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WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch Nigerian filmmakers and their construction of a political past (1967-1998) Anulika Agina Faculty of Media, Arts and Design This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2015. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] Nigerian Filmmakers and their Construction of a Political Past (1967-1998) AÑULIKA AGINA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2015 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Conducting this research has put me in the debt of many, which I fear I may not adequately make good. As the Igbos of Nigeria say, she who is without wealth must have words of praise. Here, I turn my indebtedness to words of praise. I thank my funders, the School of Media and Communication SMC, Pan- Atlantic University (formerly Pan-African), under the leadership of Emevwo Biakolo, who granted the financial resources to begin and complete my doctoral studies at the University of Westminster. My first film teacher, Hyginus Ekwuazi, deserves a special thank you for his commitment to this discipline, and for the enthusiasm with which he transmits knowledge. Colleagues at SMC have also been supportive during the difficult years of this task. I thank Mike Okolo, Ike Obiaya, Ken Esere, James Tsaaior, Richard Ikiebe, Angel Alilonu and several other colleagues and friends with whom I shared aspects of my work in friendly conversations. Jonathan Haynes, Françoise Ugochukwu, Moradewun Adejunmobi, Adeyinka Lanihun, Ola Ogunyemi, Regina Kessy and Onookome Okome did provide some direction regarding this study at its various stages. For their time and support, I can only offer more praises to offset my debt. Lindiwe Dovey was helpful at the onset, with useful suggestions that guided me, and so were colleagues at Westminster. How can I forget to thank Fauzia Ahmed, Anthony McNicholas, Ranita Chatterjee and Roza Tsagarousianou for helping me in various not-too-small ways? There were some whose comments and questions at conferences (particularly ASAUK 2012 & 2014) helped shape my thoughts, and I owe them a ton of gratitude as well, even though their identities elude me now. I cannot thank my families enough: wonderful parents, extraordinary siblings and extended family members, too many to mention, but no less supportive. Their dedication has as yet been unmatched. Lola and family, Pilar and Elena helped me a lot when I first arrived London. Maria Paz and her shifting family lavished their unalloyed support, providing the space, time, food and warmth that tided me over. Those who shared ideas on the film industry with me deserve praises as well. How could I have conducted the interviews without the leads they offered? Worthy of 1 mention are Shaibu Husseini, who, I am sure got very tired of my numerous requests; Oge Ekeanyanwu and Amara Iwuala. Those academics, filmmakers and journalists who turned down my requests also need to be thanked because they forced me to think of alternatives. Special thanks go to my supervisors, Winston Mano and Jane Thorburn. I am grateful for all the resources they assisted me with, particularly their time and Winston’s books. Even if I had the means of paying the debt owed the aforementioned, I could not possibly pay this one without a hefty loan. I should add that whatever blemishes found in this thesis are solely mine. 2 DECLARATION I declare that the material contained in this thesis is my own work. Añulika Agina 4 May 2015 3 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABN Association for Better Nigeria AMP Association of Movie Producers BOI Bank of Industry CDC Constitution Drafting Committee CFU Colonial Film Unit CFU Crown Film Unit CONGA Coalition of Nollywood Guilds and Associations CSO Chief Security Officer FEDECO Federal Electoral Commission FESTAC Festival of Arts and Culture FMG Federal Military Government GNPP Great Nigeria Peoples Party IMF International Monetary Fund MAMSER Mass Mobilization for Self Reliance, Social Justice and Economic Recovery MOPICON Motion Picture Practitioners Council of Nigeria NA Nigerian Army NADECO National Democratic Coalition NCAC National Council for Arts and Culture NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission NEXIM Nigerian Export Import Bank NFC Nigerian Film Corporation NFVCB National Film and Video Censors Board NLC Nigerian Labour Congress NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NPF Nigeria Police Force NPN National Party of Nigeria NPP Nigerian Peoples Party NRC National Republican Convention NTA Nigerian Television Authority OIC Organisation of Islamic Countries OMPADEC Oil Minerals Producing and Development Commission 4 OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries PRP Peoples Redemption Party SDP Social Democratic Party SSS State Security Service UPN Unity Party of Nigeria WAI War Against Indiscipline YEAA Youth Earnestly Ask for Abacha 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgements 1 Declaration 3 List of Abbreviations 4 Abstract 10 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Setting Out the Agenda 11 1.2 Objectives of the Study 14 1.3 Research Questions 14 1.4 Originality and Justification for the Study 15 1.5 Theoretical Framework 17 1.6 Methodological Approach 20 1.7 Developing an Appropriate Research Design 22 1.8 Structure of the Thesis 26 CHAPTER 2: CONTEXTUAL REVIEW OF 1967-1998 NIGERIA 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Brief Introduction to the Period before 1967 (events that led to 1967) 27 2.3 Political Situation in Nigeria 1967-1976 30 2.4 Significant Events of 1977-1986 33 2.5 Socio-political Context of 1987-1998 35 2.6 Key Political Factors during the Period as Constructed in the Films 38 CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Representing History and the Past in Film 40 3.2 History and the Past: Brief Distinctions 41 3.3 The Past on Screen: An Introduction 45 3.4 African Past on Film 48 3.5 Indigenous Filmmaking Prior to 1992: Nigerians Filming the Past 53 3.6 Nollywood 1992- 55 3.7 Nollywood and History? 57 6 3.8 On Popular Arts in Africa 62 3.9 Popular Arts in Nigeria 68 CHAPTER 4: HISTORY OF POLITICAL FILMMAKING IN NIGERIA 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Cultural Production in Nigeria 80 4.3 The Early Political Films 85 4.4 Motivation of Early Filmmakers 88 4.5 Narrative Content of Early Political Films 90 4.6 Cultural Ideology in the Early Films 91 4.7 Reception of the Films 92 4.8 Alternative Constructions of the Political Past: Cultural Epics 94 CHAPTER 5: REPRESENTING THE PAST:MOTIVATORS AND DE- MOTIVATORS 5.1 Introduction 98 5.2 Background Information on Individual Filmmakers 101 5.2.1 Tunde Kelani 101 5.2.2 Kingsley Ogoro 102 5.2.3 Sam Onwuka 103 5.2.4 Izu Ojukwu 105 5.2.5 Henry Legemah 106 5.2.6 Fred Amata 108 5.2.7 Kalu Anya 110 5.3 Motivation 112 5.3.1 Economic Factors 112 5.3.2 Social Factors – Audience Preferences 116 5.3.3 Social Factors - Nollywood as Political Endorsers 120 5.3.4 Social Factors - Contesting Dominant Power 125 5.4 Demotivation 128 5.4.1 Censorship 128 5.4.2 Piracy 134 7 CHAPTER 6: NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES IN CONSTRUCTING THE PAST 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Discussions of Individual Films 140 6.3 Anini: Character and Genre 141 6.3.1 Setting and Plot 144 6.4 Battle of Love and Across the Niger: Character and Genre 150 6.4.1 Setting and Plot 152 6.5 Oil Village: Character and Genre 155 6.5.1 Setting and Plot 157 6.6 Stubborn Grasshopper: Character and Genre 160 6.6.1 Setting and Plot 163 6.7 Half of a Yellow Sun: Character and Genre 165 6.7.1 Setting and Plot 166 CHAPTER 7: IDEOLOGICAL READINGS OF THE FILMS 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Films 1-3: Battle of Love, Across the Niger and Half of a Yellow Sun 172 7.2.1 Ethnicity, War and the Quest for National Unity 172 7.2.2 Intra-ethnic Conflict 177 7.3 Film 4: Anini 179 7.3.1 Ideological Positions in Anini: The Environment vs. the Individual 179 7.3.2 The Politics of Policing Crime in a Post-colonial State 181 7.3.3 Probing the Past against Present Realities 185 7.4 Film 5: Oil Village 187 7.4.1 Filming the Saro-Wiwa Story: A tip of the Iceberg 187 7.4.2 The Filmmaker's Lament of Delta Spills, Inequality and Injustice 190 7.4.3 Explaining Violence and Militancy in the Delta 191 7.5 Film 6: Stubborn Grasshopper 193 7.5.1 The Metaphor of the Grasshopper & 'Wahala' in Onwuka's Artistic Vision 193 7.5.2 Babangida, Abacha and the Rhetoric of Democracy in Stubborn Grasshopper 194 7.5.3 Stubborn Grasshopper: Political Violence, Corruption and the Military 196 7.6 In Conversation with One Another 199 8 CHAPTER 8: JOURNALISTS' RECEPTION OF FILMS 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Journalists as Unique Audiences 208 8.3 What ‘History’? 210 8.4 “Na wetin people wan see” 217 8.5 The Future of Nollywood 220 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION 9.1 Wrapping Up 226 9.2 Key Findings of the Research and Original Contribution to Knowledge 228 9.3 Suggestions for Further Studies 232 Select Filmography 233 Bibliography 236 Appendices 255 Appendix A: Filmmakers’ Interview Questions 255 Appendix B: Journalists’ Interview Questions 258 Appendix C: List of Interviewees 261 9 Abstract Once criticised as ‘seemingly’ oblivious of the political and historical concerns of the state (Osofisan, 2007; Adesokan, 2009b; Alamu, 2010; Okome, 2010; Mistry & Ellapen, 2013), some southern Nigerian filmmakers have begun reversing such critical narratives through negotiated images of the country’s political history.
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