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Cosmic Rays, Runaway Electrons, and Pre-Lightning Acceleration of Particles in Thunderstorm Atmosphere

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Cosmic Rays, Runaway Electrons, and Pre-Lightning Acceleration of Particles in Thunderstorm Atmosphere 1 Air Cherenkov Methods in Cosmic Rays: A Review and Some History1 A.S. Lidvansky Institute for Nuclear Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, 60th October Anniversary pr. 7a, Moscow, 119312 Russia e-mail: [email protected] fax: +7(095)1358560 Introduction “Always a modest individual, he was extremely scrupulous not to pretend to be involved in the developing applications just because of his contribution to the effect discovery. He even may have avoided using the Cherenkov technique in his own experiments.” A.E. Chudakov, Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Obituary), Physics Today, December 1992 Indeed, the ‘glorious development of the Cherenkov technique in experimental physics’ (Chudakov, 1992) proceeded almost without the participation of the discoverer who gave his name to this radiation. In the field of cosmic ray studies the application of Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation can be subdivided into three large branches. One is the application of detectors with Cherenkov radiators in the instruments onboard spacecraft (either orbiting around the Earth or sent to deep space) and balloons. The second branch is related to large-volume water (or ice) Cherenkov detectors measuring the fluxes of neutrinos and muons under a thick overburden of rock, water, or ice (two types of these detectors make use of specially constructed water capacities and natural media). The third branch (historically it began to be developed first) uses the atmosphere as a radiator of Cherenkov light. Accordingly, the experimental methods here deal with collection of the light generated in air by natural fluxes of very high-energy cosmic ray particles. It is worth noting that in the first case the use of the Cherenkov technique has much in common with the application of similar detectors in different areas of physics (for example, at accelerators). On the contrary, the two latter branches are characteristic of their own very specific instrumentation and methods. This paper is devoted exclusively to the third issue. By definition, observations here are possible only on clear moonless nights, so that the duty cycle is equal at best to about 10% of calendar time. Also, with rare exceptions only many particles together can generate enough light to be detected; therefore, it is almost inevitable that extensive air showers should be observed. Here, again there are three types of experiments. (i) Investigations of extensive air showers (EAS) of cosmic rays to derive the cosmic ray spectrum and composition. (ii) Very high-energy (VHE) gamma ray astronomy. (iii) Observation of Cherenkov light reflected from the Earth’s surface by elevated (aircraft-borne) detectors. 1 Invited talk presented at the conference “P.A. Cherenkov and Modern Physics” (Moscow, June 22-25, 2004) commemorating P.A. Cherenkov centenary. 2 It is very interesting that a single man initiated all three of these lines of research! A.E. Chudakov was the one who started nearly everything in this area. Therefore, it was quite justifiable that Chudakov should be the one to have written Cherenkov’s obituary cited in the epigraph. These three types of experiments differ in the area of light collectors. In the first case PM-tubes without mirrors or with small mirrors are used. The second group of experiments uses large-area mirrors as light collectors (10 m or more in diameter for most modern Cherenkov telescopes). Finally, in the third case the light-reflecting area is represented by a snowy ground surface, and the particular acceptance area depends on the viewing angle and altitude of an instrument. In what follows, the Chudakov’s contributions to the development of the air Cherenkov method will be considered, as well as recent achievements and current state of the art. Investigations of extensive air showers “…He described his idea in some detail, dating it to 1955-57, the time he made pioneering measurements on atmospheric Cherenkov radiation from EAS.” J. Linsley (Linsley, 2001) P.M. Blackett was the first who paid attention to the fact that Cherenkov radiation generated by high-energy charged particles could be observed not only in dense media but in air as well (Blackett, 1949). In 1952, Galbraith and Jelley (Galbraith and Jelley, 1953) discovered short light flashes on the background of the nigh-sky glow. These flashes were shown to be associated in some cases with extensive air showers of cosmic rays (Jelley and Galbraith, 1953, Nesterova and Chudakov, 1955) and interpreted as caused by Cherenkov radiation accompanying the extensive air showers. Galbraith and Jelley used in their experiments one small Cherenkov detector. Chudakov’s experiments carried out in the Pamirs Mountains (Chudakov and Nesterova, 1958; Chudakov et al., 1960) included many well separated detectors, some o them with mirrors and some without. Chudakov has realized the idea of calorimetric measurements of the energy of air shower cascades and measured the energy spectrum of primary cosmic rays in a wide range applying the technique of fast oscillography in eight channels simultaneously. It was the first experiment where the EAS Cherenkov radiation was studied in great detail, and it is quite true that in the above quotation of J. Linsley these experiments are referred to as pioneering. (In actual fact, this can be said about almost all works performed by Chudakov throughout his entire life.) The results of these experiments were world-best at least for two decades, and many interesting experimental methods were suggested by him in this Pamirs period, like the use of a small spark as a light source for calibration of photomultipliers. It is also of great (historical) interest that when preparing these experiments in 1953 Chudakov began to study the luminiscence of air and other gases irradiated by relativistic electrons.2 The aim of these experiments was to check that the ionization glow of air would not be an obstacle for observation of Cherenkov light. He found the ionization glow to be rather weak and negligible for Cherenkov observations. But Chudakov immediately understood that the isotropy of this radiation could be used in experiments of another type in order to observe extensive air showers from a large distance. This idea was realized much later in fluorescence experiments (the famous Fly’s Eye detector was the first), and now the detectors of this type are being developed both for ground-based (the Auger project) and for satellite (EUSO) experiments. 2 The experiment was made at various pressures, and, reducing pressure to zero, Chudakov discovered that some signal still existed at zero pressure. Putting additional metal foils into the beam of electrons he proved this signal to be the result of transition radiation predicted by V.L. Ginzburg and I.M. Frank in 1945. This was the first experimental observation of the transition radiation. 3 After the death of Chudakov John Linsley wrote in 2001 to the author: “I tried … to get clarification from Chudakov himself in his later years about an idea that apparently came to him before it came to others: to observe EAS by means of atmospheric scintillation. In a well-known remark of his at the 1962 Interamerican Symposium in La Paz, Bolivia, published in the Proceedings, he described his idea in some detail, dating it to 1955-57, the time he made pioneering measurements on atmospheric Cherenkov radiation from EAS” (Linsley, 2001). Almost a decade later Chudakov published his suggestion in a paper written together with his student (Belyaev and Chudakov, 1966) and completely unknown to the people involved in modern fluorescence experiments. Modern experiments usually include many detectors of Cherenkov light distributed over a large area. The biggest number of Cherenkov detectors was used up to now by the BLANCA array (144 detectors with an average separation of 35-40 m). Each BLANCA detector contains a 2 large Winston cone which concentrates the light striking an 880 cm entrance aperture onto a photomultiplier tube. The concentrator has a nominal half-angle of 12.5° and truncated length of 60 cm. The Winston cones were aligned vertically. The minimum detectable density of a typical BLANCA unit is approximately one blue photon per cm2. Fig. 1. The data on shower maximum depth as measured in Cherenkov experiments and the Fly’s Eye experiment. Cosmic ray composition most probably changes with energy. This array was located at the same place as the CASA air shower array (a lattice of 900 scintillation detectors with a step of 15 m), and the data of these two experiments were jointly analyzed. The CASA BLANCA (Fowler et al., 2001) experiment is an example of a combination 4 of two independent arrays. Moreover, the third independent Cherenkov experiment DICE (Boothby et al., 1997) was also carried at the same place (DICE is rather unusual experiment of this type since it used only two rather big mirrors). Similar situation takes place at Canari Islands where the HEGRA collaboration constructed first an air shower array with scintillation detectors, then AIROBICC array of Cherenkov detectors (Karle et al., 1995), and Cherenkov telescopes for VHE gamma ray astronomy (Pühlhofer et al., 2003). An experiment to measure the electron, muon and air-Cherenkov components of 1 PeV air showers has been established at the geographic South Pole (Dickinson et al., 2000). The experiment comprises: the SPASE-2 scintillator array, the VULCAN air Cherenkov array, and the deep under-ice muon detector AMANDA. Simultaneous measurement of the electron size, high energy (>500 GeV) muon content and lateral distribution of Cherenkov light should allow a composition measurement that is relatively insensitive to model assumptions. The SPASE-2 data are used to determine the shower core position and direction. Digitized waveforms from the nine-element VULCAN array are used to reconstruct the lateral distribution of Cherenkov light. Thus, such coordinated measurements of extensive air showers by particle and light detectors are a general tendency in all modern experiments.
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