De Effecten Van Electorale Kwetsbaarheid Op De Individuele Standpuntbepaling Van Parlementariërs: Een Onderzoek Naar De Ierse Abortuskwestie

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De Effecten Van Electorale Kwetsbaarheid Op De Individuele Standpuntbepaling Van Parlementariërs: Een Onderzoek Naar De Ierse Abortuskwestie Naam: Maarten van Nieuw Amerongen Studentnummer: 1545620 Studie: Political Science MSc (afstudeerrichting Parties, Parliaments and Democracy) Scriptiebegeleider: dr. Simon Otjes Tweede lezer: dr. Frits Meijerink Datum: 19-06-2020 Woorden (excl. bijlages): 9.973 De effecten van electorale kwetsbaarheid op de individuele standpuntbepaling van parlementariërs: een onderzoek naar de Ierse abortuskwestie Masterscriptie Politicologie Maarten van Nieuw Amerongen (2020) Abstract De parlementaire arena wordt door volksvertegenwoordigers gebruikt om zich te electoraal te profileren. Aan de hand van de Ierse Health Act 2018 wordt in deze studie onderzocht in hoeverre electorale stabiliteit een voorspeller is van individuele standpuntbepaling bij abortuskwesties. Met behulp van een innovatieve rubriekmethode worden de speeches van 45 Ierse parlementariërs geanalyseerd, op basis waarvan vastgesteld wordt dat er slechts een beperkt verband waarneembaar is tussen electorale kwetsbaarheid en de mate waarin TD’s uitgesproken standpunten verwoorden. Geconstateerd wordt dat kiezersopvattingen niet noodzakelijkerwijs leidend zijn voor de standpuntbepaling van electoraal kwetsbare parlementariërs. Naarmate hun districten minder eenduidig gestemd hebben bij het abortusreferendum in 2018, kiezen zij er vaker voor om überhaupt geen eigen standpunt in te nemen over de abortuskwestie. 1. Inleiding Op 25 mei 2018 heeft de Ierse bevolking per referendum besloten om het grondwettelijke verbod op abortus, beter bekend als het Achtste Amendement, te schrappen. Aan dit referendum ging een burgerforum vooraf. De regering van Fine Gael-premier Leo Varadkar heeft de aanbevelingen van deze zogenoemde Citizens’ Assembly grotendeels overgenomen. De Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act 2018 (hierna: Health Act 2018) werd op 27 september in de Dáil Éireann, het Ierse Lagerhuis, gepresenteerd door de Minister van Gezondheidszorg, Simon Harris. Dit wetsvoorstel zou een einde maken aan het zeer restrictieve abortusregime in Ierland. Tussen 4 en 18 oktober is hierover gedebatteerd in de Dáil. Deze studie is mede geïnspireerd op een publicatie van Baumann et al. (2015), die onderzoeken hoe individuele standpuntbepaling van leden van het Ierse Lagerhuis (Iers: Teachta Dála, TD) verklaard kan worden. Zij suggereren dat standpuntbepaling ten aanzien van de abortuskwestie goeddeels verklaard kan worden aan de hand van institutionele factoren en de wens van parlementariërs om herkozen te worden. Baumann et al. (2015) beoordeelden dit aan de hand van Dáil-debatten over abortus uit 2001 en 2013, die inzichtelijk maken dat de parlementaire arena door politici gebruikt wordt om een persoonlijk standpunt naar voren te brengen. Vanuit strategisch oogpunt worden specifieke kiezersgroepen aangesproken, in de hoop dat dit de kansen op herverkiezing vergroot. Een aantal Ierse parlementariërs schuwt daarbij niet om af te wijken van de fractielijn, wat het risico van disciplinaire maatregelen met zich meebrengt, zoals het afpakken van een woordvoerderschap. Met name het debat uit 2001 is voor Baumann et al. (2015) aanleiding om te stellen dat parlementariërs met een kwetsbare electorale positie het 2 Masterscriptie Politicologie Maarten van Nieuw Amerongen (2020) meest geneigd zijn om rekening te houden met de voorkeuren van hun achterban. 2. Relevantie Deze studie beoogt een bijdrage te leveren aan het onderzoek naar de relatie tussen electorale kwetsbaarheid en parlementaire standpuntbepaling. Vanuit maatschappelijk oogpunt is het intrinsiek waardevol dat kiezers weten op basis waarvan besluiten genomen worden in de democratie. Er is veel voor te zeggen dat dit des te belangrijker is bij zogenoemde gewetenskwesties, waarbij parlementariërs meer dan gebruikelijk de ruimte krijgen individuele afwegingen te maken. Het moreel-ethische karakter van deze kwesties rechtvaardigt in voorkomende gevallen dat er afgeweken wordt van het officiële partijstandpunt, of leidt ertoe dat het partijleiderschap afziet van het formuleren van een partijlijn (Richards 1970; Hibbing en Marsh 1987; Cowley 1998; Warhurst 2008; Plumb 2015; Raymond 2017). Niet elk parlementslid beschikt over een even sterk kiezersmandaat. Er is echter relatief weinig bekend over de uitwerking die deze variatie in mandaten heeft op de individuele standpuntbepaling van parlementariërs. Het innemen van verschillende standpunten binnen een en dezelfde fractie wordt vaak pas object van studie zodra dit leidt tot expliciet afwijkend stemgedrag (Norton 1975; Garner en Letki 2005; Christopher 2006; Slapin en Kirkland 2019) of afsplitsing (Waling 2017; McAndrews et al. 2020). Verschillende opvattingen kunnen echter ook meer subtiel tot uiting komen, bijvoorbeeld in de vorm van parlementaire bijdrages. Deze studie beoogt aan de hand van een casus te duiden of het mechanisme van electorale kwetsbaarheid een gedeeltelijke verklaring kan bieden voor de standpuntbepaling van individuele parlementariërs. Het is algemeen bekend dat er aan politieke besluitvorming niet alleen inhoudelijke, maar ook instrumentele overwegingen ten grondslag liggen. In de verdediging van de casusselectie wordt toegelicht waarom specifieke elementen uit het Ierse politieke bestel aanleiding geven om te vermoeden dat de abortuskwestie als middel wordt ingezet om kiezers aan te spreken. Het is zowel maatschappelijk als politiek-wetenschappelijk relevant om inzicht te krijgen in het weinig onderzochte fenomeen van electorale kwetsbaarheid. 3. Theoretisch kader en hypotheses Over het gedrag van parlementariërs in algemene zin is een rijke literatuur beschikbaar. De centrale assumptie in veel deze studies is dat het gedrag van parlementariërs goeddeels verklaard kan worden door hun wens om herkozen te worden (Mayhew 1974; Jacobson 1987; 3 Masterscriptie Politicologie Maarten van Nieuw Amerongen (2020) Berry et al. 2000; Strøm 2012). Uitgegaan wordt van doelrationaliteit: individuele parlementariërs worden verondersteld rationele actoren te zijn die de parlementaire arena gebruiken om hun kansen op herverkiezing te maximaliseren. In deze benadering, die zijn wortels in de rationele keuzetheorie heeft (Downs 1957), wordt de wisselwerking tussen kandidaten en kiezers voorgesteld als een dynamiek van vraag en aanbod. Parlementariërs schatten mede op basis van het aantal behaalde stemmen bij de laatste verkiezing hun kansen op een nieuwe termijn in (Jacobson 1987; Berry et al. 2000). De relatie tussen kiezers en volksvertegenwoordigers kan beschreven worden als een principaal-agentrelatie. Het electoraat (de principaal) ‘huurt’ een politicus (de agent) als het ware in om diens belangen gedurende een zittingstermijn te behartigen. Levert de politicus in kwestie niet langer de gewenste politieke ‘goederen’, dan ontstaat er zogenaamde agency loss (Lupia 2006; Vandeleene en De Winter 2018). Agency loss treedt op als de belangen van de politicus niet langer synchroon lopen met die van zijn electoraat. Dit kan bijvoorbeeld gebeuren als hij standpunten inneemt of middelen aanwendt die weliswaar goed zijn voor zijn kansen op herverkiezing, maar niet noodzakelijkerwijs overeenkomen met de wensen van zijn kiezers. Vandeleene en De Winter (2018) stellen terecht dat volksvertegenwoordigers, voor zover ze tot een partij behoren, op twee manieren ‘agent’ zijn: behalve het electoraat, stelt ook het partijkader zich op als een ‘principaal’ met zekere verwachtingen ten aanzien van de te leveren politieke ‘goederen’ door de ‘agent’ (zie ook Katz 2014). Voor wat betreft individuele standpuntbepaling in de parlementaire context laveert de rationele politicus dus continu tussen de wensen van partij en kiezer. Beide gelden als schaarse middelen waarvan een zekere hoeveelheid nodig is voor herverkiezing (Strøm 2012). In de literatuur worden stemmen-maximaliserende parlementariërs afgezet tegen nuts- maximaliserende parlementariërs (Petry 1982; Milyo 2001). Waar de eerste groep vooral geïnteresseerd is in herverkiezing, gaat het de tweede primair om het leveren van politieke goederen voor het land (bijvoorbeeld het voorkomen van een bezuinigingsmaatregel) of voor het district (denk aan het binnenhalen van een infrastructurele aanbesteding). Het onderscheid tussen stemmen-maximaliserende en nuts-maximaliserende is nagenoeg synoniem aan een typologie die elders in de literatuur gebruikt wordt: office-seeking tegenover policy-driven candidates (Banks en Duggan 2005; Duggan en Fey 2005; Peress 2010). In deze studie worden Ierse parlementariërs beschouwd als stemmen-maximaliserend, oftewel office-seeking candidates. Het traject dat vooraf ging aan de totstandkoming van de Health Act 2018 (maatschappelijk debat; burgerforum; referendum; parlementaire commissievergaderingen 4 Masterscriptie Politicologie Maarten van Nieuw Amerongen (2020) etc.), geeft reden om aan te nemen dat de geanalyseerde speeches niet zozeer een beleidsmatige, maar veeleer een communicatief karakter hebben. Er wordt dus verondersteld dat TD’s de parlementaire behandeling van de Health Act 2018 gebruiken om signalen uit te zenden naar hun kiezers. Volksvertegenwoordigers treden in de praktijk afwisselend op als gedelegeerde (delegate) en gevolmachtigde (trustee). In de kern komt dit onderscheid op het volgende neer: de gedelegeerde laat zich in zijn politieke handelen vooral leiden door de voorkeuren van zijn kiezers, terwijl de gevolmachtigde zich een vrijer mandaat permitteert, uitgaande van zijn autonomie als soeverein volksvertegenwoordiger (Pitkin 1967). Het onderscheid tussen deze twee rolopvattingen valt
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