃㪌㪇㪎 㪈㪐㪌㪈 㪈㪐㪌㪌 㪈㪐㪍㪇 㪈㪐㪍㪌 㪈㪐㪎㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪈 㪈㪐㪐㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪈 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪏㪃㪌㪋㪌 㪎㪃㪇㪊㪎 㪎㪃㪐㪉㪇 㪍㪃㪈㪋㪏 㪏㪃㪉㪉㪈 㪐㪃㪍㪈㪊 㪎㪃㪍㪋㪐 㪍㪃㪐㪎㪎 㪏㪃㪋㪊㪇 㪍㪃㪋㪋㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇 㪎㪃㪋㪊㪊 㪎㪃㪎㪈㪍 㪍㪃㪍㪊㪎 㪍㪃㪐㪍㪐 Source: 2006 Survey on persons with physical disabilities (Ministry of 㪉㪈㪃㪍㪍㪎 㪉㪉㪉㪉㪃㪊㪌㪉㪃㪊㪌㪉 㪉㪉㪉㪉㪃㪋㪎㪈㪃㪋㪎㪈 㪉㪊㪉㪊㪃㪏㪍㪍㪃㪏㪍㪍 㪈㪈㪃㪍㪇㪉 㪈㪋㪃㪉㪉㪉 㪈㪍㪃㪋㪌㪉 㪇 Health, Labour and Welfare) 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪈㪇 㪉㪇㪈㪌 㪉㪇㪉㪌 㪉㪇㪊㪌 㪉㪇㪋㪌 㪉㪇㪌㪌
Source: Annual Report on the Aging Society (2010 edition) Table 1 Number of disabled people who stay at home ■ Not enough services have been provided to people with intellectual disabilities and mental disorders. The percentage of Fig. 2 Changes in the number of the elderly those who are staying at home is low; obviously, most of them have been institutionalized.
■ The percentage of the elderly keeps increasing. In 2013, an estimated Persons who are Persons who are 25.2% of the population will be elderly (65 and over), turning the Total staying at home institutionalized Persons with country into a “super aging” society. In particular, the population aged physical disabilities 3,660,000 3,580,000 90,000 75 and over will continue to grow; in 2017, the number of elderly Persons with intellectual disabilities 550,000 420,000 130,000 in their late advanced years will become more than the number of Persons with 3,230,000 2,900,000 330,000 the elderly in their early advanced years. The over-75 age group will mental disorders occupy an even greater percentage of the elderly than it does now. Source: Survey on persons with physical disabilities (2006), Survey on persons with intellectual disabilities (2005), Survey on Social (1000 persons) (%) Welfare Institutions (2005), Patient Survey (2008) (Ministry of 㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪋㪌 Health, Labour and Welfare) Population of those aged 65 to 74 (the elderly in their early advanced years) Actual figures← →Projected figures Population of those aged 75 and over (the 㪋㪇 㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 elderly in their late advanced years) Percentage of the elderly Percentage of population aged 75 and over 㪊㪌 㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 Table 2 Getting out of the house, by type of impairment 㪊㪇 ■ While 30 to 40 percent of persons with disabilities go out 㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪌 almost every day, about 10% of them only go out a few times 㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇 a year; and 3 to 7 percent of them do not go out at all.
㪈㪌 Going out 㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Type of disabilities Do not Almost every 2 to 3 times 2 to 3 times Several times go out No answer 㪈㪇 day per week per month per year Sub total 㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 Total 㪌 35.6 29.9 16.1 9.7 91.3 5.5 3.2 Visual impairments 29.3 29.8 21.9 10.6 91.6 6.3 2.1 㪇 㪇 Hearing impairments / speech impediments 41.7 27.4 14.0 7.4 90.5 5.2 4.3 㪈㪐㪍㪇 㪈㪐㪍㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪈㪐㪌㪇 㪈㪐㪌㪌 㪈㪐㪎㪇 㪈㪐㪎㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪉㪇㪉㪌 㪉㪇㪊㪇 㪉㪇㪊㪌 㪉㪇㪋㪇 㪉㪇㪋㪌 㪈㪐㪐㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪈㪇 㪉㪇㪈㪌 㪉㪇㪉㪇 㪉㪇㪌㪇 㪉㪇㪌㪌 Physical disabilities 31.5 29.9 16.5 11.9 89.8 7.0 3.2 Source: Annual Report on the Aging Society (2010 edition) Internal disorders 42.3 30.6 14.4 6.5 93.8 3.0 3.2 unit: %
Source: 2006 Survey on persons with physical disabilities (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare)
18 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
□ In accordance with the new Transport Accessibility Fig. 4 Number of taxis with access for persons with Improvement Acy (Transport Barrier-Free Act), passenger disabilities facilities and vehicles whose average number of users per day ■ Besides buses for persons with disabilities, various transport exceeds 5000 have been steadily improved toward barrier- services are being provided, such as for-fee transport for free, but it is still not enough. persons with disiabilities, shared taxi service, care-giving taxis, taxis for persons with disabilities, and childcare support taxis. Table 3 Barrier-free passenger facilities 㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇 Eliminating Installing textured Installing toilets for uneven flooring paving blocks for the disabled 㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇 people with visual impairments 㪏㪇㪇㪇 s Rail/tram station 71.3% 93.2% 66.3% 㪍㪇㪇㪇
Bus terminal 83.7% 76.7% 58.1% vehicle 㪋㪇㪇㪇 Ferry/ship terminals 87.5% 75.0% 50.0% 㪉㪇㪇㪇 Passenger airport terminal 90.5% 100% 100% Total of passenger facilities 71.6% 92.9% 66.5% 㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪉 㪉㪇㪇㪊 㪉㪇㪇㪋 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪎 㪉㪇㪇㪏 㪉㪇㪇㪐 Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism year Source: Road Transport Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Table 4 Situation of vehicles that conform to the Transport and Tourism accessibility standard Goal End of FY 2008 Rail/tram vehicle ca. 50% by 2010 41.3% Table 7 Types of for-fee passenger transport service
s Low-floor bus 100% by 2015 41.7% using private vehicles
Bu Of the above, non-step bus ca. 30% by 2010 23.0% Taxi with access for persons with disabilities ca. 18,000 vehicles by 2010 10,742 vehicles ■ The number of organizations (NPOs, etc.) operating for-fee Passenger ships ca. 50% by 2010 16.4% handicap transport service was 2305 in 2008; the number of Aircraft ca. 65% by 2010 64.3% vehicles was 13,753. Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (1) Transport services operated by Transport services where there is municipalities no transport Municipalities’ transport services Table 5 Changes in the number of driver license holders for persons with disabilities by age and by gender (2) For-fee transport services for persons with disabilities ■ The number of elderly people with driver’s licenses is (3) For-fee transport services in depopulated areas increasing. By contrast, the number of young license-holders is markedly decreasing. End of 2008 End of 2009 Increased/decreased rate Age Fig. 5 The Number of electric wheelchairs Male Female Male Female Male Female Age 16-19 716,653 465,342 680,811 447,224 -5.0 -3.9 ■ People who use an electric wheelchair (the so-called “senior Age 20-24 3,052,839 2,594,417 2,927,832 2,478,844 -4.1 -4.5 car”) are increasing; there are various types of them. The Age 25-29 3,713,648 3,321,218 3,635,774 3,250,888 -2.1 -2.1 number of these electric wheelchaurs shipped so far is over Age 30-34 4,443,926 4,039,182 4,261,076 3,872,819 -4.1 -4.1 Age 35-39 4,814,245 4,400,236 4,874,986 4,461,714 1.3 1.4 550,000 (cumulative) nationwide. It should be noted that some Age 40-44 4,183,171 3,799,126 4,272,559 3,894,514 2.1 2.5 of these are used by people who do not have driver’s licenses Age 45-49 3,794,949 3,369,503 3,854,374 3,447,041 1.6 2.3 Age 50-54 3,743,794 3,182,712 3,708,580 3,200,120 -0.9 0.5 or who do not keep to the sidewalk. Age 55-59 4,510,870 3,548,875 4,201,984 3,371,396 -6.8 -5.0 㪋㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪍㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Number of electric Age 60-64 4,067,659 2,858,349 4,342,694 3,155,591 6.8 10.4 㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
) wheelchairs shipped Age 65-69 3,394,506 1,900,568 3,524,617 2,086,622 3.8 9.8 㪌㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Stick type (each 㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 year) Age 70-74 2,524,169 966,419 2,566,794 1,053,333 1.7 9.0 Steering wheel 㪋㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Age 75-79 1,577,860 369,185 1,637,311 414,411 3.8 12.3 㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 type (each year) Total (each year) Age 80-84 772,285 103,559 814,278 122,898 5.4 18.7 㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪊㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Age 85 and over 207,011 11,566 235,749 15,111 13.9 30.7 Stick type (cumulative) Total 45,517,585 34,930,527 45,539,419 35,272,526 0.0 1.0 㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 Steering wheel 㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 type (cumulative) Source: Driver’s License Statistics (2009 edition, National Police Agency) Total (cumulative) 㪈㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇 㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇 Number of wheelchairs (each year Number of wheelchairs (cumulative) Table 6 Characteristics of driving behavior of the driver 㪇 㪇 㩾㪐㪌 㩾㪐㪍 㩾㪐㪎 㩾㪐㪏 㩾㪐㪐 㩾㪇㪇 㩾㪇㪈 㩾㪇㪉 㩾㪇㪊 㩾㪇㪋 㩾㪇㪌 㩾㪇㪍 㩾㪇㪎 㩾㪇㪏 㩾㪇㪐 with dementia FY ■ The number of driver’s license holders with senile dementia Source: Electric Wheelchair Safety Information Association is estimated to be about 300,000, based on the percentage of elderly with licenses and the percentage of elderly with dementia,. Table 8 Overseas cases for transport access right — the Alzheimer’s disease Pick’s disease Vascular dementia right to move Understanding Impaired Unimpaired Sometimes impaired of whereabouts ■ In many developed countries, the transport access right is Driving • Forgets destination • Ignores traffic rules • Distracted while defined in a basic law, similar to decentralization of power, manner while driving • Lack of attention to driving • Becomes not very good road • Slower reactions together with the basic transport policy principles. . Individual at parking or pulling • Drives too close to car (steering, gear shifting, over ahead braking) transport policy measures are proceeded under them. Country Name of Law Enactment France LOTI (Loi d’ Orientation des Transports Intérieurs) 1982 U.K. Transport Act 1985 Source: Study on Social Support for the Elderly Drivers with Dementia (research leader: Yumiko Arai) U.S.A. Americans with Disabilities Act 1990
19 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Associate Professor, Graduate School of The Future of the Transport Engineering, Yokohama National University - Infrastructure Toshiyuki Okamura 1In the course7 of national land use planning, the Comprehensive National Development Act was revised and became the National Spatial Strategy. The decision was made by the Cabinet in July, 2008 to replace the old National Development Plan with the new “National Strategies” plan (National Plan). In August, 2009, the Regional Plans (with regional blocks as units) were adopted. In the course of national planning for social infrastructure improvement (pursuant to the 2003 Act Regarding the Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Improvement), conventional long-range plans for each sector based on administrative set up were united so that sector boundaries were transcended; the result was the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (projected time frame: five years). Emphasis is placed on implementation of the improvement plans, which are to be effectively and efficiently expedited.
1. History of the Comprehensive National Development Plans Pursuant to the Comprehensive National Development Act, postwar national land use planning was carried out from 1962 with the Comprehensive National Development Plan as its focus. Table 1 Outlines of Comprehensive National Development Plans Development Plan Outline and goals Balanced development of all areas: aimed at balanced development by preventing urban sprawl, by correcting growth Comprehensive National inequality between areas, and by appropriately distributing capital, labor, and technology among all regions. The Development Plan (1962 -) concept was one of dispersed economic development of new areas. Creation of affluent environments: aimed at preserving natural areas permanently; balancing development on a nationwide New Comprehensive National scale; reviewing nationwide land use; providing safer, more comfortable conditions suited to the cultural environment; and Development Plan (1969 -) improving transport and communications networks. The concept was one of developing large-scale projects. Improving comprehensive living environment: aimed at achieving balanced land use nationwide and creating a Third Comprehensive National comprehensive living environment. Harmonizing natural environments, living environments, and production Development Plan (1977 -) environments. The concept was one of “settling down.” Converting land use nationwide into a multi-polar dispersed type: to achieve well-balanced development of the national Fourth Comprehensive National land, the basic goal was to implement multi-polar, dispersed land use; introduced the concept of regional networking to Development Plan (1987 -) achieve that goal. Grand Design for the 21st Century Building a foundation of multi-axial land use: land development with stakeholder involvement and regional cooperation; does not specify aggregate investment sums, instead shows priority areas for investment and policy direction for (1998-) efficient land development.
2. Outline of National Spatial Strategy The National Spatial Strategy plan aims at developing the nation’s land by having various regional blocks do their own developing; it also aims at shaping the land into a beautiful and comfortable place to live. Characteristics of the plan are: (1) shifting from quantitative expansion and development to planning for a “mature society”; and, (2) shifting from state leadership to a two-layered planning system (“separation of powers”). The National Spatial Strategy unites the National Plan with the Regional Plans in which policies are made for each regional block. The National Plan is the plan to guide land development generally for the next ten years; it was adopted at the Cabinet meeting in July, 2008. After that, councils for regional plans, etc. were officially established in each regional block; in August, 2009, the Regional Plans for eight blocks nationwide were adopted.
Table 2 Strategic goals: the new vision for use of the nation’s land under the National Spatial Strategy (National Plan)
1) Smooth interactions For example, expansion projects of corporations targeting East Asian markets; building transport and information and cooperation with communications networks that cover land, sea, and air; promoting Japan as a tourist destination East Asia 2) Creating a sustainable For example, restructing of urban areas into a function - intensive compact form; regional management (to maintain area functions of medical treatment, etc.); developing local industries using new scientific technology; creating beautiful farm/mountain/fishing villages that are comfortable places to live; making use of personnel from outside (who have residences in two areas); providing for areas with severe conditions 3) Formation of resilent For example, promoting comprehensive counter-disaster strategies that include both “hard” and “soft” measures; land use for withstand- preparing for disaster through intelligent land use; making it possible for transport and communications networks to be ing disasters rerouted; strengthening the area’s disaster preparedness (improving evacuation training, etc.) 4) Maintaining the beauty For example, creating and maintaining healthy natural cycles and ecosystem; proper use and preservation of sea of the land for future areas; passing on and further generating the unique culture of the area; getting people involved in managing the land generations 5) Creating new concepts For example, improving living conditions with the cooperation of local communities, non-profit organizations, corpora- of what local “govern- tions, and local administration; exploitation and use of area resources through exclusively local initiatives and action; ment” is providing for marginal villages that are on the verge of collapse, and forming a consensus on a vision for the quality of life in the future Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Table 3 The three basic transport and information communications policies found in the National Spatial Strategy (National Plan), with examples for improving transport Building comprehensive and Improving strategic airports and ports to strengthen their competitive abilities as international transport hubs (Asia Gateway concept) international transport and Taking steps to promote direct interactions with East Asia [using local airports/ports, standardizing the ITS (Intelligent Transport communications systems Systems), etc.] Building arterial transport Creating comprehensive land transport networks (regional expressways, access roads to airports/ports, Shinkansen, Central magnetic levitation train) systems that facilitate Creating efficient sea transport networks (promoting coastal shipping, improving hinterlands of ports as bases of transport networks interaction and cooperation for multiple modes of transport) Creating domestic air transport networks (expanding Haneda Airport, reinforcing means of disaster prevention at the airport, among areas improving local airportsas a base for their area development) Building systems for local area Creating a transport system that fosters an area where the quality of life is sustainable and comfortable (compact cities, transport and communications well-maintained public transportation) Creating a transport environment that sustains life and daily living (minimizes isolation of the area in the case of emergency, etc.) Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
20 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
3. Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan Pursuant to the Act Regarding the Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Improvement, the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan was adopted. In that plan, the conventional five-year plans by each sector were replaced with a single plan that united previous thirteen plans (including the nine conventional long-range plans for roads, ports, airports, etc.); the contents of the plan range from “project budgets” to “outcomes to be achieved.” The current plan (2008-2012) was adopted at the Cabinet meeting of March, 2009. At the same time that the regional plans in the National Spatial Strategy were adopted (August, 2009), the regional priority social infrastructure improvement plans for ten regional blocks (including Hokkaido and Okinawa) were adopted under the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.
Fig. 1 Outline of the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (2008-2012) Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
Reforming the way social infrastructure Priority goals in social infrastructure improvement, of each goal area improvement projects are handled Creating lively areas for an economically㩷 vibrant society (1) Encouraging strategic maintenance and renovation through • Strengthening the ability to compete internationally by improving transport networks the use of information technology • Making the area lively and independent by promoting activities and interaction both (2) Mandatory project assessment and cost cutting inside and outside the area • Making the area lively and independent by giving it a lively atmosphere and improving (3) Reforming public procurement practices the comfort and convenience of urban transportation (4) Stakeholder involvement; securing transparency (5) Promoting technology development Safety /Security and peace of mind (6) Using capabilities and funds from the private sector • Making the land well-prepared for disasters (large-scale earthquakes, etc.) (7) Appropriate role-sharing between the state and • Making the land well-prepared for disasters (flooding, etc.) municipalities • Strengthening traffic safety measures
[Conventional five-year plans (nine sectors)] Efforts for daily living㩷 㩷and the environment • Barrier-free conditions appropriate for an aging society with a low birthrate; helping to Flood control Road improvements create a society in which everyone can participate by improving the childcare environment These plans • Improving living spaces by creating scenic and natural areas Steep slopes Traffic safety facilities • Combating global warming are now • Creating a recycling-based society Shorelands covered under Ports 㩷 㩷 a single plan Toward the “stock-type” society (society that reuses/recycles its assets) Sewerage Airports • Encouraging strategic maintenance and renewal • Promoting “soft” measures Urban parkland Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
In regards to road improvement projects, the new five-year mid-range plan (included in the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan) was announced on December, 2008 and was approved by the Cabinet in March, 2009. This plan presents standards for selecting and focusing, including efforts to minimize costs and eliminate waste. Based on this mid-range master plan, the regional mid-range plans for roads were put together in August, 2009.
Table 4 Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (2008-2012): Priority goals for road improvement projects, numerical goals for assessment indexes, and factual figures Numerical goals for assessment indexes Policy direction Policies Indexes 2007 2012
Improving arterial networks 䂓 Completion rate for planned ring roads in the three major metropolitan areas 53% 69% Vitality ca. 1.32 million about 10% Solving chronic congestion 䂓 Time lost at railroad level crossings that are almost never open person-hours per day reduction 109 cases per about 10% Safety Improving traffic safety 䂓 Rate of road traffic casualties 100 million vehicle-kilometers reduction Encouraging measures to solve Road transport 䂓 Rate of preventing pedestrian/bicycle accidents that cause casualties pedestrian & bicycle problems and Prevent about 20% of accidents safety & security residential road problems inside the “safe walking area.” for an aging 䂓 Rate of preventing accidents that cause casualties in dangerous traffic locations Prevent about 30% of accidents society with a Encouraging safety measures t on low birthrate arterial roads 䂓 Number of prevented accidents with an advanced signals, etc. Prevent about 40,000 accidents
䂓 Barrier-free rates on major local route in residential areas with respect to traffic signals, etc. 83% 100% Quality of life & Improving living environment 䂓 Barrier-free rate on specific roads 51% 75% environment 䂓 Countermeasures against global warming 䂓 CO2 emissions amount from the transport sector 254 million tons 240 to 243 million tons
Achieving smooth 䂓 Less time required due to advanced control of traffic signals About 220 million hours saved road transport while 䂓 Amount of CO2 emissions eliminated due to advanced control of traffic signals Eliminate about 460,000 t- CO2 per year combating global Promoting smooth flow of traffic ca. 1.32 million environmental ca. 10% 䂓 Time lost at railway crossings that are almost never open person-hours per problems day reduction Safe, secure, and well-planned road 䂓 Plans decided on for repair of roads and bridges nationwide to give them a longer life 28% Using existing management ca. 100% road stock Effective use of the existing expressway networks; reinforcing their Rate of use of on-board ETC (Electronic Toll Collection units) 76% functions 85% Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
21 1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It
Manager, Social infrastructure and economy Revenue Sources and its research department, The Institute of Behavioral Sciences 1-8 Use for Roads Yuichi Mohri Pursuant to the Law Enacting Provisional Measures Regarding Revenue Sources for Road Improvement, which was enacted in 1953 in response to an urgent need to improve the outdated road system, road improvements in our country were conducted under the special funding system for road works, and through tolls. However, since the autumn of 2005, with the financial situation growing ever more severe, many discussions were held, and in April, 2009, the Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” was adopted. Starting with fiscal year 2009, the special tax fund earmarked for road works was abolished and was transferred to the general revenue fund. Also, for social infrastructure improvement implemented by municipalities, conventional individual financial assistance was abolished in principle starting in fiscal year 2010; in its stead, it was decided to establish a block grant for social infrastructure improvement, which would give municipalities a higher degree of freedom. As for the fee system on expressways, free sections (targeting about 20% of all expressways) were to be opened as pilot projects starting June 28, 2010.
Table 1 Steps taken toward the transfer of the tax fund earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund ■ Beginning in the autumn of 2005, opinions about the special tax fund earmarked for road works, etc. were submitted from all sectors, and various discussions were held. Subsequently, in April, 2009, the Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” was adopted, and the decision was made to abolish, from fiscal year 2009 onward, the practice of generally allotting an amount equivalent to the estimated amount of the income from the gasoline tax, etc. to road improvement.
Order of Prime Minister Koizumi (Nov. 4, 2005) • Regarding the review of the tax earmarked for road works: transfer the revenue to the general revenue fund, without reducing the tax rate. Make basic policies accordingly.
Basic policies regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (by the government and the ruling party, Dec. 9, 2005) • The current tax rate, including the amount added as a provisional tax rate, will be maintained. Details of plans are to be based on the transfer of the tax revenue earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund.
Act regarding Promotion of Administrative Reform to Achieve Simple and Efficient Government (proclamation Jun. 2, 2006) • The 164th Diet adopted the Promotion of Administrative Reform Act that included basic policies regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works. Detailed plans regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (approved at the Cabinet meeting on Dec. 8, 2006)
• Based on the transfer to the general revenue fund, the current governmental system of tax revenue earmarked for road works is to be revised.
Regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (bythe government,and the ruling party, Dec. 7, 2007)
• Review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works, maintenance of the current tax rate level, etc.
Basic policies regarding the tax revenue earmarked for road works (approved at the Cabinet meeting on May 13, 2008) • The tax revenue earmarked for road works is to be abolished at the time of the fundamental reform of the tax system this year. Starting from fiscal year 2009, it is to be transferred to the general revenue fund. Regarding the transfer of the tax revenue earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund (by the government,and the ruling party, Dec. 8, 2008) • The abolition of the tax revenue earmarked for road works: how to treat the tax rate in the relevant tax system be treated in view of the transfer to the general revenue fund. Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” (proclamation Apr. 30, 2009)
• The 171th Diet approved the Act that included repealing the mandatory practice of using revenue from the gasoline tax, etc. for road improvements. Data provided by Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.
Fig. 1 Outline and basis of the Comprehensive Grants for Social Infrastructure Improvement ■ In principle, conventional individual financial assistance to municipalities implementing social infrastructure improvement has been abolished. Instead, the Comprehensive Grants for Social Infrastructure Improvement were established in order to assist not only with the implementation of key projects, but also with improvements to the related social infrastructure, and with projects that will enhance the effects of the key projects. The grants, in other words, offer municipalities a higher degree of freedom to manage the projects and their effects.
(sector) Roads〝 Sewerageਅ᳓ ␠ળ Creating t Improving urban ⾗ᧄ ᵴജഃၮ⋚socio-economic Ꮢⴝᢛ Floodᴦ contro᳓ l Housingቛ areas ᢛ vitality Shorelandsᶏጯ Port᷼ḧs ✚ว Infrastructure provisions᳓䈱ో䊶ᔃ for safe and Housing support in
Improvemen ၞቛᡰេ 䊶 ઃ secureၮ⋚⏕ water resource the area Community䉁䈤䈨 building䈒䉍 䊶 Comprehensive grant
㊄for social Infrastructure
How it works � The municipality is to make a Social Infrastructure Comprehensive Improvement Plan that describes (a) goals and (b) projects to achieve those goals, and submits it to the government. (Project duration to be planned for roughly three to five years.) � Each year, the government estimates the amount of the grant to be awarded according to said plan, and awards it. � After the project has been completed as scheduled, the municipality itself assesses the project and makes the assessment public.
Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
22 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Table 2 Outline of road-related budget for fiscal year 2010 Fig. 2 Price with tax of one liter of gasoline in OECD countries
(percentage of tax share) Mexico In ascending order of ■ The budget for projects under direct government control tax share U.S.A. was cut by about 20% from last fiscal year’s budget. For Canada Indirect tax（ Figures are the percentage of tax share.) Australia Value-added tax (Figures are the percentage of tax share.) New Zealand government-assisted projects, individual financial assistance Japan South Korea Japan’s position (out of 29 countries) was abolished in principle; instead, the Comprehensive Grant Switzerland From the highest: Greece Retail price: 23rd for Social Infrastructure Improvement was established. Spain Retail price without taxes: 9th Poland Amount of tax share: 24th (unit: 100 million yen) Luxembourg Percentage of tax share: 24th Relative change Relative change Hungary Project type Project budget from last fiscal year Government budget from last fiscal year Czech Austria Projects under direct Slovakia government control 15,048 0.84 11,394 0.90 Ireland Projects receiving Sweden 1,418 0.22 937 0.25 Italy government assistance U.K. Portugal Toll road projects, etc. 14,633 1.02 1,027 0.97 France Denmark Belgium Total 31,099 0.80 13,357 0.76 Germany Finland Norway 1. Includes loan redemption, etc. (government budget: 89.3 billion yen) Turkey Netherlands 2. Besides items in the table, there are expenses for temporary loans for (yen) local road improvements (gov’t. budget: 80 billion yen), free expressway Source: Energy Prices and Taxes (the fourth quarter of 2009, IEA) projects (gov’t. budget: 100 billion yen), and administrative costs (gov’t. Note: 1. Japan’s consumption tax is included in the value-added tax. budget: 1.1 billion yen). The sales tax in the U.S.A. is not shown in the above graph. 3. Some of the subsidiary road projects, the vitality grants, and other 2. Indirect taxes in Japan are the gasoline tax, local road tax, and oil subsidiary projects are to be abolished; instead, the Comprehensive Grants and coal tax. for Social Infrastructure Improvement (tentative name) (gov’t. budget: 2 3. The exchange rates for yen are average exchange rate figures trillion 200 billion yen) are to be established. between July, 2009 and September, 2009.
□ Various expressway toll discounts had been implemented due to (1) cost savings when expressway corporations were privatized, and (2) the driver convenience enhancement plan. Furthermore, in order to reduce freight transport costs and commodity prices and to improve the area’s economy, as well as to conform to the policy that expressways should be free in principle, the free expressway pilot project started on June 28, 2010 targeting about 20% of all expressways. The economic impact it would have on the area, as well as the impact on congestion and the environment, are to be evaluated. Fig. 3 Reduction of expressway toll vs. projected Fig. 4 Free expressways pilot program in FY 2010 revenue sources (NEXCO rural areas) FY 2010: Free expressways pilot program - targeted sections (plan) Smaller than ordinary motor Bigger than middle-sized motor vehicles vehicles : Pilot program free-toll sections Daytime Night Daytime Night : Already free-toll sections
: Sections with toll 50% off 50% off 50% off 50% off y y eekda eekda
W 30% off W 30% off
6am 9am 5pm 8pm 10pm 0am 4am 6am 6am 9am 5pm 8pm 10pm 0am 4am 6am
Daytime Night Daytime Night s s
50% off 50% off Max. 1000 yen (all day)
f With the existing discount for companies, 50% off for commuting and 30% off for late night; with the oll T 50% of urgent comprehensive measures, 50% off during daytime; with the measures for living (including other times of day), a reduction of 50% (maximum
Sat., Sun. & Holiday fee: 1000 yen), is to be implemented. Sat., Sun. & Holiday Distance travelled
6am 9am 5pm 8pm 10pm 0am 4am 6am
Gov’t “Measures for living” program (0.5 trillion yen): Mar. 2009 to Mar. 2011 Urgent comprehensive measures (2.5 trillion yen): Oct. 2008 to Mar. 2018 Existing discount for companies (45 years)
Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and Tourism
Table 3 Systems in Western countries for road revenue sources
U.S.A. Germany Italy France U.K. Partly special funding source All from general revenue fund All from general revenue fund Special funding source for roads Special funding source for roads (15% for roads, the rest, general •1951 •1920 (Highway Trust Fund) revenue fund) Established road improvement Established road fund •1956 •1955 •1961 special account with part of (special funding source) Special funding started when the federal highway Special funding source was implemented; parts of the Article 26, Law 59 provided that the gasoline tax as a revenue using the National Treasury, Special funding system was established mineral oil tax, transport tax, and motor vehicle tax would be the road budget for fiscal year source driver’s license tax, etc. as source systems •1983 used for road improvements. 1962 would be 12% of motor •1959 revenue sources; it was for road works and Public transportation account established •2002 vehicle- related taxes. Transferred to general used as subsidiary money how they works Law to charge large vehicles on the Autobahn adopted. •1962- revenue fund in accordance for municipalities to build & Highway Trust Fund consists of road account & public •2005 That share was supposed to be with the budget law manage roads. transportation account. Imposition of charge on large vehicles on the Autobahn increased by 2% every year, but •1981 •1955 nationwide in effect, it has remained at 15% Abolished road improvement Officially abolished road fund up to now. special account
National tax (1997 to up to now) National tax National tax Fuel tax Fuel tax (mineral oil tax) (2003 to up to now) Fuel tax (revised on Jan. 1, (84% for roads, 16% for public transportation) (15% for roads, 22% for environment tax, 4% for transport 2007) Tire tax (all for roads) assistance for municipalities, 19% for financial aid for (15% for roads, 85% general Truck & trailer selling tax German Railways, 39% for general revenue fund) revenue fund) Breakdown of (all for roads) Autobahn heavy truck charge (2007 to up to now) special funding Tax for heavy motor vehicle use (50% for roads, 38% for railways, 12% for waterways, excl. source systems for State tax cost to collect fees) road works Different from state to state, but about the same State tax amounts are taxed to fuel & motor vehicles; most of The motor vehicle tax (ownership tax) is a state tax. Some the states specify the use for roads. states (Freistaat Bayern, etc.) limit its, use of it for road improvements; but most states put it into the general revenue fund. Source: data from research of each country
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