N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe

PPP Scheme

Archaeological Contract 3

Phase 2 Final Report

Ministerial Order: A024

Excavation No: E2071 Killescragh 2: Co. Galway

Trackway and Burnt Mound

Director: Ken Curran Report: Nóra Bermingham Senior Archaeologist: Finola O’Carroll

CRDS Project Number: 05#735 NGR: 163306 225224 January 2009

Consulting Archaeologists Client CRDS Ltd Galway County Council Unit 4a Corporate House Dundrum Business Park Ballybrit Business Dundrum Park Dublin 14 Galway

NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Project Details

Project N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Contract 3 Ministerial Direction A024 Excavation No. NMI E2071 Excavation Director Ken Curran Final Report Nóra Bermingham Senior Archaeologists Finola O’Carroll & Nóra Bermingham Consultant Cultural Resource Development Services Ltd Archaeological and Historical Consultants Unit 4a, Dundrum Business Park Dundrum Dublin 14

Client Galway County Council, NRDO CRDS Project Number 735

Townland Killescragh Parish Killimordaly County Galway NGR 163306 225224

Report Date January 2009

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Acknowledgements

This report has been prepared by Cultural Resources Development Services Ltd on behalf of Galway County Council, National Roads Design Office. Archaeological excavation was carried out under Ministerial Direction A024 and Excavation Number E2071 issued to Ken Curran.

Galway County Council Jerry O’Sullivan – Project Archaeologist Martin Jones – Assistant Project Archaeologist

Consulting Engineers – RPS Group Tom Prendergast – Senior Resident Engineer Niall Healy – Resident Engineer Mark Deegan – Resident Engineer Ross MacLeod – Resident Archaeologist

CRDS Ltd wish to thank the following landowner/s for their co-operation during the excavation: Mr Vincent Cannon of Ballyfa, New Inn and Mary Costello of Cross, New Inn.

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Table of Contents

Project Details i Acknowledgements ii Table of Contents iii List of Appendices iv List of Figures iv List of Plates v Project Team vi

Summary 1

1 Introduction 2 1.1 Site location 2 1.2 The scope of the project 2 1.3 Circumstances and dates of fieldwork 2

2 Solid Geology, Soils and Topography 3

3 Archaeological and Historical Background 3 3.1 Baseline survey & general background 3 3.2 Previous archaeological work 6 3.3 Burnt mounds and their significance 7

4 Final Statement on Fieldwork 8 4.1 Methods 8 4.2 Stratigraphic Report 9

5 Chronology 17

6 Archaeological Finds 18

7 Archaeological Samples 20

9 Discussion 24

10 Recommendations and mitigation measures 29

References Appendices Figures Plates

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List of Appendices Appendix 1 Recorded archaeological sites and monuments in the vicinity of the site Appendix 2 Recorded archaeological finds from within the vicinity of the excavation Appendix 3 Feature Register Appendix 4 Drawing Register Appendix 5 Digital Photograph Register Appendix 6 SLR Photograph Register Appendix 7 Finds Register Appendix 8 Sample Register Appendix 9 Modelling the wetland at Killescragh, Co. Galway & environmental reconstruction of an archaeological landscape (Nóra Bermingham) Appendix 10 Radiocarbon Dates Appendix 11 Worked Wood Report (Caitríona Moore) Appendix 12 Wood Identification Report (Susan Lyons) Appendix 13 Lithic Report (Dermot G. Moore) Appendix 14 Small Finds Report Appendix 15 Animal Bones Report (Nóra Bermingham) Appendix 16 Palynological Assessment (Benjamin R. Gearey) Appendix 17 Coleoptera Report (S.R. Davis) Appendix 18 Plant Macrofossil Report (Charlotte O Brien) Appendix 19 Plant Remains Report (Mary Dillon) Appendix 20 Charcoal Identification (Mary Dillon)

List of Figures

Figure 1 Site location Figure 2 a & b Selected sites from the SMR map within 3km Figure 3 Location of E2071 Figure 4 Layout of excavation, test trench array and location of archaeology Figure 5 1st edition OS (1837) of Killescragh with route of An Slí Mor imposed Figure 6 Site stratigraphic matrix Figure 7 Plan of burnt spread F25 Figure 8 Section through burnt spread F25 Figure 9 Plan of walkway F13 and mixed natural & archaeological wood horizons, F14, F15, F16, F17, F20, F33 and F36 Figure 10 Detail of walkway F13 and F17 and natural root systems Figure 11 Pre-excavation plan of the burnt mound within Trench 1 Figure 12 Mid-excavation of burnt mound showing relationship with underlying walkway F13 Figure 13 Section through the mound F4 & F11 and the silt horizon F5/F27 Figure 14 Plan of brushwood and roundwood trackway F21 in relation to burnt mound F4/F11 Figure 15 Plan of brushwood track F43 over mound F11 Figure 16 Section through brushwood track F43 and burnt mound F11 Figure 17 Trench 18 showing distribution of wood off-cuts Figure 18 Radiocarbon dates from burnt mound sites excavated by CRDS Ltd.

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List of Plates Plate 1 Aerial view of site location prior to Phase 1 assessment and Phase 2 excavation. Plate 2 View of general peat stratigraphic sequence (non-archaeological). Each major horizon has been assigned an F. no which equate with those used in the report Plate 3 The burnt mound F4 & F11 undergoing excavation Plate 4 Section through the burnt mound F4 & F11 Plate 5 Section through the burnt mound showing cut into silt F5/F27 Plate 6 Aerial view of trackway F21 taken by Hawkeye Plate 7 View of roundwood surface representing southern end of F21 (Trench 20) Plate 8 Close-up of roundwood surface F21 within Trench 20 Plate 9 Section through the trackway F43 and the burnt mound F11 Plate 10 The burnt spread F25 Plate 11 Aerial view of F13 and F26 within trench 1 Plate 12 View of the half-split timber F13 and associated wooden elements F17, looking northeast Plate 13 Deposit of roundwoods F14 during excavation Plate 14 Close-up of gouged timber Plate 15 The oak plank F26 in situ. Other wood visible is non-archaeological Plate 16 View of the mound overlying F13 with the trackway F43 in the foreground Plate 17 Tagged off-cuts amongst natural wood and root Trench 18

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Project Team

Director: Ken Curran Project Managers: Richard Clutterbuck, Nóra Bermingham & Finola O’Carroll Assistant Project Manager: Marta Muñiz Pérez Senior Archaeologist: Finola O’Carroll

Post Ex. Manager: Milica Rajic Post Ex. Team: Joanne Gaffrey Dierdre Walsh Ciara Travers Hannah Tommola Bob Hennigan

Survey & Illustration: Cormac Bruton Niall Lynch Vera Power Catherine Bishop Gavin O’Reilly

Liaison Officer: Denis Shine Administration: Ciara Travers

Excavation Team: Director: Ken Curran Supervisors: Dan O’Meara Kathy Canavan Vicky Lambert Derek Bynre John Shanley Assistants: Kerstin Ohlsson Anna Horkan Daniele Petrella Paolo Cuichini Brigid Fitzimmons Adrienne Dowd Pawel Pobudkiewicz Gavin O’Reilly Javier Escudero Borbala Dios Peter Nalepa Robert Grondowski Cecilia Howe Anna Anderson General Operatives: David Taylor Jason Cairns Jonathan Buchanan

Final Report: Nóra Bermingham

Report Production: Ciara Travers

Report signed off by

______Finola O’Carroll MA MIAI, Senior Archaeologist Company Director, CRDS Ltd

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Summary

The following report describes the results of the excavation E2071 carried out between April and July 2006 in Killescragh townland, Co. Galway (NGR 163306 225224, 55 m OD). Excavations were carried out in advance of construction of the new N6 between Ballinasloe and Galway. Phase 1 testing, by CRDS Ltd in 2005, identified a burnt mound, situated in an area of reclaimed wetland at the foot of an esker. The burnt mound was not previously known and is not recorded in the Record of Monuments and Places. Excavation of the site was carried out by a team of archaeologists averaging 20 in number, under the direction of Ken Curran on behalf of CRDS Ltd.

The excavation initially focused on an area of 450 sq m in which the burnt mound identified in Phase 1 was confined. Subsequently, and in consultation with the NRDO project archaeologist, the area of the excavation was extended because more archaeological features were identified. Additional test trenching was also carried out, which increased the area of investigation to 5800 sq m. Testing confirmed that archaeological deposits were confined to an area 1050 sq m immediate to the burnt mound revealed in Phase 1. The archaeological deposits excavated comprise a burnt mound, a burnt stone spread and a series of associated wooden features, including trackways and deposits of worked wood. Radiocarbon dates for the site span the second and first millenniums BC and show there were three separate phases of human activity. Both wood and lithics had been worked on site, during different phases of activity.

Wet conditions allowed for the preservation of worked wood and organic deposits sampled for a range of specialist environmental analyses. A topographic and stratigraphic survey of the site showed that the burnt mound and other features were deposited within the floodplain of a small river, initially occupied by alluvial woodland later inundated by peat. Minerogenic flooding of the area is represented by the presence of a horizon of silt in an otherwise peat environment.

The burnt mound E2071, also known as Killescragh 2, is one of five excavated by CRDS Ltd along the route of the proposed road. It is located within the same river floodplain as Killescragh 1, a second burnt mound (E2070), approximately 750 m to the east. Though the sites are not contemporary, their presence within the same wetland zone shows this area was an attractive location for the placement and use of burnt mounds.

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1 Introduction

1.1 Site location The site is located in the townland of Killescragh, Co. Galway (NGR 163306 225224), 3 km southeast of the village of Bullaun (Figure 1). Access to the site is through a quarry or across pasture. The site is located at the foot of an esker - the object of the quarry, within a reclaimed wetland formed in the floodplain of a small river, in this case a tributary of the river Raford (Figures 1 & 2a & 2b, Plate 1). Land use at the time of the excavation was predominantly pastoral farming. A second burnt mound is situated within the same wetland, 750 m to the west of the site described in this report. For ease of reference, the burnt mound A024/E2071 is referred to as Killescragh 2 while the neighbouring site, A024/E2070 is known as Killescragh 1.

1.2 The scope of the project The excavation of Killescragh 2 represents Phase 2 of archaeological investigations carried out in advance of the construction of the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe road scheme. The scheme covers a distance of 56 km from the townland of Doughiska, east of Galway City, to Beagh, just inside Co. Roscommon. CRDS Ltd executed Phases 1 and 2 of the archaeological assessment of Contract 3 of the scheme, between the townlands of Galboley in the west (NGR 161500 224600, chainage 27600 m) and Newcastle in the east (NGR 175600 226900, chainage 42550 m), Co. Galway.

1.3 Circumstances and dates of fieldwork Phase 1 investigations had identified the presence of a burnt mound within an area of reclaimed peatland (Conran 2006). The site was described as a mound of black silt and heat-shattered stone, measuring approximately 4.8 m by 5 m and up to 0.25 m in depth. The site was confined within an area approximately 450 sq m (Figure 3). The entirety of the site lay within the proposed road corridor or CPO. Consequently, full excavation by hand of the site was recommended and permission to excavate was subsequently granted to Ken Curran. The initial excavation team comprised five archaeologists, including the excavation director. During the course of the excavation, new archaeological deposits were identified which extended beyond the limits of the limit of excavation. Following consultation with the NRDO project archaeologist, the site was subjected to further archaeological assessment through the machine excavation of 35 new test trenches (Figure 4) and the area of the original excavation was extended (see Section 4.1). The total area subject to investigation was around 5800 sq m. The excavation proceeded with an increased team, averaging 20 in number

26/01/2009 2 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 including the excavation director. The excavation was conducted in tandem with the excavation of the neighbouring burnt mound Killescragh 1 between April and July 2006.

2 Solid Geology, Soils and Topography

The proposed N6 Galway to Ballinasloe road scheme is routed through part of a physical region of Ireland known as the central bogland and moraine area (Aalen et al. 1997). This area is underlain by Carboniferous limestone, fine-grained grey/blue calcareous fossiliferous rock that makes up much of the Irish midlands and, represents the northward return of the sea at the end of the Devonian, 360 million years ago. This is typically covered by glacial drift or till, sometimes referred to as boulder clay (ibid.), deposited following the last glaciation, which ended approximately 11,500 years ago. Low-lying hills and peatlands, drumlins and kames as well as eskers can characterise this central area.

Killescragh 2 is situated within a reclaimed wetland. The predominant soil type is peat that was formed in the floodplain of a small river that runs between an esker in the north and low-lying hills to the south (Figure 3). The peat overlies glacial drift or till and late glacial silts once deposited in areas of open water. The esker represents the highest ground in the immediate locality, reaching 66 m OD and forms an east – west linear ridge flanked by wetlands. The first edition OS map clearly shows the esker in relation to local drainage (Figure 5). To the north, is a raised bog known as Pump Bog and, to the south of the esker the reclaimed river peatland referred to above (Figures 2 - 5). The esker forms part of a system of eskers that extend east- west across the central midlands and that is commonly known as An Slí Mhór (Geissel 2006) (see Section 9.3 below).

In the northeast, the river bisects the esker and today is situated around 50 m to the south of the burnt mound (Figure 5). In this area, the river has been canalised and appears more like a field drain than river. The river provides the main drainage in the area drawing water away in a westerly direction. Additional drainage is provided by field drains, which in general, are perpendicular to the river.

3 Archaeological and Historical Background

3.1 Baseline survey & general background

Sheet No. RMP No. Townland Classification 85 10 Brackloon Ringfort 85 11 Brackloon Ringfort 85 42 Cloonskeecahill Ringfort

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Sheet No. RMP No. Townland Classification 85 79 Raford Enclosure 85 91 Tormaun Children's burial ground 86 88 Cloonyconaun Ringfort 97 15 Ben Beg Holy well 97 16 Ben Beg Moated Site 97 17 Ben More Tower 97 1801 Ben More Earthwork unclassified 97 1802 Ben More Castle 97 19 Ben More Ringfort bi-vallate 97 20 Ben More Ringfort 97 29 Bullaun (Loughrea BY) Graveyard 97 67 Carrowkeel (Athenry By) Ringfort 97 71 Carrowreagh (Athenry By) Mansion 97 72 Carrowreagh (Athenry By) Enclosure 97 7201 Carrowreagh (Athenry By) Children's burial ground 97 80 Clashaganny (Athenry By) Ringfort 97 81 Clashaganny (Athenry By) Enclosure 97 103 Galboley Moated Site 97 104 Galboley Castle 97 105 Galboley Enclosure 97 106 Galboley Enclosure 97 110 Killescragh Ecclesiastical remains 97 11001 Killescragh Children's burial ground 97 121 Knocknadaula Earthwork unclassified 97 138 Raford Earthwork unclassified 97 150 Turoe Ringfort 97 15003 Turoe Standing stone 97 151 Turoe Enclosure 98 37 Ben Beg Enclosure

Table 1: List of sites recorded in the RMP within 3 km of Killescragh 2, Co. Galway.

As part of the baseline survey for this project, the Record of Monuments and Places (RMP) was consulted for the relevant parts of county Galway, specifically 6” Sheets 85, 86, 97 and 98. All sites within a radius of 3 km of Killescragh 2 were identified (Figure 2). The survey identified the presence of a single RMP within the townland of Killescragh and a further 33 sites lying within the specified radius (Table 1, Appendix 1). The files for the sites, which contain details from aerial photographs, early maps, OS memoirs, OPW Archaeological Survey notes and other relevant publications, were also consulted.

Record classification Year of Publication Source Primary Documentary Sources N6 East Galway – Ballinasloe Environmental 2004 Arch Consultancy for RPS-MCOS Impact Statement. Vol. 4B, Part 3. Record of Monuments & Places various National Monuments, DEHLG Topographic Files various National Museum of Ireland Primary Cartographic Sources Ordnance Survey 6” maps First & later Editions Map Library, Trinity College, Dublin Hibernia Delineatio 1685 Sir William Petty (Shannon 1969) Maps of the Roads of Ireland 1783 Taylor & Skinner

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Record classification Year of Publication Source Map of County Galway 1819 Larkin, W. Books of Survey and Distribution 1962 Simmington, R.C. Databases & web based resources www.excavations.ie various Bennett I. (2003, 2004) Indices of manuscripts & periodicals 1965 & 1970 Hayes, R.J. Irish Stone Axe Database various Dept. of Archaeology, University College Dublin www.nli.ie various National Library of Ireland www.nationalarchives.ie various National Archives of Ireland www.biab.ac.uk various British and Irish Archaeological Bibliography www.shr.ac.uk various Society for Historic Research Published Catalogues of Artefacts Iron Age antiquities 1983, 1994 Raftery, B. Bronze Age metalwork 1965, 1983, 1994 Eogan, G. Bronze Age metalwork 1968, 1969a & b Harbison, P.

Table 2: List of some of the sources consulted in preparing the archaeological and historical background described in this report. Other sources consulted are cited in the text.

Killescragh 2 is Bronze Age in date and the research focused on the identification of other prehistoric and potentially contemporary archaeological sites (Table 1). Of the 33 sites identified, the only clearly prehistoric site is the standing stone from Turoe (GA:097:150B); which dates to the Iron Age and therefore later than the burnt mound from Killescragh. The remaining 32 sites are for the most part medieval or later. In addition, none of the sites identified has been classified as either burnt mounds or fulacht fiadh, showing an apparent but spurious absence of this site type in townlands covered by Contract 3 archaeological investigations.

In addition to interrogation of the RMP files, a comprehensive paper survey of available archaeological, historical and cartographic sources was undertaken. Many of the sources consulted are listed in Table 2 and others are cited in the text below.

The results of the paper survey have revealed scant evidence for prehistoric activity in Killescragh and vicinity, with the majority of evidence for human occupation of the area being historic in date. Prehistoric occupation may, however, be represented by stray finds found in Killescragh and nearby townlands, i.e. within 3 - 4 km (see Appendix 2 & Figure 2). A copper alloy tanged knife was recovered from bog 4 km to the north of Killescragh in Derrymanagh in 1969 (NMI:1969:21) while a stone axe head was found in Brackloon in 1984 (NMI:1984:142). In the 1950s, a bronze pennanular brooch (NMI:1953:26) was retrieved from under 8’ of turf in Pump Bog, the raised bog situated to the northwest but this object is probably historic.

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The historic period is better represented in the townland and though not directly relevant to the site the subject of this report, this data provides a flavour of the later development of the area. Within Killescragh, the only recorded RMP is an ecclesiastical site (GA:97:110) that includes a children’s burial ground (GA:97:11001). The ecclesiastical site consists of a large oval-shaped earthen bivallate enclosure, measuring 80 m north-south x 67 m east-west internally. The presence of this church site appears to survive in the townland name. The most likely meaning to be derived from the name is ‘church on or of the esker’. ‘Kil’ means church in Irish but ‘coill’ or wood was sometimes likewise anglicised as kill. Hence, townlands with ‘kill’ in the name may also be associated with woodland or forested areas.

There is no surviving trace of the children’s burial ground, but it is marked on the 1933 edition OS map. The then landowner stated that the last burial took place at the turn of the 20th century, and that the headstones were subsequently re-used for field walls (National Monuments Archive file). The practice of setting aside a separate place for burying children – or cilín – in Ireland dates from at least the medieval period and persisted into the 20th century. This was used primarily for the burial of unbaptised children whose burial in the consecrated ground of the churchyard was not permitted. Others who were perceived as being somehow ‘outside of society’ were also buried in these places, i.e. shipwrecked sailors, suicide cases and famine victims (Alcock et al. 1999).

There are few historical references to Killescragh, though it is situated within a part of east Galway characterised by long-lived medieval settlement and church sites, namely Athenry and Kilconnell (Flanagan 1992; Spellissy 1999). Killescragh is situated within the civil parish of Killimordaly, in the barony of Athenry, and borders townlands located in the neighbouring barony of Kilconnell. Griffith’s Valuation lists Killescragh as containing just over 309 acres of land (Griffith 1856a & b). In the mid 19th century, the principal landowner was Michael J. Browne, who let two houses and herd’s house that were in the townland at that time. The Irish Schools Folklore Commission holds a report of a young boy who claimed that there was a gold cup hidden in the bog at Killescragh, namely in Pump Bog.

3.2 Previous archaeological work As stated above (Section 1.3), Phase 1 assessment along the route of the proposed road scheme revealed the presence of the burnt mound now identified as Killescragh 2 (Conran 2006). There were no upstanding or surface indications of the site’s existence (Plate 1). As a result, it had not been identified during the course of the Environmental Impact Assessment (Arch Consultancy 2004). Given the wet boggy nature of the location, this area was excluded from the geophysical investigations

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(Roseveare & Roseveare 2004) carried out in part along the proposed route. This area was also originally designated as an excluded zone owing to its proximity to an extant quarry (Bermingham 2006a). Archaeological assessment of the area, however, by CRDS Ltd identified the presence of the burnt mound. No other archaeological excavations are on record as having taken place at Killescragh.

3.3 Burnt mounds and their significance The term burnt mound has been used to describe the type of site that is the subject of this report. Though this classification has been in use for many decades (e.g. Buckley 1990) it is only since the mid 1990s that this designation has found a wider appeal. Previously, the term fulacht fiadh, which translates as ‘cooking place’ (Flanagan 1992), was typically used to describe the mounds of charcoal and heat-shattered stone, frequently though not always with associated troughs and pits (Waddell 1998). The sites are traditionally interpreted as locations where stones were warmed by fire in order to heat water for cooking purposes (Ó Drisceoil 1990). However, the veracity of describing these sites as fulacht fiadh has been questioned, most recently by Ó Néill (2004) who points out that the term fulacht refers to cooking by spit rather than by warming stones to heat water. In addition, the term fulacht fiadh has strong cultural associations, appearing in the folklore tradition of cooking places, and in medieval manuscript references to cooking or eating (Ó Drisceoil 1990). Increased definition of the chronology of these sites also suggests that a non-cultural specific classification, such as burnt mound, is more appropriate, as the majority of sites have been shown to be prehistoric, typically Bronze Age in date (see below). In recent years, the number of burnt mounds known has significantly increased and these monuments have been found in large numbers, particularly during road projects and other large-scale developments (Ó Néill 2000; Gowen et al. 2005). There are more than 6000 burnt mounds now known (Buckley 1990) and several hundred have been excavated (see Excavations 1970-2002 (Bennett [ed.]). Burnt mounds are generally found in areas of poor drainage, such as marginal wet lands, near rivers or in areas liable to flooding. The sites are identified as low-level mounds, often of a ‘horse-shoe’ shape and are described as having a number of recurring structural features, which include a pit at the centre of a crescent-shaped mound, a hearth, arrangements of post-holes and an adjacent water source (O’Sulllivan & Downey 2004). Troughs can be lined with wood or cut directly into the mineral subsoil. Though generally dated to the Bronze Age (see above), examples have been identified from the Mesolithic (Brindley & Lanting 1990). Burnt mounds with troughs largely date to the Bronze Age. The majority of sites for which dating evidence is available date to the second millennium BC or the Middle Bronze Age (Gowen et al. 2005).

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The role burnt mounds played in society and the types of activities that took place on-site are still a matter of conjecture. These sites have not been particularly productive in terms of artefacts or ecofacts (Waddell 1998), but this may change with the increasing numbers being discovered and excavated (Monk 2007). Irish folklore has associated burnt mounds with cooking places, where heated stone was used to boil water and cook joints of meat (Waddell 1998). Medieval manuscript references to cooking or eating at such sites are also known (Ó Drisceoil 1990) but as already stated, this has been disputed by Ó Néill. Other explanations for the use of these sites include bathing and/or saunas (Barfield & Hodder 1987; Waddell 1998) and Monk (2007) has suggested they served to aid in the extraction of fat or grease from animal products. Quinn and Moore (2007) suggest that burnt mounds represent prehistoric microbreweries that provided a daily intake of an uncontaminated and satisfying beverage.

4 Final Statement on Fieldwork

4.1 Methods During Phase 1 archaeological assessment at Killescragh 2 (Conran 2006), the site was confined within an area approximately 450 sq m (Figure 4). This involved removal of the peat horizons overlying the mound and excavation of the surrounding peat to an apparently archaeologically sterile horizon. Phase 2 works involved hand excavation of the archaeological deposits revealed in Phase 1. A system of single context recording was employed with all features given a unique number prefixed by ‘F’, e.g. F4 = burnt mound, F38 = peat. A list and description of all features is provided in Appendix 3.

A grid was set up and subsequently tied into Ordnance datum. After a pre-excavation plan and a photographic record were completed, excavation commenced. Feature numbers were assigned to all archaeological features identified. Sections were excavated at intervals to determine content, stratigraphy and relationships. All archaeologically significant features were fully excavated by hand and detailed plans of all archaeological features and deposits were completed, including sections/profiles and site plans. Pre-excavation, mid-excavation and post-excavation photos were taken of all features. Sections/profiles of the features were recorded photographically and planned at a 1:10 scale and recorded with grid-references and O.D. The written record, which constitutes the site archive, includes the individual feature sheets, small finds record, sample records, drawing record, level recording sheets and photographic record. All finds and animal bone were retained for specialist examination and samples were retrieved from all significant features for further study (see Appendices 3 – 8).

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The extension of archaeological deposits at Killescragh 2 beyond the original limit of excavation necessitated a programme of further archaeological assessment. This involved machine excavation of an additional 35 test trenches using a tracked machine fitted with a 2 m wide toothless bucket. All trenches were confined within the proposed road corridor or CPO. The test trench array is displayed in Figure 3. The trenches were positioned in order to investigate areas omitted during the Phase 1 assessment of the site. The trenches were numbered from 1 to 36, with number 1 representing the original excavation area. Where archaeological features were identified, subsequent investigation proceeded by hand. If required, baulks were removed or reduced between trenches in order to expose archaeological deposits hidden by the baulks. Where archaeological features were absent, a cursory stratigraphic record of a selection of trenches was made before being backfilled by machine. The data from this record has been incorporated into the topographic survey of the area (see Appendix 9). All trench locations were recorded using GPS with reference to the Irish national grid with elevated heights tied into Malin Head.

The burnt mound is situated within a wetland area liable to flooding (Figure 5, Plate 1). Consequently, during the course of the excavation, floodwaters were pumped on a daily basis from the excavation trenches. The limit of excavation was governed by the dimensions of the CPO but also by the presence of an extant quarry immediately north of the site. The presence of the quarry prevented excavation of in situ archaeological deposits in the north. As a result, the northern edge of the burnt mound was not established. It was probably truncated in the recent past by a drain situated just inside the edge of the quarry.

4.2 Stratigraphic Report

4.2.1 Introduction This section describes the sequence of deposition at Killescragh 2 inclusive of natural and archaeological deposits, from the earliest to the latest. The sequence is illustrated in Figure 6 by means of a Harris matrix. The latter was constructed in order to convey the most important elements of the sequence and therefore excludes less important feature numbers, typically non-archaeological or natural wood horizons.

The archaeological deposits are situated within a wetland in which peat is the dominant soil type. Peat formation in this area was a result of impeded drainage, most probably because of natural rather than anthropogenic agencies (see Appendix 9). Plate 2 shows a view of the peat stratigraphic sequence

26/01/2009 9 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 devoid of archaeological horizons. The lower part of the sequence is characterised by the remains of natural woodland and the upper half is distinguished by a minerogenic horizon. There is greater complexity and variation in the peat stratigraphy than is described in this report. In addition, using a Harris matrix in order to display archaeological stratigraphy within a peat-forming environment is problematic, as multiple archaeological features, which need not be contemporaneous, may be located within the same type of peat or peat-forming environment. Here, gross changes in stratigraphy within the area of archaeological significance are described and the stratigraphic matrix has been simplified as a result.

4.2.2 Stratigraphic sequence The lowermost horizons identified at Killescragh 2 comprise two minerogenic deposits, F6 and F12. The latter is yellow-grey, sandy silt overlain in the north by F6, loose, coarse-grained grey sand. Both represent geological deposits and equate to glacial till or drift, i.e., the underlying geology in the region. Plate 2 shows the non-archaeological stratigraphic sequence of deposits from the mineral substrate to the field surface present at the site.

The earliest peat formation within the area of excavation is represented by F9 (= F28). This deposit consists of a black silty peat with the remains of tree roots and other plant macrofossils such as seeds and hazelnuts (Plate 2). It is overlain by another horizon of peat F7 (= F8), characterised by the presence of substantial amounts of wood, namely tree root systems, fallen tree trunks and general woodland debris. A sample of pine from F8 returned a radiocarbon date of 4880 – 4590 cal BC (Appendix 10). F7 varies in depth from 0.22 m to 1 m and increases in depth from north to south; it is shallowest on the slope of the esker. During the course of the excavation individual feature numbers were assigned to wooden elements lying within F7 that appeared to represent distinct archaeological deposits. This includes the feature numbers F14, F15, F20, F33, F34 and F36. The status of these features is discussed below (Section 4.2.3). Here, it is sufficient to note that these features represent the lowermost natural wood horizons and deposits of archaeological significance in the sequence.

The stratigraphic sequence at Killescragh 2 is complicated by the presence of a horizon of silt F5/F27 that appears to have been irregularly deposited across the area some time after the formation of F7 (Plate 2). Though discontinuous and irregular in extent, this silt layer, F5/F27 helps to distinguish between different phases of deposition, be they archaeological or natural in origin. With the exception of F25 and elements within F14, all other archaeological deposits on site appear to post-date the silt horizon. The silt layer appears to have been removed in advance of the construction of the mound and

26/01/2009 10 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 the deposition of the timbers F13 and F17 (see Section 4.2.3 below).

The burnt mound comprising deposits of charcoal-rich silt and heat-shattered stone F4 and F11 each overlie the silt F5/F27 and F11 is in part overlain by F4 (Plate 3). Where F11 was visible in section, F5/F27 appeared to be absent but upon excavation, F11 lay directly on top of the silt. This may reflect variation in the deposition of the silt or that the silt was truncated by the human activity associated with the mound (Plates 4 & 5). In places, a shallow and patchy layer of peat F10 separated F4 from the silt. The presence of F10 suggests that following the deposition of silt across the area, the accumulation of peat re-commenced before the construction of the burnt mound. Elsewhere this renewed peat accumulation is best represented by F3, F22, F35 and F38. A single radiocarbon date has been returned for the burnt mound deposit F4: charcoal from the mound has been dated to 1610 – 1410 cal BC (Appendix 10). This date provides a terminus antequem for the deposition of the silt in the area. The burnt mound deposits were removed to expose a half-split ash timber F13, with associated stakes and smaller split timber F17. The weight of the overlying mound caused the timber to sink into the underlying peat deposit dominated by the root systems of the earlier woodland. Wood from F13 has returned a date of 1670 – 1490 cal BC (Appendix 10). This overlaps with the date of F4 (see above) suggesting the mound and the timbers can be regarded as contemporaneous.

A single oak plank F26 was uncovered close to the base of the peat profile within F9/F7. It was not directly associated with another archaeological deposit and its function remains unknown. The plank lay southwest of the burnt mound F4/F11. Although there was no evidence of a cut in association with the plank, the plank may be associated with the construction and use of the burnt mound (see Section 4.2.3 below).

Outside the area of the burnt mound, the peat horizons F7, and where present F5/F27, are overlain by peat (F22) within which is two distinct horizons of wood, F21, a brushwood and roundwood trackway and F16. F16 was initially taken to represent an archaeological deposit but during post-excavation was re-categorised as a natural wood horizon comprising the remains of tree roots and other woodland debris. Two minor deposits, F18 and F19, overlie F21 in the north. Both are patches of black silty peat with charcoal and appear to be derivative of activity that occurred later than F21 and may represent later insertions or contamination. F21 meanders from north to south (Plates 6, 7 & 8) and its northern end overlies the southern extent of the burnt mound F4 and F11. The trackway has been dated to 1190 – 920 cal BC and 1260 – 910 cal BC (Appendix 10).

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In the south, a third wooden structure, a possible trackway F43, lies in peat that accumulated above the mound F11 (Plate 9). The trackway may be broadly contemporary with the mound or with the trackway F21. F43 was truncated during Phase 1 archaeological assessment of the site and consequently it was not possible to establish the relationship between it and the trackway F21, though both clearly post- date the burnt mound. F43 was situated close to the edge of the mound unlike F21, which extended southwards away from the mound.

About 50 m to the east the burnt mound, a second deposit of heat-shattered stone F25, was uncovered (Figures 7 & 8, Plate 10). F25 sat on top of the basal peat F9 and below the peat horizon F3; elsewhere on site the peat horizon F7 occupies this position. The silt horizon F5/F27 overlay in part F25 and tree roots had grown over the deposit. The latter may equate to the remains of woodland represented by F7 incorporating F14 etc. Charcoal from F25 dates to 2280 – 2020 cal BC and thus, represents the earliest dated archaeological deposit on the site (Appendix 10).

The entire area subject to investigation was sealed by an upper horizon of peat F3 topped by a loamy topsoil and sod F1. These features represent the latest soil formations on site, post-dating all known archaeological activity in the area. A modern deposit of blue-grey silt F2, occupied the northeast corner of the original excavation area (Trench 1) (Plate 3). F2 represents the spoil from a geological test pit TP449. F2 comprises re-deposited, post-glacial silts and provides an indication of the sort of mineral substrate underlying the peat in this area.

The stratigraphic sequence at Killescragh 2 suggests three to four phases of archaeological activity. The burnt spread F25 represents the earliest and first phase of activity dating to 2280 – 2020 cal BC (Appendix 10). Sometime later, the area became inundated with silt followed by renewed peat growth. Around 1610 – 1410 cal BC, a second burnt mound, F4 and F11 was deposited which represents Phase 2 archaeological activity. The timber F13 and, probably the oak plank F26, are contemporary with this phase. The third phase of activity is represented by the trackway F21, dated to 1190 – 920 cal BC and the short trackway F43.

4.2.3 Description of the archeological deposits This section describes deposits of archaeological significance in chronological order. With the exception of the lowermost peat deposits (F7 etc.) and the silt horizon F5/F27, descriptions of naturally accumulated horizons are presented in Appendix 9.

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F25: Burnt Spread F25 represents an irregular burnt spread (Figure 6, Plate 10) composed of grey-black friable silt with frequent charcoal and heat-shattered stone inclusions. The deposit measures approximately 2.75 m by 3.75 m and between 0.08 m and 0.24 m in thickness. Situated 3 m to the south of F25 was a single worked end or post. Its relationship to F25 is unclear as there were no other worked elements identified in association with the burnt spread. Charcoal from F25 has provided a date of 2280 – 2020 cal BC (Appendix 10). The morphology and composition of F25 are similar to a burnt mound and it may represent a mini-version of this site type.

F7, F14, F15, F16, F20, F33, F34 and F36: Woodland Debris As stated above the peat horizon F7 is rich in the remains of trees with trunks, branches, tree stumps and root systems all present (Figure 9). This wood-rich environment was initially considered to represent a series of deliberately laid wooden horizons forming platforms (F14 and F15) which lay inside a boundary formed by placed trunks (F20, F33 and F36) (Curran 2006). However, it seems more likely that the deposits represent some form of human activity within the former woodland or, that they represent intrusive material related to the later use of the site.

F14 and F15 represent a mix of fallen tree trunks, branches, root systems and individual and multiple pieces of worked wood. Some of the trunks had split, most due to natural processes rather than human agency (see Appendix 11). F14 refers to an area measuring approximately 50 m east-west by 30 m north-south situated to the east of the later mound. Initially, F14 was interpreted as a trackway (Curran 2006) but most of the wood has been re-classified as non-archaeological. Nonetheless, within this area, deposits of worked wood were identified; most notably a small number of horizontally laid roundwoods, some with worked ends, were deposited amongst the woodland debris and root systems (Figure 9, Plate 13). The roundwoods form a casual surface or platform. Thirty potential worked wood samples were taken from F14 (see Appendix 11). Of these, four had worked ends with metal-cut facets and eleven may have been worked but were too poorly preserved to be certain. The remainder were remainder represent natural rather than archaeological wood and includes two naturally split timbers.

F15 represents a smaller but similar area of natural and possible archaeological wood to the west of F14 (Figure 8). A single split timber with a metal-cut, chisel pointed end was retrieved from F15 (see Appendix 11). In both areas, large single trunks (F20, F33 and F36) are visible amongst the mass of tree roots and other debris. For example, F33 measures 13.4 m in length with an average diameter of

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0.26 m. F36 consists of two trunks between 4.8 m and 6.1 m in length and up to 0.21 m in diameter. The trunks of F34 were shorter measuring up to 3.62 m in length. In general, the trunks taper towards one end, i.e. towards the top of the tree. A trunk from F14 retained a series of crudely-made gouge marks over 0.4 m on one end (Plate 14). Beyond the gouge marks, the trunk had split naturally, and this suggests the marks might have been made where the trunk had fallen. These may have been made in antiquity but the piece was not adequately sampled and was not examined in terms of wood working. Samples of wood subject to species identification from F14 represent a range of species including alder, hazel, willow, ash and elm, while one sample from F15 is alder (see Appendix 12). Wood that may derive from F14 and, not F43 as originally recorded, has been dated to 2880 - 2570 cal BC though this does not represent the earliest date for the growth of woodland at this location (Appendix 10). Dated pine from F8 (= F7) shows that pine occupied the area early in the fifth millennium BC or Late Mesolithic.

The deposits of worked wood within F14 and F15 may demonstrate relatively early human occupation of the area. This involved the construction of casual surfaces incorporating the woodland debris and root systems of F14 and F15. The scale of human activity in the area may be masked by the apparent density of the natural woodland. Alternatively, the archaeological elements within an otherwise natural situation may be intrusive, representing material that has sunk into softer, underlying peat deposits. They would also have had to sink below the silt layer except, in the area of the later burnt mound F4/F11, where the silt layer appears to have been partly removed. Prior to removal, up to 0.25 m of silt had been deposited over the area and this may have prevented later, intrusive material from sinking.

F5/F27: Silt Deposit F5/F27 represents a deposit of silt, which varies in thickness and in extent (Plate 2). The silt layer ranges in thickness from 0.05 m to 0.25 m, generally increasing in thickness from north to south. It is typically homogenous but in places has a noticeable organic content. It was recorded discontinuously across the area of investigation and was thickest in the baulks of trenches to the southeast of the main excavation area (i.e., Trenches 14 to 16 and 18 to 21, Figure 3). This is the closest point to the river and where the river turns sharply. Within Trench 1, the silt extended over an area approximately 14 m East-West by 12 m North-South. This horizon has been interpreted as deriving from flooding of the river (Appendix 9).

F13 represents a half-split ash trunk, 5.2 m in length, 0.15 m in width and 0.20 m in thickness. The half-split was once longer, its southern end was recently truncated (Figure 9, Plates 11 & 12). Apart

26/01/2009 14 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 from being split, it displayed no traces of woodworking. Its overall state of preservation is poor with pressure cracks across its width at regular intervals along its length. A number of stakes supported the plank on its western side. The stakes are up to 0.10 in diameter and had been pushed into the mineral substrate. A second timber fragment, F17 lay under the half-split in the southeast (Figure 9 & 10). Most of the wood in and around F13 and F17 derived from tree roots but four worked ends, cut using a metal blade, were retrieved (see Appendix 11).

F26: Oak Plank A split, oak plank was retrieved from F9 in the western extension of Trench 1 (Figure 11, Plates 11 & 15). The plank is 1.94 m in length, 0.45 m in width and from 0.08 m – 0.10 m in thickness. It was poorly preserved and broke into several pieces upon lifting. The plank was tangentially split and both ends had been cut. Close to one end are two oval perforations each measuring 19 mm x 10 mm. A longitudinal notch in one end was later identified as decay. The original purpose of the plank is unknown but it is likely it represents a re-used timber and may have formed part of a trough though not one that has survived intact. Plank-lined troughs are known from other burnt mound sites, e.g. Curraheen 5, Co. Cork (Russell 2004), Killoran 240, Co. Tipperary (Cross May et al 2005) and Rathmore, Co. Wicklow (McLoughlin 2001).

F4 & F11: Silt Horizons The burnt mound located within trench 1 comprises two horizons F4 and F11 (Figures 11-13, Plates 3, 4 & 5). F4 represents the uppermost horizon sealed by the peat horizons F31, F35 and F41. It comprises grey silt with frequent, heat-shattered stones, charcoal flecks and is between 0.06 m to 0.16 m in thickness. Its full extent was not ascertained; it extends outside the limit of the excavation in the north and was truncated by the geological test pit TP449. F4’s minimum extent is 4 m by 3.75 m (15 sq m) (Figure 12). The bulk of the lower mound deposit F11 is situated to the southeast of F4. Stone from F4 is a mix of sandstone-limestone mix with sandstone dominant. Charcoal from F4 has returned a date of 1610 – 1410 cal BC (Appendix 10).

The lower mound horizon F11 also comprises silt, charcoal and heat-shattered stone. Its maximum approximate dimensions are approximately 5 m East - West by 9.5 m North - South (47.5 sq m) and increases in thickness from north to south, from 0.07 m to 0.21 m. F11 overlies in part the silt layer F5/F27; the latter was truncated by activity related to the deposition of F11 (Figure 13). F11 was removed onto the timber F13 and associated wooden deposits; both archaeological and natural (Plate 16).

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F21: Trackway F21 represents a brushwood and roundwood trackway that meandered southwards from the site of the burnt mound F11 in the direction of the nearby river (from Trench 1 to Trench 20). Trackway construction was inconsistent. Parts of the track, in the north and south, comprised parallel roundwoods orientated approximately North - South (Figure 14, Plates 6, 7 & 8). Elsewhere the trackway appeared to be more haphazard or casual in its construction. The trackway took advantage of the remnants of the earlier woodland preserved in the peat below that dispensed with the need for careful construction in all places. F21 varied in width from 1.2 m to 1.8 m and up to 0.25 m in depth. Approximately 19 m of trackway was exposed and excavated within the CPO and this appears to have been its original length. A possible terminus was excavated in the south, immediately north of the natural wood horizon F16. F21 has been dated to the Late Bronze Age and represents the latest, dated archaeological feature on site.

F18 & F19: Charcoal Deposits F18 and F19 are two separate charcoal deposits, possibly hearths, which overly the trackway F21. Both consist of friable blackish grey silty peat with frequent charcoal inclusions. F18 was sub- rectangular in plan measuring approximately 0.84 m by 0.44 m. One meter to the northeast of F18 was F19. Orientated North - South, it was sub-circular in plan measuring 0.44 m x 0.37 m.

F43: Brushwood Track F43 represents a short brushwood track comprising three overlapping layers of wood, secured with stakes (Figures 15 & 16, Plates 9 & 16). The structure is truncated at both ends and was located in the southeastern corner of Trench 1 overlying burnt mound material F11. Its apparent orientation is approximately east-west and it survives up to 5.7 m in length. It has a maximum width of 2 m and the brushwood is typically transversely-laid. It may be supported by uprights in the northwest though no examples of worked wood were recovered from this feature and it is possible these uprights represent earlier roots related to the natural wood F14. Distinguishing between archaeological wood and earlier natural wood horizons was difficult in at this end of the site. Wood from the location of F43 has provided a radiocarbon date of 2880 - 2570 cal BC but the date represents the earlier, natural woodland represented by F14 rather than the trackway itself (Appendix 10).

Additional archaeological deposits Within the peat horizon F3 in Trench 18 above the silt horizon F5/F27, which was substantial here, were ten pieces of waste timbers or ‘off-cuts’ (Figure 17, Plate 17). They all appeared to have been cut

26/01/2009 16 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 with a sharp metal tool and have been interpreted as waste from wood working activities (see Appendix 11). The off-cuts were dispersed amongst a natural wood horizon.

5 Chronology

RCD E No. Site Name Laboratory No Sample material BP Date dC13 2 Σ Date (o/oo) E2072 Caraun More Wk21247 Wood (hazel) from timber structure F 33 3231±64 -28.60 1667BC-1393BC E2055 Caraun More Wk21340 Charcoal (pomoideae) from burnt mound 2840±36 -26.00 1120BC-910BC F106 E2071 Killescragh Wk21341 Wood (hazel) from burnt mound secondary 3211±36 -27.50 1610BC-1410BC deposit F4 E2071 Killescragh Wk21342 Wood (hazel) from burnt spread F25 3730±37 -26.50 2280BC-2020BC E2071 Killescragh UB7241 Wood (alderbucckthorn) from trackway F21 2870±35 -25.20 1190BC-926BC E2071 Killescragh Beta-241472 Wood (pinus silvestris) from peat deposit F8 5870±60 -25.20 4880-4590BC E2071 Killescragh Beta-241473 Wood (betula) from trench 1 deposit F13 3290±40 -28.70 1670-1490BC E2071 Killescragh Beta-241474 Wood (fraxinus excelsior) from trackway 2880±60 -26.60 1260-910BC F21 E2071 Killescragh Beta-241475 Wood (ulnus) from wood horizon F14 4130±40 -25.40 2880-2570BC E2070 Killescragh Wk21245 Charcoal (alder and ash) burnt mound 3826±41 -25.50 2458BC-2144BC uppermost horizon F2 E2070 Killescragh Wk21246 Charcoal (alder and ash) from hearth F5 3855±107 -26.00 2580BC-2015BC E2070 Killescragh Wk21343 charcoal (alder) from burnt mound lowermost 3947±40 -25.40 2570BC-2300BC deposit F14 E2070 Killescragh UB7242 Wood (hazel) from platform F8 3023±34 -26.00 1394BC-1132BC E2074 Caraun More Wk21777 Charcoal (pomoideae) from burnt mound 2454±30 -25.80 760BC-410BC F401

Table 3: Radiocarbon dates from the five burnt mounds excavated by CRDS

Seven radiocarbon assays were obtained from archaeological features at Killescragh 2 (see Appendix 10 and Figure 18). An additional two samples of wood submitted to the University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in New Zealand failed to return dates. Two standard radiometric dates were obtained from wood samples from the brushwood trackway F21, one from the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in Queen’s University Belfast and the second from Beta Analytic. The dates returned are contemporaneous and place the trackway in the Late Bronze Age (Table 3) Charcoal samples from the mound F4 and the burnt spread F25 produced two AMS determinations; the latter represents the earliest dated archaeological feature on site (Table 3).

The dates returned from Killescragh 2 are in chronological order and the sequence in which they occur corresponds with site stratigraphy. The two earliest dates represent natural woodland demonstrating the presence of pine woodland on the site early in the fifth millennium BC, the Late Mesolithic. The combined stratigraphic and chronological evidence suggests three phases of Bronze Age human

26/01/2009 17 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 activity. Phase 1 is Early Bronze Age and is represented by the burnt spread F25 dated to 2280 – 2020 cal BC, and possibly the casual wooden deposits within F14 and F15. The stratigraphic position of these features close to the base of the peat profile and, among the remains of ancient woodland, suggests that they may be broadly contemporary. Woodland occupied the site from at least the fifth millennium BC and, a second date in the third millennium BC (2880 – 2570 cal BC), demonstrates its probable existence around the time the archaeological deposits were made.

The second phase of archaeological is represented by the burnt mound F4 including F11 and the short trackway F13. The burnt mound activity dates to 1610 – 1410 cal BC, around the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. F13 may be regarded as contemporary as it has been dated to 1670 – 1490 cal BC (Table 3). Phase 3, represented by the trackway F21 and dating to 1190 – 920 cal BC, is Late Bronze Age. Although, the trackway F43 was not dated; it is stratigraphically later than the burnt mound and may be contemporary with the trackway F21 and thus, Late Bronze Age in date.

Chronology and its implications for the interpretation of the archaeological deposits are discussed in Section 9.1.

6 Archaeological Finds

6.1 Finds list Table 4 lists the type and number of finds made over the course of the excavation (see also Appendix 7). Finds were subject to limited remedial conservation on site where necessary, bagged according to material and suggested date, and forwarded to the post-excavation facility in Aughrim, County Galway for cleaning (where appropriate), storage and labelling.

Date Stone Metal Wood TOTAL Prehistoric 16 - 2 18 Post-medieval - 1 - 1 TOTAL 16 1 2 19

Table 4: List of finds retrieved from Killescragh 2.

6.2 Lithics Sixteen fragments of chert were recovered over the course of the excavation. On examination, seven were identified as natural. The remaining nine represent a mix of primary knapping or manufacturing debris; a single modified chunk and an endscraper (see Appendix 13). All are relatively undiagnostic pieces and though they cannot be specifically assigned to a narrow chronological period based on the

26/01/2009 18 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 form of tools recovered, their presence attests to a prehistoric presence at the site. Radiocarbon dates from the site suggest this occurred in the latter part of the Bronze Age. The assemblage provides a range of artefacts that may be associated with general domestic activities.

The worked chert fragments were retrieved from F3, F27 and F28 that represent natural peat (F3 & F28) and silt (F27) horizons. F27 equates to the horizon of silt (F5) deposited following inundation of the area. Artefacts recovered from this horizon may not therefore be archaeologically secure. F28 equates to F9, the lowermost peat deposit on site while F3 represents the uppermost peat deposit formed across the entire area. Given that, there are multiple phases of activity on site in the latter half of the Bronze Age, it is possible the lithics also derive from different phases. Alternatively, the lithics when discarded could have sunk into underlying deposits.

6.3 Metal find A single metal find of iron was retrieved. The object has not been definitively identified, as it is corroded, but may be a hinge. It is likely to be post-medieval or later in date (Appendix 14).

6.4 Wooden find Two potential finds of wood have been listed (Table 4). All other examples of worked wood are listed as samples. Find F3:007 is a piece of pine derived from part of the tree through which a knot in the trunk protruded. It has a central hole and one end with a blade-like appearance. The central hole is natural but the blade-like end is smooth and rounded, perhaps through use. It may, therefore, represent a piece of natural wood that has been altered by human agency (see Appendix 11, Figure 7). Alternatively, it may represent a naturally weathered fragment of tree trunk.

Find No. F3:006 is a fragment of finely dressed, yew brushwood (see Appendix 11, Figure 6), 15.2 cm in length, and between 50 mm and 24 mm in diameter. The shaft tapers towards one end, which, though damaged appears to have been originally finished with a bulbous head. The opposite end is broken. The piece is covered by tiny, flat, metal-cut toolmarks indicative of surface dressing, though this treatment ceases 30 mm from the possible head. The incomplete nature of the object means its exact function cannot be determined, however, it appears to be the remains of a pin or peg that could have had a variety of uses.

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7 Archaeological Samples

Samples, totalling 205 inclusive of 38 bulk wood samples, were retained during the course of the excavation. This includes 141 worked wood and wood species identification samples, 52 bulk soil samples inclusive of two peat monoliths and 10 animal bone samples. The original sample assemblage was reviewed and, in some cases sub-sampled, following post-excavation appraisal of the site. A full sample list is provided in Appendix 8. Reports on the worked wood, wood species identification and animal bone samples are presented in Appendices 11, 12 and 15 and the most significant results have been incorporated into the main report. A selection of bulk soil samples were processed for plant macrofossil and beetle analyses (see Appendices 16 - 20). The latter was analysed as part of a research project undertaken by Exeter University. Peat monoliths taken from the site were not submitted for analyses as sequences from the neighbouring site of Killescragh 1 were subject to assessment instead.

8 Archaeoenvironmental Results

8.1 Topographic and stratigraphic survey The topographic survey of the wetland in which Killescragh 2 is located demonstrates that the site is situated within a peat-filled basin situated between an esker and low-lying hills (see Appendix 9). A small river, now canalised, bisects the basin. Killescragh 2 lies close to the junction of the esker and the river. The esker, the highest and driest ground in the area, enabled access to the river and its floodplain. The stratigraphic survey revealed that some parts of the floodplain were wooded and others more open, these areas dominated by sedges and sometimes reed. This environment equates with a relatively open riverside woodland or fen carr. The earliest archaeological activity represented by the burnt spread F25 (2280 – 2020 cal BC) was deposited at the time when the floodplain was generally wet and wooded with peat already formed and expanding onto the lower slopes of the esker. Dates derived from samples of natural wood demonstrate woodland inhabited the site from the beginning of the fifth millennium BC. The archaeological deposits represented by the casual surfaces identified amongst the woodland debris in F14 and F15 were deposited within the wooded floodplain. Excavations revealed the fallen tree trunks and root systems that had once grown there. At some point, after 2280 – 2020 cal BC the floodplain became inundated with silt (F5/F27) probably because of flooding of the nearby river. After the silt was deposited, there was renewed peat formation in a more or less open floodplain landscape in which few trees were present and sedges were dominant.

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8.2 Palynological analysis The composition of the woodland is reflected in palynological analysis of two peat sequences from the neighbouring burnt mound, Killescragh 1 (see Appendix 16). The site was occupied by hazel-pine dominated woodland that included trees of alder, birch, oak and elm. Wild grasses, sedges and other herbs formed the woodland understorey. The stratigraphic survey showed that the woodland gave way to a wetter sedge-dominated environment (see Appendix 9). This is supported by the pollen that suggests that an open wet grassy floodplain is more or less maintained to the top of each sequence, i.e. until relatively recently. Throughout each sequence, evidence for anthropogenic activity is suggested by the presence of ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata), a good indicator of open habitats that in pollen records commonly increases following woodland clearance (see Appendix 16).

8.3 Coleoptera Analysis of peat samples for insect (in this case coleoptera/beetles) remains illustrate further the character of the on-site environment and provide evidence for an environment virtually absent from western Europe today (see Appendix 17). Coleoptera from samples of the lowermost peat deposits F8 (= F7/F9) and F9 are suggestive of a predominantly wet, open environment with occasional trees. Beetles favouring a waterside environment dominate and species characteristic of foul environments comprising decaying vegetation and flood debris occur. Alongside this damp grassy milieu is a more diverse environment suggested by the insect assemblage represented by F38, a peat deposit in which the natural and archaeological wood comprising F14 is present. Taxa inhabiting damp woodland are best represented in F38. A wide variety of woodland and dead wood indicators occur and include taxa typical of moist deciduous woodland floors as well as species specific to trees such as pine, oak, birch and willow. Bark beetles include the elm bark beetle, Scolytus scolytus and the weevil Phloeophagus lignarius. The latter has been identified in archaeological trackway deposits but identification of Scolytus scolytus from ancient contexts in Ireland is unparalleled. Eileen Reilly (pers. comm.) has identified specimens from a medieval urban context in Dublin but Scolytus scolytus is otherwise not recorded. The assemblage composition suggests the presence of primary alluvial woodland in which a wide diversity of tree taxa and ecological niches occur. This habitat hardly survives today and its identification at Killescragh 2 provides a rare insight into an important and attractive environment for ancient populations.

Samples derived from peat horizons formed after the minerogenic inundation of the area suggest the same open wet environment generally lacking in trees suggested by the palynological analysis and the gross stratigraphic survey. Waterside and aquatic taxa dominate the assemblages from peat deposits

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F3 and F22 suggesting the presence of open marshy conditions. Insects inhabiting aquatic grasses, sedges and reeds prevail with small numbers of taxa suggesting woodland existed at a distance from the site, possibly on the esker. Foul vegetation or plant refuse taxa add to the picture of a muddy peat accumulating system.

A soil sample from the burnt mound F4 returned sparse coleopteran remains. The mound itself would have represented a poor habitat for many coleoptera. Reilly (2005) noted that the number of insects retrieved from the burnt mound Derryfadda 216, Lisheen, Co. Tipperary, was unsurprisingly low and that the presence of insects, representative of stagnant water was probably the result of waterlogging of the mound. In Killescragh, a similar explanation is likely. Here, aquatic and waterside taxa dominated the mound assemblage and there is one example of a bark beetle, Xyleborus dispar that is suggestive of the dead damp wood of deciduous trees. This species may have been brought onto site with firewood. Despite the quality of the sample from the mound, the dominance of waterside taxa supports the general picture of a wet and open landscape at the time the mound was deposited around 1610 – 1410 cal BC.

As well as facilitating reconstruction of the local landscape, the coleoptera provide potential evidence for anthropogenic activity on site. The presence of dung beetles in samples from the damp riverside woodland and the later wet grassland, F8 and F22 respectively, suggests the possibility that herbivores grazed in the area. The taxa Aphodius sphacelatus, Aphodius ater and Ontophagus similies inhabit the dung of large herbivores. The numbers in which these taxa occur however is low suggesting that animals were never abundant or that pastoral farming was not important at that time. Nonetheless, some form of grazing in the river floodplain, whether wooded or open, may have occurred that was associated with one or more phases of human activity represented by the various archaeological deposits.

8.4 Plant macrofossils The results of plant macrofossil analyses of the same samples analysed for coleoptera compliment the environmental reconstruction described above and suggests the possibility of anthropogenic activity in the surrounding landscape (see Appendix 18 & 19). Macrofossils from the earliest peat horizons F8 and F38 imply a mix of herbaceous wetland taxa and trees. Damp woodland bordering the river is reflected well in the macrofossils from F38. The sample is dominated by the remains of arboreal fragments including fruit, cone, nut and wood remains of alder, birch and hazel. Herbaceous taxa favouring a damp woodland understorey are also represented. This ties in well with the deciduous

26/01/2009 22 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 primary riverside woodland suggested by the coleoptera from F38 and species identification of wood from the mixed natural and archaeological wood horizon F14 that indicate the presence of elm, hazel, willow, ash and alder (see Appendix 17).

In F8, pine wood fragments and a fruitstone of yew add to the range of trees available in the area. The occurrence of Poaceae sp. (grasses) and Rumex sp (docks) may indicate the presence of areas of disturbed ground or grassland on the nearby esker and upland. Additional support for the possibility of woodland clearance is provided by the identification of Plantago lanceolata throughout the pollen sequence from Killescragh 1 (see above). The possibility of anthropogenic activity in the area is suggested by the presence of a single charred grain of barley (Hordeum sp.) and charcoal fragments of hazel, ash and elm. The latter may indicate the clearance of areas of woodland with fire or the use of these tree species in domestic fires (see Appendix 11 & 20). The barley suggests cereal cultivation may have taken place in areas cleared of trees.

The presence of the charred grain in F8 suggests that this occurred at the time the peat layer was formed. However, F8 is situated within Trench 1, in close proximity to the site of the burnt mound F4/F11. As no other charred or burnt material was retrieved from stratigraphically related horizons (i.e. F7, F9 and F38), these remains may derive from the later burnt mound site and be regarded as intrusive.

The change from riverside woodland to an open fen system is reflected in the macrofossils from the peat deposits higher in the profile. F22 represents the peat horizon on top of which the trackway F21 was deposited. The coleoptera from F22 indicates open marshy conditions prevailed with trees growing at a distance (see above and Appendix 17). The macrofossils from F22 however suggest that woodland was more prevalent and comprised a range of trees that thrive in wet conditions, including alder, birch, hazel, ash, bird cherry and yew. Elm and pine were also present in the area. The understorey comprised Rubus fruticosus agg. (bramble), Rubus idaeus (raspberry) and Ilex aquifolium (holly) with mosses thriving in the damp conditions. The assemblage composition has more in common with the woodland represented by F8 and F38 than the fen conditions suggested by the coleoptera and stratigraphic survey. This may in part be explained by the derivation of macrofossils from the wood used to construct the trackway F21. The stratigraphic position of F22, above the wooded horizons F7/F9 inclusive of F8 and F38 and under the peat deposit F3 suggests that F22 represents a transitional horizon within a wetland that became in time became so wet, that woodland gave way to open fen. This is reflected in the paucity of arboreal remains and the dominance of

26/01/2009 23 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 wetland herbaceous taxa suggestive of open fen vegetation in F3. These conditions prevailed until relatively recently when the marshy fen was replaced by reclaimed pasture.

Macrofossils recovered from the mound F4 reveal the tree species used as firewood. The sample yielded abundant wood fragments that included Prunus domestica/spinosa (plum/sloe) as well as birch, alder and hazel. Hazel and ash charcoal suggests these species provided most of the firewood. The latter was most likely sourced from the nearby esker and the recovery of hazel nut fragments suggests the collection of both wood and nuts. The presence of various grasses, including sedges and rushes, indicate the damp ground conditions on site at the time the mound was deposited.

9 Discussion

9.1 Chronology The dates from Killescragh 2 suggest repeated occupation of the site over several centuries (Table 3, Figure 18). Occupation was not continuous and there were significant gaps in time in the use of the site. Stratigraphically, these gaps may appear difficult to explain, as the depth of peat separating archaeological layers can be minimal. This is, however, a product of the rate of peat accumulation and the quality of preservation but also reflects repeated exploitation of a specific location by separate generations. The continuity of use of select areas within wetlands, despite significant gaps in time between phases of use, has been identified in other wetland contexts. For example, clusters of trackways spanning narrow crossing points in raised bogs are a feature of raised bogs throughout Ireland (Raftery 1990, 1996). In Lemanaghan, Co. Offaly, a series of individual plank walkways dating from the Middle Bronze Age to the Early Historic Period, form a corridor of sites across part of the bog (Bermingham 2006b). In Derryville, Co. Tipperary, specific areas within the margins of the fen and the later raised bog were returned to throughout prehistory despite long gaps in time between episodes of use (Cross May et al. 2005). Evidently, specific locations retained a level of attraction relevant to different generations throughout time.

9.2 Site phasing and parallels As stated above, radiocarbon dates from Killescragh 2 suggest three phases of activity occurring in the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age. Within each phase, the character and extent of the archaeological deposits imply low-key casual activity. The archaeological features are small-scale and a product of resources that were available on site or near to hand. The neighbouring site, Killescragh 1, represents an earlier example of such activity (Bermingham & Curran 2008) and there are parallels from other

26/01/2009 24 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 wetland situations in Ireland, most notably in Derryville, Co. Tipperary (Gowen et al. 2005) where varying combinations of wooden structures and burnt mounds were deposited throughout the Bronze Age and in the Iron Age. Similar levels of activity may be inferred from burnt mounds situated in wet places such as small depressions, adjacent to springs and other low-lying areas susceptible to flooding (Waddell 1998; Roycroft 2006).

9.2.1 Phase 1 The earliest phase of activity at Killescragh 2, as represented by the burnt spread F25, is broadly contemporary with the burnt mound Killescragh 1. The latter represents a multi-phased site dating from the middle of the third millennium BC, 2570 – 2300 cal BC (Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age) to the first half of the second millennium BC (Bermingham & Curran 2008). A wooden trough base or small platform, dating to 1394 – 1192 cal BC shows the location was returned to in the Middle Bronze Age. Phase 1 at Killescragh 1 involved deposition of a burnt mound and two possible trough bases within the same alluvial primary woodland identified at Killescragh 2 (see Section 8.3 above). Trees grew on top of the mound and some time later the area became inundated with silt followed by renewed peat growth. Around 2580 – 2015 cal BC a second burnt mound was deposited that was smaller in extent and lacked a trough. Site construction involved truncation of earlier peat deposits, the silt inundation and possibly the Phase 1 mound. The latest activity at the site is represented the small wooden platform or possible trough base referred to above though a contemporaneous burnt mound deposit was not identified.

The earliest phase of activity at Killescragh 2 concerns two small casual wooden surfaces and a burnt spread dated to 2280 – 2020 cal BC. The floor of the primary woodland, served as a foundation for the wooden structures. A similar situation was exploited in Derryville, Co. Tipperary (Cross May et al. 2005). Here, access into and use of marginal woodland, between a fen and the nearby upland, is represented by two short brushwood and roundwood trackways. The trackways, Derryfadda 204 and 207, though more substantial than the structures in Killescragh 2, were between 4 m and 6.5 m in length and have been dated to 2120 – 1755 cal BC and 2205 – 1795 cal BC respectively (ibid., 236-7). The availability of water and a local wood source is reflected in the construction of a burnt mound in the fen margins, Killoran 304 (ibid., 276). This mound measured up to 7 m in diameter and dates to 2138 – 1935 cal BC. The site used a low glacial ridge as a platform in order to access a spring, which was tapped by cutting a trough. Palynological studies from this period show the nearby upland was covered by primary woodland and that it was still present in the Middle Bronze Age when more sites were deposited in the wetland margins (Caseldine et al. 2005). As the mire expanded and the fringing

26/01/2009 25 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 woodland became wetter, trackways and platforms were placed to take advantage of the support offered by the network of roots and woodland debris (cf. the platforms Derryfadda 213, 1315 – 915 cal BC, Derryfadda 214, 390 – 75 cal BC and, the trackway Derryfadda 215, 475±9 BC (Cross May et al. 2005)).

9.2.2 Phase 2 In Killescragh 2, the deposition of the burnt mound F4/F11 around 1610 – 1410 cal BC and the short trackway F13 around 1670 – 1490 cal BC represents Phase 2 occupation. The end of the dating range of this phase overlaps with the final phase at Killescragh 2 (Bermingham 2008). The size of the five mounds excavated on this road scheme by CRDS Ltd ranges from 18 sq m (Caraun More 1) to 60 sq m (Killescragh 1). Of these, the mound from Killescragh 2 represents the second largest measuring 47.5 sq m. Comparing sites based on the area covered by the mound, however, may be problematic, as most burnt sites excavated appear to have been truncated by later agricultural activities. A cursory review of burnt mound excavations summarised in Bennett (2004) revealed mounds measuring between 10.5 sq m, e.g. Curraheen 5, Co. Cork (Russell 2004) and 273 sq m, e.g. Kilmorebrannagh, Co. Kildare (Murphy 2004) and most sites had been truncated. However, a similar variability in size is recorded in burnt mounds that survive intact, sealed beneath horizons of peat or a combination of peat and river silts. For example, a burnt mound in Ballyleaan, Co. Clare was identified beneath 1 m of river silt and peat; the mound covered an area 160 sq m (Hull & Nathan 2003). Burnt mounds ranging from 12 sq m to 361 sq m were situated in the margins of a fen and eventually enveloped by expanding raised bog in Derryville, Co. Tipperary (Cross May et al. 2005). It may be therefore, that though truncated the area occupied by a mound upon excavation is relatively close to the area in which the mound was originally deposited.

The variation in mound size suggests that the level of activity differed across sites with larger mounds, particularly those with associated troughs and pits, suggesting more activity than simple, small mounds lacking troughs. This is reinforced by estimating the number of firings represented based on the volume of mound material and the volume of the associated trough. The large Middle Bronze Age site, at Killoran 240 (Cross May et al. 2005) returned an estimate of between 3167 and 3967 firings. Over what period this number of firings took place is not known but it does show that the site was in use more frequently and perhaps for longer than smaller neighbouring mounds. The absence of a trough at Killescragh 2 means it is not possible to estimate the number of firings that occurred. Given that the Phase 2 mound at Killescragh 2 represents a simple, relatively small mound it is likely that activity on

26/01/2009 26 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 site was short-lived and low-key. At least two episodes of use are suggested by the distinction between the mound horizons F4 and F11.

There are no wooden structures associated with the mound at Killescragh 1 and there is an apparent absence of contemporary occupation on the nearby upland. The burnt mound is seemingly isolated. However, there is evidence for other activities on site that suggest the site was a focus for a range of activities, albeit on a small-scale. Although, not directly dated, there are examples of worked wood from the surrounding peat deposits (F3) that appear to be associated with the creation of the mound (see Appendix 11). These include the timber off-cuts from Trench 18 that are representative of on-site working of wood (see Section 4.2.3 above). In addition, a range of lithics was retrieved representative of general domestic activities (See Appendix 13). Roycroft (2006, 38) suggests that in order to ‘operate a trough – gather wood, make charcoal, collect stone […], empty the trough, guard the site’, a small group of people would have lived on or near the site. It is likely that this group would also have performed other tasks, such as those represented by wood and stone working debris.

9.2.3 Phase 3 The third phase of activity at Killescragh 2 is represented by the trackway F21 dated to 1190 – 920 cal BC and probably the trackway F43. Prior to dating, the burnt mound F4/F11 and trackway were considered contemporaneous. This combination of structures has been identified elsewhere, for example at Erris, Co. Roscommon (Opie 1997). Here, brushwood secured with stakes had been laid on a foundation of sandstone and silt. The trackway was 1.5 m in width and survived for up to 5.5 m but was originally longer. The sites were regarded as contemporaneous as they were both located on top of the same peat layer. At Robertstown, Co. Limerick, a trackway built of fracture limestone connected a burnt mound and an area of roasting pits (Dennehy 2004). The trackway was required to combat seasonal flooding and the encroachment of peat.

The Erris and Robertstown sites are examples of trackways built concomitantly with the use of the burnt mounds in question. The trackway at Killescragh 2 is later than the burnt mound but trackway construction may have been influenced by the presence of the earlier structure. The trackway availed of the dry area created by the mound, using the latter as a starting point from which to access the wetland to the south. A similar situation is known from the raised bog at Derryville, Co. Tipperary (Cross May et al. 2005). Landfall of the brushwood and roundwood trackway Killoran 241 lay within marginal woodland fringing the bog. The trackway, which measured 13 m x 1 m, extended from the woodland across a wet area and on top of the earlier burnt mound Killoran 240. The burnt mound is

26/01/2009 27 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 not directly dated but it does appear to have gone out of use prior to the construction of the trackway. The brushwood trackway, F43 was laid down in peat that had formed over the earlier burnt mound F11 (Figure 15). The site may be interpreted in a similar way to the trackway F21 though F43 appears to have been a shorter and less substantial structure.

9.3 Site access and resources The palaeoenvironmental data from Killescragh 2 demonstrates the location held a range of resources attractive to ancient populations. The diversity of the primary woodland in terms of flora and fauna has been well demonstrated (see Section 8 above) and this diversity offered an abundance of resources such as firewood, timber, berries, hazel nuts and, most probably, birds, fish and small mammals. The woodland occupied the esker ridge and the lower-lying river floodplain and, could no doubt, have been easily accessed from both. With the demise of the woodland and the expansion of the wet grassy floodplain, the area remained the focus for small-scale exploitation. The burnt mound was constructed in a wet open environment with trees largely restricted to the esker, though surviving in patches within the floodplain. Wood, and hence firewood, was locally available and locating the site within a river floodplain ensured a high watertable and easy access to water. The stones comprising the mound were probably quarried from the nearby esker; similar cobbles were visible in a modern quarry face through the esker at the neighbouring site of Killescragh 1.

The importance of the esker to the people that left these sites cannot be underestimated. Recently Geissel (2006) has suggested that this esker represents part of the route-way known as An Slí Mhór: an ancient routeway through the midlands that is mentioned in the Annals (M123.2). It can be assumed, largely because of its elevated position above Pump Bog and nearby waterways, that the esker at Killescragh has been used throughout prehistory as a routeway across east Galway. The burnt mound at Killescragh 1 shows that the esker also served as a means to access lower and frequently wetter ground. In addition, it represents the most likely location for contemporary settlement immediately to the north of the burnt mound and evidence for such occupation may survive on those parts of the esker not yet quarried.

9.4 The purpose of the burnt mound The types of activity, which resulted in the deposition of a burnt mound, continues to be a matter of debate (see Section 3.3 above). The location of these sites close to a source of water, the construction of troughs, and the presence of a mound composed of stone and charcoal debris indicates that fire and water were essential to on-site activities. Cooking, bathing, brewing, the extraction of grease, dyeing

26/01/2009 28 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 and leather treatment have been proposed as likely explanations for these sites. To date, there is little evidence for any of the above from Killescragh 2 though the recovery of a single charred grain of barley points to domestic, food related use of the site. There is little evidence for the processing, preparation or consumption of meat; a single skull fragment of cattle was retrieved from Killescragh 2 (see Appendix 15). This contrasts with the neighbouring site of Killescragh 1, where the remains of red deer, cattle, sheep/goat and pig were identified (Bermingham 2008) and suggest the exploitation of both domestic and wild animals. Other types of domestic activity that appear to have taken place include the manufacture of lithics and woodworking. The lithic assemblage contains debris and finished implements that were made on or near the site. The recovery of wood off-cuts made using a metal blade, suggests more than just the gathering and cutting wood for use as firewood. Burnt mounds may be best viewed as multi-purpose sites, at which a variety of tasks were undertaken.

9.5 Conclusions Though the number of burnt mounds excavated has increased in the past decade, the role these sites played in the past remains a matter of conjecture. As artefact-poor sites, it is necessary to rely on other forms of evidence that might allow a greater understanding of the role these sites played. In the case of Killescragh 2, this evidence was sought and obtained via a range of palaeoenvironmental analyses in combination with archaeological excavation of the site.

Killescragh 2 represents a multi-phased site in which each phase is characterised by the use of local resources on a relatively small scale. Each phase involved exploitation of a range of resources with wood, water and stone of primary importance. As stated above, a variety of activities took place on site, including lithic and wood working, but direct evidence for the purpose of the burnt mound itself is scant. Activity took place, however, against a background of small scale grazing and arable agriculture, both of which are inferred in the site’s palaeoenvironmental records. The results from Killescragh and, the apparent frequency with which these types of sites occur, suggest that burnt mounds played an important and essential role in everyday life.

10 Recommendations and mitigation measures

There are no further recommendations regarding this site as all archaeological deposits within the trenches opened have been excavated, so preserving the site by record.

26/01/2009 29 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Development or quarrying of those parts of the esker which still survive should, however, be monitored as the esker is the most likely location for contemporary settlements.

All recommendations are subject to the approval of the National Monuments Section of the Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government.

26/01/2009 30 Final Report NB & KC/CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

References

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Geissel, H. 2006 A Road on the Long Ridge: in Search of the Ancient Highway on the Esker Riada. CRS publications, Newbridge. Gillespie, R. 2002. Deerpark East I & II, Mayo. Fulachta Fiadh in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 2001: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow. Gowen, M. Ó Neill, J. & Phillips, M. (eds) 2005. The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996-8. Wordwell, Wicklow. Griffith, R. 1856a. General Valuation of Rateable Property in Ireland: County of Galway, Union of Ballinasloe. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, Dublin. Griffith, R. 1856b. General Valuation of Rateable Property in Ireland: County of Galway, Union of Loughrea. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, Dublin. Harbison, P. 1968. Catalogue of Irish Early Bronze Age associated finds containing copper or bronze. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 67C, 35-91. Harbison, P. 1969a. The Daggers and the Halberds of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland. Prähitorische Bronzefunde, Abteilung VI, Band 1. C.H. Beck, Munich. Harbison, P. 1969b. The Axes of the Early Bronze Age in Ireland. Prähitorische Bronzefunde, Abteilung IX, Band 1. C.H. Beck, Munich. Harbison, P. 2005. A Thousand Years of Church Heritage in East Galway. Ashfield Press, Dublin. Hayes, R.J. 1965. Manuscript Sources for the History of Irish Civilisation: Articles and Periodicals. 11 vols. Hall & Co., Boston. Hayes, R.J. 1970. Sources for the History of Irish Civilisation. Various articles in Irish Periodicals. 9 vols. Hall & Co., Boston. Hull, G. & Nathan, A-L. 2004. 89. Ballyleaan (BGE 3/32/2) in Excavations 2002: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow, 25. Larkin, W. 1819. Map of County Galway. Lewis, S. 1837. Topographical Dictionary of Ireland. 3 vols. S. Lewis & Co., London. McLoughlin, C. 2001. Rathmore Burnt Mound Complex. Archaeology Irelan, 15 (4), 4. Monk, M. 2007. A Greasy Subject. Archaeology Ireland 21(1), 22-24. Murphy, D. 2004. 939. Kilrainy in Bennet, I. (ed.) Excavations 2002: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow, 254-255. Ó Drisceoil, D. 1990. Fulachta Fiadh: the Value of Early Irish literature in Buckley, V. (comp.) Burnt Offerings. International Contributions to Burnt Mound Archaeology. Wordwell, Wicklow. 157-164. Ó Néill, J. 1998. 504. DER235, Derryville Bog, Killoran, Co. Tipperary. Fulacht Fiadh with Timber Platform in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 1997: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow. 165. Ó Néill, J. 2000. Just Another Fulachta Fiadh Story. Archaeology Ireland 14 (2), 19. Ó Néill, J. 2004. Lapidibus in igne calefactis coquebatur: The Historical Burnt Mound ‘Tradition’. Journal of Irish Archaeology XII & XIII (2003-04), 79-85. O’Brien, R. 2000. 628. Tullahedy, Tipperary. Prehistoric/ Early Medieval Fulacht Fiadh in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 1998: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow. 204-205.

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O’Flanagan, M. (ed.) 1927. Letters Containing Information Relative to the Antiquities of the county of Galway, Collected During the Progress of the Ordnance Survey in 1839. Unpublished typescript, National Library of Ireland. O’Sullivan, M. & Downey, L. 2004. Fulachta fiadh. Archaeology Ireland 17 (4), 35-37. Opie, H. 1997. 330. Erris in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 1996: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow, 94-95. Petty, Sir W. 1685. Hibernia Delineatio. Facsimile reprint of Hiberniae Delineatio and A geographicall description. (Shannon, 1969). Quinn, B. & Moore, D. 2007. Ale, Brewing and Fulachta Fiadh. Archaeology Ireland 21 (3), 8-11. Raftery, B. 1983. A Catalogue of Irish Iron Age Antiquities. Philipps-Universität Marburg, Vergeschichtliche Seminar, Marburg. Raftery, B. 1990 ‘Trackways through time.’ Headline Publishing, Dublin. Raftery, B. 1994. Pagan Celtic Ireland. The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age. Thames & Hudson, London. Raftery, B. 1996. Trackway excavations in the Mount Dillon Bogs, Co. Longford 1985-1991. Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit Transactions 3. Dublin. Reilly, E. 2005. Coleoptera in Gowen, M. Ó Neill, J. & Phillips, M. (eds) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996-8. Wordwell, Wicklow, 187-208. Roseveare, M. & Roseveare, A. 2004. N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe Geophysical Survey Report, Project Code GAL200331, DEHLG Licence Number 03R147. Unpublished Report. Roycroft, N. 2006. A theory on boiled bull and burnt mounds. Seanda. Issue 1, 38-39. Russell, I. 2004. 300. Curraheen 5 in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 2002: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow, 77-78. Simmington, R.C. 1962. Books of Survey and Distribution: Vol II, County of Galway. The Stationery Office, Wicklow. Spellissy, S. 1999. The History of Galway. The Celtic Bookshop, Limerick. Taylor, G. & Skinner, A. 1783 (ed.) Maps of the Roads of Ireland, Surveyed 1777. London and Dublin. Published by Archive CD Books Ireland. Waddell, J. 1998. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. Galway University Press, Galway. Zajic, S. 2000. 482. Clare, Mayo. Fulacht Fiadh in Bennett, I. (ed.) Excavations 1998: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wordwell, Wicklow. 155.

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Appendix 1 Recorded archaeological sites and monuments in the vicinity of the site

The recorded archaeological sites considered relevant to the current excavation within c. 3 km of Killescragh, all were noted in the Record of Monuments and Places for County Galway volume and some in the Archaeological Inventory of County Galway, Volume 2, (North Galway) (Alcock et al 1991). The monuments are listed in a standard format as follows: No sites similar to that at Killescragh have been identified in the immediate vicinity.

List of sites:

GA85:10 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Brackloon Not listed in inventory NGR: 16244 22650 OD (feet): - Inventory no: -

GA85:11 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Brackloon Situated on a prominent rise in low lying lands of slight undulation. Land is sloping gently south. NGR: 16116 22625 Roughly circular univallate ringfort of earth, gravel and stone. The enclosing bank is quite well OD (feet): 100-200 preserved throughout and fairly uniform in dimensions. It is generally broad and round topped in Inventory no: - profile. Along the north, it is up to 2.5m high externally and 50cm high internally. Between here and east northeast it is slightly reduced in height internally and externally. Thorn bushes grow along the bank here and it is broken by several small cattle gaps. The bank reaches its maximum internal height of 90cm from east northeast to southeast. A concrete shed has been built against the outer face of the bank in the east sector. Another small cattle gap lies in southeast. Between east and south the bank varies to 2m nearing the south. Internally between east and south the bank is almost reduced to a scarp but increases to 40cm in height near the south sector, where some fine stone facing is visible. The entrance is in the south, is 3.5m wide and it appears to be original. The site interior contains a children's burial ground in west and northwest sector. In the northwest sector a large L-shaped hollow appears to be the remains of a collapsed souterrain. Well defined lazy beds ran north south through the site and thistles grow in abundance. That portion of the interior containing the children's burial ground is slightly higher than the rest. 11/11/1985.

GA85:42 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Univallate ringfort on a prominent rise in low-lying marshland. Subcircular rath (E-W 34m, N-S 30m), Cloonskeecahil in fair condition, defined by a bank and external fosse. The latter is present from W to NW and from NGR: 16298 22684 NE through E to SSE. A gap at SSE may be original. A series of hollows in the interior appear OD (feet): 200-300 modern. 11/11/1985. Inventory No. 1622

GA85:79 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Raford Cartographic evidence suggests this is the site of a circular univallate end covering an area of c. NGR: 16005 22618 50m NS by east-west. The interior seems to have been tree covered. It has now been completely OD (feet): - removed as a result of clearance. The former location is indicated by a low degraded grass covered Inventory no: - mound. Nothing else survives. Its designation and location suggests it may have been a Rath. Alternatively it may have been a tree ring enclosure associated with Raford House. Sources: Vistited by Cody, E 24/8/78; vistited by Zajac, S. 23/10/85.

GA85:91 Classification: Childrens Burial Ground Townland: Tormaun Children’s burial ground in undulating grassland, c. 80m S of the Raford River. A rectangular area NGR: 16454 22672 (E-W 18.5m, E-W 13.5m) defined by a poorly preserved bank damaged at W and N by digging. OD (feet): 200-300 Small set limestone blocks in the interior are aligned in N-S rows, indicating graves orientated E-W. Inventory No. 3853 24/09/1985.

GA086:088 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Univallate ringfort on a NE-facing slope in grassland. Poorly preserved circular rath (D 31m) defined Cloonyconaun by a bank and by a scarp from SSW to WNW. A gap at NNE could be original. The monument has NGR: 16539, 22593 been quarried out at NW and is disturbed by a tree copse at N. 17/06/1986 OD (feet): 200-300 Inventory No: 1625

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GA097:015 Classification: Holy well Townland: Ben Beg This site consists of a holy well, Toberecloney, in good condition enclosed by a polygonal concrete NGR: 16466 22513 wall 1m high with a gate in the south. The well was full and to the east of the site is a small stream OD (feet): - running into it. No evidence of votive offerings and nothing to suggest this is a holy well. Sources: Inventory No: - Visited by Guerin, D. 31/7/84

GA097:016 Classification: Moated site Townland: Ben Beg This site is situated in a low lying area of badly drained pasture with a small stream surviving into the NGR: 16489 22507 northeast corner of the site. The site consists of a medieval moated site rectangular in shape OD (feet): 300-400 measuring 39m northwest southeast and 36m northeast southwest in good condition. The enclosing Inventory No: - elements consist of an outer earthern and stone bank, in the northeast and northwest an intervening ditch and an inner bank. No entrance feature is visible. The inner bank is comprised mainly of earth but some stone is visible. It is nearly reduced to a scarp throughout the site save in the northwest corner where the leat can be seen. The ditch is quite steep with a 1.65m external height in the northwest where it is best preserved and is 4.2m wide, flat bottomed and full of bushes. In the northeast corner of the site a well preserved leat 1m wide runs from the ditch in a northeast direction 50m away. The outer bank only remains along the northeast and northwest portion of the site. On the remaining two sides the site is bounded by a field bank which is probably comprised of the material from the outer bank. The outer bank is generally round-topped, quite steep internally (1.65m in the northwest) but unclear externally. The outer bank is not breeched save for the moat/leat in the northeast corner. The interior is uneven, probably due to lazy beds, otherwise featureless and clear save for thistles. Just outside the field bank to the south of the site is an indistinct small sub-circular earthen enclosure. This may have been associated with the site. Sources: Visited by Guerin, D. 31/7/84

GA097:017 Classification: Tower Townland: Ben More Absolutely no trace of any tower remains to be seen. It is a strange spot for any tower since it is at NGR: 16407 22409 the foot of the hill. It was possibly the remains of a dovecote or a mural tower of some sort, OD (feet): 300-400 belonging to the old house. It may infact have been a folly. Sources: Visited by Casey, M. 30/7/1983; Inventory No: - copy of report to Sweetman, D. OPW 14/12/93

GA097:01801 Classification: Unclassified earthwork Townland: Ben More On a ridge in former demesne land. An oval earthen enclosure (NNE-SSW 37.2 m, WNW-ESE NGR: 16413 22401 29.5), in fair condition, defined by a scarp (H 1.95 m max.), except from SE to S where a small OD (feet): 300-400 section of a bank survives. From NNW through N to NE, quarrying has destroyed the enclosing Inventory No: - element. Trees growing around the enclosure may indicate that it was reused as a tree-ring enclosure in the 19th C. According to local information, the monument is known as "the fort". An earthwork (No. 3056) lies 50 m to NNE. 21/03/1985

GA097:01802 Classification: Unclassified earthwork Townland: Ben More Both the Galway list of castles of 1514 (1574?) (Nolan 1901,121) and the OS letters (O'Donovan NGR: 16413 22401 1838, Vol. 1, 176) refer to a castle at a place called An Badhbhun Mhor in the vicinity of Athenry. OD (feet): 200-300 This would appear to be either, Ben Mor c. 6 miles east southeast, or Baunmore (sheet 84), 3 miles Inventory No: - to the northeast. No visible surface remains of any castle survives at either spot, but there is a large bawn like enclosure at the side of an old house at Ben More, both situated in the a location suitable for a castle (see Ben Mor 2: sheet 97). Though the td. of Baunmare is much closer to Rathgorgh than Ben More. The latter td. is very close to Athenry town, and as such perhaps a less likely site for the castle. 06/10/1992

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GA097:019 Classification: Bi-Vallate Ringfort Townland: Ben More Situated on a natural rise in a surrounding area of pasture. The fields immediately surrounding the NGR: 16392 22379 site are badly drained and marshy. Aspect good in all directions with Benmore 4 visible to the SE, OD (feet): 200-300 view obscured to the E by trees. Consists of the fair remains of a bivallate Rath, sub-circular, Inventory No: measuring 30m N-S and 27m E-W. The outer bank is visible from W through to E (clockwise). The site has been much disturbed by pits dug into the perimeter. The site is generally clear of overgrowth and no trace of internal features. section in the SW where the bank has been dug into. It is generally uniform, round topped and quite steep internally. In the NNW: 4m internal height and overall width of 2.95m and 1.95m external height. The ditch survives from W to E (clockwise). Disturbed by pits. Overgrown by nettles and thistles. Quite shallow and flat bottomed. The outer bank survives from W to E (clockwise). It is quite low, round topped save in the N where it rises slightly. The interior is featureless, slopes gently down to S. Clear of overgrowth save for thistles

GA097:020 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Ben More Marked on the 1838 and 1933 OS map as 'Lisnafahy'. This site consists of the poor remains of a NGR: 16419 22368 univallate earthen rath with only a small section of the bank surviving from west-north-west to east- OD (feet): 300-400 north-east. No ditch or entrance feature is visible. The interior's diameter is c.31m and slopes down Inventory No: - from east to west. Only a small section of the bank remains with an average height of 3m internally and 1.6m externally. The average width is 2.5m. The bank is flat topped and the external face of the bank has been scarped away and artificially steepened by farm activity. In the west-north-west a pit has been dug into the bank. No trace of the bank remains elsewhere save for a curving field wall and a slight rise to the east and west which has been flattened by a bulldozer. The interior is level and featureless with a small area fenced off for hay storage. Sources: Visited by Guerin, D. 31/7/84

GA097:029 Classification: Graveyard Townland: BullaunWithin a ringfort (No. 1388). According to local information, the interior was used as a "lisheen”). No (Laughrea By) visible surface trace survives. NGR: 16301 22205 OD (feet): 400-500 Inventory No: -

GA097:067 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Carrowkee Situated within a field of rock outcrop and rough scrub. The surrounding area is gently undulating (Laughrea By) fertile pasture with reasonably good aspects in all directions. The site consists of the remains, in NGR: 25993 22372 poor condition, of a subcircular cashel measuring 28m (north-south) by 32m (east-west), with OD (feet): 400-500 remnants of both inner and outer facing visible. Inventory No: -

GA097:071 Classification: Mansion Townland: This site consists of a raised semi-circular platform with slight traces of a bank along its perimeter. Carrowreagh This appears to be an ornamental feature associated with Rathville House and is of no (Laughrea By) archaeological significance. NGR: 16069 22475 OD (feet): 100-200 Inventory No: -

GA97:72 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Situated on a slight rise I an area of gently undulating pastureland. Good aspect in all directions. Carrowreagh This site is no longer extant but is represented on the 1933 OS map as a circular enclosure with a NGR: 16080 22460 children's burial ground in its E section [SE of Carrowreagh 3]. As the field has recently been cut a OD (feet): 200-300 vegitation band of dark green grass shows the circular outline of the site. It measures 60m in Inventory No: - diameter N-S, it looks like a large oval enclosure.

GA97:7201 Classification: Childrens Burial Ground Townland: Situated on a slight rise I an area of gently undulating pastureland. Good aspect in all directions. Carrowreagh This site is no longer extant but is represented on the 1933 OS map as a circular enclosure with a NGR: 16080 22460 children's burial ground in its E section [SE of Carrowreagh 3]. As the field has recently been cut a OD (feet): 200-300 vegitation band of dark green grass shows the circular outline of the site. It measures 60m in Inventory No: - diameter N-S, it looks like a large oval enclosure.

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GA097:80 Classification: Ringfort Townland: This site is situated in an area of slightly undulating fair quality pastureland. Aspect is good in all Clashnaganny directions. The site consists of an earthen rath roughly circular in shape measuring 29.5m north- (Laughrea By) so9uth and 28.5m east-west. The enclosing bank is mainly of earth with some stone visible. No NGR: 16054 22440 ditch is visible but its course is indicated by nettle and thistle growth. Generally throughout the site OD (feet): 300-400 the inner bank is uniform in appearance, round-topped and constructed of earth and stone. It is Inventory No: - best preserved in the west where it is 0.90m in internal height, 3.1m wide and 1.1m above outer ground level. The bank is breached intermittently throughout the site but in the northeast there is a 3m gap which may be the entrance as there are three large stones which would suggest that there was a stone revetted entrance. The external face of the bank in the south has been scarped and a 2m wide gap made. From east through to west (clockwise), hawthorn bushes delimit the outer face of the bank. No ditch is visible but its course is outlined by the growth of nettles and thistles. The interior which is grass covered and featureless slopes gently down to the north.

GA097:81 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Located on the W slope of a plateau in rolling fertile pastureland. There is an excellent view to the Clashnaganny S and W. The field in which the site lies has been leveled and only a slightly raised platform, (Laughrea By) subcircular in shape, can be seen. It measures 28mx42.3m (NSxEW). From the general NGR: 16007 22392 topography of the landscape and the designation in the O.S. 6″ (3rd ed) sheets, the site seems to OD (feet): 100-200 have been an earthen Rath. Inventory No: -

GA097:103 Classification: Moated site Townland: Galboley On flat/gently undulating fertile pasture. The main bank has been reduced to a scarp nearly all NGR: 16283 22340 around except in the south corner where it is very faint, with a indistinguishable inner edge. The OD (feet): 200-300 bank seems to have been of earth and is covered with thorn bushes. The fosse is well preserved, Inventory No: - steep sided and flat-bottomed with bushes and dense undergrowth growing within it. The southwest side of the ditch has been made into a boreen leading into a farmhouse, and the sides of the ditch have been artificially steepened. Thre is no trace of a leat. The outer bank is clearly visible on the northwest and northeast sides as a low round-topped earthen mound, at the northeast corner of which is the remains of a stone structure, possibly merely a stone wall. The outer bank also remains at the southwest side, across the boreen. The outer bank is clear of growth. No entrance survives, nor is there a causeway across the ditch. The interior is flat, level and featureless, except for a few boulders. 01/08/1984

GA097:104 Classification: Castle Townland: Galboley Located in the west sector of a moated site. This site consists of the poor remains of what may NGR: 16244 22295 have been a castle located in the west sector of a moated site. All that remains is the section of the OD (feet): 200-300 east wall 5m high and 5.8m long and short sections of both the north and south walls. Due to the Inventory No: - sparse remains, it is impossible to date. 01/08/1984. A rectangular platform on which there is ruined two storey masonry building and possible foundations at least one other is named "Galboley Castle (in ruins)" on the OS six inch map (1838). In 1574, 'Galbulley' castle was recorded as being in possession of Overus Roe Burke.

GA97:105 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Galboley Sited on a rise in flat/gently undulating fairly fertile scrub/pastureland. Good views to the northwest NGR: 16200 22337 clockwise to south. View to southwest limited by hillocks. The site consists of an oblong area OD (feet): 300-400 measuring c. 45m north-south by 63m east-west. It is enclosed by a slight bank, and the interior Inventory No: - contains a deep gravel pit. The enclosing bank is visible from north-northwest clockwise to east, and again at south. Otherwise it has been reduced to a scarp c. 1m high at most. Where it survives, it is a low mound topped earthen bank just 0.3m high with a very indistinct inner edge with an external height of c. 0.9m. It is c. 2.1m wide. It is clear of overgrowth and although cattle gaps occur, none appear to be an original entrance. No clear trace of a ditch or outer bank can be seen. The interior is uneven and is divided by a north-south running stone field wall. It also contains a 25m long gravel pit c. 3.5m deep in its eastern quadrant. It is generally clear of overgrowth, and thistle growth abounds both inside and outside the site.

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GA97:106 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Galboley An unclassified rath, shown on the 1933 edition of the OS, but not on the 1838-39 map. Situated NGR: 16205 22361 on a slight rise surrounded by an area of poorly drained pastureland, with Galboley 4 to the S. OD (feet): 200-300 Aspect is good in all directions. The site consists of an enclosure, irregular in shape with four Inventory No - sections of a nearly straight bank remaining. It measures 32m N-S and 35m E-W in poor condition. The earthen bank exists only from N to SE and again in the S and W. I n the E where the bank is best preserved it is a max. of 2.5m wide and 0.6m above the internal ground level and 1.1m above the external ground level. The interior is featureless and there is no trace of a ditch. The dimensions of the bank are similar to that of a surrounding earthen field bank, though its dimensions and siting suggest it may possibly be a rath.

GA097:110 Classification: Ecclesiastical Remains Townland: Killescragh See GA097:11001 below NGR: 16299 22540 OD (feet): 300-400 Inventory No: -

GA097:11001 Classification: Children’s Burial Ground Townland: Killescragh The site consists of a large oval shaped earthern enclosure. It is trivallate and measures 80m NGR: 16299 22541 north-south by 67m east-west internally. The main bank is visible all the way around, except for a OD (feet): 300-400 few cattle gaps and a 4m wide one to the east which may be seen as the original entrance. the Inventory No: - bank is of earth and stone and is round, topped and clear of overgrowth. It is at its best at southwest, where it is c. 5m above outside field level. The fosse is largely visible except at northeast where it survives as a clearly visible, steep-sided, flat-bottomed ditch with rudhes growing in it. The outer bank is best preserved at northeast, is round-topped, made of earth and is steep sided. A stone wall cuts both the bank and fosse. The interior is higher in the centre and slopes down to the north and south edges. Faint traces of cultivation ridges can be seen within and outside the site. Faint traces of a rectangular enclosure 20m north-south by 15m east-west are visible in the southwest quadrant. This may be the remains of the children's burial ground although it is not in the place shown on the map. Otherwise there is no trace of the burial ground.Sources: Cody, E. (pers. corres.)

GA097:121 Classification: Unclassified earthwork Townland: Situated on a slight rise and sloping gently down to the S. The site is located in a large field Knocknadaula surrounded by an area of gently undulating good pastureland. Aspect is good in all directions. The NGR: 16084 22340 site is represented on the 1838-39 OS map as a circular enclosure measuring 30m N-S .It is no OD (feet): 100-200 longer extant. A slight rise in the ground level may indicate the position of the site. The field is now Inventory No: - sewn with oats. Local topography would suggest an earthen fort.

GA097:138 Classification: Unclassified earthwork Townland: Raford Non-antiquity NGR: 16003 22568 OD (feet): 100-2-- Inventory No: -

GA097:150 Classification: Ringfort Townland: Turoe A univalliate rath shown on both 1838-39 and 1933 OS maps. Situated in the N corner of a NGR: 16168 22260 triangular field at the top of a hill in gently rolling fertile pasture, with spruce trees growing to the N OD (feet): 200-300 of the site. A distroyed univallate earthen rath, sub-circular in shape measuring c.30m in diameter. Inventory No: - It is known as the rath of Freewore and was excavated in 1938 by Joseph Raftery. The Turoe stone was supposed to have been found here and a cist grave was discovered during excavation. In a letter from M. Redington held in the National Museum dated 24/6/16 the following is said: "An antiwuarian policeman believes that the Turoe stone is not on its origional site. He held that the stone 'stood outside but very near an ordinary rath of no size or importance called Freewore'. he thinks he can trace a semi-circle of big stones around the site and as it runs inside the rampart of the rath he made a cutting through the latter and came upon a small and crude cist containing a sticky matter".

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GA097:15003 Classification: Standing stone Townland: Turoe Sited 20m to the N of the rath of Feerwore. A granite boulder set deep into the ground. It is NGR: 16163 22267 quadrangular in plan, with four straight sides of varying length. It measures 0.89m x 0.55m and is OD (feet): 200-300 aligned N/S. It narrows to the top to 0.6m x 0.3m. May be related in some way to other four-sided Inventory No: - standing stones.

GA097:151 Classification: Enclosure Townland: Turoe Located on top of a slight rise in gently rolling fertile grassland. View is limited by hedgerows and NGR: 16241 22222 trees. A circular enclosure 30m x 30m (NSxEW) bounded by a single earthen bank planted with OD (feet): 200-300 trees and hedgerows.The single earthen bank remains to a height of 1m above field level, 6m Inventory No: - inside and is 1.6m wide. Totally covered with growth and although the bank is of earth, there is much stone in its make-up at E and SE. A gap at ENE seems to be modern. There are very slight traces of a 2m wide ditch at NW. The interior is higher at the centre and slopes down towards the perimeter. Dense thistles cover it. No other features. Immediately outside the site at SE is a disused gravel pit. The small dimensions of the enclosing bank, its true circularity, proximity to a big house (Turoe), the absence of any clear ditch or outer bank or any other features and the fact that it was not designated on the first ed O.S. map, suggest that it was a tree ring.

GA098:037 Enclosure Townland: Ben Beg Pictured on both editions of the OS. Situated on a low glacial ridge running NNE-SSW in a large NGR: 16542 22444 filed of pastureland, with traces of old cultivation ridges visible to the N and E of the site. Excellent OD (feet): 300-400 aspect in all directions. The site consists of a univallate rath in V. poor condition, sub-circular in Inventory No: - shape and measuring 31m N-S and 33m E-W. In the SE quadrent is the remains of a children's burial ground. The interior of the site and along its perimeter have been quarried out and as a result the bank has been reduced to a scarp where it is exiatant. No trace of an external fosse. The bank is at its highest in the NW at 2.7m , decreasing to 2.25m in the N, to 1.25 in the NE and to 0.90m in the S.

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Appendix 2 Recorded archaeological finds from within the vicinity of the excavation

The recorded archaeological finds in the vicinity of the site are listed below, all noted in the National Museum of Ireland files, Kildare Street, Dublin 2, in local journals, or in other published catalogues of prehistoric material: Raftery (1983), Eogan (1965; 1983; 1994), Harbison (1968; 1969a; 1969b) and the Irish Stone Axe Project Database.

Townland Killescragh Monument none Finds Bronze pennanular brooch Reg. No. 1953:26 References none Habitat store-B17:1 O.S. 6” Sheet 97 Co-ords 28 cm from the east; 5 cm from the north Location Pump bog, Killescragh References E. Rynne, IAWS, Dumfreshine and Galloway National Historical and Antiquarian Society, 3rd series (1965), 102-3, fig. 2. Description (in correspondence with Irish Independent) “….about recent Loughrea finds. I said we had not the brooch yet. His letter was from M.F. Kelly and said “this Celtic brooch measured 1.5” across and 4” in length of pin and was found under 8’ of turf in Raford Bog”.

Townland Brackloon Monument none Finds Stone axehead Reg. No. 1984:142 References none O.S. 6” Sheet 85 Location Brackloon townland Referances NMI topographical files, Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2 Description Limestone axe found at a depth of 1ft during ploughing. Long thin-butted axe, relatively flat and thin with a curved blade.

Townland Derrynamanagh Monument none Finds Knife Reg. No. 1969:21 References none O.S. 6” Sheet 85 Location Derrymanagh townland Referances NMI topographical files, Stephen’s Green, Dublin 2 Description . Tanged knife, of copper alloy. Found in a bog at a depth of c. 6ft.

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Appendix 3 Feature Register

Feature numbers were assigned to each defined unit exposed on site as required. A feature is an archaeological unit which represents a single episode or event: whether the excavation of a pit, the construction of a wall or a deliberate dump of organic waste. This allows each unit to be defined separately and its relationship with other units - whether earlier, later or contemporary to be defined.

A unit can be a positive feature – such as a wall or a deposit, or a negative feature such as the imprint left on an underlying deposit by the excavation of a pit. Such negative features are termed cuts. For instance a foundation trench is a negative feature or cut, designed to contain a wall, which is a positive feature.

Features are generally described either as cuts, fills or deposits. A cut is a negative feature as described above - an imprint or cavity left on an underlying deposit by the removal of material. A fill is a feature clearly contained within a cut – such as the organic dump deliberately placed in a medieval refuse pit. A deposit is a positive feature not necessarily contained within a defined cut - whether a general dump of waste or a structural surface – which represents one event. Structural features such as walls are often left outside these categories and just termed structural features.

Negative features such as cuts are generally given a description encompassing their shape and dimensions in plan and profile. With fills the primary information of significance is depth, consistency and content Deposits or structural features can be described in both their shape and dimensions, and their colour, consistency and content.

The process of excavating a site consists of the identification of these distinct units or features which are then recorded, excavated and interpreted.

A brief attempt is made in the register to interpret individual units or features on site – both to assign a date and function and to determine their relationship – if any – to other features exposed on site. The finds register lists finds from each individual feature allowing further interpretation of the feature’s date and function.

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Width Length F. no F. Type Area Depth (m) Feature Description Feature Interpretation (m) (m) 1 Deposit Entire site 0.02– 0.43 Sod and topsoil - friable dark brown/blackish peaty clay. Occasional Sod and topsoil sand and stone inclusions 2 Deposit Trench 1 Blue-grey silt in the north west corner of trench 1. Fill of TP449 Redeposited natural associated with excavation of a geological test pit TP449 3 Deposit Entire site 0.06– 0.22 Light brown loose peat. Some charcoal flecking and root Uppermost layer of peat covering the entire site. disturbance. This deposit increased in depth from north to south 4 Deposit Trench 1 0.06– 0.16 Blackened soil and heat shattered stone with frequent inclusions of Secondary deposit of burnt material forming charcoal. Irregular shape and disturbed by root activity burnt mound 5 Deposit 0.05– 0.21 Grey silt with occasional charcoal inclusion Inundation layer. Same as F27 6 Natural 0.06– 0.34 Grey coarse grained sand and gravel, loose compaction Mineral substrate 7 Deposit 0.01- 0.22 Moderately compact dark brown/black peat with infrequent roots and Peat plant material 8 Deposit 0.06– 0.31 Compact mottled black/brown peat with occasional roots Peat. 9 Deposit 0.09– 0.41 Black peat lying over the yellow-grey natural F12 and esker material Basal peat F6 10 Deposit 0.04– 0.06 Discontinuous thin lenses of brown peat between F4 and F27 Peat identified in an early section through the mound (see drawing 6) 11 Deposit Trench 1 0.07– 0.21 Grey stoney burnt material Burnt mound material 12 Deposit Entire site Yellow-grey silt Natural 13 Deposit Trench 1 0.20 5.2 0.15 Half split ash timber. Poorly preserved. With associated stakes. Function unclear 14 Deposit Trench 1 4.2 16.2 0.18 Mix of natural and archaeological deposited roundwoods & Natural wood horizon from which archaeological and 2 brushwood deposits were recovered 15 Deposit Western 6.28 0.16 Natural wood horizon Natural wood horizon extension Trench 1 16 Natural Trench 0.08 Natural wood horizon Natural wood horizon 20 17 Deposit Split timber lying directly beneath the F13 Support for F13 18 Deposit Trench 0.44 0.84 0.03– 0.06 Small patch of friable blackish grey clayey peat dense with charcoal; Secondary deposit - was either deliberately 12 sub rectangular; N-S orientated. Similar to F19 deposited as a dump of waste material, or could have formed as wood was burnt from above 19 Deposit Trench 0.37 0.44 0.02– 0.07 Small patch of friable blackish grey clayey peat dense with charcoal; Secondary deposit - was either deliberately 12 sub circular; N-S orientated. This deposit runs into the baulk at its deposited as a dump of waste material, or could NW extent and therefore the full dimensions of this feature are have formed as wood was burnt from above unknown. Similar to F18

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Width Length F. no F. Type Area Depth (m) Feature Description Feature Interpretation (m) (m) 20 Deposit W Ext T1 Fallen tree trunks, branch debris and root systems Natural wood horizon 21 Deposit 1.2–1.8 19 0.25 A trackway consisting of two separate deposits of mixed roundwood Trackway and brushwood arcing from the southern extent of the excavation in trench 20 to the western extension of trench 1. In places, mainly in trench 20 and in the north, the roundwoods were laid parallel to each other and orientated in an approximately north/south direction. The brushwood was laid in a more haphazard fashion. Dimensions are variable throughout the extent exposed due to the intermittent nature of the track in places. It is less well defined in the northwest 22 Deposit 0.01–0.06 Dark brown peat Peat formation found beneath trackway F21 23 Deposit 0.01– 0.05 Grey silty sand found beneath oak plank F26 Basal peat found beneath the plank. Very mixed with fragment of wood, reeds etc 24 Deposit 0.02– 0.08 Organic material found beneath the F13 Basal peat 25 Deposit 0.08– 0.24 An irregular burnt spread of material at the eastern extent of the site Burnt spread comprising of a dark grey black clayey silt of friable compaction with frequent charcoal and fire cracked stone inclusions 26 Deposit Western 0.45 1.94 0.01– 0.08 Oak plank, tangentially split. Decay obvious and preservation poor. Re-deposited or re-used oak plank extension of Two oval perforations in one end. Both ends cut trench 1 27 Deposit 0.05– 0.21 A compact dark grey silt, the extent of which is not fully known Inundation layer. Same as F5 28 Deposit 0.01– 0.17 Compact mid-brown peat with frequent root s and plant material Peat 29 Deposit 0.06– 0.09 Light brown lens of peat within the inundation layer Peat 30 Deposit Loosely compacted black silty peat with occasional roots and Naturally occurring peat decaying plant material 31 Deposit North and 0.04 Compact mid-brown peat with occasional roots and decaying plant Natural peat formation found predominantly in West of site material the north and west of the site 32 Deposit 0.09-0.22 Moderately compact dark brown/black silty, with occasional roots Natural peat and decaying plant material 33 Deposit Trench 14 0.27 13.4 0.24 East/west orientated tree trunk Fallen tree trunk 34 Deposit Trench 3.4– 0.19–0.23 Two tree trunks with bark Fallen tree trunks 16 and 20 3.62 35 Deposit 0.06 0.19 Dark brown peat with occasional root inclusions. It lies above the Natural peat inundation layer in the northern baulk in trench 1 36 Structural 4.81- 0.22-0.26 Two tree trunks Fallen tree trunks 6.1

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Width Length F. no F. Type Area Depth (m) Feature Description Feature Interpretation (m) (m) 37 Deposit 0.08 Mid brown sandy peat with occasional roots and wood. Some Found in the western extension of trench 1, the pockets of silt also present silt suggests that this context has been disturbed 38 Deposit 0.02– 0.08 Mixed peat and sand under F14 Basal peat 39 Deposit 0.11– 0.15 Orange soft silt-like deposits Bog ore. Natural deposit 40 Void Void Void Void 41 Deposit Moderately compact black peat with occasional charcoal inclusions Found in trench 1 in close proximity to burnt material F4 that contaminated the peat 42 Deposit Mottled peat and clay mixture Natural 43 Deposit Horizontal brushwood situated under F3 and above F11. Trackway Discontinuous, first located at the southeast limit of trench 1. Orientated approx. west-east

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Appendix 4 Drawing Register

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Dwg Sheet Dwg Scale Area Co-ord A Co-ord B Description (inc. F. nos) Date Drawn No. No. Type Drawn By 1 1 Plan 1:20 T1 295E/226N Pre-excavation: F3, 4, and 5 5.4.06 DOM 2 1 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/226N Pre-excavation: F2, 3, 4, and 5 5.4.06 DOM 2 2 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/226N Location plan of samples 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 5.4.07 KO 14, 15, and 34 3 1 Plan 1:20 T1 295E/222N Pre-excavation: F3, 4, and 5 5.4.06 DOM 4 1 Plan 1:20 T1 295E/226N Pre-excavation: F3, 4, and 5 5.4.06 DOM 5 1 Section 1:20 T1 302.26E/ 299.92E/ NE facing section: F3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 11.4.06 KC 223.24N 228.62N 6 1 Section 1:20 T1 298.70E/ 301.12E/ WSW facing section: F3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 11 11.4.06 KC 223.95N 229.59N 7 1 Plan 1:20 T1 326E/293N Mid-excavation: F3 and 4 4.5.06 DOM 8 1 Plan 1:20 T1 Pre-excavation 5.5.06 DOM 9 1 Plan 1:20 T1 324E/281N Mid-excavation: F3, 4, and 13 5.5.06 DOM 9 2 Plan 1:20 T1 324E/281N Location plan of samples 75 and 81 5.5.07 KO 10 1 Plan 1:20 T16 326E/220N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F3 7.6.06 KC 10 2 Plan 1:20 T16 326E/220N Location plan of sample 48 28.6.06 KO 11 1 Plan 1:20 T18 327E/208N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F3 and 12.6.06 KC F27 11 2 Plan 1:20 T18 327E/208N Location plan of samples 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 12.6.06 KO 41, 42, 43, and 71 12 1 Plan 1:20 T20 314E/202N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F21 and 12.6.06 KC F22 12 2 Plan 1:20 T20 314E/202N Location plan of samples 74 and 88 12.6.06 KO 13 VOID 14 1 Plan 1:20 T15 320E/214N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F3 14.6.06 KC 14 1 Plan 1:20 T15 320E/214N Location plan of sample 60 14.6.07 KO 15 1 Plan 1:20 T4 330E/235N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F8 22.6.06 KC 16 1 Plan 1:20 T12 310E/207N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F. 21, 23.6.06 KC 22, and 34 16 2 Plan 1:20 T12 310E/207N Location plan of samples 72, 77, 78, 79, 80, 28.6.06 KO 84 and 89 17 1 Plan 1:20 T12 305E/210N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F. 18, 23.6.06 KC 19, 21, and 22 17 2 Plan 1:20 T12 305E/210N Location plan of samples 83 and 86 23.6.07 PP 18 1 Plan 1:20 T1 297.50E/218. Worked plank: F26 23.6.06 KC 92N 18 2 Plan 1:20 T1 297.50E/218. Location plan of sample 76 23.6.07 KO 92N 19 1 Plan 1:20 T14 315E/210N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood 26.6.06 KC 20 1 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/221N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F13 and 27.6.06 KC F14 20 2 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/221N Location plan of samples 52, 53, 55, 56, and 17.7.06 KO 97 21 1 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/224N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood including 27.6.06 AH trackway: F14 21 2 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/224N Location plan of samples 82 and 98 27.6.06 KO 22 1 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/225N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F13 27.6.06 AH 22 2 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/225N Location plan of sample 94 19.7.07 KO 23 1 Plan 1:20 T1 306E/301N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F3 26.6.06 AH 24 1 Plan 1:20 T20/21 295E/200N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F16 30.6.06 PC. 25 1 Plan 1:20 T12 300E/210N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood and 3.6.06 PC trackway: F21 and F22

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Dwg Sheet Dwg Scale Area Co-ord A Co-ord B Description (inc. F. nos) Date Drawn No. No. Type Drawn By 26 1 Plan 1:10 T1 295E/215N Large scale drawing of plank: F26 27.6.06 KC 27 1 Plan 1:20 T1 294E/223N Mid-excavation of W extension of T1, junction 4.7.06 AH of both track ways: F15 and F21 27 2 Plan 1:20 T1 294E/223N Location plan of samples 104 and 105 18.7.06 KO 28 1 Plan 1:20 T1 302E/220N Mid-excavation of SW extension of T1: F15, 4.6.06 AH 21 and 26. 29 1 Plan 1:20 T1 300E/226N Mid-excavation of W extension of T1: F15 4.7.06 AH 30 1 Plan 1:20 T1 294E/227N Mid-excavation of T.1 showing western baulk 4.7.06 AH line only 31 1 Plan 1:20 T12 304E/213N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F4 and 5.7.06 KC F11 32 1 Plan 1:20 T12 300E/218N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F4, 11, 5.7.06 PC 21 and 22 32 2 Plan 1:20 T12 300E/218N Location plan of sample 101 27.7.06 KO 33 1 Plan 1:20 T12 307E/213N Mid-excavation of second layer of wood: F34 5.7.06 KC 34 1 Plan 1:20 T1 289E/211N Mid-excavation plan of W extension of T1: F15 7.7.06 KC 34 2 Plan 1:20 T1 289E/211N Location plan of samples 99 and 103 17.7.06 KO 35 1 Plan 1:20 T14-20 315E/206N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood in W 10.7.06 PC extension of T1 : F34 35 2 Plan 1:20 T14-20 315E/206N Location plan of samples 120 and 121 20.7.06 KO 36 1 Plan 1:20 T23 300E/204N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F20 11.7.06 KC 37 1 Plan 1:20 T14 315E/210N Mid-excavation of second layer (below the 12.7.06 PC baulk) 38 1 Plan 1:20 East of 315E/219N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F36 18.7.06 KC site 38 2 Plan 1:20 East of 315E/219N Location plan for samples 108, 109, 110, and 19.7.06 KO site 111 39 1 Plan 1:20 East of 307E/226N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F14 19.7.06 AH site 40 1 Plan 1:20 East of 307E/232N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood 19.7.06 AH site 41 1 Plan 1:20 East side 307E/221N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood 19.7.06 AH of site 42 1 Plan 1:20 East side 310E/219N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F14 and 19.7.06 KC of site F38 43 1 Section 1:10 315.452E/ 314.242/ Section 1 stratigraphy, NW facing, south of 19.7.06 DB 200.647N 200.225N site: F.1, 3, 9, 12, 27, 28, 32 44 1 Plan 1:20 T2 320E/233N Mid-ex of first layer of wood: F14, F36, and 19.7.06 AH F38 45 1 Plan 1:20 T2 320E/238N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F36 19.7.06 AH 46 1 Plan 1:20 T1 285E/216N Mid-excavation of second layer of wood: F20 7.7.06 AH 47 1 Plan 1:20 W Ext 286E/290N E-W slot trench (western section) - mid- 19.7.06 PC of T1 excavation: F28 48 1 Plan 1:20 T1 290E/216N E-W slot trench (western section) - mid- 20.7.06 PC excavation: F28 49 1 Section 1:10 296.052E/ 297.581E Section 2 stratigraphy, SE facing, north of site: 20.7.06 DB 227.655N /228.31N F.1, 3, 31, 35, 27, 8, 6, and 12 50 1 Section 1:10 298.164E/ 299.27E/ Section 3 stratigraphy, SE facing, north of site: 20.7.06 DB 228.111N 228.665N F.1, 3, 6, 8, 31, and 35 51 1 Plan 1:20 NW Ext 281.92E/ Mid-excavation of first layer of wood, possible 20.7.06 KC T1 214.155N natural trunks 52 1 Plan 1:20 W Ext 298E/210N Mid-excavation of second layer of wood 20.7.06 AH of T1 53 1 Section 1:10 286.671E/ 285.878E/ Section 4 stratigraphy, NE facing, west side of 20.7.06 DB 201.382N 203.214N site: F3, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, and 12 54 1 Plan 1:20 T1 298E/216N E-W slot trench (central section) - mid- 20.7.06 PC

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Dwg Sheet Dwg Scale Area Co-ord A Co-ord B Description (inc. F. nos) Date Drawn No. No. Type Drawn By excavation: F4 and 28 55 1 Plan 1:20 T1 301E/219N E-W slot trench (eastern section) - mid- 21.7.06 PC excavation: F4 and F11 56 1 Section 1:10 284.074E/ 283.638E/ Section 6 stratigraphy, NE facing, west side of 21.7.06 DB 207.647N 208.681N site: F.1, 3, 7, 9, 12, 27, 28, 31, and 37 57 1 Section 1:10 279.869E/ 280.728E/ Section 5 stratigraphy, SE facing, north side of 21.7.06 MN 219.182N 219.588N site: F6, 8, 9, 12, 27, 35, 31, and 39 58 1 Plan 1:20 T1 301E/217N Pre-excavation of a deposit of fullacht 21.7.06 PC material: F4 and F11 58 2 Plan 1:10 T1 301E/217N Location plan of samples 140 and 171 24.7.06 KO 59 1 Plan 1:20 SW side 325E/210N Mid-excavation of second level of wood: F33 21.7.06 AH of site 59 2 Plan 1:20 SW side 325E/210N Location plan of samples 122, 123, 124, 125, 24.7.06 KO of site 126, and 157 60 1 Plan 1:20 W Ext of 285E/290N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood, possible 20.7.06 BF T1 natural trunks: F28 61 1 Plan 1:20 T3 Mid-excavation of first layer of wood 25.7.06 KC 62 1 Section 1:10 E Ext of 321.934E/ 322.457E/ Section 7 stratigraphy, saw facing, baulk to 26.7.06 VL T9 225.021N 223.973N east of site: F7, 9, 12, 27, 28, and 30 63 1 Plan 1:20 T5 338E/234N Pre-excavation of burnt mound spread: F3 26.7.06 KC and F25 64 1 Section 1:20 T5 SW facing section through burnt spread and 26.7.06 VL peat: F3 and F25 65 1 Section 1:10 T1 306E/222.06 306.22E/ NW facing section through wood and burnt 26.7.06 VL N 221.34N mound beneath: F9, 11, 12, 14, and 26. 66 1 Plan 1:20 T7 335E/232N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood, possible 26.7.06 KC continuation of trackway F14 67 1 Plan 1:20 T8 329E/230N Mid-excavation of first layer of wood: F14 27.7.06 KC

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Appendix 5 Digital Photograph Register

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 1 F2 SW Geological Test Pit Pre-ex Feature General 05/04/2006 KC 2 F2 SE Geological Test Pit Pre-ex Feature General 05/04/2006 KC 3 F2 N Geological Test Pit Pre-ex Feature General 05/04/2006 KC 4 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 5 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 6 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 7 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 8 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 9 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 10 F3, F4, F5, W Section A Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F6,F7,F8,F9 11 F3, F4, F5, NE Section B Mid-ex Feature General 10/04/2006 KC F7,F8, F11 12 F3, F4, F5, F7, E Section B Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC F8, F11 13 F3, F4, F5, F7, E Section B Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC F8, F11 14 F3, F4, F5, F7, E Section B Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC F8, F11 15 F3, F4, F5, F7, SE Section B Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC F8, F11 16 F3, F4, F5, F7, SE Section B Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC F8, F11 17 F3, F11 N Section D Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC 18 F2, F3, F11 W Section C Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC 19 F11 S Section D Mid-ex Feature General 11/04/2006 KC 20 T.1 N Section D Mid-ex Working Shot 11/04/2006 KC 21 F11 W Section D Mid-ex Area General 11/04/2006 KC 22 F2, F3, F11 NW Section C Mid-ex Area General 11/04/2006 KC 23 T.1 W Working Shot 25/04/2006 DOM 24 F11 NW Burnt mound Pre-ex Working Shot 25/04/2006 DOM 25 T.1 E Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 26 T.1 E Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 27 T.1 E Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 28 T.1 S Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 29 F2, F4, F11 SW Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 30 F2, F4, F11 W Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 31 F2 W Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 32 F2, F4, F9, F11 NW Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 33 F2, F4, F9, F11 NW Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 34 F2, F4, F9, F11 NE Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 35 F2, F4, F9, F11 NE Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Site Overview 25/04/2006 DOM 36 F43 N Initial evidence of Trackway, F43 Pre-ex Feature General 26/04/2006 DOM 37 F43 N Initial evidence of Trackway, F43 Pre-ex Feature General 26/04/2006 DOM 38 F3, F11 NE Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Feature General 26/04/2006 DOM

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 39 F2, F11 S Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM 40 F2, F11 S Trench 1 with Burnt mound visible Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM 41 F11, F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound 42 F11, F13 NW Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound 43 F11, F13, F43 W Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound and F43 (over lying F11) 44 F11, F13 W Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound and F43 (over lying F11) 45 F11, F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 46 F11, F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 47 F11, F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 48 F11, F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 49 F13 S Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound 50 F11, F13 SW Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 51 F11, F13 NE Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 52 F11, F13 NE Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound 53 F11, F13 NE Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 54 F11, F13 SE Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 55 F11, F13 S Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Overview 26/4/2006 DOM mound 56 F13 N Relationship between F13 and Burnt Mid-ex Feature General 26/4/2006 DOM mound 57 T.1 Site flooded Working Shot DOM 58 T.1 N Site flooded Working Shot DOM 59 T.1 E Site flooded Working Shot DOM 60 T.1 S Site flooded Working Shot DOM 61 T.1 SW Site flooded Working Shot DOM 62 T.1 SE Site flooded Working Shot DOM 63 T.1 E Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 64 T.1 NE Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 65 F13 NE Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 66 T.1 E Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 67 F43 W Brushwood trackway extending east Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM from T.1 68 F13 S Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 69 F13 S Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 70 F13 S Working around F13 in T.1 Mid-ex Working Shot 12/05/2006 DOM 71 T.1 NE Site Flooded 15/05/2006 DOM 72 F43 NE Site Flooded 15/05/2006 DOM 73 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 74 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 75 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 76 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 77 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 78 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 79 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 80 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 81 F13 SW Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 82 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes north of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 83 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes north of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 84 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes to the east Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM and north of F13 85 F13 SW Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 86 F13 W F13 and the start of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 87 F13 SW Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 88 F13 W Associated roots/ stakes north of Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM F13 89 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 90 F13 S Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 91 F13 SW Associated roots/ stakes east of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 16/05/2006 DOM 92 F13 Stakes to the east of F13 Mid-ex Working Shot 16/05/2006 DOM 93 T.16 S NW Quadrant of T.16 Mid-ex Overview 30/05/2006 KC 94 T.16 S NE Quadrant of T.16 Mid-ex Overview 30/05/2006 KC 95 T.18 N Trench Overview Mid-ex Overview 02/06/2006 KC 96 T.18 N Trench Overview Mid-ex Overview 02/06/2006 KC 97 T.18 N Trench Overview Mid-ex Overview 02/06/2006 KC 98 T.18 N Trench Overview Mid-ex Overview 02/06/2006 KC 99 T.18 N Trench Overview Mid-ex Overview 02/06/2006 KC 100 T.29 SE W Facing Section Mid-ex 07/06/2006 JS 101 Cabins 07/06/2006 JS 102 On Site Visit 07/06/2006 JS 103 On Site Visit 07/06/2006 JS 104 T.29 SE Pre-ex Overview 07/06/2006 JS 105 T.29 E Pre-ex Overview 07/06/2006 JS 106 T.18 S Positions of off-cuts in trench 18 Pre-ex Overview 07/06/2006 KC 107 T.18 W North half of trench 18 Pre-ex Overview 07/06/2006 KC 108 T.18 W South half of trench 18 Pre-ex Overview 07/06/2006 KC 109 T.20 N West half of trench 20 Pre-ex Feature General 12/06/2006 KC 110 T.20 E Northwest quadrant of trench 20 Pre-ex Feature General 12/06/2006 KC 111 T.20 S Northwest quadrant of trench 20 Pre-ex Feature General 12/06/2006 KC 112 T.20 N Mid-ex Feature General 12/06/2006 KC 113 T.20 N East half of trench 20 Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 KC 114 T.10 N Trench 10 NE corner Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 115 T.1 N Southeast corner of trench 1 Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 116 T.1 E Southeast corner of trench 1 Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 117 T.15 N Roots Trench 15 Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 118 T.15 S Roots Trench 15 Mid-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 119 T.16 N Roots Trench 16 Pre-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 120 T.16 N Roots Trench 16 Pre-ex Trench General 12/06/2006 JS 121 T.11 N Roots Trench 11 Mid-ex Trench General 15/06/2006 JS 122 T.11 S Roots Trench 11 Mid-ex Trench General 15/06/2006 JS 123 T.13 SW Portion of trackway F21 Mid-ex Feature General 15/06/2006 JS 124 T.13 NE Portion of trackway F21 Mid-ex Feature General 15/06/2006 JS 125 F26 NNW Working shot showing planning frame Pre-ex Working shot 23/06/2006 KC over oak plank F26 126 F26 ENE Close-up of F26 in situ while levels Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC are being taken 127 F26 N Close-up of F26 in situ while levels Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by are being taken 128 F26 N Close-up of F26 in situ while levels Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC are being taken 129 F26 E Oak plank with ranging rods for scale Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC 130 F26 E Oak plank with ranging rods for scale Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC 131 F26 E Oak plank with ranging rods for scale Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC 132 F26 E Oak plank with ranging rods for scale Pre-ex Feature Specific 23/06/2006 KC 133 F26 E Preparation for removal of oak Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL plank. 134 F21 E Roots associated with trackway F21 Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL 135 F21 E Roots associated with trackway F21 Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL 136 F21 W Roundwood evidence in trackway F21Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL 137 F21 W Roundwood evidence in trackway F21Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL with brushwood in the background 138 F21 W Roundwood portion of trackway F21 Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL 139 F21 SW Roundwood portion of trackway F21 Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL 140 F21 W Close-up of roundwoods in trackway Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL F21 141 F21 W Close-up of roundwoods in trackway Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL F21 142 F21 NW Close-up of roundwoods in trackway Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL F21 143 F21 NW Extent of roundwood portion of Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL trackway F21 144 F21 N Extent of roundwood portion of Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL trackway F21 145 F21 NW Extent of roundwood portion of Pre-ex Feature General 27/06/2006 VL trackway F21 146 F26 SE Development of crack in oak plank Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL prior to removal 147 F26 SE Development of crack in oak plank Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL prior to removal 148 F26 SE Development of crack in oak plank Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL prior to removal with view of an overlying timber from trackway F15 149 F26 SE Close up of split in oak plank, also Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL showing possible cut mark. 150 F26 Close up of possible cut mark. Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL 151 F26 SE Close up of two possible Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL perforations in oak plank 152 F26 SE Close-up of possible working on oak Pre-ex Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL plank 153 F13 Insitu close-up of Find# 12 Pre-ex Find Specific 28/06/2006 DOM 154 F13 Insitu close-up of Find# 12 Pre-ex Find Specific 28/06/2006 DOM 155 F13 S Central plank showing possible Pre-ex Feature General 28/06/2006 DOM support stakes 156 F13 S Central plank showing possible Pre-ex Feature General 28/06/2006 DOM support stakes 157 F13 N Central plank showing split and Pre-ex Feature General 28/06/2006 DOM portion of underlying timber F17 158 F13 N Central plank showing split and Pre-ex Feature General 28/06/2006 DOM portion of underlying timber F17 159 F13 S Central plank showing possible Pre-ex Feature General 28/06/2006 DOM fallen/disturbed support stakes 160 F14 E F14 Pre-ex Feature General 30/06/2006 DOM 161 F14 W F14 Pre-ex Feature General 30/06/2006 DOM

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 162 F14 W F14 Pre-ex Feature General 30/06/2006 DOM 163 F14 S Close-up of gouge marks on trunk in Pre-ex Feature Specific 30/06/2006 DOM F14 164 F14 S Close-up of gouge marks on trunk in Pre-ex Feature Specific 30/06/2006 DOM F14 165 F16 E Portion of brushwood at southern Pre-ex Feature General 30/06/2006 DOM extent of site 166 T.20 S Section in trench 20 prior to monolith Mid-ex Reminder Shot 11/07/2006 KC sampling 167 T.20 S Section in trench 20 prior to monolith Mid-ex Reminder Shot 11/07/2006 KC sampling 168 T.20 S Section in trench 20 with monoliths Mid-ex Reminder Shot 11/07/2006 KC in place 169 T.20 S Section in trench 20 with monoliths Mid-ex Reminder Shot 11/07/2006 KC in place 170 T.20 S Section in trench 20 with monoliths Mid-ex Reminder Shot 11/07/2006 KC in place 171 F15, F20 NE F15 with portion of F20 in Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM foreground 172 F15, F20 NE F15 with portion of F20 in Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM foreground 173 F15 SW Exposed brushwood and root F15 Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM 174 F15 S Exposed brushwood and root F15 Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM 175 F20 NW Western extent of possible boundary Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM associated with platform area. 176 F14 SE Portions of F14, prior to full Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM exposure 177 F14 NW Portions of F14, prior to full Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM exposure 178 F14 W Portions of F14, prior to full Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM exposure 179 F14 W Portions of F14, prior to full Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM exposure 180 F14 W Portions of F14, prior to full Mid-ex Feature General 17/07/2006 DOM exposure 181 F14 SE Brushwood portion of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 182 F20 SE F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 183 F20 SE F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 184 F20 NW F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 185 F20 F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 186 F15 SW F15 with F20 in the background Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 187 F15 SW F15 with F20 in the background Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 188 F20 SE F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 189 F20 E F20 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 190 F20 W F20 & F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 191 F15, F20 W F20 & F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 192 F15, F20 W F20 & F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 193 F15 SW F20 & F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 194 F15 S F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 195 F15 E Eastern extent F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 196 F15 E Eastern extent F15 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 197 F36 S (See also F20) Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 198 F36 S (See also F20) Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 199 F36 S (See also F20) Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 200 F36 S (See also F20) Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 201 F36 N (See also F20) Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 202 F36 W F36 & F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 203 F36 E F36 & F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 204 F14 W F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 205 F14 NW Possible superstructure to F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 206 F14 SE Possible superstructure to F14 Mid-ex Feature General 18/07/2006 DOM 207 Working shot in trench 1 Mid-ex Working shot 18/07/2006 DOM 208 F14 S Possible superstructure to F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 209 F43 N Brushwood forming part of trackway Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM F43 210 F43 SW Superstructure of F43 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 211 F14 SW Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 212 F14 SW Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 213 F14 W Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 214 F14 W Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 215 F14 W Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 216 F14 W Upper level of F14 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 217 F14, F36 S F14 & F36 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 218 F14, F36 S F14 & F36 Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM 219 F14, F36 E F14 with portion of F36 visible in Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM background 220 F14, F36 E F14 with portion of F36 in Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM background 221 F36, F14 W F14 with portion of F36 in the Mid-ex Feature General 21/07/2006 DOM foreground 222 Working shot 21/07/2006 DOM 223 F1,F7,F9, F12, E Section showing stratigraphy at Mid-ex 25/07/2006 DOM F27, F28, F30 eastern extent of trench 1 224 F1,F7,F9, F12, E Section showing stratigraphy at Mid-ex 25/07/2006 DOM F27, F28, F30 eastern extent of trench 1 225 F25 S Spread of burnt mound at eastern Mid-ex 25/07/2006 DOM extent of site 226 F11, F38, F28, SE Section showing portion of F43 Mid-ex 26/07/2006 DOM F9, F12, F43 227 F13, F14, F21 SE Overview of the site from trench 1 to Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye the east showing F13, F14 and F21 228 F13, F14, F21, SE Overview from trench 1 to the east Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye F26 showing F13, F14 and trackway F21. At the bottom of the picture is part of oak plank F26 229 F13, F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 and F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 230 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 231 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 232 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 233 F13, F14 E Overview of F13 and initial stages of Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye F14 234 F13, F14 E Overview of F13 and initial stages of Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye F14 235 F14 E Overview of the initial stages of F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 236 F13, F14, F21, SE Overview showing F13, trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye F26 & F26 237 F13,F26 SE Overview showing F13 & F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 238 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 239 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye

______26/01/2009 53 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by Above 240 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 241 T.2, T.3, T.4, SE Overview of trenches to the east of Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye T.5, T.6, T.7, the site T.8, T.9, T.10, T.15, T.16, T.1, T.18 242 F21 S Overview showing F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 243 F21, F26 S Overview showing trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye leading up to oak plank F26 244 F21, F26 SW Overview showing trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye leading up to oak plank F26. Also trenches to the west of the site 245 F21 S Overview of trackway. F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 246 F21 S Overview of trackway. F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 247 F21 S Overview of trackway. F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 248 F21 From Overview of trackway. F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 249 F13, F14 From Overview of F13 and associated root Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above system and F14 250 F14 From Overview showing initial stage of Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above F14 251 F14 From Overview showing initial stage of Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above F14 and portion of F13 252 F13, F14, F26 From Overview of oak plank F26, F13 & Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above initial stages of F14 253 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 254 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 255 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye Above 256 F14 Low level Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye aerial 257 F14 From Abov Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 258 F13, F26. From Abov Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 259 F26 From Abov Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 260 F13,F14,F21,F S Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye 26 261 F13, F14, F21, S Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial Overview 27/6/2006 Hawkeye F26 262 Site Flooded 3/8/2006 DB 263 Section 7 Flooded 3/8/2006 DB 264 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 showing bog ore Mid-ex Feature General 3/8/2006 DB F27, F31, F32, section F35, F39 265 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 showing bog ore Mid-ex Feature General 3/8/2006 DB F27, F31, F32, section F35, F39 266 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 (NW area of Trench 1 Baulk Feature General DOM F27, F31, F32, section extension) F35, F39 267 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 (NW area of Trench 1 Baulk Feature General DOM F27, F31, F32, section extension) F35, F39

______26/01/2009 54 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Digital F. No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Photo No. facing by 268 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 (NW area of Trench 1 Baulk Feature General DOM F27, F31, F32, section extension) F35, F39 269 F6, F8, F9, F12, S facing Section 5 (NW area of Trench 1 Baulk F27, F31, F32, section extension) F35, F39 270 F3, F27, F6 W facing Section 7 Flooded Baulk section between Trench 3&4

______26/01/2009 55 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Appendix 6 SLR Photograph Register

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by 01:01 F4 W Section a and b, burnt material Site overview General area 23/04/2006 KC 01:02 F4 W Section a and b, burnt material Site overview General area 23/04/2006 KC 01:03 F4 W Section a and b, burnt material Site overview General area 23/04/2006 KC 01:04 F4, F11 N Section a and b, burnt material Overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:05 F2, F4, F11 NE Showing burnt material Site overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:06 F2, F4, F11 E Showing burnt material Site overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:07 F2, F4, F11 SE Showing burn material Site overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:08 F2, F4, F11 SE Showing burnt material Site overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:09 F2, F4, F11 SW Showing burnt material Site overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:10 F43 S Start of the trackway Feature specific Initial exposed 25/04/2006 KC trackway 01:11 F43 S The trackway in an early Feature specific Initial exposed 25/04/2006 KC stage trackway 01:12 F2, F11 SW Burnt mound and the test pit Mid -ex General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:13 F11 N Burnt mound and the test pit Mid -ex overview General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:14 F2, F11 N Burnt mound Mid- ex General area 25/04/2006 KC 01:15 F11, F13 F43 S F13, burnt mound and the Mid- ex Feature general 26/04/2006 KC beginning of the trackway 01:16 F11, F13, F43 SE F13, burnt mound, and the first Mid-ex Feature general 26/04/2006 KC exposed trackway 01:17 F11, F13 S F13 Mid-ex Feature specific 26/04/2006 DOM 01:18 F2, F4,F11, F13, SW F13, burnt mound section a and Mid-ex General area 26/04/2006 DOM F43 b, the beginning of the trackway 01:19 F11, F13, F43 S F13, The first exposed part of Mid-ex overview Feature general 02/05/2006 DOM the trackway 01:20 F11, F13, F43 S Overview of F13, section a and Mid-ex overview General area 02/05/2006 DOM b, and the first exposed part of the trackway 01:21 F11, F13, F43 S F13, the first exposed part of Mid-ex overview General area 02/05/2006 DOM the trackway, and the burnt mound 01:22 F2, F11, F14, S Burnt material and F2. Mid-ex overview Section face 02/05/2006 DOM F27 (Incorrect details on the board) 01:23 F2, F11, F27 NE Burnt material and F2. Section face 02/05/2006 DOM (Incorrect details on the board) 01:24 F2, F4, F11 NE Burnt material and F2. Section face 02/05/2006 DOM (Incorrect details on the board) 02:01 F11, F13, F43 N F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:02 F11, F13, F43 NW F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:03 F11, F13, F43 E F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/06. DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:04 F11, F13, F43 E F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/06. DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:05 F11, F13, F43 S F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General

______26/01/2009 56 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by surrounding burnt mound F11 02:06 F11, F13, F43 S F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:07 F11, F13, F43 N F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:08 F11, F13, F43 N F13, the initial stages of Mid-ex Trench 1 Area 04/05/2006 DOM trackway F43 and the General surrounding burnt mound F11 02:09 F13 NE F13 during exposure and Working Shot 04/05/2006 DOM planning 02:10 F13, F43 W Planning and excavation in Working Shot 04/05/06. DOM trench 1 02:11 F13, F43 W Revealing the extent of the Working Shot 04/05/06. DOM possible stakes associated with F13 02:12 F13 NE Area overview while Working Shot 04/05/06. DOM excavation and planning is underway 02:13 F6, F13 W Stakes to the north of F13 Mid-ex Feature General 04/05/06. DOM 02:14 F13, F43 NE F11, F13, F43 under Mid-ex Feature General 04/05/2006 DOM excavation 02:15 F13 W Possible stakes and roots Mid-ex Feature General 04/05/2006 DOM associated with F13 02:16 F13 S Possible stakes and roots Mid-ex Feature General 04/05/2006 DOM associated with F13 03:01 No, Feature N First level of wood trench 16 Pre-ex Area general 30/05/2006 KC 03:02 No, Feature N First level of wood, Trench 16 Pre-ex Area general 30/04/2006 KC 03:03 No, Feature SW Second level of wood Trench Pre-ex Area general 07/06/2006 KC 18 03:04 No, Feature SW Second level of wood Trench Pre-ex Area general 07/06/2006 KC 18 03:05 No, Feature S First level of wood, showing 'off Pre-ex Area general 07/06/2006 KC cuts' (permatrace tags) Trench 18 03:06 No, Feature S Off cuts Trench 18 Close up Area general 07/06/2006 KC 03:07 No, Feature N First level of wood. Trench 20 Pre-ex, Area general 12/06/2006 KC 03:08 No, Feature S First level of wood Trench 20 Mid-ex Area general 12/06/2006 KC 03:09 No, Feature N Showing the first level of Mid-ex Area general 13/06/2006 JS wood. Trench 15 03:10 No, Feature S Showing the first level of Mid-ex Area general 13/06/2006 JS wood. Trench 15 03:11 No, Feature N Showing the first level of Mid-ex Area general 15/06/2006 JS wood 03:12 No, Feature S Showing the first level of Mid-ex Area general 15/06/2006 JS wood 03:13 No, Feature NE Showing the first level of Mid-ex Area general 15/06/2006 JS wood 03:14 F26 E Oak plank in situ Mid-ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC 03:15 F26 E Oak plank in situ Mid-ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC 03:16 F26 E Oak plank, showing tool Mid-ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC marks 03:17 F26 E Oak plank Mid- ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC 03:18 F26 E Oak plank Mid- ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC 03:19 F26 E Solid oak plank in situ Mid- ex Feature specific 23/06/2006 KC

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by 03:20 F21 E Exposed curving roundwood, Mid-ex Feature general 27/06/2006 VL trackway 03:21 F21 NW North extent of trackway Mid-ex Feature general 27/06/2006 VL 03:22 F21 NW Exposed trackway Mid-ex overview Feature general 27/06/2006 VL 03:23 F21 W South extent of trackway Mid-ex overview Feature general 27/06/2006 VL 03:24 F21 NW Trackway Overview Feature general 27/06/2006 VL 04:01 F26 SE Development of crack in oak Close up Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL plank prior to removal 04:02 F26 SE Close-up of cut marks on oak Close up Feature Specific 27/06/2006 VL plank 04:03 F13 In situ shot of find# 12 Overview Feature specific 28/06/2006 DOM 04:04 F13 In situ shot of find# 12 Overview Feature specific 28/06/2006 DOM 04:05 void void void void void void void 04:06 F13 S F13 with possible stakes Mid-ex Feature specific 28/06/2006 DOM 04:07 F13 S F13 with possible stakes Mid-ex Feature specific 28/06/2006 DOM 04:08 F13 N F13 with portion of F17 visible Mid-ex Feature specific 28/06/2006 DOM underneath and possible stakes to the east and north 04:09 F13 N F13 with portion of F17 visible Mid-ex Feature specific 30/06/2006 DOM underneath and possible stakes to the east and north 04:10 F13 S F13 with possible stakes Mid-ex Feature specific 30/06/2006 DOM 04:11 F14 E F14 Mid-ex Feature specific 30/06/2006 DOM 04:12 F14 W F14 Mid-ex Feature specific 30/06/2006 DOM 04:13 F14 S Close-up of cut marks on Close up Feature specific 30/06/2006 DOM timber in F14 04:14 F16 E Portion of brushwood Mid-ex Feature general 30/06/2006 DOM trackway at southern extent of site 04:15 T.20 N ext. S Photo before monolith sample Mid-ex Feature general 11/07/2006 KC #2 04:16 F15,F20 SE First level of wood, Western Pre-ex Feature general 17/07/2006 KC extension of trench 1 04:17 F20 SE First level of wood. West end Pre-ex Area general 17/07/2006 KC of site 04:18 F14 NW First level of wood East end of Pre-ex Area general 17/07/2006 KC site 04:19 F14 NW First level of wood East end of Pre-ex Area general 17/07/2006 KC site 04:20 F14 W First level of wood East end of Pre-ex Area general 17/07/2006 KC site 04:21 F20 SW In situ wood NW in the west Mid-ex Feature general 17/07/2006 AD extension of trench 1 04:22 F20 NW In situ wood NW in the west Mid-ex Feature general 18/07/2006 AD extension of trench 1 04:23 F15, F20 SW In situ wood Mid-ex overview Area general 18/07/2006 AD 04:24 F15, F20 E In situ wood NW in the west Mid-ex Area general 18/07/2006 AD extension of trench 1 05:01 F36 N Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex overview Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:02 F36 SW Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:03 F36 SW Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:04 F36 NE Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:05 F36 W Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:06 F36 E Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:07 F36 W Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex overview Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:08 F36 N Trunk in the eastern extension Mid-ex overview Feature general 19/07/2006 AD

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by 05:09 F14 S In situ wood Mid-ex overview Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:10 F14 SW In situ wood Mid-ex overview Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:11 F14 SW In situ wood Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 AD 05:12 F14 SW In situ wood Mid-ex Feature General 19/07/2006 AD 05:13 F1, F3, F27, F32, S View of section 1 Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DB F28, F9, F12 05:14 F1, F3, F27, F32, N View of section 1 Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DB F28, F9, F12 05:15 F14 N Notches in the east extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DOM of trench 1 05:16 F14 W Notches in the east extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DOM of trench 1 05:17 F14 E Notches in the east extension Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DOM of trench 1 05:18 F14 E Close-up of western notches Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DOM 05:19 F14 E Close-up of eastern notches Mid-ex Feature general 19/07/2006 DOM 05:20 F1, F3, F31, F35, S View of section 2 Mid-ex Feature general 20/07/2006 DB F27, F9, F6, F12 05:21 F1, F3, F6, F8, W View of west facing wall of Mid-ex Feature General 20/07/2006 DB F12, F27, F35 section 2. Showing burnt material 05:22 F1, F3, F6, F8, E View of section 3 Mid-ex Feature general 20/07/2006 DB F12, F31, F35 05:23 F3, F7, F9, F12, E View of section 4 Mid-ex Feature general 20/07/2006 DB F27, F29, F31, F32 05:24 F6, F8, F9, F12, S View of section 5 Mid-ex Feature general 20/07/2006 DB F27, F32, F35, F39 06:01 F1, F3, F37, F31, E View of section 6 Mid-ex Feature general 21/07/2006 DB F27, F7, F28, F9, F12 06:02 Recent NW Animal bones in the north Mid-ex Close up 21/07/2006 MN west corner 06:03 Recent W Animal bones in the north Mid-ex Close up 21/07/2006 MN west corner 06:04 F11 W Showing Burnt mound Mid-ex Feature general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:05 F14 E In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:06 F14 E In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:07 F14 E In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:08 F14 N In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:09 F14 S In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:10 F14 S In situ wood Mid-ex Area general 21/07/2006 DOM 06:11 Section 7 W View of section 7, eastern Mid-ex Feature general 25/07/2006 DOM side 06:12 Section 7 W View of section 7, eastern Mid-ex Feature general 25/07/2006 DOM side 06:13 F14, F38, F11, SE Showing wood, burnt material Mid-ex Feature general 26/07/2006 VL F28, F9, F12 and sandy peat 06:14 F25 N Showing burnt spread Mid-ex Feature general 26/07/2006 DOM 06:15 void 06:16 void 06:17 void 06:18 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample # 189 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:19 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample# 181 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by 06:20 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample #181 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:21 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample # 192 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:22 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample # 192 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:23 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample# 164 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:24 F14 Taken in Close-up on sample # 164 Post-ex Sample, general 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:25 Working shot Taken in Working shot from post ex Post-ex Working shot 26/07/2006 KK the office 06:26 Working shot Taken in Working shot from post ex Post-ex Working shot 26/07/2006 KK the office 07:01 F13, F14, F21 SE Overview of the site from Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye trench 1 to the east showing Overview F13, F14 and F21 07:02 F13, F14, F21, SE Overview of the site from Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F26. trench 1 to the east showing Overview F13, F14 and F21. Also visible at the bottom of the picture is a portion of oak plank F26 07:03 F13, F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 and Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F14 Overview 07:04 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:05 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:06 F21 SE Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:07 F13, F14 E Overview of F13 and F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:08 F13, F14 E Overview of F13 and F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:09 F14 E F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:10 F13, F14, F21, SE F13, F14, F21 & F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F26 Overview 07:11 F13, F26 SE Overview F13 and oak plank Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F26 Overview 07:12 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:13 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:14 F26 From Overview of oak plank F26 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:15 T.2-10, T.15-8 SE Overview of the trenches to Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye the east of the site Overview 07:16 F21 S Overview showing trackway Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F21 Overview 07:17 F21, F26 S Overview showing trackway Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F21 leading up to oak plank Overview F26 07:18 F21, F26 SW Overview showing trackway Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F21 leading up to oak plank Overview

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E. No.: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Film No.: Feature No.(s) Direction Description/ Caption Photo type Photo theme Date taken Taken Print No. facing by F26. Also trenches to the west of the site 07:19 F21 S Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:20 F21 S Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:21 F21 S Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:22 F21 From Overview of trackway F21 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:23 F13, F14 From F13 & F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:24 F14 From F14 Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:25 F14 From Overview showing initial stage Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above of trackway F14 and portion of Overview central plank F13 07:26 F13, F14, F26 From Overview of oak plank F26, Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above F13 and F14 Overview 07:27 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above plank F26 Overview 07:28 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above plank F26 Overview 07:29 F13, F26 From Overview of F13 and oak Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above plank F26 Overview 07:30 F14 S Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Overview 07:31 F14 From Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:32 F13, F26 From Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:33 F26 From Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye Above Overview 07:34 F13, F14, F21, S Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F26 Overview 07:35 F13, F14, F21, S Working shot Pre-ex Low Aerial 27/06/2006 Hawkeye F26 Overview

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Appendix 7 Finds Register

Find No. Feature Bag no. Category Type Identification Description no. 1 1 4 metal ferrous hinge heavily encrusted and corroded modern hinge 1 3 2 stone lithic chert chert flake 2 3 2 stone lithic chert Small flake portion 3 3 2 stone lithic chert chert-limestone natural chunk 4 3 2 stone lithic chert chert-limestone natural chunk 5 3 2 stone lithic chert chert-limestone natural chunk 7 3 10 organic wood tool unidentified wooden object 1 6 13 stone lithic chert possible irregular core although this may be natural 1 11 1 stone lithic chert natural laminar piece of chert 2 11 1 stone lithic chert natural laminar piece of chert 3 11 1 stone lithic chert natural laminar piece of chert 1 27 6 stone lithic chert fine large chert endscraper 2 27 6 stone lithic chert large irregular flake 3 27 6 stone lithic chert regular chert flake 1 28 9 stone lithic chert broken irregular chert flake 2 28 9 stone lithic chert broken irregular chert 3 28 9 stone lithic chert natural laminar piece of chert 4 28 9 stone lithic chert small flake fragment

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Appendix 8 Sample Register

Licence Number: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Sample no. Feature no. Cut no. Sample type Volume (in litres)/ Weight (in grams) 1 N/A N/A Soil N/A 2 4 N/A Soil and charcoal 30L 3 4 N/A Peat/Soil/Charcoal 10L 4 3 N/A Peat 15L 5 3 N/A Peat 15L 6 3 N/A Peat 15L 7 5 N/A Soil 15L 8 5 N/A Soil/Peat 15L 9 41 N/A Peat 15L 10 8 N/A Peat 15L 11 10 N/A Peat 1.5L 13 6 N/A Wood N/A 14 6 N/A Soil 30L 15 7 N/A Woody peat 30L 16 13 N/A Wood N/A 17 13 N/A Wood N/A 18 13 N/A Wood N/A 19 3 N/A Wood N/A 21 14 N/A Wood N/A 22 13 N/A Wood N/A 23 6 N/A N/A N/A 24 4 N/A Soil 30L 25 7 N/A Soil 20L 26 11 N/A Soil 20L 27 5 N/A Soil 5L 28 14 N/A Wood N/A 29 14 N/A Wood N/A 30 2 N/A N/A N/A 31 14 N/A Wood N/A 32 6 N/A Wood N/A 33 14 N/A Wood N/A 34 13 N/A Wood N/A 35 3 N/A Wood N/A 36 3 N/A Wood N/A 37 3 N/A Wood N/A 38 3 N/A Wood N/A 39 3 N/A Wood N/A 40 3 N/A Wood N/A 41 3 N/A Wood N/A 42 3 N/A Wood N/A 43 3 N/A Wood N/A 44 3 N/A Soil 2.5L 45 3 N/A Soil N/A 46 3 N/A Wood N/A 47 3 N/A Wood N/A 48 3 N/A Wood N/A 49 3 N/A Wood N/A 50 3 N/A Animal bone 156g 51 N/A N/A Soil N/A 52 13 N/A Wood N/A 53 13 N/A Wood N/A

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Licence Number: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Sample no. Feature no. Cut no. Sample type Volume (in litres)/ Weight (in grams) 54 13 N/A Wood N/A 55 17 N/A Wood N/A 56 17 N/A Wood N/A 57 13 N/A Wood N/A 58 13 N/A Wood N/A 59 13 N/A Wood N/A 60 3 N/A Wood N/A 61 14 N/A Wood N/A 62 13 N/A Wood N/A 63 3 N/A Wood N/A 64 3 N/A Animal bone 40g 65 3 N/A Wood N/A 66 3 N/A Wood N/A 67 3 N/A Animal bone 161g 68 3 N/A Animal bone 263g 69 3 N/A Soil N/A 70 3 N/A Wood N/A 71 3 N/A Wood N/A 72 21 N/A Wood N/A 73 3 N/A Wood N/A 74 21 N/A Wood N/A 75 24 N/A Peat/Soil 5L 76 23 N/A Soil 8L 77 21 N/A Wood N/A 78 22 N/A Peat 7.5L 79 21 N/A Wood N/A 80 22 N/A Soil 3L 81 13 N/A Wood N/A 82 38 N/A Peat 7.5L 83 21 N/A Wood N/A 84 22 N/A Peat 7.5L 85 22 N/A Peat/Soil 5L 86 21 N/A Wood N/A 88 21 N/A Wood N/A 89 22 N/A Animal bone 6g 90 35 N/A Soil 2g 91 20 N/A Soil 3L 92 22 N/A Animal bone 16g 93 13 N/A Wood N/A 94 13 N/A Wood N/A 95 13 N/A Wood N/A 96 14 N/A Wood N/A 97 14 N/A Wood N/A 98 13 N/A Wood N/A 99 20 N/A Wood N/A 100 14 N/A Wood N/A 101 21 N/A Wood N/A 102 21 N/A Wood N/A 103 20 N/A Wood N/A 104 15 N/A Wood N/A 105 15 N/A Wood N/A 106 14 N/A Wood N/A 107 6 N/A Animal bone 1g 108 14 N/A Wood N/A 109 14 N/A Wood N/A 110 14 N/A Wood N/A

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Licence Number: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Sample no. Feature no. Cut no. Sample type Volume (in litres)/ Weight (in grams) 111 14 N/A Wood N/A 112 3 N/A Peat N/A 113 3 N/A Peat 10L 114 6 N/A Peat/Sand 10L 115 7 N/A Peat/Soil 10L 116 7 N/A Peat 10L 117 7 N/A Peat 15L 118 14 N/A Wood N/A 119 6 N/A Animal bone 448g 120 34 N/A Wood N/A 121 34 N/A Wood N/A 122 6 N/A Wood N/A 123 6 N/A Soil/Charcoal 1.5L 124 6 N/A Wood N/A 125 6 N/A Wood N/A 126 6 N/A Wood N/A 127 6 N/A Wood N/A 128 3 N/A Soil 5L 129 31 N/A Soil 5L 130 27 N/A Soil 5L 131 29 N/A Soil 10L 132 27 N/A Soil 5L 133 32 N/A Soil 2L 134 7 N/A Peat/Soil 5L 135 9 N/A Peat 5L 136 3 N/A Soil 5L 137 31 N/A Soil 5L 138 35 N/A Soil N/A 139 27 N/A Soil 5L 140 13 N/A Wood N/A 141 8 N/A Soil 5L 142 6 N/A Soil N/A 143 37 N/A Soil 5L 144 14 N/A Wood N/A 145 14 N/A Wood N/A 146 14 N/A Wood N/A 147 14 N/A Wood N/A 148 14 N/A Wood N/A 149 14 N/A Wood N/A 150 14 N/A Wood N/A 151 14 N/A Wood N/A 152 14 N/A Wood N/A 153 14 N/A Wood N/A 154 14 N/A Wood N/A 155 14 N/A Wood N/A 156 14 N/A Wood N/A 157 33 N/A Wood N/A 158 22 N/A Wood N/A 159 14 N/A Wood N/A 160 20 N/A Wood N/A 161 14 N/A Wood N/A 162 14 N/A Wood N/A 163 14 N/A Wood N/A 164 48 N/A Wood N/A 165 28 N/A Soil 2L 166 1 N/A Soil 3L

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Licence Number: E2071 Site Name: Killescragh Director: Ken Curran Sample no. Feature no. Cut no. Sample type Volume (in litres)/ Weight (in grams) 167 3 N/A Soil 3.5L 168 27 N/A Soil 2.5L 169 32 N/A Soil 3L 170 31 N/A Soil 2L 171 11 N/A Animal bone 432g 172 31 N/A Soil 3L 173 14 N/A Wood N/A 174 14 N/A Wood N/A 175 14 N/A Wood N/A 176 25 N/A Soil/Charcoal 20L 177 14 N/A Wood N/A 178 14 N/A Wood N/A 179 14 N/A Wood N/A 180 28 N/A Wood N/A 181 14 N/A Wood N/A 182 14 N/A Wood N/A 183 14 N/A Wood N/A 184 14 N/A Wood N/A 185 11 N/A Wood N/A 186 11 N/A Wood N/A 187 11 N/A Wood N/A 188 11 N/A Wood N/A 189 14 N/A Wood N/A 190 14 N/A Wood N/A 191 14 N/A Wood N/A 192 14 N/A Wood N/A 193 9 N/A Bone N/A 194 14 N/A Wood N/A 195 14 N/A Wood N/A 196 9 N/A Soil 3L 197 14 N/A Wood N/A 198 28 N/A Soil 20L 199 7 N/A Soil 10L 200 8 N/A Soil 5L 201 9 N/A Soil 5L 202 11 N/A Wood N/A 203 11 N/A Wood N/A 204 11 N/A Wood N/A 205 11 N/A Wood N/A 206 11 N/A Wood N/A 207 11 N/A Wood N/A 208 13 N/A Wood N/A

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Appendix 9 Modelling the wetland at Killescragh, Co. Galway & environmental reconstruction of an archaeological landscape Dr Nóra Bermingham

Summary Two stratigraphic surveys were carried out in an area of reclaimed wetland in Killescragh, Co. Galway. The surveys were conducted in association with the excavation of two burnt mounds and wooden archaeological deposits, situated at the edges of the wetland (E2071 & E2070). Profiles showing the deposit sequence and Digital Elevation Models were constructed which show the existence of a peat-filled basin situated between an esker and low-lying hills. A small river, now canalised, bisects the basin. Peat formation within the basin was the result of impeded drainage. Woodland that once occupied the sides of the basin was enveloped by expanding peat deposits. At some point, the area was inundated by silt, probably the result of a serious flood. The archaeological sites occupy different environments; the burnt mound at E2071 was deposited within a fen-like environment while the mound at E2070 was deposited in a wet wooded environment.

Keywords: Peat stratigraphy, Digital Elevation Models, Environmental reconstruction, Burnt mounds

Acknowledgements Thanks to Derek Byrne for assistance with the coring and to Cormac Bruton for undertaking the instrument survey of all data points.

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List of Figures

Fig. 1 Location of sites E2071 and E2070 Fig. 2 Core locations & survey data points E2071 Fig. 3 Core locations & survey data points E2070 Fig. 4 Core locations & survey data points used to construct basin floor at E2070 Fig. 5 Transect 1 E2071 Fig. 6 Transect 2 E2071 Fig. 7 Transect 1 E2070 Fig. 8 Transect 2 E2070 Fig. 9 DEM of basin floor at E2071 Fig. 10 DEM of field surface at E2071 Fig. 11 DEM of basin floor at E2070 Fig. 12 DEM of field surface at E2070 Fig. 13 DEMs imposed on extract of OS Sheet 97

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1 Introduction

1.1 Background Archaeological assessment in the townland of Killescragh, Co. Galway uncovered the presence of two burnt mounds, E2071 and E2070. The mounds are situated in an area of reclaimed wetland through which a new road, the new N6 Galway to Ballinasloe, is to be routed. As part of the archaeological investigations undertaken at Killescragh, a topographic and stratigraphic survey of the area in which the sites are located was carried out in August 2006.

1.2 Report structure Two separate surveys were undertaken at Killescragh, one at each of the archaeological sites. The same overall methodology was employed at each site and this is described in Section 1.5 below. In general, the types of deposits or sediment units identified were common to both sites and a brief description is provided in Section 2.1. The results of each survey are described in Section 2. Digital elevation models arising from the surveys are described and discussed in Section 3. An overall discussion of the implications of the work is presented in Section 4.

1.3 Survey aims & objectives A stratigraphic and topographic survey of this area was undertaken to: - establish the morphology and evolution of the wetland in which the archaeological sites were deposited, - enable the creation of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), - facilitate environmental reconstruction and to provide a broader context for the results of high-resolution palaeoenvironmental analyses, such as pollen and testate amoebae. At each archaeological site, the survey extended beyond the limits of the known archaeology and the CPO.

1.4 Site description The burnt mounds are situated within an area of reclaimed wetland formed between an esker and an area of low-lying hills or drift (Fig. 1). Access to the sites was via a minor road, in the case of E2070, and across pasture or a quarry, in the case of E2071. A small river, apparent now as a large field drain, runs from east to west and provides the main drainage through the former wetland. The river runs parallel to the esker, bisecting it in the northeast. At the time of survey, the area was under grass and was clearly liable to flooding in inclement weather. Long-term land use appears to have been as pasture, made possible by a system of field drains connected to the nearby river.

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1.5 Methods The survey involved examination of the site’s soil stratigraphy through assessment of exposed soil profiles and by coring. The latter was undertaken using a gouge auger, 60 mm in diameter with a 1 m long chamber. The predominant soil type in the area is peat. All cores were made to the base of the peat and into the top of the underlying mineral substrate. Deposits, or sediment units, were recorded in terms of depth, composition, humification and colour. All identifications were carried out in the field and no samples were taken for macrofossil analysis. A series of stratigraphic profiles, based on transects through each of the areas surveyed, have been constructed (Figs 5-8). Individual sediment units are displayed using a set of conventions adapted from Troels-Smith (1955).

At each site, a grid system of sample points was imposed. Each location was subsequently surveyed using a TOPCON PGA 1 Realtime Kinematic Survey (RTK) with a legacy-e base and rover. The survey was undertaken by Cormac Bruton on behalf of CRDS Ltd. At E2071, 25 data points were collected and 24 were recorded at E2070. In each case, the survey has been supplemented with information derived from the archaeological excavations and associated test trenching. All points have been geo-referenced with the Irish National Grid and Ordnance Datums (OD) are corrected to Malin Head. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) arising from this data have been generated using ESRI® ArcMap™ 8.2. Each site is represented by two DEMs, which consist of models of the top of the mineral substrate as well as the modern field surface.

2 Stratigraphic Survey Results

2.1 Sediment units The main sediment units identified are as follows: Topsoil Loamy silt. Herbaceous peat Dark, friable and rooty well decomposed peat. Small wood remains may be present. Sedge peat: Dark brown to red-brown well-decomposed peat within which the flattened stems of sedges, such as Carex sp., are visible. Occasionally the remains of reeds (Phragmites (Ph)) are present. Wood peat Generally characterised by fragments of roots, twigs bark and leaves in a dark, friable organic matrix. Herbaceous remains, such as the remains of sedges, can also occur. Sedge & wood-rich peat Well decomposed peat with visible sedge and wood remains. Silt horizon Fine grey to grey-brown silt occasionally with organic remains. Lake marl White marl. Mineral substrate Sticky blue clay and grey sand or glacial till.

2.2 Stratigraphy at E2071 Twenty-five cores were made at E2071 and stratigraphy recorded at all locations (Fig. 2). Two profiles have been constructed in order to display the sequence of deposits identified. Each profile is orientated

______26/01/2009 70 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 approximately north northwest - south southeast. Transect 1 consists of seven cores, is c. 220 m in length and extends southwards in the direction of the nearby higher, dry ground (Fig. 5). This transect bisects the area subject to archaeological excavation. The second transect consists of four cores, is c. 70 m in length and is situated c. 70 m to the west of the burnt mound (Fig. 6).

Within Transect 1 and 2, the maximum depth of peat recorded is between 1 m and 1.40 m respectively. Deeper deposits of peat, up to 2.45 m, are present in the east (survey points 79 and 84, Fig. 5). The survey suggests the presence of a wide shallow basin in which peat accumulated. The basin floor drops from east to west. Transect 1 represents the widest point in the basin surveyed. The northern limit of the basin is steep-sided (survey point 65 to 66, Transect 2, Fig 6). In contrast and to the south, the basin floor drops in the direction of the river after which it rises gradually towards the upland (Fig. 6).

Peat accumulation took place over three main types of substrate. In low places in the basin, lake marl occurs above sticky blue clay (Transect 2, Fig 6). In other places, the sticky blue clay was overlain directly by peat (e.g. survey point 76, Transect 1, Fig. 5). The most common form of mineral substrate recorded is glacial till – whitish silt with varying amounts of sand and/ or stones. The latter typically formed the rising slopes of the basin floor.

The transition between the mineral substrate and the overlying peat deposits varies from clear to gradual with in some places, peat lying directly on the mineral substrate. In Transect 1, the lowermost peat deposits range in depth from 0.24 m to 0.45 m and vary in composition, with peat characterised by combinations of sedge, reed and wood occurring (Fig. 5). These are typically overlain by a crumbly, well- decomposed herbaceous peat, though at two locations, survey points 60 and 59, loamy silt completes the sequence.

In Transect 2, there is less variation displayed in the lower part of the profile with sedge and wood-rich peat covering the basin floor (Fig. 6). As the depth of peat increases, the presence of wood declines and sedge peat dominates. The latter is overlain by loamy silt forming topsoil. At one location, survey point 67 (Fig. 6), there is a horizon of grey-brown silt which was deposited within a sedge-dominated environment. This silt layer is up to 0.20 m in thickness. A similar horizon, ranging from 0.03 m to 0.31 m in thickness, was identified at survey points 58, 61, 63, 64, 74 and 79 (Fig. 6). Clearly, the depth of silt deposited was thicker in some places than in others. It is also apparently uneven in extent; it does not appear in every core suggesting it is discontinuous. This silt horizon was also recorded during the course of the archaeological excavation where it was found to underlie the burnt mound at E2071.

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2.3 Peat stratigraphy and the archaeological site at E2071 The peat sequence at the burnt mound E2071 is similar to that of the wider basin. The bottom of the sequence is represented by wood-rich peat, i.e. former wet woodland. Archaeological excavation showed the former tree cover to have been dense and extensive. Multiple tree species were present – field identifications suggest the presence of pine, alder and ash. Microscopic identification of the wood species present is awaited. Increased wetness caused the woodland to give way to a fen – the peat is dominated by sedges with reed sometimes present. At some point, a horizon of silt was deposited over the fen. Following this inundation, fen peat accumulation continued in much the same way as before. The burnt mound was deposited within a fen environment in which peat accumulation continued uninterrupted until relatively recently with the imposition of modern drainage.

2.4 Stratigraphy at E2070 Twenty-four cores were made at E2070 and stratigraphy recorded at all locations (Figs 3 & 4). Two profiles have been constructed in order to display the sequence of deposits identified. Each profile is orientated approximately north - south. Transect 1 consists of seven cores made over a distance of c. 160 m (Fig. 7) bisects the area subject to archaeological excavation. The second transect is situated c. 20 m to the west of Transect 1 and comprises seven cores extending over c. 160 m (Fig. 8).

The maximum depth of stratigraphy recorded is c. 1.20 m. The profiles, Transects 1 and 2 indicate the presence of a steep-sided shallow basin that has become infilled with peat (Figs 7 & 8). The floor of the basin is relatively even; it rises sharply in the north, i.e. in the direction of an esker. The greatest depth of peat is in the north, adjacent to the esker. The south side of the basin is steep though less so than the north side.

The stratigraphic sequence in Transect 1 is simple with well-decomposed herbaceous peat dominating, except towards the middle of the profile. At survey points 3 and 4 (Fig. 7) the lowermost peats comprise Phragmites or reed peat. This is underlain by silty peat, which in turn overlies sticky blue clay. In contrast, the basal peat at survey point 5 is wood peat. At all locations, the uppermost peat deposit comprises the herbaceous peat referred to above. It is interrupted by a shallow horizon of silt at one location, survey point 3 (Fig. 7).

There is greater variety in the gross stratigraphy recorded in Transect 2 than was apparent in Transect 1. In the north, the lowermost peat deposits are dominated by sedge and wood with the amount of wood

______26/01/2009 72 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 decreasing up the profile. The peat is generally minerotrophic. A horizon of silt, between 0.09 m and 0.19 m in thickness, interrupts the accumulation of sedge peat at survey points 12 and 13 (Fig. 8). Sedge peat accumulation continues almost to the top of the sequence but is overlain by a more decomposed and crumbly herbaceous peat. In the middle of the profile, at survey point 11, the field surface drops. This is because of local drainage that has caused greater compression of the peat in this area – a field drain lies immediately to the north of the survey point. Wood peat dominates the basin on its southern side (survey points 9 & 10, Fig. 8) and probably extended further upslope than is illustrated here.

2.5 Peat stratigraphy and the archaeological site E2070 In common with E2071, the peat stratigraphic sequence at the burnt mound E2070 is similar to that of the wider basin. The earliest peat formed in a wet milieu dominated by woodland that later gave way to wetter fen conditions, characterised by sedge-dominated peat. Archaeological excavation showed the former tree cover to have been dense and extensive. Multiple tree species were present – field identifications suggest the presence of pine and alder. Microscopic identification of the wood species present is awaited. At some point, after the demise of the woodland and during the subsequent development of the fen, a horizon of silt was deposited. Following this inundation, fen peat accumulation continued in much the same way as before.

The burnt mound at E2070 appears to have been deposited during the initial wooded phase of development at this site. Tree root systems were apparent on top of burnt mound material, or at least on top of an early phase of burnt mound deposition. Other archaeological deposits were clearly made above the silt horizon that was deposited within wetter fen conditions that clearly post-date the woodland referred to above.

2.6 Interpretation E2071 & E2070 The profiles from both sites suggest the presence of two shallow basins, which have become infilled with peat. Over time, the basins became infilled by lacustrine clays – represented here by sticky blue clay, which is commonly found to underlie peatlands and lakes in central Ireland. The accumulation of lake marl shows that areas of open water persisted.

The overall stratigraphic sequence of each area surveyed suggests that the earliest peat accumulation took place in a generally damp environment occupied by a mix of trees, sedges and reeds. This reflects varying hydrological conditions with wet and somewhat drier situations occurring together. The overall impression is of a wet wooded area similar to a wooded fen or carr. Eventually, the area became too wet

______26/01/2009 73 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 to support the growth of trees and herbaceous plants, such as sedges that favour wetter conditions, became dominant. The wet wooded environment was replaced by a wetter situation dominated by sedges and other grasses, i.e. sedge-dominated fen. Fen peat accumulation progressed and expanded, by means of paludification, onto the slopes of the basin.

The occurrence of the silt horizon at both E2071 and E2070 suggests that at some point both areas became seriously inundated. Its appearance, however, as a single, albeit discontinuous, horizon suggests that the silt represents one episode of inundation rather than a series of separate flood events. The variation in the thickness of the deposit may reflect the uneven nature of the contemporary field surface, with thicker deposits settling in former depressions. The most likely sources for the silt are the river or, the esker and nearby upland, with deposition following flooding of the river or erosion of the upland. The catalyst for such events, however, is unknown. The river may have become flooded because of impeded drainage or increased rainfall.

3 Modelling the Wetland

3.1 DEM description E2071 Figure 9 shows a DEM of the basin floor at E2071 with the elevation of the floor increasing from red to blue. The DEM suggests the presence of a shallow basin, which widens and shallows towards the south. The east edge of the basin is defined by high ground that rises from a small peak, near the centre of the model, westwards. The lowest point in the basin, and the location of the deepest peat deposits, is in the north where there is a drop in the basin floor. This is also the narrowest point in the basin floor and it is here the canalised river referred to above (see Section 1.4, Fig. 1) enters the study area. The basin’s western edge is in part defined by rising ground but towards the south, the basin floor dips and has a mildly undulating surface.

The DEM of the field surface at E2071 (Fig. 10) represents the extent of peat deposits over the study area. Peat depths are shallowest over areas of high ground, represented in the model by dark blue and correspondingly deepest in the yellow and red parts of the model. The morphology of the field surface largely mirrors that of the basin floor, though there is some divergence. Peat has expanded over the sides of the basin encroaching onto the higher and therefore drier ground (Fig. 10). In contrast to the basin floor, the lowest ground lies in the south where lateral peat expansion is at its greatest. The small off-centre peak in the basin floor is maintained (Figs 9 & 10) though peat has encroached onto its slopes, seemingly isolating it further from the nearby upland.

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3.2 DEM description E2070 The DEM of the mineral substrate at E2070 shows the presence of a shallow east-west basin (Fig. 11). Its north and south sides are defined by rising upland; in the north, this is represented by an esker. The basin floor rises towards the west and is widest and lowest in the east. The basin floor displays some morphological variation but lacks any serious peaks or troughs. In the northeast, the edge of the esker is somewhat irregular and some of the lowest ground in the basin is situated just to the south. In the west, there is a slight ridge, extending between the esker in the north and the upland in the south, where the basin narrows. Beyond this ridge the ground level drops.

In general, the simple morphology of the basin floor is repeated in the DEM of the field surface (Fig. 12). Within the basin, the overall elevation of the ground surface has increased because of the accumulation of peat. The north and south sides of the basin remain clearly defined, though the edges appear irregular owing to variability in the depth and extent of accumulated peat. The extreme west of the study area is the lowest lying part of the model because the accumulation of peat is shallower here in comparison with the middle of the basin.

3.3 Conclusions Each of the DEMs described above represents wetlands formed in shallow basins that became infilled with peat. They do not however represent separate features but rather two parts of a larger wetland system. The system drains from the northeast to the southwest - the direction the basin floor at E2071 lowers and the direction of flow of the now canalised river. Impeded drainage, influenced by the narrow entry point of the river into the basin, resulted in the accumulation of peat, which in time expanded laterally over the slopes of the basin and encroached onto the upland. Viewing each DEM against the OS map for the area provides the broader physical context for each model (Fig. 13). The models represent opposing ends of a significantly larger wetland formed in a basin between the 66 m contour and the esker. (The 66 m contour provides the greatest possible extent of the basin as well as the expansion of peat over the area. In reality, both lie well below the contour but it serves as a useful guide.)

4 Discussion

The archaeological sites at E2071 and E2070 share a common landscape context. The stratigraphic survey and the DEMs show that each site was situated on the margins of a sedge-dominated fen formed in shallow basin bisected by a small river. Woodland covered the slopes of the upland when the site at

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E2070 was deposited with conditions becoming progressively wetter as the sediment accumulated. The transition to wetter fen conditions was complete when the mound at E2071 was made.

The different conditions might suggest that the development from wet woodland to fen was asynchronous across the basin. Spatial variation in vegetation and hydrological conditions within such wetlands is normal (Charman 2004) and can exist on a variety of scales. Within relatively small wetlands, such as Killescragh, it is likely that major transitions, such as the change from wet woodland to fen, are however broadly synchronous.

The differing environmental conditions prevailing when the burnt mounds were deposited suggests that the features are not contemporaneous. Given the progression from woodland to fen, the mound at E2071 should be the later of the two sites. Radiocarbon dates recently returned for the mounds supports this suggestion. E2070 has been dated to 2570BC-2300BC (Wk-21343, Phase 1) and 2580BC-2015BC (Wk- 21246, Phase 2). E2071 dates later in the Bronze Age, to around 1610BC-1410BC (Wk-21341).

The dates provide a loose chronological framework for part of the development of the wetland at Killescragh. The woodland and the earliest peat horizons at Killescragh are undated though they are clearly post-glacial and probably mid-Holocene in origin. It appears that the marginal woodland in Killescragh prevailed, at least on the lower slopes of the esker, to the early fourth millennium BP. By the close of this millennium however, the transition to wetter sedge-dominated conditions was complete. As stated above, these conditions prevailed until modern reclamation changed the area from wetland to pasture liable to flood.

Each of these burnt mounds is recorded as sitting above a horizon of silt; referred to above as an inundation horizon. The dates for the mounds provide more than one terminus ante quem for the inundation of the area. As stated above, the reason for the inundation is unknown but elsewhere, similar minerogenic inundation of mires has been related to anthropogenic activities such as erosion resulting from deforestation, c.f. Derryville, Co. Tipperary (Caseldine et al. 2006). At Killescragh, where there is a river present, deposition following a flood (or river channel migration) may be more likely. Closer dating of the horizon, the results of which could be compared with wider palaeo-records, might help show whether such an event was the result of anthropogenic or natural activities.

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References

Caseldine, C., B. Gearey, J. Hatton, E. Reilly, I. Stuijts & W. Casparie 2001 From the Wet to the Dry: Palaeoecological Studies at Derryville, Co. Tipperary, Ireland (Lisheen Archaeological Project). In B. Raftery & J. Hickey (eds), Recent Developments in Wetland Research. Dublin: University College Dublin: 99-114.

Charman, D. 2002 Peatlands and Environmental Change. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Troels-Smith, J. 1955 Karakterisering Af Lose Jordater (Characterisation of Unconsolidated Sediments). Danmarks Geologiske Undersogelse IV series 3(10): 1-73.

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Fig. 1 Location of sites E2071 and E2070

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Fig. 2 Core locations & survey data points E2071

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Fig. 3 Core locations & survey data points E2070

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Fig. 4 Core locations & survey data points used to construct basin floor at E2070

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Fig. 5 Transect 1 E2071

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Fig. 6 Transect 2 E2071

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Fig. 7 Transect 1 E2070

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Fig. 8 Transect 2 E2070

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Fig. 9 DEM of basin floor at E2071

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Fig. 10 DEM of field surface at E2071

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Fig. 11 DEM of basin floor at E2070

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Fig. 12 DEM of field surface at E2070

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Fig. 13 DEMs imposed on extract of OS Sheet 97

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Appendix 10

Radiocarbon Dates

RCD Laboratory Sample material BP Date dC13(o/oo) 1 Σ Date 2 Σ Date No. Wk21341 Wood (hazel) from burnt mound 3211±36 -27.50 1505BC-1435BC 1610BC-1410BC secondary deposit F4 Wk21342 Wood (hazel) from burnt spread 3730±37 -26.50 2200BC-2040BC 2280BC-2020BC F25 UB7241 Wood (alderbuckthorn) from 2870±35 -25.20 1115BC-1001BC 1190BC-926BC trackway F21 Beta-241472 Wood (pinus silvestris) from peat 5870±60 -25.20 4800-4690BC 4880-4590BC deposit F8 Beta-241473 Wood (betula) from trench 1 3290±40 -28.70 1620-1510BC 1670-1490BC deposit F13 Beta-241474 Wood (fraxinus excelsior) from 2880±60 -26.60 1130-980BC 1260-910BC trackway F21 Beta-241475 Wood (ulnus) from wood horizon 4130±40 -25.40 2860-2620BC 2880-2570BC F14

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Appendix 11 Worked Wood Report Caitríona Moore

Introduction

This report details an assemblage of worked wood recovered during excavations at Killescragh, Co. Galway (E2071), directed by Ken Curran for Cultural Resource Development Services Ltd (CRDS). This excavation was completed as part of the N6 Galway-Ballinasloe PPP Scheme, Contract 3. The wooden remains detailed in this report were recovered from a burnt mound and associated features. In addition to worked wood samples, two wooden artefacts were recovered. As there were two archaeological excavations in Killescragh which produced wooden remains, the site detailed in this report will be referred to as Killescragh 22.

Methodology The wood assemblage from Killescragh 22 was examined by the author and recorded using a standardised recording system (MOLAS). Given the mixed quality of the assemblage the following criteria was applied. Full records were taken from elements in a good condition, where evidence of wood working techniques and tool types could be retrieved. Partial records, detailing diameter and point type were taken from degraded or broken pieces. Unrecorded data is displayed in the table as ---, not applicable data is displayed as N/A. In many cases only the worked end was retained for analysis, thus the lengths given for the elements do not necessarily represent the entire, original length. Unworked elements were not recorded.

This report details and discusses the results of these records. In addition it includes a comment on the wood species as identified by Ms Susan Lyons MSc & Dr Ingelise Stuijts.

The wood assemblage A total of 89 samples were examined for this report these consisted of pieces of brushwood and roundwood and split timber. The wood was retrieved from waterlogged environment and its condition ranged from good (15) to poor or very poor (18/7) with the majority (49) recorded as being of moderate condition. An overview of the examined elements is presented below in Table 1. All recorded samples are detailed in Table 2 at the rear of this document.

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Table 1.

Element Type Number of records Worked end 15 Split timber 13 Stake 13 Wood working waste 11 Split 1 Unworked 36

Three radiocarbon dates have been returned for the archaeological site at Killescragh 22 these indicate that Feature 21 dates to 1190-1178 cal BC (2870±35 BP; UB-7241), Feature 4 dates to 1610-1401 cal BC (3211±36 BP; Wk-21341), and Feature 25 dates 2280-2020 cal BC (3732±36 BP; Wk-21342). From the pieces examined two were recovered from Feature 21.

Worked ends The largest group of elements recovered at Killescragh 22 was fifteen worked ends from Features 3, 6 13, 14 and 21. These had been worked to chisel, wedge and pencil points with one piece having been simply torn. They ranged greatly in diameter from a minimum of 3.5cm to a maximum of 20cm. All had been worked using metal tools with flat and slightly concave facets represented throughout the group. Two worked ends from Feature 6 were identified as willow and ash, while three from Feature 13 were of ash (1) and hazel (2), one element from Feature 14 was identified as ash.

Stakes Thirteen of the examined elements were described on site as stakes or pegs. These were retrieved from Features 11, 13, 14 and 21 and were mostly in a poor to moderate condition. The stakes had diameters of 3-7cm, six were unworked while the remaining seven had been worked into chisel or wedge pointed ends. One element was a piece of radially split brushwood. All the worked ends had been cut with metal tools with one piece retaining a partial jam-curve showing a flat edged tool with a slightly rounded corner. This element also had slightly concave tool facets. Eight stakes from Feature 14 have been identified as elm (2), hazel (3), willow (2), ash (1) and alder (1).

Split timber Ten pieces of split timber were recovered from Features 13, 14, 15, 17, 20, 22, 26 & 33. These ranged from small split fragments of c. 14cm long, likely to have broken from larger elements, to complete timbers of 2-4m in length. The types of splits present were half-splits (5), tangential splits (3), irregular splits (4) and a single radial split. Only three split timbers had additional

______26/01/2009 102 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 wood working evidence in the form of worked ends all cut with flat metal tools. Three split timbers have been identified as ash, two have been identified as alder and one was of oak. One piece of split brushwood was recovered from Feature 14.

Wood working waste Eleven wood chips from Features 3 (8) and 6 (3) were contained within the assemblage. These ranged from 2-18.5cm long and from 1-10cm wide, in depth they varied from 0.2-2.6cm. Five had been worked at one end with simple flat metal-cut facets. One piece, from Feature 3 had six slightly concave facets also made with a metal tool. The remainder displayed no wood working evidence. Seven wood chips have been identified as ash and one was of willow.

Artefacts Two wooden artefacts were recovered during the excavation. These are described in detail below and discussed in the relevant section.

Find No. F3:006 Dimensions: L15.2; W0.7-2.4; D0.5-1.5cm Species: Taxus (Yew) A fragment of dressed brushwood, broken at one end and half-split. The split surface is irregular and striated and appears to be the result of breakage rather than deliberate splitting. The wood is worked into a tapering point, the tip of which is slightly damaged but appears to have been rounded. From the tip, which measures 0.7cm wide x 0.5cm deep, the object gradually widens to a maximum of 2.4cm at the opposite end. Approximately 1cm from this end the shape of the object splays outwards slightly, suggesting that it was originally finished with a bulbous head.

The outer surface of the object is covered with c. 29 tiny flat metal-cut toolmarks. The smallest of these measures 0.2cm wide x 0.4cm long and the largest measures 0.6cm wide x 5.2cm long. The facets are typically long and narrow with clean junctions and are cut at very shallow angles. Very faint incised lines across seven facets may be tool signatures. This surface dressing ceases 3cm from the possible head. Despite being broken this object is in a very good condition, the wood is very hard and all broken surfaces are jagged and striated.

Find No. F3:007 Dimensions: L39; W0.6-8.2; D2.6-5.6cm

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Species: Pinus Silvestris (Pine) A wooden object, which for purposes of description is described as having a blade, socket and terminus.

The blade is 25.5cm long and has a rounded tip measuring 0.7cm wide x 1.4cm deep. From the tip, the blade gradually increases in width and depth to 3.8cm and 5cm respectively. In cross-section is an uneven lozenge or diamond shape. The surfaces of the blade are completely smooth and bear no traces of wood working. At the widest and thickest point of the blade the wood splays dramatically outwards to form the socket.

The socket is circular with an internal diameter of 5.5cm and an external diameter of 8.2cm. The walls of the socket are uneven varying in thickness from 1.3-2cm. The inner and outer surfaces are very smooth. The grain of the wood exactly mirrors the shape of the socket, and in appearance this feature is very much like a natural knot hole in the wood.

The terminus of the object i.e. the piece which extends from the opposite side of the socket than the blade, is the thickest and heaviest part. It is also an uneven lozenge shape in cross- section and measures 4.5cm wide x 10.2cm min. long (the end is broken) and is 5cm thick.

This object is in a moderate condition, both ends are broken and there is compression damage to the surfaces. There are no toolmarks on this object and the socket appears to be a natural feature.

Discussion

Worked wood Fifty-three pieces of worked wood and split timber were recorded from Killescragh 22, eight of which were deemed to be in a good condition. Thus while the assemblage was of reasonable size, its condition precluded the preservation of high quality wood working and tool evidence.

Twelve elements were worked to chisel points with a further three possible chisel points also present. Chisel points are defined as worked ends which are cut down one surface of the stem only (O’Sullivan 1996, 293). They are a very simple, straightforward form of wood working and often probably represent the strike which severed the wood from the tree or coppice (Fig. 1). Seven pieces were cut to wedge points with one additional possible wedge point. Wedge points have two cut faces which are opposing or adjacent (ibid.), they indicate a greater degree of intent than chisel points, but are still very simple to produce (Fig. 2). Two elements were cut to pencil points (Fig. 3 & 4) with one possible pencil point also present. Pencil points are worked

______26/01/2009 104 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 on three or more faces, typically completely around the diameter of the trunk (ibid.). They indicate a much higher degree of intent and the probable need for sharply pointed stakes to be driven into the ground. Finally one piece was a roundwood from one end of which a strip of wood had been torn rather than cut.

In addition to point type, the exact nature of the facets and the junctions between them was recorded where possible. The assemblage from Killescragh 22 was largely made up of brushwood and light roundwood of less than 7cm in diameter which resulted in small tool facets. Tool facets are the individual marks left by a blade on the wood. On larger elements, they can be strongly diagnostic as complete impressions of the tool, known as jam-curves, may be made. The junctions between the facets are also important as they reflect the ability of the blade to cut through the wood fibres (ibid.). Thus, clean junctions represent a sharp effective blade, with clean and stepped junctions (which occur when the tool jams) often recorded on the same element. The tool facets recorded at Killescragh 22 were both flat (nine examples) and slightly concave (seven examples) averaging approximately 4cm long x 3cm wide. The junctions between the facets were all clean or a combination of clean and stepped. The cutting angles were also recorded, these indicate the angle at which the blade was struck against the tree, with the shallowness of the angle finely reflecting the capability of the tool (ibid.). Within the assemblage the cutting angles on elements with slightly concave facets were generally shallow, between 21-40º with occasional medium examples of 45-50º. On elements with flat facets the cutting angles were all shallow with the majority between 20-35º and only one medium example of 50º.

The tool facets recorded on the worked wood from Killescragh 22 were all created using metal tools which were quite sharp, as borne out by the presence of clean facet junctions and the absence of signatures. The prevalence of shallow cutting angles also suggests sharp, effective blades wielded against the long axis of the wood. The presence of slightly concave facets cannot, unfortunately, be attributed to a specific axe type, as compression and degradation was recorded on almost all the relevant samples. One sample from Killescragh 22 retained a partial jam-curve indicating the use of a straight edged tool with slightly rounded corners (Fig. 1) and a minimum width of 4cm. It is probable that the tools used on site were axes but their exact type is unknown.

Thirteen split timbers were recovered from Killescragh 22, five were half-splits and one was radially split. Creating half or radial splits involves the same technique which utilizes the medullary rays within the tree. Medullary rays extend radially from the centre of the tree to its

______26/01/2009 105 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 outer edge and their function is to carry water and nutrients through the tree. They create natural planes of weakness in the wood and splitting a tree along these lines is an effective and relatively easy method of creating planks. Three split timbers from the assemblage were tangentially split. This involves splitting a tree across its width by cutting across, rather than with, the medullary rays. This allows for the production of wider planks, with a maximum width of the diameter of the tree, but requires far greater skill. Finally four timbers were irregularly split although one may have been a tangential and one a quarter split.

It is important to note that only four of the split timbers from Killescragh 22 had additional wood working in the form of toolmarks. The remaining elements were classified due to having been split but all were in a poor to moderate condition and many were compressed. As has been explained above, splitting particularly radial splitting utilises the medullary rays of a tree. This can, through exposure and weathering occur naturally to fallen trees and the possibility that these elements are the result of natural processes cannot be ruled out. Tangential splitting on the other hand is unlikely to occur naturally.

One split timber from Killescragh 22, (Sample No. 1, Feature 26) had two small oval perforations close to one end. These were very small measuring only 1.9cm long and 1cm wide and thus are unlikely to have been used in a load bearing capacity such as to aid towing. They could, however, represent secondary working, and have been added at a later date to assist in minor movement of the timber.

The eleven woodchips (Fig. 5) recovered from Features 3 & 6 are likely to be representative of on-site wood working.

Unworked Wood Forty-one examined samples were classified as unworked. Seven of these were clearly tree roots and one may have had a severely damaged toolmark. The nature of the unworked material was gnarly, natural and root-like. This would suggest that it derived from natural woodland, rather than managed sources and is likely to have grown in the vicinity of the site rather than having been gathered elsewhere and introduced to Killescragh 22 by human activity.

Artefacts Two wooden artefacts were recovered at Killescragh 22. Find No. F3:006 consisted of a broken fragment of finely dressed brushwood (Fig. 6). The incomplete nature of the find means that an

______26/01/2009 106 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 exact function cannot be prescribed, however, it appears to be the remains of a pin or peg of some type and could have held a variety of uses. It would have been too large and blunt to pierce through fabric but may have been used in a composite wooden construction such as a cart. Several somewhat similar objects from a crannóg at Loch Glashan in Scotland, although later in date, have been suggested as furniture components, spindles and miscellaneous pegs of multiple use (Crone & Campbell, 2005, 39-40). Parallels from Ireland include artefacts from a Late Bronze Age settlement at Clonfinlough, Co. Offaly, consisting of three wooden points of oak and ash, 17-24cm long, all with dressed surfaces, two of which had rounded heads (Moloney et al., 1993, 123-5). Very similar to the Killescragh 22 find is a piece of finely dressed yew brushwood excavated at Tomisky, Co. Longford. Slightly more formal were the pommel- headed batons excavated in Derryville Bog, Co. Tipperary. Dating from the Iron Age these consisted of brushwood shafts with mushroom or pommel-shaped heads, the shafts of the objects being dressed with narrow elongated facets (Buckley et al., 2005, 315).

The second wooden artefact examined was Find No. F3:007 (Fig. 7). This is a highly unusual object, strongly resembling a pick-axe or mattock blade. Examination of the artefact by Dr Ingelsie Stuijts as confirmed that the central hole is a natural feature and that while no toolmarks are visible, the blade portion may have been slightly rounded (I. Stuijts pers. comm.). There are no known parallels for this object but it is conceivable that its natural shape was exploited and that it was hafted and used as a digging tool. A wooden pick of Bronze Age date was found at the Mount Gabriel mining complex (Waddell 2000, 139), this utilised a fork in the tree rather than having been deliberately shaped and hafted, however, it does illustrate the practice of exploiting the natural shapes of wood.

Comment on the wood species Forty-three pieces of wood from Killescragh 22 were examined by Ms Susan Lyons MSc with a further 23 pieces identified by Dr Ingelise Stuijts. The most frequently encountered species was ash of which 27 examples were found, 12 of which were worked. Ash is a dryland tree, which in conjunction with oak forms the primary forest canopy (Nelson & Walsh 1993, 141). The ash samples from Killescragh 23 include woodchips, brushwood, roundwoods and split timbers from a variety of features including a platform. Ash works easily and is generally prized for its attractive grain, especially when turned. Its inclusion within platforms is unlikely to be due to aesthetics, however, it is certain that this wood did not grow on site and was sourced

______26/01/2009 107 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Ltd E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 elsewhere. The inclusion of ash woodchips in Features 3 & 6, described as layers of peat and gravel, suggests that some working of these species was carried out on site.

Seven pieces of hazel, three worked, were identified from Features 13, 14 & 15, two were pegs from Feature 14. Hazel is abundant all over Ireland and grows particularly well in heavy lime rich soils (ibid., 71). It is very suitable for coppicing which produces long, straight yet pliable rods. Hazel is commonly found on archaeological sites incorporated into woven structures such as wattle or hurdles. Its use for pegs in the platform, Feature 14 could indicate woodland management with long, straight coppiced pieces deliberately chosen for this function.

Fourteen pieces of alder one of root and two which were worked, were identified from Killescragh 22. These were recovered from Features 14 & 15, both described as platform timbers east and west of Feature 13. Alder is a wetland species commonly found on bog or lake margins and is extremely durable in water. Its use at Killescragh is likely to be due to its growth in the vicinity, although its properties as laid out above may have also played a part in its selection.

Willow was identified four times, one piece was a woodchip from Feature 3, a peat layer which also contained ash woodchips. The second was a well worked piece of brushwood from Feature 6, a layer of gravel and the final two were pegs from the platform Feature 14. Willow favours wet conditions but not peaty soils, thus it often colonises lowlands and river banks (Stuijts 2005, 143). Its inclusion at Killescragh 22 is therefore not surprising.

Four pieces of elm were recorded from Killescragh 22, three were from the platform Feature 14, and two of these were described pegs. The fourth piece was identified from Feature 15. Elm is a rare occurrence on archaeological sites as approximately 5000 years ago there was a dramatic drop in the amount of elm in Ireland (Nelson & Walsh 1993, 231). This has been attributed largely to an epidemic of Dutch elm disease although some of its decline may be due to the advent of farming and land clearance (ibid.). Elm grows on fertile, well drained soils and so is unlikely to have been growing on site at Killescragh 22.

Two pieces of pine were found in Features 15 & 37. Pine was common in Ireland until the growth of the raised bogs (c.6000 years ago), which encompassed many pine forests. It is a characteristic species of the transition of fen wood to raised bog (Stuijst 2005, 141) and thus may have been growing locally at Killescragh 22. It is strong wood and traditionally was used in buildings and joinery (ibid.). Its selection for the possible tool, Find No. F3:007 may be due in part to this quality.

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Feature 26 consisted of a split timber of oak, like ash oak is a dryland species and its presence in an essentially wetland context indicates the gathering of wood from a primary forest located off-site. One piece of wild cherry was identified from Feature 15. This is also likely to have been imported to the site as it grows on well drained fertile soils (ibid.). Finally Find No. F3:006 was identified as yew, a species that will grow on almost any soil (ibid., 145). Yew is an attractive wood, very durable and prized for it elastic qualities.

The species identified from Killescragh 22 are a mixture of trees likely to have been growing on or very close to the site, and those which were gathered elsewhere. Killescragh 22 lay in a shallow peat basin the bottom of which was dominated by wood rich peat with multiple species present (Bermingham 2007). It is likely that at least some of the identified pieces of wood were sourced on site and in particular the unworked material may represent non-archaeological wood.

References Bermingham, N. 2007. Modelling the wetland at Killescragh, Co. Galway & environmental reconstruction of an archaeological landscape. Unpublished report commissioned by CRDS Ltd. Buckley, L. Cross May, S. Gregory, N. Murray, C. Ó Néill, J. Roche, H. & Stevens, P. 2005 in The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996-8. Wordwell, Bray. Crone, A. & Campbell, E. 2005. A crannóg of the 1st millennium AD: Excavations by Jack Scott at Loch Glashan, Argyll, 1960. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Edinburgh. Lyons, S. 2007. Wood identifications from the archaeological excavations along the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Bypass. Unpublished report submitted to CRDS Ltd. Moloney, A. Jennings, D. Keane, M. & McDermott, C. 1993. Excavations at Clonfinlough County Offaly. Trans. Irish Archaeol. Wetland Unit 2, Crannóg Publications, Dublin. O’Sullivan. A. 1996. Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age Woodworking techniques, in Raftery, B. ed Trackway excavations in the Mountdillon Bogs, Co. Longford. Trans. Irish Archaeol. Wetland Unit 3, 291-343. Crannóg Publications, Dublin. Stuijts, I. 2005. Wood and charcoal identification, in Buckley et al (eds.) The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996-8. Wordwell, Bray. Waddell, J. 2000. The prehistoric archaeology of Ireland. Wordwell, Bray.

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Table 2. Worked wooden remains from Killescragh 22 Sample Feature Element Condition L W D Diam Point Classification Description Comments Species No No Type (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 19 3 Roundwood Poor 20 ------10 Wedge Worked end Wedge point. Approx. 16 slightly concave metal- Wood is very soft, N/A cut facets with clean & stepped junctions, max. toolmarks damaged. L4; W4cm. Max. cutting angles 45-50°, overall angle of point 45-50°. 35 3 Brushwood Moderate ------4.2 Wedge Worked end Wedge point. 2 flat metal-cut facets. Very compressed. N/A 36 3 Wood chip Moderate 8.6 6.1 1.5 N/A Chisel Wood working Wood chip. 1 flat metal-cut facet at one end cut at Salix (willow) waste 25º. 38 3 Wood chip Very poor 9.5 8 2 N/A N/A Wood working Wood chip, no toolmarks. Very eroded Fraxinus (ash) waste 39 3 Wood chip Very poor 8 3 0.8 N/A N/A Wood working Wood chip, no toolmarks. N/A waste 40 3 Wood chip Good 18.5 10 0.2- N/A N/A Wood working Wood chip-possibly radially split. One end has 6 Fraxinus (ash) 3.5 waste slightly concave metal-cut facets with clean junctions, max. L2.8; W3cm. Cut at 35º. Opposite end has 1 slightly concave facet but is damaged. Surfaces are striated and split quite crudely. 41 3 Wood chip Moderate 7.6 4.5 1.3 N/A Chisel Wood working Wood chip. 4 flat metal-cut facets with clean Fraxinus (ash) waste junctions at one end. Cut at 20º. 42 3 Wood chip Moderate 15 9 2.6 N/A Chisel Wood working Wood chip. 4 flat metal-cut facets with clean Fraxinus (ash) waste junctions at one end. Cut at 35º. 43 3 Wood chip Poor 10 7 1 N/A N/A Wood working Wood chip, no toolmarks. Fraxinus (ash) waste 49 3 Wood chip Poor 11 5 0.2 N/A N/A Wood working Wood chip, no toolmarks. N/A waste 122 6 Wood chip Good 9 4 0.6 N/A Chisel Wood working Wood chip. 1 flat metal-cut facet @ one end cut Fraxinus (ash) waste at 35°. 124 6 Wood chip Good 2 1 0.2 N/A N/A Wood working Tiny wood chip, probably broken off a large piece. N/A waste 125 6 Wood chip Good 8 4 1.5 N/A Chisel Wood working Wood chip. 1 flat metal-cut facet @ one end cut Fraxinus (ash) waste at 20°.

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Sample Feature Element Condition L W D Diam Point Classification Description Comments Species No No Type (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 126 6 Brushwood Moderate 18 ------4 Wedge Worked end Wedge point. 2 adjacent faces with 6 slightly Slightly compressed. Salix (willow) concave metal-cut facets with clean & stepped junctions, max. L2; W2.6cm. Max. cutting angles 40-45°, overall angle of point 40°. 127 6 Radial split Moderate 6 4 2 N/A Wedge Worked end The very tip of a wedge point, no tool evidence as Fraxinus (ash) such. 202 11 Brushwood Moderate ------N/A Stake Unworked N/A 204 11 Brushwood Moderate ------N/A Stake Unworked N/A 205 11 Brushwood Moderate ------N/A Stake Unworked N/A 58 13 Brushwood Moderate 14 N/A N/A 5 Wedge Worked end Wedge point. 4-5 flat metal-cut facets with clean Compressed Fraxinus (ash) junctions, max. L5; W3cm. Max. cutting angle 30°, overall angle of point 20°. 81 13 Half-split Moderate 420 19-24 7-13 N/A N/A Split timber Split timber. Basically a half-split which is slightly Fraxinus (ash) irregular increasing in width/depth towards one end. Both ends are soft and worn. 93 13 Brushwood Moderate 39 ------4 Pencil Worked end Pencil point. 10 slightly concave metal-cut facets Slightly compressed Corylus (hazel) with clean & stepped junctions, max L6; W1.5cm. Worked on 3 adjacent faces with a portion unworked. Max. cutting angle 30°, overall angle of point 25°. 98 13 Brushwood Good 16.5 ------5.2 Wedge Worked end Wedge point. 5 slightly concave facets with clean Slightly compressed. Corylus (hazel) junctions, max. L4; W2.2cm. Max. cutting angle 35°, overall angle of point 30-35°. 90% bark intact. 140 13 Roundwood Good 33 ------7 Chisel Stake Chisel point. 5 slightly concave metal-cut facets Corylus (hazel) with clean & stepped junctions, max. L7; W3cm. 1 partial jam-curve showing a flat edged tool with a slightly rounded corner 4cm min. wide. Max. cutting angles 30-32°, overall angle of point 30°. 50% bark. 31 14 Brushwood Poor ------Chisel- Worked end Possible chisel point made with a metal tool Very N/A possible compressed/rounded

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Sample Feature Element Condition L W D Diam Point Classification Description Comments Species No No Type (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 103 20 Half-split Moderate 68 30 20 N/A N/A Split timber Large piece of split timber, broken at both ends. N/A Split surface is flat but no toolmarks remain. 144 14 Brushwood Good 25 N/A N/A 5.7 Pencil Worked end Pencil point. 9 slightly concave metal-cut facets Slightly compressed N/A with clean junctions, max. L7.2; W2.8cm. Max. cutting angle 30°, overall angle of point 30°. 147 14 Roundwood Moderate ------Wedge- Worked end Possible wedge point Very N/A possible compressed/rounded 148 14 Roundwood Poor ------Chisel- Worked end Possible chisel point made with a metal tool Very eroded N/A possible 157 33 Half-split Moderate 243 N/A N/A 12 N/A Split timber Roundwood, broken in 8 pieces. Split is quite Could be natural or N/A uneven and there is no real wood working compressed evidence. 163 14 Roundwood Poor ------20 Chisel Worked end Chisel point. Worked face 22cm long with multiple Fraxinus (ash) facets but heavily eroded and damaged. 164 14 Roundwood Poor ------6.5 Chisel Stake Chisel point. Totally degraded and collapsed. N/A 174 14 Radial split Moderate 16.5 2-4 1.5-2 N/A N/A Split timber Small split timber fragment, with smooth worn Alnus (alder) surfaces. Possibly a post tip. 177 48/14 Half-split Poor 36 27 9 N/A N/A Split timber Fragment of large split timber, broken at both N/A ends. Split surface is slightly concave. 178 14 Brushwood Moderate ------N/A Stake Unworked N/A 179 14 Brushwood Good 21 N/A N/A 4.5 N/A Stake Unworked Quite natural looking, N/A knotty. 181 14 Brushwood Poor ------4 Chisel- Stake Chisel point. Totally worn/compressed. N/A possible 182 14 Brushwood Moderate ------N/A Stake Unworked N/A 183 14 Brushwood Poor ------3.5 Pencil- Worked end Possible wood working is very worn. N/A possible 189 14 Brushwood Poor ------3 Chisel Stake Chisel point. Totally degraded and collapsed. N/A 190 14 Roundwood Moderate ------5.5 Torn Worked end Light roundwood with long tear on one side. N/A 191 14 Brushwood Poor ------5 Wedge Stake Wedge point. Cut with a metal tool but is N/A broken/incomplete.

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Sample Feature Element Condition L W D Diam Point Classification Description Comments Species No No Type (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 192 14 Roundwood Moderate ------5.5 Chisel Stake Chisel point. 4-5 metal-cut facets with clean N/A junctions. Cut at 30º. 195 14 Brushwood Moderate ------3.2 N/A Split Small fragment of split brushwood. N/A 106 15 Irregular split Moderate 15 4 4.5 N/A Chisel Split timber Irregularly split timber. One end cut with 4 flat Alnus (alder) metal-cut facets with clean & stepped junctions, max. L2.8; W2cm. Max. cutting angle 40º, overall angle of point 40º. 55 17 Tangential Moderate 62 17 7.5 N/A N/A Split timber Tangential split-probably an outer but incomplete. Slightly Fraxinus (ash) split compressed/eroded 58a 17 Irregular split Moderate 30 9 5.5 N/A N/A Split timber Irregular split timber, possibly an inner tangential Slightly compressed Fraxinus (ash) with no toolmarks remaining 58c 17 Irregular split Very poor 26 12 6 N/A N/A Split timber Irregularly split timber, possibly a quarter split Very compressed, not Fraxinus (ash) with no toolmarks remaining sub-sampled due to condition. 101 21 Roundwood Very poor 82 ------9 Chisel Worked end Chisel point. 3 very compressed facets. N/A 102 21 Radial split Very poor 11 3 1 N/A N/A Stake Radially split stake N/A 158 22 Irregular split Poor 14 3 1 N/A N/A Split timber Irregularly split fragment, probably broken from a N/A larger timber. 1 26 Tangential Moderate 1985 46.6 2-5.5 --- N/A Split timber Inner tangential timber, probably the 2nd split. Quercus (oak) split One end is cut at 50° with a single flat metal toolmark, the opposite is cut at 90°. Close to one end are 2 oval perforations L1.9; W1cm. Wood is quite soft and degraded. 157 33 Half-split Poor 38 9 5 N/A N/A Split timber Half-split which may have been naturally formed N/A by weathering/erosion. N/A N/A Tangential Moderate 28 23 4 N/A N/A Split timber Half an inner tangential. Very well split but no No locational information N/A split surface dressing. Intact end cut at 50º, toolmarks very eroded.

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Figure 1: Sample 140, Feature 13 Chisel point with slightly concave facets, clean & stepped junctions and a partial jam- curve

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Figure 2: Sample 98, Feature 13 Wedge point with slightly concave facets and clean junctions

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Figure 3: Sample 93, Feature 13 Pencil point with slightly concave facets and clean & stepped junctions

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Figure 4: Sample 144, Feature 14 Pencil point with slightly concave facets and clean junctions

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Figure 5: Sample 40, Feature 3 Wood chip with slightly concave facets and clean junctions

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Figure 6: F3:006 Dressed brushwood peg

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Figure 7: F3:007 Wooden artefact

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Appendix 12 Wood Identification Report Susan Lyons

1. Introduction In September 2007 a total of 118 wood pieces from three sites excavated by CRDS Ltd along the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Bypass were submitted to Susan Lyons for wood species identification.

This report lists the wood species identified from Killescragh E2071 (42 wood fragments), Killescragh E2070 (67 wood fragments) and A024/17 (9 wood fragments).

2. Methodology Wood identifications were undertaken in accordance with Section 25 of the National Monuments Act, 1930, as amended by Section 20 of the National Monuments Amendment Act 1994, to alter an archaeological object.

The wood fragments were washed and visually examined for the presence of bark or any other obvious external features. No root material was identified. Thin slices where cut from the material with a razor blade to obtain the three planes [transverse, radial and tangential sections] necessary for microscopic wood identification.

The thin sections were mounted onto a glass slide with a temporary water medium and sealed with a cover slip. Identifications and ring counts were conducted under a transmitted light microscope and viewed at magnifications of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x where applicable.

Wood identifications were made using wood reference slides and wood keys devised by Schweingruber (1978) and the IAWA wood identification manuals (Wheeler, Bass & Gasson, 1989).

3. Results

The wood identification results from Killescragh E2071 are presented in Tables 1.

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References

Schweingruber, F H, 1978 Microscopic wood anatomy. Birmensdorf

Wheeler, E A, Baas, P & Gasson, P E, 1989 IAWA List of Microscopic Features for Hardwood Identification. International Association of Wood Anatomists, Leiden, Netherlands

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Table 1. Wood Species Identifications from E2071 Killescragh Y = bark/sapwood present N = no bark/sapwood present

Sample number Feature number Wood Species Diameter (mm) No. of Growth Rings Bark/Sapwood Comments 93 13 Corylus avellana (hazel) 42mm 21 rings Y 126 6 Salix sp. (willow) 40mm 18 rings N 122 6 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 22mm 21 rings N 125 6 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 25mm (radius) 9 rings N 127 6 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 36mm 25 rings N Growth rings very narrow (0.2mm) 35 3 - - - - Not present 36 3 Salix sp. (willow) 11mm (radius) 21 rings N 38 3 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 15mm (radius) 18 rings N 41 3 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 10mm (radius) 8 rings N 42 3 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 15mm (radius) 29 rings N 43 3 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 13mm (radius) 13 rings N 58 17 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 109mm 32 rings N 208 13 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 137mm 56 rings N 58 13 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 45mm 20 rings N 174 14 Alnus sp. (alder) 31mm (radius) 27 rings N 55 17 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 132mm 43 rings N 106 15 Alnus sp. (alder) 46mm (radius) 34 rings N Subsampled pegs 14 Ulmus sp. (elm) 30mm 24 rings Y Ulmus sp. (elm) 43mm 28 rings Y Corylus avellana (hazel) 31mm 16 rings Y Ring width up to 2mm wide Corylus avellana (hazel) 65mm 15 rings N Ring width up to 2mm wide Salix sp. (willow) 49mm 23 rings Y Salix sp. (willow) 36mm 19 rings N Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 65mm 42 rings Y Alnus sp. (alder) 55mm 28 rings N 99 20 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 154mm 65 rings N 1 26 Quercus sp. (oak) 450mm 100 + rings Sapwood Subsamples of F14 wood 14 Corylus avellana (hazel) 50mm 19 rings N Corylus avellana (hazel) 35mm 14 rings N

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Sample number Feature number Wood Species Diameter (mm) No. of Growth Rings Bark/Sapwood Comments Corylus avellana (hazel) 25mm 18 rings N Subsamples of F14 wood 14 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 22mm 9 rings N Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 59mm 21 rings N Root disturbance Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 56mm 26 rings N Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 81mm 41 rings N Growth rings very narrow (0.2mm) Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 89mm 46 rings N Growth rings very narrow (0.2mm) Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 101mm 24 rings N Ring width up to 3mm wide Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 115mm 51 rings N Growth rings very narrow (0.2mm) Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 111mm 48 rings N Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 124mm 65 rings N Ulmus sp. (elm) 96mm 40 rings Y Root disturbance Alnus sp. (alder) 60mm 24 rings N 121 37 Pinus sylvestris (scot's pine) 50mm (radius) 33 rings Y 81 13 Fraxinus excelsior (ash) 226mm 48 rings N Ring width up to 3-4mm wide

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Appendix 13 Lithic Report Dermot G. Moore

Abstract A small assemblage of chert numbering 16 pieces, of which seven were natural, was retrieved from Site E2071. While the material was retrieved from a series of deposits associated with a burnt mound and a track-way, the nature of the assemblage would indicate possible prehistoric activity dating to the Neolithic – Bronze Age defined by the chert primary knapping debris, a single modified piece and an endscraper.

Introduction Sixteen pieces of chert were recovered from Site E2071 in Killescragh townland. All were recovered from archaeological contexts, although seven pieces were natural chert.

The Chert Assemblage The chert assemblage comprised a range of knapping debris, two modified pieces and a number of natural chert chunks.

Chert core A single irregular core (E2071:6:1) which measured 69mm x 54mmx 25mm was identified. Despite being a naturally shattered piece, one good flake scar was evident on one face.

Chert Flakes Five chert flakes, three of which were broken, were identified ranging in length from 34mm – 39mm with a corresponding breadth range of 38mm – 67mm. Four of the flakes retained planar platforms indicating hard hammer percussion as the method of reduction.

One flake (E2071:27:2) was a large irregular example with two good dorsal flake scars. Of note was the flaking on the ventral distal edge either to create a stronger edge or likely to remove the outer weathered chert 'skin'. A second regular chert flake also displayed good evidence of dorsal flake scars. A single small flake fragment was also identified.

Chert chunks

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Four irregular natural laminar pieces of chert derived originally from the local glacial till were also recovered as were three natural chert-limestone chunks.

End + 1 side scraper A single fine large chert endscraper (E2071:27:1) made on a regular flake, which measured 49mm x 43mmx 13mm, and which displayed dorsal flake/blade scars was the only example identified. The secondary working located on the dorsal distal end consisted of fine semi-steep flaking and nibbling. Secondary working consisting of steeper and finer flaking/nibbling also occurred along the full length of the right lateral dorsal edge.

Simple modified flake The simple modified piece (E2071:3:1) consisted of a good regular chert flake with evidence of dorsal flake scars, which measured 31mm x 36mm x 11mm, indicating it was removed from a well-worked core. It exhibited secondary working in the form of fine nibbling of the dorsal right lateral edge.

Summary The small assemblage of chert recovered from a series of burnt mound structures and features at the site of Killescragh suggests a prehistoric presence. As the eight pieces of primary manufacturing chert debris and two modified piece were relatively undiagnostic, the material cannot be specifically assigned to a narrow chronological period based on the forms of tools recovered (Woodman and Scannell 1999; Woodman 1994; Moore 1999). However, based on the general form and type of knapping techniques and secondary working on the end scraper and simple modified flake, it is suggested that a broad date range in the Neolithic – Bronze Age is most likely.

The recovery of the material with structures and deposits associated with a burnt mound would indicate a date in the latter part of the period. Comparable assemblages of rather undiagnostic implements occur on a number of burnt mound sites such as Coolavally in county Mayo (Ryan 1996) and a small amount of lithic material occurs associated with an undated track-way at Boherageela, county Limerick excavated on the Limerick gas pipeline (Gowen 1988).

In conclusion, the small lithic assemblage from Killescragh provides a range of artefacts associated with general domestic activities. The identification of a small amount of chert

______26/01/2009 126 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 primary knapping debris, a single modified piece and an endscraper attest to a prehistoric presence likely during the latter part of the Bronze Age.

References Gowen, M. 1988. Three Irish Gas Pipelines: New Archaeological Evidence in Munster. Wordwell, Dublin.

Moore, D. G. 1999. Analysis of the Lithic Assemblages from Early Prehistoric Sites along the South Antrim Coast. Unpublished MPhil Thesis (QUB).

Ryan, F. 1997. Coolavally: Fulacht fiadh p. 83, in Bennett, I. (ed.), Excavations 1996: Summary Accounts of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland. Wicklow: Wordwell.

Woodman, P. C. and Scannell, M. 1993. A Context for the Lough Gur Lithics. pp. 53-62 in Shee Twohig, E. and Ronayne, M. (eds.), Past Perceptions: The Prehistoric Archaeology of South-west Ireland. Cork: University Press.

Woodman, P. C. 1994. Towards a definition of Irish Early Neolithic Lithic Assemblages. pp. 213-218 in Ashton, N. and David, A. (eds.), Stories in Stone: Proceedings of Anniversary Conference at St. Hilda’s College, Oxford. Lithics Studies Occasional Papers 4. London: Lithics Studies Society.

______26/01/2009 127 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 plat dpl wpl wt broken Find No. Feat. No. Bag. No. find description mat char modified obj-class mod-obj- type coreclass fresh cond col cort len brd thk 1 3 2 good regular chert flake with evidence of dorsal flake scars. The piece 2 1 1 simple flake 1 1 11 3 31 36 11 1 5 n/a exhibits fine nibbling of the dorsal right lateral edge modified 2 3 2 small flake portion? - duplicate number 2 1 2 flake 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a 4 6 n/a n/a yes 3 3 2 chert-limestone natural chunk 23 4 2 chunk natural 2 2 11 3 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 4 3 2 chert-limestone natural chunk 23 4 2 chunk natural 2 2 11 3 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 5 3 2 chert-limestone natural chunk 23 4 2 chunk natural 2 2 11 3 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 1 6 13 possible irregular core although this may be natural. Despite being a naturally 2 3 2 core 8 1 1 11 3 69 54 25 6 n/a n/a shattered piece, one good flake scar is evident on one face. 1 11 1 natural laminar piece of chert 2 4 2 chunk natural 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a n/a 6 n/a n/a 2 11 1 natural laminar piece of chert 2 4 2 chunk natural 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a n/a 6 n/a n/a 3 11 1 natural laminar piece of chert 2 4 2 chunk natural 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a n/a 6 n/a n/a 1 27 6 fine large chert endscraper made on a regular flake with dorsal flake/blade 2 1 1 scraper end + 1 1 1 11 3 49 43 13 1 14 17 scars. The secondary working is located on the dorsal distal end consists of side fine semi-steep flaking and nibbling. Secondary working also occurs along the full length of the right lateral dorsal edge and it consists of steeper and finer flaking/nibbling 2 27 6 large irregular flake with two good dorsal flake scars. Also of note is the 2 1 1 flake flaked 1 1 11 3 34 67 10 1 9 34 flaking on the ventral distal edge either to create an edge or likely to remove the outer weathered chert 'skin' 3 27 6 regular chert flake with good evidence of dorsal flake scars 2 1 2 flake 1 1 11 3 39 38 9 1 3 16 1 28 9 broken irregular chert flake - large 2 1 2 flake 1 1 11 3 n/a 59 8 1 5 20 yes 2 28 9 broken irregular chert flake - small 2 1 2 flake 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a 7 1 6 n/a yes 3 28 9 natural laminar piece of chert 2 4 2 chunk natural 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a n/a 6 n/a n/a 4 28 9 small flake fragment 2 8 2 fragment 1 1 11 3 n/a n/a n/a 6 n/a n/a

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Appendix 14 Small Finds Report

Only one find was recovered from the site Killescragh E2071. This iron object is a hinge and is modern in date.

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Appendix 15 Animal Bone Report Dr Nóra Bermingham

Introduction

The faunal remains, which are the subject of this report, were recovered during the excavation of a burnt mound in the townland of Killescragh, Co. Galway (Ministerial Direction E2071). The site is undated but given its classification as a burnt mound is presumed to be Bronze Age in date (Waddell 1998). Two contexts, F11 and F22, yielded animal bone. F11 represents the burnt mound and F22 represents a natural peat horizon (Curran 2006). Identifications were made with reference to Schmid (1972) and Hillson (1992). A simple fragment count was used to quantify the assemblage.

Results

Species/ Element Cattle Goat femur - 1 metatarsal - 2 atlas - 1 axis - 1 rib - 18 horn -1 - 1 Skull/ skull fragments 1 5 mandible - 2 maxialla - 1 Total Fragments 1 32 Total weight (g) 16 1053

Table 1: Species/element representation and assemblage weight in grams.

The assemblage is small, comprising thirty-three fragments of bone and teeth with a total weight of 1069g. Two species are represented, cattle and goat (Table 1). Goat is represented by an incomplete skeleton of a single individual. The state of epiphyseal fusion on the long bones present indicates the animal was a juvenile, less than one year old. Four ribs from this skeleton show cut marks suggesting the animal was perhaps skinned prior to insertion in the mound F11. The bones were well preserved suggesting the skeleton represents a later insertion in the mound rather than a contemporaneous deposit. The fragment of cattle bone retrieved derives from a skull. It was recovered from F22, a natural peat horizon that pre-dates the burnt mound F11. It may not, therefore, be directly associated with the mound or use of the site itself or it may represent material which sank into the peat.

Discussion

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Typically, where animal bone has been recovered in association with burnt mounds it is in small amounts (Monk 2007). Such small quantities allow an indication of the sorts of animals likely to have been exploited, though shed little light on the function of the sites. In this case, however, the animal bone retrieved, specifically the goat skeleton, does not appear to be contemporaneous with the mound or other archaeological features at E2071. The cattle bone recovered suggest cattle were exploited in the area in prehistory but the assemblage is too small to draw any reliable conclusions.

Animal bone was also recovered from a neighbouring burnt mound in Killescragh (E2070) and from burnt mounds in nearby Caraun More (A024/17, A024/20 & A024/30). Cattle, pig, sheep/goat, dog, horse and red deer were identified (Bermingham 2007a-d). This group of assemblages shows that both domestic and wild animals were exploited, though the nature or intensity of that exploitation may not be inferred from these collections owing to the small quantity of bones involved. The small assemblage sizes may be a function of preservation or may show, that for the most part the slaughter and butchery of animals, and the consumption of meat took place off-site. This may also explain the apparent absence of animal bone from the site at E2071.

References Bermingham, N. 2007a The Animal Bones from the Burnt Mound E2070, Killescragh, Co. Galway. Unpublished report for CRDS Ltd.

Bermingham, N. 2007b The animal bones from the burnt mound A024/17, Caraun More, Co. Galway. Unpublished report for CRDS Ltd.

Bermingham, N. 2007c The Animal Bones from the Burnt Mound A024/20, Caraun More, Co. Galway. Unpublished report for CRDS Ltd.

Bermingham, N. 2007d The Animal Bones from the Burnt Mound A024/30, Caraun More, Co. Galway. Unpublished report for CRDS Ltd.

Curran, K. 2006 Preliminary Report on the Excavation of a Burnt Mound at Killescragh E2070. Unpublished report for CRDS Ltd.

Hillson, S. 1992 Mammal Bones and Teeth. An Introductory Guide to Methods of Identification. London: Institute of Archaeology.

Monk, M. 2007 A greasy subject. Archaeology Ireland. 21 (1), 22-24.

Schmid, E. 1972 Atlas of Animal Bones. Amsterdam, London, New York: Elsevier.

Waddell, J. 1998. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press.

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Appendix 16 Palynological Assessment Dr Benjamin R. Gearey

Summary This report details the palynological assessment of two sediment sequences (referred to as Killescragh 160 and 161) from the site of Killescragh, Ireland. Six samples were assessed from K160 and five from K161. Pollen preservation and concentration was generally good but it is regarded as probable that the pollen records are heavily biased towards vegetation growing on and in close vicinity to the site. Both sequences show that sedge-dominated fen was prevalent at the site, and appears to have replaced pre-peat vegetation consisting of hazel-pine woodland. There is evidence for human activity in the pollen catchment in the form of the record of ribwort plantain whilst later reductions in tree and shrub pollen in K161 may be a result of human activity, but other fluctuations in herbaceous taxa in both sequences probably reflect local vegetation dynamics on the wetland surface. Further more detailed work supported by radiocarbon dating is possible but the value of such work may be regarded as low.

KEYWORDS: Pollen analysis, vegetation change, palaeoenvironments, Ireland

1. Introduction Two sediment sequences (Killescragh 160 and 161 – henceforth referred to K160 and 161) were sampled during an archaeological excavation. These sequences were recovered using monolith tins and submitted to BA-E for palynological assessment to determine the nature and quality of pollen preservation, implications for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and to assess the potential for further more detailed work of this kind.

2. Methods 2.1 Pollen Analysis Subsamples for pollen were extracted at 0.16m intervals (6 from K160 and 5 from K161). Pollen preparation followed standard procedures including HF treatment and acetylation (Moore et al., 1991). At least 125 total land pollen grains (TLP) excluding aquatics and spores were counted for each sample where possible. However, pollen concentrations were found to be too low for reliable counts in the following samples: K160, 0.87m and K161, 0.40m. These data are therefore not plotted on the pollen diagram (Fig. 1 and 2). Pollen nomenclature follows Moore et al. (1991), with the modifications suggested by Bennett et al. (1994). The pollen sum is based on percentage of total land pollen (TLP) excluding obligate aquatics and spores. ______26/01/2009 132 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Percentages for these excluded groups are calculated as percentage of the basic sum plus sum of the relevant group.

3. Results The data are plotted as pollen diagrams for each sequence (Fig. 1 – K160 and Fig. 2 – K161) produced using the computer programmes TILIA and TILIA*GRAPH (Grimm 1991). Given the relatively low number of samples and the absence of pronounced fluctuations in the pollen spectra, these diagrams have not been divided into ‘pollen assemblage zones’. All percentages are TLP unless otherwise stated.

3.1 Killescragh 160 (Fig. 1) Pollen concentrations were assessed as moderate to high for all samples except that from 0.40m, which contained very low numbers of palynomorphs. Preservation was generally good to moderate.

The basal part of the diagram (0.560.72m) is dominated by trees and shrubs; with the latter represented by Corylus avellana-type (20-35%). This is likely to represent Corylus (hazel) although the local presence of Myrica gale (sweet gale) is possible. Pinus sylvestris (Scots’ pine) is initially well represented (40%) but decreases to 20% at 0.56m at which point a low peak in Alnus glutinosa (10%) is recorded. Betula also decreases across the same samples from c.20% to <5%. Herbaceous taxa in the form of Poaceae (wild grasses) and Cyperaceae (sedges) also increase from the base of the diagram. Trace values (<1%) for other herbs including Apiaceae (carrot family), Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain), Cereal-type and Filipendula (meadowsweet) are apparent. The ferns Pteropsida (indeterminate fern spores) and Polypodium (common polypody) also expand across the two lowest samples, whilst Osmunda regalis (royal fern) and Equisetum (horsetail ferns) are also recorded at trace values in the lowermost sample.

The main feature of the upper section of the diagram is a marked increase in Cyperaceae to c. 80% and a concomitant reduction in the arboreal taxa, with Corylus, Alnus, Pinus and Betula all reduced to <5% by the uppermost sample. Despite the expansion in Cyperaceae, Poaceae percentages remain low (c.5%) and few other herbs are recorded aside from low values for Lactuceae undiff. (dandelions etc.) and Rumex (sorrels). Likewise, the fern taxa Pteropsida and Polypodium decline in the upper section of the diagram.

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3.2 Killescragh 161(Fig. 2) Pollen concentrations were assessed as moderate to high for all samples except that from 0.87m, which contained very low numbers of palynomorphs and is thus not plotted on the diagram. Preservation was generally good to moderate.

The pollen spectra show little variation until the upper half of the diagram. Between 0.72 and 0.24m, herbs account for 75%, of which Cyperaceae accounts for c.55-60%, and Poaceae 15%. Other herbs including Lactuceae, Ranunculaceae (buttercups), Filipendula, Rubiaceae (bedstraw family) and Rumex are present in low quantities, with the best-represented P.lanceolata reaching up to 5% at 0.56m. Cereal-type pollen is recorded at 0.40 and 0.56m. Other than Pinus sylvestris, Corylus avellana-type (both c.10%), Alnus and Salix (maximum c. 5%), trees and shrubs are poorly represented.

A pronounced peak in Poaceae (60%) and associated drop in Cyperaceae is apparent at 0.24m, although there is little change in the other taxa other than a peak in Sphagnum. This is reversed in the uppermost sample at 0.08m with Cyperaceae recovering to c.50% and Poaceae falling to 30%. Plantago lanceolata also peaks at c.10%. Reductions in Corylus and Pinus are also observed at this point, both of which decline to trace values (<1%).

4. Interpretation 4.1 Interpretation: Killescragh 160 This sequence indicates a transition from mixed woodland with hazel, pine and birch at the base of the sequence to an open sedge dominated environment. This initial woodland may have been fairly dense (trees and shrubs account for 80% TLP), with few understorey herbs recorded but a rich fern flora present suggesting shady, undisturbed conditions. The presence of royal and horsetail ferns suggest damp, fen like habitats. Following the onset of peat accumulation at the base of the diagram it would appear that sufficient areas of land around the sampling site remained dry enough for wood/scrubland to persist although the increase in alder at 0.56m would suggest the expansion of this tree onto the wetter soils, apparently at the expense of birch and pine. The marked increase in sedges alongside the demise of the local arboreal components of the vegetation above 0.40m suggests significantly wetter conditions and the expansion of sedge fen on and around the sampling location. By the close of the diagram trees must have been excluded entirely from the near vicinity. There is no evidence that the reduction in woodland was a result of anything other than natural processes of

______26/01/2009 134 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 paludification. The only ‘anthropogenic indicator’ (sensu Behre 1981) recorded is ribwort plantain and the low percentages of this species indicate either very limited open areas in the woodland nearby or perhaps more extensive cleared or grassy habitats at some distance from the sampling site. Although Cereal-type pollen is recorded it is likely this derives from a wild grass such as Glyceria spp. (sweet grasses) rather than a cultivated grass. The low percentages for herbs including ribwort plantain, dandelions and sorrels apparent towards the top of the diagram reflect some open grassy places in the pollen catchment, although again if these habitats were the result of or maintained by human agency, such activity cannot have been too intensive nearby. In any case, it is likely that the pollen record is strongly biased towards the on-site vegetation meaning that extra-local or regional vegetation changes are not well resolved in this sequence.

4.2 Interpretation: Killescragh 161 The lower segment of the diagram (below 0.24m) indicates a wet, open sedge dominated environment with little local tree and shrub cover other than some pine and hazel, and perhaps birch, alder and willow. Such tree cover cannot have been too extensive nearby or was perhaps more prevalent at some distance from the sampling site. There is evidence for open situations in the landscape on drier soils, with percentages of ribwort plantain sufficient to indicate grassy areas, perhaps created and maintained by humans. The grass curve may reflect such open areas but local wetland grasses such as Phragmites (common reed) might also be contributing. Other herbs such as meadowsweet, bedstraw and sorrels suggest damp meadow/pasture habitats. The records of cereal-type pollen at 0.72m and 0.56m might indicate some arable plots in the pollen catchment, but there are no other herbs typical of cultivated fields recorded, and derivation from wild grasses as discussed above cannot be ruled out.

The peak in Poaceae and marked drop in Cyperaceae indicates a significant increase in grasses on and around the sampling site at the expense of sedges. It is likely that this reflects on site vegetation dynamics possibly associated with localised hydrological changes, perhaps also reflected in the concomitant peak in Sphagnum.

The close of the diagram sees a re-expansion of sedges and a slight reduction in grasses. In this case, there is also evidence for an opening up in the dryland vegetation tree cover, with both pine and hazel and the other arboreal components disappearing from the record and ribwort plantain increasing to its highest value for the diagram. There are no pronounced

______26/01/2009 135 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 increases in the other herbs at this point. Taken collectively, the data suggest some anthropogenic disturbance to the woodland communities leading to an expansion in open, grassy areas. This may well be coincidental with a further change in the vegetation on and around the sampling site reflected in the increase in sedges.

5. Discussion It is likely that both pollen records are probably biased heavily towards the on-site vegetation, meaning that these data are good for indicating local but not regional patterns of vegetation change. Both pollen sequences reflect similar but not identical pictures of change at Killescragh. K160 records evidence for the demise of hazel-pine dominated woodland and its replacement by sedge fen, whilst a sedge-dominated environment with little woodland cover is already established from the start of sediment accumulation in the K161 sequence. K160 may record a slightly earlier phase of vegetation change or alternatively the sequences might be reflecting spatial variation in vegetation across the site; these hypotheses could only be tested by radiocarbon dating of both sequences. Both diagrams do show a reduction in woodland and expansion of sedge/grass communities between 0.40 and 0.10m in K160 and 0.40 and 0.08m in K161. It is possible that both are recording the same event; again radiocarbon dating would be required to support this.

Both sequences also appear to contain some evidence for anthropogenic activity in the form of the record of ribwort plantain, although there are no other unequivocal indicators of heavily disturbed ruderal habitats. Ribwort plantain is a good indicator of open habitats and commonly increases in pollen diagrams following woodland clearance (Behre 1981). This species is better represented in K161, which again might reflect spatial variation in habitats with respect to the sampling site. If this is accepted, then it is possible that the clearance or disturbance to the woodland was closer to the K161 sampling site.

6. Recommendations for Further Analysis The preservation and concentration of pollen in both sequences is sufficient to merit further more detailed analyses whilst radiocarbon dating has the potential to produce an absolute chronology. However, the local bias to the pollen records and the apparent lack of significant fluctuations in the records means that the value of further work may be limited, unless these data are likely to add significantly to understanding of the archaeological site in its landscape context.

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6. Archive All samples and pollen residues and paper records pertaining to this work are currently stored at the University of Birmingham.

Acknowledgements Thanks to Dr Nora Bermingham for providing the Killescragh samples.

References

Behre, K-E. 1981. The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Pollen et Spores 23, 225-243.

Bennett, K.D., G. Whittington, G. & K.J. Edwards 1994. Recent plant nomenclature changes and pollen morphology in the British Isles. Quaternary Newsletter 73: 16.

Grimm, E. 1991. TILIA and TILIA*GRAPH. Illinois State Museum. Moore, P.D., J.A. Webb & M.E.Collinson 1991. Pollen Analysis. Second Edition. London: Blackwell.

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Fig. 1: Killescragh 160 Pollen Diagram: exaggeration x10

Fig. 2: Killescragh 161 Pollen Diagram: exaggeration x10

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Appendix 17 Coleoptera Report for Caraun More and Killescragh Townlands, Co. Galway Dr S.R. Davis

Methodology Insect remains were extracted using a standard paraffin flotation technique as described by Kenward et al. (1980). Briefly, the samples were disaggregated, washed over a 300 µ sieve and the residues mixed well with paraffin. The addition of cold water was followed by decanting and washing with detergent to remove excess paraffin. The resultant ‘flots’ were examined for insect remains. These were stored in denatured ethanol, and identified with reference to the collections housed in the Royal Albert Museum, Exeter and also with reference to standard entomological literature. Taxonomy follows that adopted by the computer package BugsCEP (Buckland and Buckland, 2006) which also provided invaluable assistance with ecological information. The full list of species recovered is presented in Tables 1 and 2 below.

Site E2071 Features 8, 9 and 38 represent the earliest material on the site and pre-date the minerogenic layer which possibly represents an inundation event.

Feature 8; sample 10 This sample yielded a moderate assemblage of 87 individuals from 49 taxa. An assemblage of aquatic and waterside coleoptera are present within this sample, suggesting a muddy, waterside environment. Fast water taxa are entirely absent and the overall impression is of a stagnant water body, with areas of muddy ground and lush surrounding vegetation. The presence of Donacia vulgaris indicates the presence of aquatic grasses, reeds or sedges (Duff 1993), as do Plateumaris sericea and Notaris acridulus. A number of taxa present are characteristic of vegetable refuse and flood debris, for example the staphylinids Philonthus umbratalis, Tachyporus hypnorum and Tachinus laticollis. Three dung taxa are present, two Aphodius spp., A. sphacelatus and A. ater, and Onthophagus similis, which exhibits a preference for horse dung but is known from dung of sheep, man, rabbit and fox (Koch 1989), particularly on sandy soils (Jessop 1986). Woodland taxa are again almost absent, but include the weevil Strophosoma melanogrammum, a common species of deciduous woodlands, and the staphylinid Lathrobium brunnipes which is usually found in damp, woodland locations (Duff 1993). The assemblage also includes the Garden Chafer, Phyllopertha horticola is present,

______26/01/2009 139 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 which is commonly found in poor quality pasture on light soils, often on slopes of hilly areas with high rainfall. Synanthropic taxa are entirely absent from this sample.

Feature 9; Sample 9 This sample yielded a moderate assemblage of 96 individuals of 38 taxa. Once more this sample is dominated by a similar suite of beetles typical of slow water and waterside environments, this time including the elaterid Zorochros mininus, typical of sandy and gravely river banks (Read 2002). Woodland indicators are restricted to non-obligate taxa such as L. brunnipes and the scydmaenid Stenichnus collaris. Several indicators of foul refuse are present, including the staphylinids Anotylus rugosus and Carpelimus bilineatus. Also present within this sample is an individual of the carrion beetle, Silpha tristis. However, unlike many Silpha spp. S. tristis is also found in a range of non-carrion environments, with Koch (1989) suggesting this species is typical of open ground, especially in green and fallow regions. Synanthropes are again absent and phytophages are restricted to P. phelandrii and N. acridulus. As previously, the Garden Chafer, P. horticola is present.

Feature 38; sample 82 This sample, associated with presumed in situ primary woodland (F14), provided a diverse assemblage of 180 individuals from 70 different taxa. These are once more rich in water and waterside beetles, with taxa of fast waters well represented by Hydraena flavipes and H. gracilis in addition to the elmid E. parelellopippedus. Once more, aquatic grasses are indicated by the presence of Notaris acridulus and N. bimaculatus. Unlike in previous samples, taxa of foul environments are poorly represented in this assemblage, while dung taxa are present in the form of two Aphodius sp. and an individual of Anoplotrupes stercorosus, which prefers woodland environments and has been observed making brood balls of forest litter (Hanski 1991). Synanthropic taxa are again, completely absent.

This assemblage includes a wide array of woodland and dead wood indicators. These include the staphylinids Othius punctulatus, L. brunnipes, taxa characteristic of moist deciduous woodland floors in addition to the carabids Cychrus caraboides, typical of deciduous forest on shady, moist soil rich in humus (Lindroth 1985), and Limodromus assimilis, a nocturnal woodland floor predator, which rests during the day under loose bark (Stork et al. 2001). A range of taxa characteristic of dead or decaying wood are also present, including two species of Cerylon, C. fagi and C. ferrugineum, both of which are typical of ancient broad-leaved

______26/01/2009 140 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 woodland and are found under bark and in fungus-infected wood (Hyman 1992); neither are currently recorded in Ireland. C. fagi is restricted to timber of oak or beech. Further taxa typical of fungoid wood include Cis sp. and Rhizophagus dispar, this latter being commonly found under bark and on bark fungus, usually of pine, oak or birch (Peacock 1977). Non-specific timber beetles such as G. planus are again present, and six individuals of the chrysomelid Oomorphus concolor, not currently recorder from Ireland, suggest possible growth of ivy (Hedera helix) (Koch 1992). Two further taxa not currently recorded from Ireland are present in the assemblage, the cossonine weevil Phloeophagus lignarius and the elm bark beetle, Scolytus scolytus. The former has previously been recorded in archaeological trackway deposits (Caseldine et al. 2001), however, S. scolytus, one of the scolytid vectors of Dutch Elm Disease, has not previously been recorded as fossil from Ireland. A number of taxa present within the assemblage suggest that oak was the primary component of the local woodland environment. However, other taxa are implicated, including hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), the preferred host of the staphylinid Phyllodrepa ioptera (Duff 1993) and many Anaspis sp., ash, suggested by Leperisinus fraxini and willow, upon which the weevil Curculio salicivorus depends.

This sample represents an important snapshot into a primary alluvial woodland environment, a habitat type now almost entirely lacking in W. Europe and suggests a wide diversity of both tree taxa and available ecological niches within the local environment.

Feature 22; samples 78 and 84 (F22 TRANSITIONAL HORIZON)

Sample 78 Feature 22 postdates features 8,9 and 38, may pre-date the burnt mound itself (F4) and pre- dates the uppermost peat deposits (F3).

This sample yielded a moderate assemblage of 81 individuals belonging to 41 taxa. The assemblage is suggestive of an aquatic or waterside environment, with two individuals of Oulimnius tuberculatus. suggesting local fast water. A range of woodland taxa are present, including the staphylinids Lathrobium brunnipes and Phyllodrepa ioptera, the latter of which is usually found under the bark of broadleaved trees (Alexander 1993). Two species of bark beetle are present, including the Elm Bark Beetle, Scolytus scolytus, in addition to Scolytus mali; both of these taxa are now absent from Ireland. S. mali particularly favours woody

______26/01/2009 141 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 members of the Rosaceae, including hawthorn and fruit trees. Dung taxa are represented by Aphodius. sphacelatus and one other Aphodius sp., and the presence of three individuals of the Garden Chafer, Phyllopertha horticola, suggests that this is a moderately open, rather than densely wooded environment, possibly a woodland clearing or edge. Synanthropic taxa are absent, although remains of a single mould beetle of the genus Corticaria, often found in synanthropic environments, was recovered.

Sample 84 This assemblage is somewhat different in character to that from Sample 78, yielding a relatively small assemblage (75 individuals of 33 taxa), dominated by water beetles. Some fast water is once again suggested by the presence of Oulimnius sp. and Hydraena nigrita, the latter also implying some local shading. Taxa of foul organic matter are present, including the hydrophilid Megasternum obscurum and staphylinid Anotylus. rugosus, in addition to a single Aphodius dung beetle. Woodland taxa are sparse and are once more limited to non-obligate types such as L. brunnipes, although the nitulid Cychramus luteus is commonly found on flowering shrubs (Duff 1993) and the staphylinid Phyllodrepa vilis is usually found beneath the bark of deciduous trees (Alexander 1994). Phytophagous taxa are restricted to Notaris acridulus (e.g. Glyceria) and Prasocuris marginella, suggesting emergent vegetation including aquatic grasses, with the Garden Chafer, P. horticola, once more present.

Feature 4; sample 2 Feature 4 represents material associated with the burnt mound iteself. As such it is not surprising that Coleopteran remains within this sample were sparse, totalling only 28 individuals of 18 taxa. These were once again dominated by aquatic taxa and taxa of waterside locations, including Ochthebius bicolon, Limnebius truncatellus, and refuse taxa (e.g. M. obscurum). Some indications of local fast water are present in the form of a single elmid (Esolus parallelopippedus) and an individual of Hydraena gracilis. Phytophagous taxa are almost entirely lacking, with the exception of an individual of the bark beetle Xyleborus dispar, a characteristic taxon of broad-leaved woodland (Hyman 1992). In order for the Ambrosia fungus on which this species thrives to develop, a high degree of humidity is necessary within the wood. As such, the presence of X. dispar is diagnostic of damp dead wood of deciduous trees.

Feature 3; samples 4 and 6

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Feature 3 represents the uppermost material present at the site and constitutes the overlying peat deposits.

Sample 4 This sample yielded a moderately rich assemblage of 137 individuals from 61 taxa. The assemblage is dominated by aquatic taxa which are almost entirely indicative of slow- moving or standing waters, and are typified by Ilybius aenescens, a species of stagnant lowland waters with marginal vegetation (Foster 2000). Muddy waterside habitats are indicated by the presence of Dryops spp. and Ochthebius bicolon, and a wide range of broadly waterside taxa are present (e.g. Eusphalerum minutum, Lesteva heeri Platystethus nodifrons). Refuse taxa are well represented, including the hydrophilids Cercyon haemorrhoidalis, C. tristis and Megasternum obscurum. Dung taxa are represented by two species of Aphodius, A. ater and A. sphacelatus, both suggestive of damp pasture (Koch 1989), and a fragment of Geotrupes spp. Again, two specimens of P. horticola are present, suggesting local presence of pasture, but comparatively low numbers of dung beetles argue against extensive pastoral agriculture. A suite of phytophagous taxa are present which are quite typical of floodplain habitats, including the weevils Notaris acridulus and N. bimaculatus, both of which are associated with aquatic grasses, and two chrysomelids, Prasocuris phelandrii and P. marginella, the latter of which is restricted to Caltha palustris and Ranunculus spp. (Bullock 1993). The only woodland indicator within the sample is once again P. tesselatum, suggesting an open marshy environment with woodland only at distance.

Sample 6 This sample yielded a moderate assemblage of 89 individuals belonging to 41 taxa, largely dominated by beetles of water and waterside environments. A range of aquatic taxa are present, with a several suggesting muddy waterside locations e.g. Octhebius bicolon (Merritt 2006) and Limnebius truncatellus (Duff 1993). Several taxa characteristic of standing water are also present (e.g. Agabus bipustulatus, A. sturmii and Helophorus spp.), although these are often found away from actual aquatic environments and may merely indicate very wet ground conditions such as are indicated by other taxa within the assemblage (e.g. Kateretes pericularis). Two individuals of the riffle beetle (elmid) Oulimnius spp. strongly suggest the local presence of a fast flowing, gravel-bedded river channel.

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Taxa of foul, rotting organic matter are represented by three staphylinids; Micropeplus fulvus, Tachinus laticollis and T. rufipes. These may be related to the presence of animal dung suggested by the single dung beetle present in the sample, Aphodius sticticus which exhibits a strong preference for woodland environments (Koch 1989).

Several phytophagous taxa are present within the sample, mostly typical of riverside environments. These include the chrysomelids Prasocuris phellandrii and Altica oleracea, the larvae of the latter being restricted to members of the Onagraceae (e.g. Rosebay Willowherb) and the weevil Gymnetron pascuorum which is restricted to Plantago lanceolata. Also present are two individuals of the now rare chrysomelid Plateumaris braccata (primarily associated with Phragmites australis).

Woodland taxa are poorly represented within the sample and are restricted to the elaterid Prosternon tesselatum which is primarily a taxon of dry woodland margins and wood meadows (Koch 1989). No synanthropic taxa were recovered. The sample also includes an individual of the Scarabaeid Phyllopertha horticola, the Field or Garden Chafer, a fairly cosmopolitan phytophage the larvae of which feed in roots of turf, usually infesting poor quality pasture on light soils (Jessop 1986).

Feature 5; Sample 7 Feature 6; Sample 14 Feature 7; Sample 15 These sample yielded no identifiable insect remains

Site E2070 Feature 52; sample 28 This sample yielded a moderately rich assemblage of 156 individuals from 58 taxa. These were again dominated by water and waterside taxa, with a small element of a fast flowing water fauna (E. parallopippedus, Oulimnius sp., H. gracilis) suggesting local presence of this habitat type. Several taxa indicative of dryish, field-like environments are present, including the carabids Trechus quadristriatus and Pseudoophonous rufipes and the weevil Alophus triguttatus, the preferred host plant of which is Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) (Morris 1997). This element of the fauna is probably allochthonous, as the large numbers of Cyphon sp. present in addition to the aquatic taxa strongly suggest lush emergent vegetation in a

______26/01/2009 144 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 waterside setting. Four species of dung beetle are present within this sample, once again hinting at more intensive local pastoral activity. These include three species of Aphodius, A. sphacelatus, A. ater and A. rufus, all most common in the dung of domestic animals and a fragment of Geotrupes sp.

Woodland taxa are comparatively sparse within the assemblage, being numerically dominated by Anaspis sp., the majority of which live upon hawthorn. Also present is a weevil of the genus Rhynchaenus and the cerambycid Alosterna tabacicolor, particularly common on flowering herbs and shrubs in wooded areas (Duff 1993). The staphylinids L. brunnipes and O. punctulatus are again present. Phytophages are poorly represented in the assemblage but include the chrysomelids Podagrica fuscipes, which is oligophagous on mallows (Malva spp. and Althaea spp.) and Chaetocnema concinna which lives upon Polygonaceae in open grassland.

The overall impression given by the assemblage is one of what might be considered a ‘modern’ lowland floodplain environment, dominated by rough grazing, possibly quite intensive. Some local woodland exists but this is likely to be patchy, possibly in the form of terrestrialising ‘cut- off’ type environments.

Feature 52; Sample 184 This sample yielded no insect remains.

Feature 18; Sample 101 This sample again yielded a moderately rich assemblage of 173 indivduals from 58 taxa. These were numerically dominated by members of the aquatic and waterside groups seen previously, in particular H. riparia and H. gracilis. The abundance of H. gracilis strongly suggests local fast flowing water, a suggestion supported by the presence of the elmids E. parallelopippedus and Oulimnius sp. The abundance of remains of Cyphon sp. implies lush emergent vegetation, possibly with reeds and rushes as suggested by the presence of Donacia sp. This is supported by the presence of the carabid Agonum gracile, which lives in wholly wet, vegetation rich places in immediate proximity of water (Lindroth 1945). Dung taxa are again represented by A. ater, A. rufus and Geotrupes sp., and taxa of foul, rotting habitats by M. obscurum and Cercyon sp. in additon to the staphylinids Philonthus decorus and P. politus. Both P. decorus and P. politus have both been recorded from carrion (Ferrer et al. 2004) but are also recorded from a

______26/01/2009 145 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 range of foul habitats, including dung and rotting vegetation; P. decorus is primarily a woodland species.

Several woodland indicators are present within this sample; L. brunnipes is once again present, as is the staphylinid Olophrum consimile, primarily a species of alder and willow carr (Campbell 1983). G. planus is once more present, in addition to the carabid Loricera pilicornis, which is primarily a woodland taxon; four specimens of S. collaris are present as is a single member of the genus Anaspis, many of which feed on hawthorn.

A number of species present suggest an open pasture environment. The carabids T. quadristriatus and Poecilus cupreus are found in most open habitats, including agricultural land (Luff 1998); the elaterids Agriotes lineatus is also primarily a species of meadows and cultivated fields (Laibner 2000). The assemblage present suggests a similar environment to that discussed for sample 28 from F52 described above; a parkland or considerable cleared environment with some patchy riverside woodland, possibly with moderate levels of local herbivore grazing.

Feature 19; Sample 124 This sample yielded a moderately rich assemblage of 121 individuals of 55 taxa. This was again numerically dominated by waterside taxa, in particular O. bicolon and H. riparia. A single specimen of H. gracilis alongside the presence of the elmids L. volkmari and E. parallelopippedus indicate the presence of some local fast flowing water. Taxa of foul, rotting habitats are poorly represented in this sample, being limited to M. obscurum, although dung taxa are relatively diverse, comprising five taxa. These include Trypocopris vernalis, which is primarily associated with dry, sandy soils on grassland or heather moorland (Hyman 1992), usually in dung of sheep or cow, and two relatively generalist species of Aphodius; A. ater and A. rufus.

A range of woodland indicator taxa are present, including the staphylinids Lathrobium fovulum, L. brunnipes and O. punctulatus. Several woodland-specific carabids are also present, including two individuals of C. caraboides, the primarily woodland species Abax parallelopippedus and the highly specific Pterostichus oblongopunctatus, which exhibits a strong preference for open woodland on dry soils (Luff 1998). Phytophagous taxa within this assemblage are few and restricted to the Heather Beetle, Micrelus ericae, which is

______26/01/2009 146 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 polyphagous on members of the Ericaceae, and the weevil Coeliodes dryados which is restricted to the leaves of oak.

This is an unusual assemblage in that it comprises several distinct elements; a clearly aquatic and waterside element, a strong woodland element, a number of apparently xerophilic taxa and some heathland indicators. The wide diversity of ground beetles is also noteworthy and suggests a possible ‘pitfalling’ effect (i.e. a pit or depression into which these taxa are falling). Once again, the best interpretation of this assemblage is as being derived from a riverside woodland of open structure, perhaps alongside rough pasture. The xerophilic component of the fauna might suggest locally higher ground, but the relatively strong elmid presence can only derive from flooding. This sample may therefore signify a fairly severe episode of flooding.

Feature 19; Sample 123 This sample yielded a moderately rich assemblage of 151 individuals belonging to 59 taxa. These are once more dominated by water and waterside taxa, in particular Hydraena riparia and O. bicolon, the latter suggesting a muddy waterside environment. Remains of the waterside genus Cyphon sp. are also abundant, these beetles being characteristic of lush emergent vegetation. As previously, a few elmids (E. parallelopippedus, Limnius volkmari and Oulimnius sp.) are suggestive of locally fast flowing water. A range of taxa of foul organic matter are present, including the hydrophilids M. obscurum and Cercyon sp. and several characteristic staphylinids (Carpelimus elongatulus, C. corticinus, Coprophilus striatulus, Tachinus laticollis, Gyrohypnus liebei). Two dung beetles (A. sphacelatus and Geotrupes sp.) are present in the assemblage, in addition to five individuals of the large staphylinid Staphylinus dimidiaticornis, primarily a carrion species of sunny pastures and woodland edges, although also found in decomposing vegetable matter (Koch 1989).

Woodland taxa are once more well represented in this assemblage. These include several species of elaterid which are either typical of woodland (Dalopius marginatus) of woodland edge environments (P. tesselatum, Athous haemorrhoidalis), a cerambycid characteristic of woodland clearings (Grammoptera ruficornis) and two species of weevil, both characteristic of oak (Curculio pyrrhoceras, Rynchaenus pilosus). Willow is also suggested by the chrysomelid Phratora vitellinae, and the generic wet woodland staphylinids L. brunnipes and O. punctulatus are present. With the possible exception of C. striatulus, synanthropic taxa are again entirely absent.

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Discussion Site E2071 Stratigraphically, the earliest material analysed from E2071 originated from features F38, F9 and F8. These were formed prior to the minerogenic layer, which is likely to have been deposited as a result of extensive flooding of the area. Features F8 and F9 are suggestive of a predominantly wet, open environment with occasional trees. These are somewhat in contrast to F38 which yielded an assemblage strongly indicative of extensive woodland that provided a wealth of information regarding local and extra-local woodland at the site. In addition to the suite of aquatic and marshy taxa present in the majority of the other samples, F38 included five woodland taxa no longer found in Ireland, including Elm Bark Beetle, Scolytus scolytus, two species of Cerylon and the chrysomelid Oomorphus concolor, indicative of ivy, indicating a diverse primary local woodland with oak, ash, willow, elm and Prunus/Crataegus. The presence of large herbivores is indicated in some samples, particularly in F8, Sample 10, but the evidence does not suggest these were ever abundant or that pastoral agriculture represented a factor in the landscape at this time. In many ways this would seem to represent the classic burnt mound location, with local running water and a local fuel source (the woodland of F38).

F22 appears to represent a transitional horizon between earlier the earlier wooded landscape of F38 and later material which indicates extensive clearance. The two samples from this feature are markedly different in character; Sample 78 retains elements of the wooded assemblage of F38, including the scolytids S. scolytus and S. mali, and clearly represents an environment with a considerable woodland element, while Sample 84 represents a largely clear environment with some remnant woodland cover. However, broadly speaking, the presence of P. horticola in both samples implies a landscape tending to increased openness.

F3 and F4 were formed after the deposition of the minerogenic layer. F4 represents the burnt mound itself; such assemblages tend to be fairly sparse owing to the poor preservation conditions associated with such features. The assemblage recovered was largely aquatic or waterside in nature, with some indication of damp wood but no functional information.

F3 indicates a more or less open floodplain landscape, the phytophages indicating taxa capable of rapid regeneration (e.g. Rosebay Willowherb) and those capable of enduring fairly harsh environmental conditions (e.g. Plantago lanceolata). Grazing indicators are relatively few and the overall impression is of a largely cleared floodplain landscape with some small-scale

______26/01/2009 148 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 pastoral activity occurring locally. In many ways this represents a similar environment to many present-day lowland floodplains.

Site E2070 F52 represents what appears to be a more or less cleared floodplain environment, not unlike that observed in F3, with some indication of local woodland or occasional tree presence. The moderate diversity of dung taxa and the presence of indications of P. lanceolata suggest a rough grazing type environment, typical of many historic period lowland floodplains.

F18 and F19 include a high proportion of fast water taxa and possible allochthonous taxa (i.e. dryland species within a predominantly wetland assemblage) and may represent increased severity of flood activity. Local environmental conditions indicated within both samples remain fairly consistant, with moderate indications of wet woodland, emergent vegetation and an element of rough grazing. These assemblages while indicating woodland, lack the dead wood taxa and old woodland species of E2071 F22 and F38. This may indicate that by the time of deposition of these samples much of the ‘dryland’ woodland (i.e. ‘mixed oak’ woodland) had already been cleared and the landscape was dominated by small islands of wet woodland, much like many modern lowland floodplain environments.

Caraun More Feature 27; Sample 43 This was the only sample from the entire site from which insect remains were recovered. The sample yielded a sparse assemblage of 24 poorly preserved individuals from 14 taxa. This was dominated by the throscid Trixagus dermestoides, present as a total of eight individuals. T. dermestoides is primarily a woodland taxa, often found in woodland clearings and leafy debris. The material processed, while devoid of leafy remains clearly incorporated a large proportion of fine woody debris, reminiscent of wood shavings. The assemblage also included a few aquatic taxa of slow or stagnant waters, two dung beetles (one Aphodius sp. and one Geotrupes sp.), and a chrysomelid of the genus Longitarsus. Interestingly the assemblage also included a small potentially synanthropic element. A single Ptinus sp. was recovered, many species of which are strongly synanthropic, alongside two individuals of the Lathridius minutus group. L. minutus, while typically synanthropic is not an obligate synanthrope and may be recovered from woodland debris where it lives upon fungal hyphae. As such, its presence in this assemblage

______26/01/2009 149 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 merely relates to the decomposing wood ‘shavings’ which were home to T. dermestoides. It is conceivable that this debris was created during working of wood for trough construction.

References Alexander, K. N. A. (1993). Silpha obscura L. (Coleoptera: Silphidae) new to Wales. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History, 6, 36. Alexander, K.N.A. (1994). An Annotated Checklist of British Lignicolous & Saproxylic Invertebrates. National Trust Estates Advisors' Office, Cirencester (Draft). Buckland P.I. & Buckland P.C. (2006). Bugs Coleopteran Ecology Package (Versions: BugsCEP v7.53; Bugsdata v7.09; BugsMCR v2.0; BugStats v1.2) [Downloaded/CDROM: DATE] www.bugscep.com. Bullock, J.A. (1993). Host Plants of British Beetles: A List of Recorded Associations. Amateur Entomologist 11a, 1-24. Campbell, J. M. (1983). A revision of the North American Omaliinae (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). The genus Olophrum Erichson. Canadian Entomologist, 115, 577-622. Caseldine, C. J., Hatton, J., Gearey, B., Stuijts, I., Reilly, E. & Casparie, W. (2001). From the wet to the dry: palaeoecological studies at Derryville Bog, Co. Tipperary, Ireland. In, B. Raftery & J. Hickey (eds.) Recent Developments in Wetland Research. Seandálaíocht Monograph 2, Department of Archaeology, UCD and WARP Occasional Paper 14, 99- 115. Department of Archaeology UCD Publication, Dublin. Duff, A. (1993). Beetles of Somerset: their status and distribution. Somerset Archaeological & Natural History Society, Taunton. Ferrer, J., Gomy, Y., Snäll, S. & Whitehead, P. F. (2004).. Zoosaprophagous Coleoptera from a dead domestic cat in a Swedish forest: a comparative perspective. Entomologist's Gazette 55(3): 185-206. Foster, G. (2000). A review of the scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain. Part 3.Water Beetles. UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Hanski, I. (1991). North temperate dung beetles. In,I. Hanski & Y Cambefort (eds.) Dung beetle ecology, 75-96. Princeton U.P. Hyman, P.S. (1992). A review of the scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain, Part 1 (Revised & updated by M.S.Parsons). UK Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Jessop, L. (1986). Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae. Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects 5,11. Royal Entomological Society of London. Kenward, H.K., Hall, A.R. & Jones, A.K.G. 1980. A tested set of techniques for the extraction of plant and animal macrofossils from waterlogged archaeological deposits. Scientific Archaeology, 22, 3–15. Koch, K. (1989). Die Käfer Mitteleuropas, Ökologie 2. Goecke & Evers, Krefeld. Koch, K. (1992). Die Käfer Mitteleuropas. Ökologie 3. Goecke & Evers, Krefeld. Laibner, S. (2000). Elateridae of the Czech and Slovak Republics. Kabourek, Zlin. Lindroth, C.H. (1945). Die Fennoskandischen Carabidae I-II. Goteborgs K. Vetensk. o VitterhSamh. Handl.(6) B, 4. Goteborg. (reprinted as English translation (1992) Intercept, Andover. Lindroth, C.H. (1985). The Carabidae (Coleoptera) of Fennoscandia and Denmark. Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica, 15,1. E.J.Brill, Leiden. Luff, M. L. (1998). Provisional atlas of the ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) of Britain. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Biological Records Centre, Abbots Ripton. Merritt, R. (2006). Atlas of the water beetles (Coleoptera) and water bugs (Hemiptera) of Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and South Yorkshire, 1993-2005. Sorby Record Special Series 14. (160pp.)

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Morris, M.G. (1997). Broad-Nosed Weevils. Coleoptera : Curculionidae (Entiminae) Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects, 5, part 17a. Royal Entomological Society, London. Peacock, E. R. (1977). Coleoptera Rhizophagidae. Handbooks for the identification of British Insects, V, 5(a). Royal Entomological Society of London. Read, R. W. J. (2002). Elaphropus parvulus (Dejean) (Carabidae) discovered in west Cumbria. Coleopterist, 11, 89-90. Stork, N. E., Hammond, P. M., Russell, B. L. & Hadwen, W. L. (2001). The spatial distribution of beetles within the canopies of oak trees in richmond Park, U.K. Ecological Entomology, 26, 302-311.

______26/01/2009 151 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 Table 1. Coleopteran species list from sites E2071 and E2070 (Killescragh)

E2071 E2071 E2071 E2071 E2071 E2071 E2071 E2071 E2070 E2070 E2070 E2070 3/6 3/4 4/2 8/10 9/9 22/78 22/84 38/82 52/28 18/101 19/123 19/124 Carabidae Carabus violaceus L. 1 Carabus granulatus L. 1 1 1 1 1 Carabus clatratus L. Carabus arvensis Hbst. 1 1 Cychrus caraboides (L.) 1 2 Leistus fulvibarbis Dej. 1 Leistus sp. 1 Nebria brevicollis (F.) 1 2 5 2 1 2 Notiophilus biguttatus (F.) 1 Elaphrus cupreus Duft. 1 1 Loricera pilicornis (F.) 1 3 1 1 Dyschirius globosus (Hbst.) 1 1 Trechus rivularis (Gyll.) 1 2 3 Trechus rubens (F.) 1 4 Trechus quadristriatus (Schr.) 1 3 5 3 1 Trechus micros (Hbst.) 1 Trechus sp. 1 3 2 Bembidion quadrimaculatum (L.) 1 Bembidion obtusum Serv. 1 Bembidion (Ocys) harpaloides Serv. 1 1 Bembidion mannerheimi Sahl. 1 1 Bembidion guttula (F.) 4 1 3 2 3 Bembidion sp. 2 1 1 1 1 Patrobus assimilis Chaud. 1 Harpalus rufipes Deg. 1 Acupalpus dorsalis (F.) 1 Acupalpus sp. 1 Pterostichus (Poecilus) cupreus (L.) 1 2 4 1 Pterostichus diligens (Strm.) 2 1 Pterostichus nigrita (Payk.) 2 1 1 1 1 9 1 Pterostichus anthracinus (Panz.) 1 Pterostichus gracilis (Dej.) 1 Pterostichus minor (Gyll.) 2 4 1 1 2 1 Pterostichus oblongopunctatus F. 1

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Pterostichus niger (Schall.) 1 1 1 Pterostichus sp. 1 1 1 2 Abax parallelepipedus Pill. & Mitt. 1 Calathus piceus (Marsh.) 1 Agonum moestum (Duft.) 1 1 2 1 Agonum gracile Strm. 1 Agonum fuliginosum (Panz.) 1 3 Agonum assimile (Payk.) 3 Agonum albipes (F.) 3 2 1 Agonum obscurum (Hbst.) 1 1 Agonum sp. 1 1 Amara sp. 1 Haliplidae Haliplus sp. 1 Dytiscidae Hydroporus gyllenhalii Schdte. 3 Hydroporus palustris (L.) 1 Hydroporus nigrita (F.) 7 Hydroporus sp. 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 4 Graptodytes pictus (F.) 1 Agabus bipustulatus (L.) 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 Agabus sturmii (Gyll.) 2 1 1 1 Agabus sp. 1 1 1 1 2 1 Ilybius aenescens Thom. 3 6 Rhantus sp. 1 Colymbetes fuscus (L.) 1 1 1 1 Hydraenidae Hydraena riparia Kug. 3 13 2 6 13 8 17 10 20 17 29 8 Hydraena nigrita Germ. 1 1 4 2 4 Hydraena pygmaea Water. 1 Hydraena gracilis Germ. 1 12 2 14 4 1 Ochthebius bicolon Germ. 10 15 2 18 26 7 6 6 9 11 15 10 Limnebius truncatellus (Thun.) 8 2 1 2 2 8 11 7 9 Limnebius nitidus (Marsh.) 3 1 3 3 1 Hydrophilidae Helophorus grandis Ill. 1 1 1 1 1 1 Helophorus brevipalpis Bed. 1 1 1 1 4 Helophorus flavipes (F.) 3 1 2 5 3 2 Helophorus sp. 4 Coelostoma orbiculare (F.) 1 1 1 ______26/01/2009 153 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Cercyon haemorrhoidalis (F.) 1 Cercyon melanocephalus (L.) 1 Cercyon tristis (Ill.) 1 Cercyon sp. 1 1 1 1 1 Megasternum boletophagum Marsh. 3 2 1 2 2 7 7 1 1 Cryptopleurum minutum (F.) Hydrobius fuscipes (L.) 1 2 1 Anacaena globulus (Payk.) 2 4 1 8 3 2 1 2 Laccobius sp. 1 1 2 Chaetarthria seminulum (Hbst.) 1 Silphidae Silpha tristis Ill. 1 1 Silpha atrata L. 1 1 1 1 Silpha sp. 1 Scydmaenidae Stenichnus collaris (Müll.) 1 1 1 1 4 2 Ptiliidae Ptenidium sp. 1 1 2 2 Ptiliidae indet. 1 Staphylinidae Micropeplus fulvus Er. 1 Micropeplus porcatus (Payk.) 1 Metopsia retusa (Steph.) 1 Megarthrus depressus (Payk.) 1 Proteinus ovalis Steph. 2 1 1 Proteinus brachypterus (F.) 1 Eusphalerum minutum (F.) 3 1 5 1 Dropephylla ioptera (Steph.) 1 1 Dropephylla vilis (Er.) 1 2 Omalium sp. Olophrum piceum (Gyll.) 3 1 1 2 1 Olophrum consimile (Gyll.) 1 Lesteva heeri Fauv. 7 7 4 4 4 2 4 5 9 3 Lesteva longoelytrata Goez. 1 1 Lesteva sp. 1 Coprophilus striatulus (F.) 1 Carpelimus bilineatus Steph. 1 Carpelimus corticinus (Grav.) 1 Carpelimus elongatulus (Er.) 1 2 Carpelimus sp. 1 ______26/01/2009 154 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Anotylus rugosus (F.) 1 1 1 Anotylus nitidulus (Grav.) Platystethus cornutus (Grav.) Platystethus nodifrons (Mann.) 1 Bledius unicornis (Germ.) 1 Stenus guttula Müll. 1 Stenus sp. 7 5 1 5 4 3 6 6 5 3 4 2 Rugilus rufipes Germ. 1 Lathrobium quadratum (Payk.) 1 2 Lathrobium brunnipes (F.) 1 1 2 1 2 1 5 2 4 5 4 Lathrobium fovulum Steph. 1 Lathrobium sp. 1 1 1 Gyrohypnus punctulatus (Payk.) 1 Xantholinus linearis (Ol.)/longiventris Heer 2 2 Othius punctulatus (Goez.) 2 1 2 1 Othius angustus Steph. 1 Philonthus umbratilis (Grav.) 1 Philonthus politus (L.) 1 3 Philonthus decorus (Grav.) 1 6 4 Philonthus sp. 3 1 3 Gabrius sp. 2 1 1 1 1 1 Staphylinus dimidiaticornis Gem. 1 3 5 Staphylinus sp. 1 1 2 Ocypus olens Müll. 1 1 Quedius fuliginosus (Grav.) 2 Quedius sp. 1 1 1 1 4 Sepedophilus marshami (Steph.) 1 Tachyporus hypnorum (F.) 1 1 Tachyporus sp. 1 2 1 Tachinus signatus Grav. 1 Tachinus laticollis Grav. 1 1 1 1 2 Tachinus marginellus (F.) 1 Tachinus sp. 1 Aleocharinae gen. indet. 3 8 1 3 3 1 2 1 1 Pselaphidae Bryaxis curtisi (Leach) 1 Bryaxis bulbifer (Reich.) 3 2 1 1 2 Rybaxis longicornis (Leach) 1 2 1 Reichenbachia juncorum (Leach) 1 Cantharidae ______26/01/2009 155 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Cantharis paludosa Fall. 1 Cantharis sp. 1 Rhagonycha femoralis (Brul.) 1 Elateridae Dalopius marginatus (L.) 1 Agriotes pallidulus (Ill.) 1 Agriotes lineatus (L.) 1 Agriotes sp. 1 1 Prosternon tessellatum (L.) 1 1 1 1 Pseudathous hirtus (Hbst.) 1 1 Athous haemorrhoidalis (F.) 2 2 1 1 Athous sp. 1 1 Hypnoidus riparius (F.) 1 1 Zorochrus minimus (Bois.& Lac) 1 Dascillidae Dascillus cervinus (L.) 1 3 1 1 1 Scirtidae Cyphon coarctatus Payk. 4 3 2 Cyphon sp. 2 1 1 2 2 2 21 15 11 12 Dryopidae Dryops sp. 5 1 2 6 3 4 2 2 5 Elmidae Esolus parallelepipedus Mül 1 5 1 2 1 1 Oulimnius tuberculatus (Müll.) 2 2 2 3 1 3 Limnius volckmari (Panz.) 2 6 Heteroceridae Heterocerus sp. 1 Nitulidae Kateretes pedicularius (L.) 6 1 Cychramus luteus (F.) 1 Rhizophagidae Rhizophagus dispar (Payk.) 1 Cryptophagidae Cryptophagus sp. 1 Atomaria sp 1 1 Ephistemus globulus (Payk.) 1 Phalacridae Phalacrus corruscus (Panz.) 1 Lathridiidae Lathridius sp. 1 ______26/01/2009 156 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Corticaria sp. 1 1 1 Cerylonidae Cerylon fagi Bris. 1 1 Cerylon ferrugineum Steph. 1 1 Cerylon sp. 1 1 Cisidae Cis sp. 1 1 Anobiidae Grynobius planus (F.) 2 1 Anobium punctatum (Deg.) Hemicoelus fulvicornis (Strm.) 2 Mordellidae Anaspis sp. 1 5 1 2 Geotrupidae Geotrupes stercorosus (Scrib.) 3 Geotrupes vernalis (L.) 1 Geotrupe ssp. 1 1 1 2 1 1 Scarabaeidae Onthophagus similis (Scriba) 1 Aphodius sticticus (Panz.) 1 Aphodius prodromus/sphacelatus 1 1 1 2 1 Aphodius ater (Deg.) 3 1 2 1 1 Aphodius rufus (Moll) 1 1 1 Aphodius sp. 1 1 2 1 1 Phyllopertha horticola (L.) 1 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 Cerambycidae Grammoptera ruficornis (F.) 1 Alosterna tabacicolor (Deg.) 1 1 Chrysomelidae Donacia vulgaris Zsch. 1 Donacia simplex F. 3 Donacia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 Plateumaris discolor (Panz.) 1 Plateumaris sericea (L.) 1 Plateumaris braccata (Scop.) 2 Plateumaris sp. Oomorphus concolor (Strm.) 6 Chrysolina fastuosa (Scop.) Chrysolina sp. 1 Hydrothassa marginella (L.) 1 1 1 ______26/01/2009 157 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3

Prasocuris phellandrii (L.) 1 1 1 Phratora vitellinae (L.) 1 Haltica oleracea (L.) 1 Haltica sp. 1 Podagrica fuscipes (F.) 1 Chaetocnema concinna (Marsh.) 1 Scolytidae Scolytus mali (Bech.) 1 Scolytus scolytus (F.) 1 1 Leperisinus varius (F.) 1 Xyleborus dispar (F.) 1 Apionidae Apion sp. 1 1 1 Curculionidae Trachyphloeus sp. 3 1 Strophosoma melanogrammum (Forst.) 1 Barynotus obscurus (F.) 2 Phloeophagus lignarius (Marsh.) 1 Notaris bimaculatus (F.) 1 1 Notaris acridulus (L.) 1 1 2 1 3 Anthonomus sp. 1 1 1 Curculio salicivorus Payk. 1 Curculio pyrrhoceras Marsh. 1 Alophus triguttatus (F.) 2 Coeliodes dryados (Gmel.) 1 Micrelus ericae (Gyll.) 1 Ceutorhynchus sp. 1 1 Gymnetron pascuorum (Gyll.) 1 Rhynchaenus pilosus (F.) 3 Rhynchaenus sp. 1 2

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Table 2. Coleopteran remains recovered from site Caraun More.

Caraun More 27/43 Hydraenidae Hydraena riparia Kug. 1 Limnebius truncatellus (Thun.) 2 Hydrophilidae Helophorus grandis Ill. 1 Helophorus flavipes (F.) 1 Silphidae Silpha tristis Ill. 1 Nargus velox (Spnc.) 1 Throscidae Trixagus dermestoides (Bonv.) 8 Lathridiidae Lathridius minutus (grp.) 3 Corticaria sp. 1 Anobiidae Grynobius planus (F.) 1 Ptinidae Ptinus sp. 1 Geotrupidae Geotrupes sp. 1 Scarabaeidae Aphodius sp. 1 Chrysomelidae Longitarsus sp. 1

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Appendix 18 Plant macrofossil Report Dr Charlotte O Brien

1. Summary The project 1.1 Two burnt mounds (E2071 and E2070) were excavated in 2006 by Cultural Resource Development Services (CRDS) Ltd, in advance of the proposed N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe Road Scheme. This report presents the results of plant macrofossil analysis of seven peat samples from E2071 and three from E2070.

Results 1.2 The macrofossil assemblages in the earlier peats from E2071 reflect a local landscape dominated by open fen woodland. The record from later peat deposits suggests a reduction in woodland cover and transition to open fen vegetation.

1.3 Wet woodland is also indicated at E2070. The occurrence of Betula and Corylus charcoal suggests these species were used for fuel associated with the burnt mound.

2. Project background Location and background 2.1 Two burnt mounds (E2071 and E2070) were excavated in 2006 by Cultural Resource Development Services (CRDS) Ltd, in advance of the proposed N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe Road Scheme. The sites were located in the townland of Killescragh (NGR 163306 E, 225224 N), Co. Galway, Ireland. The burnt mounds were located between an esker ridge and the surrounding low-lying bog.

2.2 The archaeological deposits exposed at Killescragh E2071 consisted of a burnt mound, a spread of burnt stone and a series of associated wooden features, including trackways and deposits of worked wood. These have been provisionally dated to the Bronze Age, with the possibility that some of the earlier elements may date from the Neolithic. A substantial minerogenic layer separates phases of anthropogenic activity at the site, and it has been proposed by the excavator that substantial flooding during prehistory, may have caused the abandonment of the site for a period (CRDS in prep a).

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2.3 The archaeological deposits at Killescragh E2070 consisted of a burnt mound and associated wooden features, including a possible partially destroyed trough lining, a stake alignment, a wood-working area and a collection of felled/split timbers associated with a wooden platform structure. Preliminary stratigraphic assessment by the excavator indicates that two phases of activity occurred, after a previous minerogenic inundation of the area (CRDS in prep b).

2.4 This report presents the results of plant macrofossil analysis of seven peat samples from E2071 and three from E2070.

Objective 2.5 The objective was to analyse the plant macrofossils in order to reconstruct the palaeoenvironment before and during the occupation of the sites.

Dates 2.6 Analysis and report preparation was conducted between January - June 2007.

Personnel 2.7 Plant macrofossil analysis and report preparation were undertaken by Dr Charlotte O’Brien.

Archive 2.8 The licence numbers are E2071 and E2070. The residues, seeds, wood and charcoal are currently retained in the Environmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University for collection or return.

3. Methods 3.1 125 ml of each sample were disaggregated in warm water and washed through a nest of sieves ranging from 150-500μm size. The residues were scanned for plant macrofossils using a Leica MZ6 stereomicroscope and identification was aided by modern reference collections and the seed atlases of Beijerinck (1947), Cappers et al (2006) and Katz et al (1965). Plant taxonomic nomenclature follows Stace (1997).

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3.2 Charcoal and wood identification involved the examination of the transverse, radial and tangential sections, at up to ×600 magnification using a Leica DMLM microscope. Identification was assisted by the descriptions of Hather (2000), and modern reference material held in the Environmental Laboratory at Archaeological Services Durham University. Moss identifications were made by examining branch and stem leaves at up to ×600 magnification using a Leica DMLM microscope. Identification was assisted by the descriptions of Smith (1978) and Watson (1981).

4. Results and interpretation 4.1 The results of the plant macrofossil analysis from E2071 and E2070 are presented in Appendix 1. The stratigraphy of site E2071 suggests that F38 and F8 pre-date the minerogenic inundation and are low in the peat profile. F22 is situated beneath trackway F21, a substantial wooden trackway extending from the nearby Craughwell River to the esker. The trackway sits higher in the profile than the minerogenic horizon, but there is no direct association between F22 and this discontinuous silt layer. F4, is a spread of burnt mound material, and F3 is the uppermost peat deposit that covered the entire site (Nora Bermingham pers. comm.).

4.2 At E2070, F19 was taken from a peat layer under and around a large tree trunk. F18 was from a peat layer above F19 and which lay under a possible trough base F8. F52 was from a peat layer above F8.

Site E2071 Feature 38, sample 82; and feature 8, sample 10 4.3 F38 is dominated by wood fragments, with some charcoal present. The arboreal macrofossils include fruit, cones and wood of Alnus glutinosa (alder), fruit of Betula pendula/pubescens (silver/downy birch), and wood and nut fragments of Corylus avellana (hazel). These indicate the presence of wet woodland. The wetland taxa Ajuga reptans (bugle), Ranunculus flammula (lesser spearwort) and Carex spp (sedges) would have favoured the damp woodland understorey, and the moss Neckera crispa, would have grown on moist rocks or tree bases (Smith 1978).

4.4 The sample from F8 is also dominated by wood fragments, suggesting local woodland cover. A fruitstone of Taxus baccata (yew) indicates this taxon was present, and three

______26/01/2009 162 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 fragments of Pinus sp (pine) wood may indicate local stands of conifers. In addition to arboreal remains, the macrofossil assemblage is dominated by herbaceous wetland taxa including Caltha palustris (marsh-marigold), Carex cf. paniculata (greater tussock-sedge), Mentha cf. aquatica (aquatic mint), Ranunculus flammula, Menyanthes trifoliata (bogbean), Sparganium erectum (branched bur-reed), Carex spp and Juncus spp (rushes). This assemblage suggests the woodland was an open fen carr. The presence of Sonchus asper (prickly sow-thistle), Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus (buttercups), Poaceae sp (grasses) and Rumex sp (docks) may indicate some areas of disturbed ground or grassland on the nearby drier esker ridges.

4.5 The occurrence of a charred Hordeum sp (barley) grain in F8 may reflect archaeological activity pre-dating the mound. Corylus avellana, Fraxinus excelsior (ash) and Ulmus sp (elm) charcoal could indicate clearance of areas of woodland with fire, or the use of these tree species in domestic fires. However, in view of the proximity of F8 to the mound, the charred grain and charcoal fragments may be later intrusive material relating to the mound’s use. Natural fires, such as lightning strikes, cannot be ruled out as the source of the charcoal.

Feature 22; samples 78 and 84 4.6 Samples 78 and 84 from F22, had broadly similar plant macrofossil assemblages. Both suggested the presence of wet woodland vegetation comprising Alnus glutinosa and Betula pendula/pubescens. Macrofossils from sample 78 indicate that the woodland also comprised Corylus avellana and Sorbus sp (whitebeam), and macrofossils of Fraxinus excelsior, Prunus padus (bird cherry) and Taxus baccata occurred in sample 84. The woodland understorey was made up of Rubus fruticosus agg. (bramble), Rubus idaeus (raspberry) and Ilex aquifolium (holly). The presence of Carex spp, Menyanthes trifoliata, Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet) and Juncus spp reflect the damp conditions of the carr, and may suggest the presence of pools of open water. The mosses Eurynchium striatum, Thuidium tamariscinum and Neckera crispa thrived in this damp, wooded environment. The soil fungus Cenococcum geophilum was recorded in sample 84, and probably lived in the upper layers of the woodland soil. This ectomycorrhizal species has mutualistic associations with some tree roots, particularly members of the Fagaceae, Pinaceae and Betulaceae (Hudson 1986). Other herbaceous taxa included Hypericum sp (St. John’s wort), Potentilla sp (cinquefoils), Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus spp and Viola sp (violets). 4.7 Small flecks of charcoal occurred in both samples from F22. None of the fragments was large enough to be identified to species.

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Feature 4; sample 2 4.8 Wood fragments were abundant in the sample from F4, and these included Prunus domestica/spinosa (plum/sloe), and Betula/Alnus/Corylus. Charcoal fragments included Corylus avellana and Fraxinus excelsior which may indicate that these woods were used for fuel relating to the burnt mound. Corylus nut fragments were also present and may have been collected as a food source. Hydrocotyle vulgaris (marsh pennywort), Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium spp (crowfoot), Carex spp and Juncus spp reflect the damp ground conditions.

Feature 3; samples 4 and 6 4.9 The macrofossil assemblages in samples 4 and 6 are dominated by herbaceous wetland taxa including Alisma cf. plantago-aquatica (water plantain), Caltha palustris, Mentha cf. aquatica, Menyanthes trifoliata, Ranunculus flammula, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (water-cress), Sparganium erectum, Valerianaceae spp (Valerian family), Carex spp and Juncus spp. Macrofossils of the aquatic plants Hippuris vulgaris (mare’s tail) and Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium spp suggest open pools of water. Few fragments of wood occurred in either sample, although one piece of Alnus glutinosa was identified in sample 6. The predominance of wetland taxa, in combination with the low numbers of arboreal macrofossils, suggests open fen vegetation at the site when this organic layer formed. Branches of Calliergon giganteum, a moss which grows beside pools in marshes and fens (Smith 1978), were numerous in sample 4.

Site E2070 E2070 - Features 18 and 19; samples 101 and 124 4.10 Samples 101 and 124 had broadly similar macrofossil assemblages which are dominated by arboreal macrofossils. These include fruit and cones of Alnus glutinosa, fruit of Betula pubescens and nut fragments and wood of Corylus avellana. In addition, fruitstones of Taxus baccata were present in both samples, with high values in sample 124. This indicates the establishment of wet woodland. The mosses Eurynchium striatum and Thuidium tamariscinum would have favoured the damp shady conditions. Rubus fruiticosus agg. formed an understorey shrub layer and Pteridophyta (ferns) were present. A small amount of charcoal occurred in both samples, and one fragment in sample 124 was identified as Corylus avellana. This charcoal may relate to contemporary human activity in the area or may be intrusive later material relating to the use of the burnt mound.

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Feature 52; sample 28 4.11 Animal bone was uncovered in this layer during excavation (CRDS in prep b) which may relate to the butchery and cooking of meat at the site. The plant macrofossils in the sample are dominated by arboreal taxa including Alnus glutinosa, Betula pendula, Corylus avellana and Taxus baccata. This indicates the presence of wet woodland at the site. Betula and Corylus charcoal was identified, and these species may have been used as fuel for the fires relating to the burnt mound. The wet conditions are indicated by the presence of Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium, Menyanthes trifoliata and Carex spp, and the mosses Eurynchium striatum and Thuidium tamariscinum which would have grown on the woodland floor. Neckera crispa may have grown on the damp stones of the burnt mound.

5. Discussion Site E2071 5.1 The earliest deposits analysed from E2071 were F38 and F8. They were low in the peat profile and formed before the minerogenic layer. The macrofossils indicate the presence of open fen woodland with a diverse wetland understorey, which is likely to have occupied the low-lying area between the River Craughwell and the esker. The woodland comprised a range of trees which grow well in wet conditions, including Alnus glutinosa, Betula spp, Corylus avellana, Fraxinus excelsior and Taxus baccata. Pinus sp and Ulmus sp were also growing in the vicinity, and may have occupied areas of blanket peat and the well-drained slopes of the esker ridges, respectively. Charcoal fragments and a charred barley grain may reflect early anthropogenic activity in the area, or may be later intrusive material relating to the construction and use of the mound.

5.2 Although Taxus has been recorded in low frequencies from the early Holocene in Ireland (Godwin 1975), the occurrence of its fruitstones in F8 may coincide with an episode of rapid expansion of this taxon, which pollen records show to have taken place periodically since the Neolithic, particularly in western Ireland. These periods of expansion appear to correspond with reductions in intensive woodland clearance and farming, for example as took place in the early Neolithic (O’Connell and Molloy 2001).

5.3 The macrofossil assemblage in F22 suggests the continued local presence of a wet woodland. This was again dominated by damp-loving trees including Alnus glutinosa, Betula

______26/01/2009 165 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 spp, Corylus avellana, Fraxinus excelsior, Prunus padus and Taxus baccata. The woodland may have been relatively open, with pools of water.

5.4 Charcoal from F4 suggests that Corylus and Fraxinus were used for fuel, and may relate to fires associated with the use of the burnt mound. Hazelnut shell fragments may indicate that gathered wild foods formed a part of the diet.

5.5 The samples from F3 suggest there was a transition from the wet woodland to open fen vegetation with little woodland cover. This reduction in trees may have resulted from woodland clearance, although little charcoal is recorded from these samples. The vegetation change may therefore relate to a rise in the water table due to wetter climatic conditions, unsuitable for woodland development.

Site E2070 5.6 Local wet woodland is indicated by the macrofossils in F18 and F19. The high values of Taxus fruitstones, particularly in F19, may again relate to Neolithic or later expansion of this woodland taxon. Betula and Corylus charcoal in F52 suggests these tree species may have been used for fuel during the use of the burnt mound.

References Beijerinck, W, 1947 Zadenatlas der nederlandsche flora, Ten behoeve van de botanie, palaeontologie, bodemcultuur en warenkennis, Wageningen

Cappers, RTJ, Bekker, RM, and Jans, JEA, 2006 Digitale zadenatlas van nederlands, Groningen

Cultural Resource Development Services, in prep a Stratigraphic Report for Proposed N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Contract 3, licence number E2071

Cultural Resource Development Services, in prep b Stratigraphic Report for Proposed N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Contract 3, licence number E2070

Godwin, H, 1975 History of the British Flora, A factual basis for Phytogeography, 2nd Edition, Cambridge

Hather, JG, 2000 The identification of the Northern European Woods: a guide for archaeologists and conservators, London

Hudson, HJ, 1986 Fungal Biology, London

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Katz, NJ, Katz, SV, and Kipiani, MG, 1965 Atlas and keys of fruits and seeds occurring in the Quaternary Deposits of the USSR, Moscow

O’Connell, M, and Molloy, K, 2001 Farming and woodland dynamics in Ireland during the Neolithic, Biology and Environment, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 101B(1-2), 99-128

Smith, AJE, 1978 The moss flora of Britain and Ireland, Cambridge

Stace, C, 1997 New Flora of the British Isles, 2nd Edition, Cambridge

Watson, EV, 1981 British mosses and liverworts, 3rd Edition, Cambridg

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Site E2071 E2070 Feature 3 3 4 8 22 22 38 52 18 19 Sample 4 6 2 10 78 84 82 28 101 124 Volume (ml) 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 Matrix (Relative abundance) Buds - 1 1 - - - 1 1 - 1 Bud scales - 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 3 Charcoal 2 - 2 4 3 1 3 3 1 2 Gravel - - 1 2 - 1 2 2 - 1 Insects 2 - 1 1 3 1 2 3 2 2 Monocot stems 1 3 2 2 1 1 - 2 - - Rootlets 3 5 - 5 - 5 - - - - Wood fragments 1 2 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 Plant macrofossils (Total counts) (c) Hordeum sp (Barley) charred grain - - - 1 ------(q) Hippuris vulgaris (Mare’s tail) fruit 6 ------(q) Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium sp(p) (Crowfoot) achene 1 - 1 - - - - 1 - - (r) Persicaria maculosa (Redshank) nutlet ------1 - - - (r) Sonchus asper (Prickly sow-thistle) achene - - - 1 ------(t) Alnus sp (Alder) wood fragment - 1 - - - - 1 - - - (t) Alnus glutinosa (Alder) fruit - - - - 1 3 2 4 5 - (t) Alnus glutinosa (Alder) female cone ------3 - - 1 (t) Betula/Alnus/Corylus sp (Birch/alder/hazel) wood fragment - - 1 ------(t) Betula/Alnus sp (Birch/alder) wood fragment - - 1 ------(t) Betula sp (Birch) charcoal fragment ------1 - - (t) Betula pendula (Silver birch) fruit ------1 - - (t) Betula pubescens (Downy birch) fruit ------2 (t) Betula pendula/pubescens (Silver/downy birch) fruit - - - - 1 1 2 2 9 3 (t) Corylus avellana (Hazel) nut fragment - - 3 - 1 - 1 1 5 2 (t) Corylus avellana (Hazel) charcoal fragment - - 1 1 - - - 2 - 1 (t) Corylus avellana (Hazel) wood fragment ------1 - - 1 (t) Eurynchium striatum (Moss) branch - - - - 4 - - 3 3 1 (t) Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) charcoal fragment - - 1 1 ------(t) Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) wood fragment - - - - - 1 - - - -

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Site E2071 E2070 Feature 3 3 4 8 22 22 38 52 18 19 Sample 4 6 2 10 78 84 82 28 101 124 Volume (ml) 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 (t) Ilex aquifolium (Holly) fruitstone - - - - 1 - - - - - (t) Pinus sp (Pine) wood fragment - - - 3 ------(t) Prunus domestica /spinosa (Plum/sloe) wood fragment - - 1 ------(t) Prunus padus (Bird cherry) fruitstone fragment - - - - - 3 - - - - (t) Rubus fruticosus agg. (Bramble) fruitstone - 1 - - - 1 - - 1 2 (t) Rubus idaeus (Raspberry) fruitstone - - - - - 1 - - - - (t) Sorbus sp (Whitebeams) fruitstone fragment - - - - 1 - - - - - (t) Taxus baccata (Yew) fruitstone - - - 1 - 1 - 1 - 5 (t) Taxus baccata (Yew) fruitstone fragment ------2 17 (t) Thuidium tamariscinum (Moss) branch - - - - 10 - - 7 33 - (t) Ulmus sp (Elm) charcoal fragment - - - 1 ------(w) Ajuga reptans (Bugle) seed ------3 - - - (w) Alisma cf. plantago aquatica (Water plantain) fruit - 2 ------(w) Calliergon giganteum (Moss) branch 26 ------(w) Caltha palustris (Marsh-marigold) seed 5 - - 2 ------(w) Carex cf. paniculata (Greater tussock-sedge) biconvex nutlet - 6 - 2 ------(w) Filipendula ulmaria (Meadowsweet) achene - - - - 1 - - - - - (w) Hydrocotyle vulgaris (Marsh pennywort) fruit - - 2 ------(w) Mentha cf. aquatica (Aquatic mint) seed 2 - - 1 ------(w) Menyanthes trifoliata (Bogbean) seed - 1 - 1 1 - - 1 - - (w) Neckera crispa (Moss) branch - - - - 33 1 4 6 5 4 (w) Ranunculus flammula (Lesser spearwort) achene 11 9 - 7 - - 4 - - - (w) Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (Water-cress) seed - 9 ------(w) Sparganium erectum (Branched bur-reed) fruitstone - 1 - 1 ------(w) Sparganium erectum (Branched bur-reed) fruitstone fragment - 8 ------(w) Valerianaceae sp(p) (Valerian family) achene 2 ------(x) Carex sp(p) (Sedges) biconvex nutlet 2 - - 1 - 2 3 2 - - (x) Carex sp(p) (Sedges) trigonous nutlet 22 2 7 4 - 5 - 4 - - (x) Carex sp(p) (Sedges) utricle 5 ------(x) Cenococcum geophilum (Soil fungus) sclerotia - - - 8 - 15 3 - 1 -

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Site E2071 E2070 Feature 3 3 4 8 22 22 38 52 18 19 Sample 4 6 2 10 78 84 82 28 101 124 Volume (ml) 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 (x) Cerastium sp (Mouse-ear) seed ------1 - - - (x) Cirsium sp (Thistle) achene - - - 1 ------(x) Hypericum sp (St. John’s-wort) seed - - - - - 1 - - - - (x) Juncus articulatus type (Rushes) seed 102 94 9 52 ------(x) Juncus effusus type (Rushes) seed - - - - - 1 - - - - (x) Juncus sp(p) (Rushes) seed - - - 9 1 - - - - - (x) Musci sp(p) (Indeterminate mosses) branch 2 6 - 6 7 - 2 6 - - (x) Poaceae sp(p) (Grass family) caryopsis 2 - - 2 ------(x) Potentilla sp (Cinquefoils) achene - 5 - - - 4 - - - - (x) Prunella vulgaris (Selfheal) seed - - - 5 - - - 1 - - (x) Pteridophyta (Ferns) sporangium - - 1 - - - 1 - 31 - (x) Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus sp(p) (Buttercups) achene - - - 5 - 14 2 - 1 - (x) Rumex sp (Dock) nutlet - - - 1 ------(x) Urtica dioica (Nettle) achene 1 ------(x) Viola sp (Violet) seed - - 1 1 1 - - - - - (x) Viola sp (Violet) seed fragment - 3 1 1 - 7 2 2 - - (c: cultivated plant; q: aquatic; r: ruderal; t: trees/shrubs and woodland taxa; w: wetland/damp ground; x: wide niche) Relative abundance is based on a scale from 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest).

Appendix 1. Plant macrofossils from Killescragh Townlands burnt mounds E2071 and E2070

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Appendix 19 Plant Remains Report Mary Dillon

Introduction In all, seven samples were submitted for plant remains analysis from Killescragh, Co Galway. The site was waterlogged and consisted of trackways, platforms and burnt mound material. This report considers the information gathered from plant remains in terms of environment, agricultural practices and diet.

Methodology Bulk soil samples were collected on site and were processed by the client. The flots were sorted and scanned for plant material and charcoal using a low-powered binocular microscope (magnification x10 to x 40). Nomenclature and taxonomic orders follows Stace (1997).

Results A total of seven samples were examined from the site. No charred seeds were recovered from the samples. This is un-surprising as charred seeds are generally absent from burnt mound sites. Un-charred seeds were found in three flots. This material indicates either (a) contamination by modern seeds or (b) preservation of archaeological seeds by waterlogging. As the three samples with un-charred seeds were taken from peaty (hence waterlogged) layers it is likely that the material was archaeological. In ideal circumstances waterlogged material is processed by washover to ensure full retrieval of waterlogged remains and stored in conditions that mimic natural preservation (i.e. in liquid). As these samples were processed by flotation and dried it is likely that some waterlogged remains have been lost during retrieval. This means that retrieval is biased and only seeds that float and are visible to the eye are likely to be retrieved. The waterlogged seeds that were identified included one entire hazel nutshell (Corylus avellana), a dock/sedge seed (Polygonaceae/Cyperaceae), indeterminate seeds from the daisy family (Asteraceae), indeterminate seeds from the sedge family (Cyperaceae), and half a pine cone (Pinus spp.).

Discussion These plant remains are likely from species that were growing around the site when in was in utilization in prehistory. Hazel was a common tree and has always been widespread in Ireland. Pinus slyvestris (Scots pine) was common in Ireland in prehistory, but peat growth and human

______26/01/2009 171 Final Report NB & KC /CRDS Lt E2071 Killescragh 735 N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Contract 3 use led to its decline during the Bronze Age and it eventually became extinct about 2000 years ago (Mitchell, 1995). It has since been reintroduced, along with other pine species. If this pine is contemporary with the site then it is Scots pine. The other wild plant species, dock, sedge and daisy are commonly found on waste and disturbed ground. There is a possibility that the identified plant remains are modern if they were not from well-sealed contexts. The neighbouring site Killescragh E2070 had a similar assemblage (Dillon 2007).

Conclusion Waterlogged seeds from wild plants/trees were recovered. These plant remains are likely from species that were growing around the site when in was in utilization in prehistory. Burnt mounds and troughs, although commonly excavated, have yielded practically no charred seeds. The nearby burnt mounds and wetland site at Killescragh E2070 also had no charred seeds.

Table 1 Site Killescragh 24/22 Context 80 141 135 Sample 22 8 9 Pine cone (Pinus spp.) 1 Hazel nutshell (Corylus avellana L.) 1 Dock/Sedge seeds (Polygonaceae/Cyperaceae) 1 1 Indeterminate seeds from the daisy family (Asteraceae) 4 1 Indeterminate seeds from the sedge family (Cyperaceae) 1 2 Indeterminate weed seeds 1

References Dillon, M. 2007. Plant remains from Killescragh E2070, Co Galway. Unpublished report produced for CRDS.

Mitchell, F. G. 1995. The dynamics of Irish post-glacial forests. In: J. R. Pilcher and Seán Mac An tSaoir (eds.). Woods, trees and forests in Ireland: proceedings of a seminar held on 22 and 23 February 1994. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin

Stace, C.A. 1997. New Flora in the British Isles. (2nd edition) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

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Appendix 20 Charcoal Identification Mary Dillon

Introduction In all, 58 samples from various sites on the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe road were submitted for charcoal analysis in advance of dating. Charcoal from trees with a short life-span is suitable for dating while charcoal from trees with a long life-span is not. Three samples were not suitable for dating.

Methodology All charcoal fragments of 2 mm or greater were identified. Each fragment was prepared for microscopic examination by fracturing it by hand and thereby exposing a clean surface along transverse, radial and tangential planes. All three planes were examined at a range of magnifications (x5 to x 120) under a Nikon stereo microscope. For reference literature the website “wood anatomy” was consulted. The number and weight of fragments were recorded for each wood type. Note - The analysed charcoal was bagged and marked ‘suitable for dating’ or ‘not suitable for dating’ as was the case. Samples marked ‘not suitable for dating’ should not be submitted for dating.

Standard radiometric dating vrs AMS

The site director will send the samples to the dating lab. in University of Waikato in New Zealand. According to their website (http://www.radiocarbondating.com/) the ideal weight of charcoal for standard radiometric dating is 8 to 12g, while the minimum weight is 1g. See table 1 for calculated errors if ideal weight is not submitted.

Only one sample had the required weight for standard radiometric dating (S197, F97 from Gortnahoon). Three samples, also from Gortnahoon, would be over 50% of the ideal weight sample, meaning a larger magnitude of error than if these samples were sent for AMS dating.

All of the other samples should be submitted for AMS dating.

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Table 1. Magnitude of standard error for standard radiometric samples (from http://www.radiocarbondating.com/

Sample Precision for full-sized Precision for 50% Precision for 20% Magnitude of age (yrs) (~ideal weight) sample ideal weight ideal weight sample standard error for sample AMS samples 500 40 60 100 40 1000 40 60 100 40 5000 50 65 110 50 10,000 75 100 170 70 20,000 170 200 350 200 30,000 350 570 850 700 40,000 900 2500 5000 1500 50,000 2700 - - -

Results See Table 2.

E2071 Killescragh Two samples submitted, both suitable for AMS dating.

E2070 Killescragh One sample submitted, suitable for AMS dating.

A024/25 Treanbaun Thirty samples submitted, all suitable for AMS dating.

A024/26 Rathglass Three samples submitted, all suitable for AMS dating.

A024/27 Treanbaun Thirteen samples submitted, one sample not suitable for dating (S17, F51; all oak wood), other twelve suitable for AMS dating.

A024/28 Gortnahoon Six samples submitted, one not suitable ((S58, F66) all oak), one (S197, F97) suitable for radiometric dating, three possibly suitable for radiometric dating, but less than ideal weight increases inaccuracy of date slightly (see methodology), one suitable for AMS dating.

A024/7 Cross Two samples submitted, only one suitable for AMS dating, other sample (S58, F186) all oak/ash and therefore not suitable for dating.

A024/13 Caraun More One sample submitted, suitable for AMS dating.

A024/20 Caraun More One sample submitted, suitable for AMS dating.

A024/30 Caraun More One sample submitted, suitable for AMS Dating.

References

“Wood Anatomy” at http//:www.woodanatomy.ch

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Table 2.

Site Sample Feature Result Selected for dating Treanbaun - A024/25 4 475 Hazel (2 frag. 2.43g) Hazel (2 frag. 2.43g) Treanbaun - A024/25 8 263 Hazel (2 frag., 0.91g) Hazel (2 frag., 0.91g) Treanbaun - A024/25 18 135 Hazel (3 frag., 1.01g) Hazel (3 frag., 1.01g) Treanbaun - A024/25 23 548 Hazel and Pomoideae (3 frag., 0.24g) Hazel and Pomoideae (3 frag., 0.24g) Treanbaun - A024/25 25 553 Hazel and Pomoideae (2 frag., 0.12g) Hazel and Pomoideae (2 frag., 0.12g) Treanbaun - A024/25 73 1073 Hazel/alder (4 frag. 0.25g) Hazel/alder (4 frag. 0.25g) Treanbaun - A024/25 74 1073 Hazel/alder (4 frag. 0.15g) Hazel/alder (4 frag. 0.15g) Treanbaun - A024/25 75 1073 Diffuse porous (3 frag. 0.08g), Oak (5 Diffuse porous (3 frag. 0.08g) frag.) Treanbaun - A024/25 76 1057 Hazel nut shell (2 frag. 0.13g) Hazel nut shell (2 frag. 0.13g) Treanbaun - A024/25 77 1057 Hazel (3 frag. 0.11g), Ash (9 frag.) Hazel (3 frag. 0.11g) Treanbaun - A024/25 78 1059 Hazel/alder (4 frag.0.12), Ash (3 Hazel/alder (4 frag.0.12) frag., 0.2g) Treanbaun - A024/25 79 1057 Hazel (4 frag. 0.11g), Ash (3 Hazel (4 frag. 0.11g) frag.0.17g) Treanbaun - A024/25 82 1070 Hazel/alder (3 frag. 0.25g) Hazel/alder (3 frag. 0.25g) Treanbaun - A024/25 83 1070 Diffuse porous, (4 frag.0.31g) Diffuse porous, (4 frag.0.31g) Treanbaun - A024/25 84 1070 Hazel (3 frag.0.06), Ash (2 frag., Hazel (3 frag.0.06) 0.11g), Elm (4 frag. 0.14g) Treanbaun - A024/25 85 1070 Hazel (2 frag., 0.25g) Hazel (2 frag., 0.25g) Treanbaun - A024/25 89 1045 Diffuse porous, (3 frag. 0.33g) Diffuse porous, (3 frag. 0.33g) Treanbaun - A024/25 90 1053 Hazel/alder, (3 frag. 0.40g) Hazel/alder, (3 frag. 0.40g) Treanbaun - A024/25 92 1053 Willow and hazel (2 frag. 0.19g), Ash Willow and hazel (2 frag. 0.19g) (5 frag.) Treanbaun - A024/25 93 1045 Hazel (3 frag. 0.25g), Ash (5 Hazel (3 frag. 0.25g) frag.0.77g) Treanbaun - A024/25 96 1106 Hazel/alder, (4 frag. 0.29g) Hazel/alder, (4 frag. 0.29g) Treanbaun - A024/25 97 1053 Ash (4 frag. 0.35g), Diffuse porous (3 Diffuse porous (3 frag. 0.26g) frag. 0.26g) Treanbaun - A024/25 100 1106 Hazel, (3 frag.0.29g), Ash, (3 frag, Hazel, (3 frag.0.29g) 0.21g) Treanbaun - A024/25 109 1078 Diffuse porous, (3 frag. 0.4g) Diffuse porous, (3 frag. 0.4g) Treanbaun - A024/25 110 1078 Alder (3 frag., 0.64g) Alder (3 frag., 0.64g) Treanbaun - A024/25 115 1119 Hazel, (2 frag.0.16g), Ash, (8 frag, Hazel, (2 frag.0.16g) 0.64g) Treanbaun - A024/25 116 1119 Hazel, (3 frag.0.33g) Hazel, (3 frag.0.33g) Treanbaun - A024/25 123 1132 Hazel/alder (3 frag. 0.17g), Ash (1 Hazel/alder (3 frag. 0.17g) frag.), oak (3 frag.) Treanbaun - A024/25 124 1131 Hazel/alder (1 frag. 0.13g) Hazel/alder (1 frag. 0.13g) Treanbaun - A024/25 125 1131 Hazel (4 frag. 0.15g), Ash (9 frag.) Hazel (4 frag. 0.15g)

Treanbaun - A024/27 17 51 All oak Not suitable Treanbaun - A024/27 223 1020 Elm, alder (2 frag. 0.11g) Alder (2 frag. 0.11g) Treanbaun - A024/27 109 205 Hazel and pomoideae (2 frag. 0.21g) Hazel and pomoideae (2 frag. 0.21g) Treanbaun - A024/27 134 62 Hazel/alder (2 frag. 0.38g) Hazel/alder (2 frag. 0.38g) Treanbaun - A024/27 304 1160 Hazel, (2 frag.0.18g) Hazel, (2 frag.0.18g) Treanbaun - A024/27 83 71 Pomoideae (2 frag. 0.53g) Pomoideae (2 frag. 0.53g) Treanbaun - A024/27 236 1141 Hazel and pomoideae (3 frag. 0.98g) Hazel and pomoideae (3 frag. 0.98g) Treanbaun - A024/27 86 71 Pomoideae (1 frag. 0.15g) Pomoideae (1 frag. 0.15g) Treanbaun - A024/27 295 86 Hazel, (5 frag 0.30g) Hazel, (5 frag 0.30g) Treanbaun - A024/27 209 234 Pomoideae (3 frag. 0.63g) Pomoideae (3 frag. 0.63g) Treanbaun - A024/27 313 62 Prunus (2 frag 0.3g) Prunus (2 frag 0.3g) Treanbaun - A024/27 151 151 Prunus (2 frag 0.12g) Prunus (2 frag 0.12g) Treanbaun - A024/27 19 47 Prunus (2 frag 0.06g) Prunus (2 frag 0.06g)

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Site Sample Feature Result Selected for dating Gortnahoon - A024/28 58 66 all oak Not suitable Gortnahoon - A024/28 143 97 Hazel (2 frag, 5.19g) Hazel (2 frag, 5.19g) Gortnahoon - A024/28 25 55 Alder (1 frag. 6.22g) Alder (1 frag. 6.22g) Gortnahoon - A024/28 197 97 Hazel (1 frag, 8.64g) Hazel (1 frag, 8.64g) Gortnahoon - A024/28 1 7 Diffuse porous (2 frag. 0.19g) Diffuse porous (2 frag. 0.19g) Gortnahoon - A024/28 126 116 Hazel (3 frag, 5.69g) Hazel (3 frag, 5.69g)

Rathglass - A024/26 130 279 Hazel (2 frag. 0.5g) Hazel (2 frag. 0.5g) Rathglass - A024/26 71 103 Pomoideae (2 frag., 0.26g) Pomoideae (2 frag., 0.26g) Rathglass - A024/26 72 161 Hazel (2 frag. 0.42g) Hazel (2 frag. 0.42g)

Carraun More - A024/13 21 47 Pomoideae (2 frag., 1.14g) Pomoideae (2 frag., 1.14g)

Carraun More - A024/20 9 106 Pomoideae (1 frag., 0.41g) Pomoideae (1 frag., 0.41g)

Carraun More - A024/30 1 401 Pomoideae (2 frag. 0.16g) Pomoideae (2 frag. 0.16g) Killescragh - A020/22 2 4 Hazel (2 frag. 0.91g) (much charcoal Hazel (2 frag. 0.91g) from root wood - burnt tree roots) Killescragh - A020/22 176 25 Hazel (1 frag. 0.37g) Hazel (1 frag. 0.37g)

Killescragh - A020/23 209 14 Alder (1 frag. 0.15g) Alder (1 frag. 0.15g)

Cross - A0 24/7 15 108 Willow/aspen (2 frag. 0.05g), Ash (2 Willow/aspen (2 frag. 0.05g) frag.), oak (2 frag.) Cross - A0 24/7 58 186 All ash and oak Not suitable

* Prunus includes P.avium (Wild cherry), P. padus (bird cherry) and P. spinosa (blackthorn). ** Pomoideae includes Crataegus (hawthorn), Sorbus (rowan & Whitebeam) and Malus sylvestris (crabapple) ***Diffuse porous includes all non-conifer trees except oak, ash and elm.

______26/01/2009 176 Final Report Ballinasloe

Contract 3

Aughrim Galway

Existing N6 Killescragh E2071

Loughrea

0km 100km Map - Courtesy of C McDermot (IAWU)

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Job No.: 735 Drawn by: VP Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Client: Galway CC Date: March 2007 0m 500m Figure 1 : Site location

Killescragh E2071

0m 8m

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP email: [email protected]

Figure 3 : Location of E2071 Key Brushwood F21 Roundwood F14 Stakes upright Brushwood F14 Roots Brushwood F42 Boundary trunk B F 2

163 292E F11 163 307E 225 227N 225 227N 54.69 x 54.78 F4 x 54.51 F5 x 54.51 x F3 F5 F4

F11

54.72 x

F4 A 54.64 x F43 F 13 F 17 F 3 54.50 x

163 292E F11 163 307E 225 220N 225 220N

Original limit of excavation

54.53 x 0m 5m

Finds Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Slag Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Bone Wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Fax: +353 1 2968195 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP

Figure 5 : Plan of burnt mound F11 & F4, Killescragh E2071 F1

F3 F31,F35,F37,F39 F32

F18 F19 F43

F21 F11

F4 F25

F16 F22 F10

F5/F27

F7, F13, F14, F15

F1

F9

F6

F12

Contexts N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Phase 1 Unphased Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Licence No.: E2071 Phase 2 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Phase 3 Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP Silt layer F5/F7 Figure 6 : Site stratigraphic matrix Finds Charcoal Bone Burnt bone Burnt stone Brick Wood Stone Peat Deposit Pottery Slag F3

J Contexts

54.89 x Roots Brushwood

54.61 x Roundwood Worked wood

163 334E 163 342E

225 238N 54.88 225 238N Boundaries F27 x 55.24 F3 x Boundary of fill 54.24 Peat Deposit x 54.71 Change in slope F25 x Boundary of cut Limit of excavation Burnt mound J1 Context cut by other context Level line Upright Boundary unclear Section line

54.41 x N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh

Licence No.: E2071 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC 54.62 Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP x

S 192 163 342E 163 334E 54.62 x 54.62 225 232N x 225 232N

Unit 4a, Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Tel: +353 1 2968190 Fax: +353 1 2968195 0m 4m email: [email protected] Figure 7 : Plan of burnt spread F25 163 308.64E 54.910 OD 163 340.89E J J1 225 240.30N 225 236.30N

F3 Peat Deposit F25

Deposit F9

0m 1m

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Archaeological horizon Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Bone Wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Figure 8 : Section through burnt spread F25 Finds Charcoal Bone Burnt bone Burnt stone Brick Wood 163 312E 225 233N F36 Stone Pottery Slag

54.40 x 54.47 Brushwood x

F14

F13

Contexts

54.64 54.47 Roots x x Brushwood Boundary trunks F15 F36 Trackway plank

54.05 x

Trackway plank

54.48 x F26

54.48 x 54.28 x

F20 54.63 54.26 x x 54.58 163 322E Boundaries 163 282E x 225 216N Roots 225 216N Boundary of fill F 33 Change in slope Brushwood Boundary of cut Limit of excavation 54.44 x Context cut by other context Level line Boundary unclear

54.22 x Section line

F 20 N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Archaeological Contract 3 - F16 Killescragh

Licence No.: E2071 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Brushwood Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP 54.72 x

163 312E 225 200N

Unit 4a, Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Tel: +353 1 2968190 Fax: +353 1 2968195 0m 8m email: [email protected]

Figure 9 : Plan of walkway F13 and mixed natural & archaeological wood horizons, F14, F15, F16, F17, F20, F33 and F36 Finds Charcoal Bone Burnt bone Burnt stone Brick Wood Stone Pottery Slag

Contexts

Stake uprights Roots Charcoal All other contexts 54.51 x

54.61 x Boundaries

Boundary of fill Change in slope Boundary of cut Limit of excavation Context cut by other context Level line 54.33 x Boundary unclear Section line

54.48 x N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe F17 PPP Scheme F13 Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh

Licence No.: E2071 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC 54.50 x Date: March 2007 Drawn by: GO’R

Unit 4a, Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Tel: +353 1 2968190 Fax: +353 1 2968195 0cm 2.5m email: [email protected] Figure 10 : Detail of walkway F13 and F17 and natural root system B F 2

163 292E 163 307E 225 227N 225 227N 54.69 x 54.78 F4 x 54.51 F 5 x F3 F5

F 4 54.72 x F11

54.64 A (see fig 13) x

F 3

163 292E 163 307E 225 220N 225 220N

54.53 x 0m 5m

Finds Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Slag Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Dundrum Business Park, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dublin 14. Bone Wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP

Figure 11 : Pre-excavation plan of burnt mound within Trench 1 163 300E 225 226N

54.51 x F4

F43 F 13 F 17

54.50 x

163 302E 225 221N

Original limit of excavation

0cm 5m

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Brushwood Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Bone Wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context

Figure 12 : Mid-excavation of of burnt mound showing relationship with underlying walkway F13 55.033 OD 163 302.26E 163 299.92E A A1 225 223.24N 225 228.62N F4 F41 F10 F10 F27 F3 F10 F42 F7 F6 Water Table

F3- Light brown loose peat. Some charcoal flecking and root disturbance F4- Blackened soil and heat shattered stone wi h frequent inclusions of charcoal F6- Grey course grained sand and gravel, loose compaction F7- Moderately compact dark brown/black peat with occasional roots F10- Discontinuous thin lenses of brown peat F27- A compact dark grey silt, the extent of which is not fullt known F41- Moderately compact black peat with occasional charcoal inclusions F42- Discontinuous thin lenses of brown peat

0m 1m

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Wood Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Dundrum Business Park, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dublin 14. Bone Roots Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP

Figure 13 : Section through the mound F4 & F11 and the silt horizon F5/F27 Finds Charcoal F 2 Bone Burnt bone Burnt stone Brick F 2 Wood Stone F 5 Pottery F 5 Slag F4 Burnt mound 163 292E Contexts 225 223N Brushwood F21 54.64 Roundwood F21 x F11

Boundaries

Boundary of fill 54.53 x Change in slope

54.37 Boundary of cut x 163 312E F21 225 216N Limit of excavation Track way Context cut by other context

F21 Level line Boundary unclear

54.62 Section line x

54.48 x N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh

54.15 163 292E x Licence No.: E2071 55.16 Job No.: 735 225 209N x Client: Galway CC Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP

54.81 x

Unit 4a, Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. 163 312E Tel: +353 1 2968190 225 203N Fax: +353 1 2968195 0m 8m email: [email protected] Figure 14 : Plan of brushwood and roundwood trackway F21 in relation to burnt mound F4/F11 163 297E 163 322E 225 233N 225 233N

54.63 x

F2 54.92 x

54.00 x

54.36 x

54.69 x

54.78 F2 x 54.43 x F5

F5 F14

F4 F3 54.72 x 54.51 x Burnt mound 54.482

54.66 F11 x Track way

F43

163 322E 0cm 5m 225 218N

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Brushwood F43 Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Dundrum Business Park, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dublin 14. Bone Wood Brushwood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 Brushwood email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP

Figure 15 : Plan of brushwood track F43 over mound F11 F43

F38

F11

163 306.00E 163 306.22E K 54.357 OD 225 222.06N K1 225 221.34N

F28

F9

F12

0m 0.5m

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Brushwood trackway F43 Boundary of ill Limit of excavation Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Bone Wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: GO’R Figure 16 : Section through brushwood track F43 and burnt mound F11 54.93 163 325E x 163 331E 225 214N 225 214N

S37 54.95 Bu k Sample S71 x 54.73 x S36

S38 54.89 x F27

S39

S40 54.66 x S41 F33 4 54.59 3 S43 x S42 2 S57 1

F3 54.63 x

163 325E 163 331E 54.69 225 209N x 225 209N

0cm 50cm

Finds Contexts Boundaries N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a, Charcoal Brick Miscellaneous wood Boundary of fill Limit of excavation Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Bone Wood Worked wood Change in slope Level line Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Burnt bone Stone Boundary of cut Boundary unclear Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Burnt stone Pottery Section line Context cut by other context Date: March 2007 Drawn by: GO’R Figure 17 : Trench 18 showing distribution of wood off-cuts Atmospheric data from Stuiver et al. (1998); OxCal v3.9 Bronk Ramsey (2003); cub r:4 sd:12 prob usp[strat] E2074 Wk-21777 2454±30BP

E2055 Wk-21340 2840±36BP

E2072 Wk-21247 3231±64BP

E2071 UB7241 2870±35BP Phase 3 E2071 Beta-241474 2880±60BP

E2071 Wk-21341 3211±36BP Phase 2

E2071 Beta-241473 3290±40BP

E2071 Wk-21342 3730±37BP Phase 1

E2071 Beta-241475 4130±40BP woodland

E2071 Beta-241472 5870±60BP woodland

E2070 UB-7242 3023±34BP Phase 3

E2070 Wk-21245 3826±41BP Phase 2 E2070 Wk-21246 3855±107BP

E2070 Wk-21343 3947±40BP Phase 1

6000CalBC 4000CalBC 2000CalBC CalBC/CalAD Calibrated date

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Killescragh Unit 4a, Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Licence No.: E2071 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Job No.: 735 Client: Galway CC Fax: +353 1 2968195 Date: March 2007 Drawn by: VP email: [email protected] Figure 18 : Radiocarbondates from burnt mound sites excavated by CRDS LTD. Killescragh E2071

Burnt mound

Plate 1 : Aerial view of site location prior to Phase 1 assessment and Phase 2 excavation (MCOS Engineering of Galway Co. Council 2000)

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 1 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] 0m 125m Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 3 : The burnt mound F4 & F11 undergoing excavation

Plate 2 : View of general peat stratigraphic sequence (non-archaeological). Each major horizon has been assigned an F. no which equate with those used in the report

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 2 & 3 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 4 : Section through the burnt mound F4 & F11

Plate 5 : Section through the burnt mound showing cut into silt F5/F27

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 4 & 5 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 6: Aerial view of trackway F21 taken by Hawkeye

Plate 7: View of roundwood surface representing southern end of F21 (Trench 20)

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 6 & 7 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006

Plate 8: Close-up of roundwood surface F21 within Trench 20 Plate 9: Section through the trackway F43 and the burnt mound F11

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 8 & 9 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 10 : The burnt spread F25

Plate 11: Aerial view of F13 and F26 within trench 1

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 10 & 11 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 12: View of the half-split timber F13 and associated wooden elements F17, looking northeast

Plate 13: Deposit of roundwoods F14 during excavation

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 12 & 13 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 14 : Close up of gouged timber

Plate 15 : The oak plank F26 in situ. Other wood visible is non-archaeological

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 14 & 15 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006 Plate 16 : View of the mound overlying F13 with the trackway F43 in the foreground

Plate 17 : Tagged off-cuts among natural wood and root in Trench 18

N6 Galway to East Ballinasloe PPP Scheme Unit 4a Archaeological Contract 3 - Killescragh Dundrum Business Park, Dublin 14. Plate No: 16 & 17 Tel: +353 1 2968190 Licence No.: E2071 Client: GCC Fax: +353 1 2968195 email: [email protected] Job No.: 735 Date: November 2006