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Decompressive Craniectomy Neurocrit Care (2008) 8:456–470 DOI 10.1007/s12028-008-9082-y REVIEW ARTICLE Decompressive Craniectomy Clemens M. Schirmer Æ Albert A. Ackil Jr. Æ Adel M. Malek Published online: 8 April 2008 Ó Humana Press Inc. 2008 Abstract Decompressive Craniectomy (DC) is used to Keywords Decompressive craniectomy Á treat elevated intracranial pressure that is unresponsive to Intracranial hypertension Á Cerebral edema Á Surgical Á conventional treatment modalities. The underlying cause of Subarachnoid hemorrhage Á Traumatic brain injury Á intracranial hypertension may vary and consequently there Stroke Á Infarction Á Review is a broad range of literature on the uses of this procedure. Traumatic brain injury (TBI), middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarction, and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemor- Introduction rhage (SAH) are three conditions for which DC has been predominantly used in the past. Despite an increasing Decompressive Craniectomy (DC) describes the temporary number of reports supportive of DC, the controversy over removal of a portion of the skull for the relief of high intra- the suitability of the procedure and criteria for patient cranial pressure. This can be achieved by removal of the selection remains unresolved. Although the majority of fronto-temporal-occipital bone over one or both cranial published studies is retrospective, the recent publication of hemispheres or can involve a bi-lateral removal [1, 2]. High several randomized prospective studies prompts a reeval- intracranial pressure within the fixed-volume skull, resulting uation of the utility of DC. We review the literature from cerebral edema, intracranial hemorrhage, or a space- concerning the use of DC in TBI, MCA infarction, and occupying hematoma can quickly lead to secondary brain SAH and address the evidence regarding common ques- damage, herniation, permanent neurological damage, or tions pertaining to the timing of and laterality of the death. DC effectively increases the volume that the brain can procedure. We conclude that at the time of this review, occupy under the scalp and may minimize ischemic damage there still remains insufficient data to support the routine by allowing increased cerebral blood flow and tissue oxy- use of DC in TBI, stroke or SAH. There is evidence that genation [3–5]. Common indications for DC are traumatic early and aggressive use of DC in good-grade patients may brain injury (TBI), malignant middle cerebral artery (MCA) improve outcome, but the notion that DC is indicated in infarction, and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). DC has these patients is contentious. At this point, the indication been described in many studies as a life-saving intervention, for DC should be individualized and its potential implica- which consistently decreases mortality and can often tions on long-term outcomes should be comprehensively improve outcomes, especially when performed early in the discussed with the caregivers. course of the disease [6–9]. Despite growing evidence that better outcomes are associated with timely surgery, DC is still used mainly as a salvage procedure after all other options of ICP management have been exhausted. The perception of C. M. Schirmer Á A. A. Ackil Jr. Á A. M. Malek (&) DC as a high-risk invasive treatment, historical preference Cerebrovascular and Endovascular Division, Department for medical and non-surgical therapies, and a lack of con- of Neurosurgery, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts clusive data on the subject have limited widespread University School of Medicine, 800 Washington Street #178, Boston, MA 02111, USA advocacy of the procedure and sparked debate concerning its e-mail: [email protected] benefits and real risks. In this article, we explore the Neurocrit Care (2008) 8:456–470 457 historical significance of DC, summarize recent literature on and variations exist with their advantages and disadvan- the procedure for the three main indications, and discuss tages in a given situation. Nevertheless, there are some some of the common issues surrounding its application. common points to consider. Unilateral DC may be indicated in patients with unilateral hemispheric swelling and midline shift after TBI, ischemic Historical Uses of DC stroke, or SAH and is performed utilizing a large question- mark shaped incision and craniectomy. Appropriate sizing The surgical removal of a portion of the skull, either for of the craniectomy is of utmost importance since a small medical or superstitious reasons is known in the anthro- craniectomy may cause trans-craniectomy-defect brain pological context as ‘‘trepanation.’’ This commonly herniation and venous compression along the bony margin involved the drilling or scraping of a hole into the skull. with consequent venous infarction and exacerbated edema. Evidence of the most primitive craniectomy have been Processes that result in diffuse brain edema can be found in skeletons up to 6,000 years old, with well docu- decompressed using a bilateral approach [1] or by per- mented archaeological findings spread from pre-Columbian forming a decompression of the non-dominant hemisphere. Peru to bronze-age Europe and Neolithic Africa [10]. In the Bilateral DC may be performed by either decompressing late 1800’s, the French physician and surgeon Paul Broca each hemisphere through separate unilateral DC or through a became intensely interested in the subject of primitive bifrontal craniectomy extending from the floor of the ante- trepanation; he controversially theorized that this peculiar rior fossa to the coronal suture and the pterion bilaterally. ancient practice was the earliest evidence of a surgical In our opinion, adequate decompression can only be treatment for the build up of intracranial pressure [11]. achieved by opening the dura in a wide and stellate fashion. Modern use of the early trepanation technique is still seen In the past, some surgeons chose to leave the dura intact in isolated tribal societies of the South Pacific and Africa, [16], but durotomy with dural expansion has been shown to mainly for the treatment of epilepsy and headache [12]. lower ICP to 30% of the pre-surgical levels as opposed to There is a broad speculation as to the reasons that ancient 85% when the dura left intact [5, 17]. If ICP levels remain practitioners removed skull portions on living subjects, but above 30 mmHg postoperatively with the addition of the logic in the observed modern cases argues that opening medical treatment, anterior temporal lobectomy may be a hole in the skull creates a way of escape for the demons performed to further increase the space available for the or spirits possessing an ailing person [12]. swollen brain to expand into [6, 18]. Surgeons in ancient Greece and Rome that had been The removed bone flap may be stored in a sub-zero trained in the Hippocratic school of medicine, that empha- degrees Fahrenheit (-20°C) temperature freezer or sized the balance of certain humors of the body, used a embedded through a separate incision in the subcutaneous variety of procedures that relieved pressures and resulting layer of the patient’s abdominal wall in anticipation of the disease due to a buildup of a humor, including trepanation. subsequent cranioplasty needed to reconstruct the skull Galen, in a more practical vein, advocated the use of skull contour and offer long-term physical protection. The removal for closed head injuries and splintered skull frac- requirement for this second surgery to replace the bone flap tures in his surgical treatise. The medieval Arab physician is an added risk, which must be considered in the initial Al-Zahrawi, known in Western literature as Abulcasis, surgical decision. There are also complications that are developed the use of ‘‘non-sinking’’ drills designed to avoid specific to the cranioplasty surgery, including bone piercing the dura during the decompression procedure [13]. resorption [19, 20], osteomyelitis [21], and hypovascular In 1901, Emil Theodore Kocher became the first in the bone necrosis [22]. Recent reports have suggested that modern literature to describe the technique of surgical earlier replacement of the bone flap, at 5–8 weeks instead decompression and its value in relieving intracranial pres- of the more conventional 2–3 months, can reverse some of sure [14]. Harvey Cushing later described a bilateral the common recovery symptoms and even create a better subtemporal craniectomy in order to relieve pressure on the overall functional outcome [23, 24]. brain from an inaccessible tumor [15]. Clinical Indications Surgical Technique The majority of the available literature describes DC in DC does not describe a single standardized procedure but reference to a particular primary event, most commonly rather the manner of achieving adequate and lasting TBI, SAH, or hemispheric MCA infarction (Figs. 1–3). decompression of the brain in a given patient with the least Less frequent uses of DC with positive results for the invasive method available. Therefore, a variety of methods treatment of refractory ICP have been reported in other 458 Neurocrit Care (2008) 8:456–470 Fig. 1 Case 1: A 37 year old man presented with sudden- onset headache and rapidly deteriorated, suffered from cardiac arrest and was successfully resuscitated. Non- contrast enhanced computertomographic (CT) images of the head revealed subarachnoid hemorrhage and small gyrus rectus hemorrhage at the base of the right frontal lobe (A). A berry aneurysm of the anterior communicating artery was seen on CT angiography and subsequently confirmed on digital subtraction
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