ECONOMICS BEHIND IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN MADRAS PRESIDENCY : SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH ARCOT DISTRICT

S.MANIVASAGAN, Ph.D Research Scholar (FT), Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar – 608002. Dr.J.MUTHUKUMAR, Research Supervisor, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608002.

ABSTRACT Post 1857 revolt witnessed a heavy inflow of British capital into the Indian economy. Much of it was invested in divergent kinds of public works such as irrigation, a considerable portion being spent on railway construction by priate joint stock companies under guarantee system. The modernization of the irrigation systems was rather neglected but still the Indian economy was primarily agricultural. Though the private investments made into the Railways were of western interest that served the distribution of production and did not come for the rescue of increase of production. The earlier attempts by the Government agencies on the Cauvery, Godavari and Jumna works were encouraging. The data provided by the Imperial Gazetteer of states that Pennar River Canals, Cauvery Delta System, Srivaikuntam Anicut yielded a net income of 5%, 28.5% and 6.1% respectively. The Colonial masters in a bid to increase the income of the state exchequer stated liberally investing in the irrigation project there by increasing the production of the State. The paper envisages to trace the various irrigation projects carried out by the colonial administration in South Arcot District and its impact on the production, irrigated area and revenue generated by the state. Keywords: Irrigation, Cultivation, Dams, Canals, Sluices. Introduction: The beginning of the modern irrigation works in the Madras Presidency could be traced to the first half of the nintenth century. The major irrigation project executed by the colonial rule was the reconstruction and modernization of the Cauvery Delta which was South Arcot District which was once a part of the Pallava and Chola 1500 years. The modernization project carried out in 1835-36 by Sir Arthur Cotton was a great success, South Arcot district was benefitted by the scheme to a greater extent. South Arcot District which was once a part of the Pallava and Chola Kingdom has a rich heritage in it. The Colonial masters established Fort St.David at in 1746 which served as the temporary capital of Madras Presidency for a little while. The economy of the district was largely agricultural and there was also brisk trade activity through Cuddalore and Port Nova port. SOURCES OF IRRIGATION IN SOUTH ARCOT DISTRICT The chief sources of irrigation in South Arcot District are the few rivers and large number of jungle streams that branch off from them. The principal rivers that serve the region are the Coleroon, the Ponnaiyar, the Vellar, Gadilam and the Manimukhtanadi 1. Except Ponnaiyar other rivers are non-perennial.

 TRSV STVWXVYSZU 48 Even during the last quarter of the 19 th century the significant role that irrigation has to play in the region was recognised and as a result, a number of irrigation projects were taken up for execution. The importance of irrigation from rivers has considerably been increased after the execution of various projects. The rivers in the district are almost utilised to the maximum for purpose of irrigation 2. Irrigation under the Cholas We could trace the history of irrigation in from the period of Silappadikaram, the great Tamil Epic. It is said that a Chola king, named Kanthaman, seeing his country suffer from drought took steps to bring the Cauvery water to his country. He was probably one of the earliest to have realised the importance of irrigating, the lands with the river water 3. During the time of King Paranthaka-I (907-953 A..D) a big tank was created and it was named as “Veeranarayana Eri” and this was later called as “Veeranam Eri”. This Eri was named after the title of King Paranthaka-I, this was the first major irrigational work in this region. This tank lies near where in King Paranthaka-I has constructed the temple for Lord 4. The two inscriptions dated 1369 A.D found in the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple clearly explains the nature and the pre requisites for creating a tank. Further these inscriptions also narrate about the mistakes that have to be avoided while creating a tank. Thus we come about to understand the importance given by the to the irrigation system and their knowledge on hydrology 5. Maintenance of Irrigation Works The maintenance and repairs of irrigation works are as important as their construction. The tanks channels, sluices and dams which were not built of brick, stone and mortar, required great care in periodical cleaning to maintain them in good condition. There was danger of the openings getting choked and consequential damage to the work itself. These works had to be repaired after excessive rainfall which damaged the embankments. Maintenance of such beneficial works was considered a meritorious act. Boats were used to remove the silt from dams. Removal of silt in a tank was made from endowments given specifically for the purposes. For the repair of breaches in tank-bunds and other accidental damages beyond the control of the villagers, money was often obtained from private or state donation. A part of the income from dams and canals also was used for their maintenance 6. The custom of “Kudimaramat” was in existence in South India. According to the Madras Manual of Administration, the term denotes “Contribution of labour for petty repairs to irrigation works”. There were different organizations like that of Panchavariyam, EriVariyam, ThottaVariyam, KazhaniVariyam and Ponvariyam for temples and charities. EriVariyam was to look after the tanks and their maintenance 7. After taking over administration of’ the Madras Presidency, the East India Company became concerned about the dwindling returns in the land revenue and attempted to take a few corrective steps to re-establish the satisfactory irrigation condition in order to improve the companies cash resource base 8. The Maramath Department The Maramath Department was practically incharge of the great majority of public works of all kinds and was thus a very important department of the government in the early British period. The English collectors assumed the charge of works of irrigation along with that of collection of Revenue. As the maintenance of the work in good condition was essential to the security of revenue, large sums were spend on that account. Engineering officers were appointed after wards under the title of “Superintendents of Tank Repairs” to aid the collectors 9. In the year

 TRSV STVWXVYSZU 49 1819 the territories of the East India Company in the Madras Presidency were divided into three divisions each under a charge of a Civil Engineer with a suitable establishment and the whole was placed under the control of an English officer at the Presidency level, called the Inspector General of Civil Estimates 10 . In 1836 the post of Inspector General of Civil Estimates was redesignated as Public Works Chief Engineer. In the same year the whole Presidency was rearranged into 8 Maramath divisions each under a civil Engineer working under the Public Works Chief Engineer 11. The South Arcot District had in it a plenty of irrigation systems to catter to the needs of the agricultural community. The irrigation works in the district are broadly classified into minor and major. Minor works include small tanks, wells and small canals. The Irrigation System in the South Arcot District could branched as a) Anicut b) Tanks and c) Vaikals. The Sethiyathope Anicut The Sethiyathope anicut on the Vellar was constructed in 1847-1848 close to the end of Veeranam tank. It is 530 feet long and carries the bridge on the Trunk Road from to the Lower anicut. Part of the anicut was built of sandstone and part built of local laterite. It supplies one channel on the left (north) known as the RajanVaikkal or the Vellar Rajan channel which has several branches. It irrigates directly 18,970 acres by means of four distributaries known as the Ariyagoshty, Manampattnan, Odaiyar and Norattur channels and it also feeds the wallajah tank. The surplus water of this tank is let in through a sluice into the Perumal tank. It irrigates lands to south of the vellar, to extent of 13,978 acres. The Sethiyathope anicut system is an exceptionally remunerative work. Its capital cost, for instance, up to 1931 was about Rs.10.78 lakhs, while its revenue for 1930-31 was about Rs.1.3 lakhs. Tiruvendipuram Anicut There are four anicuts across the Gadilam, namely, the Dama, the Tiruvadi, theVanamadevi and the Tiruvendipuram anicuts. The Dama anicut is not so important. The Tiruvadi anicut, 13 miles from Cuddalore was built in 1847-1848 to replace an earthen dam.Originally 443 feet long, it has since been improved and is now 523 feet long. It supplies a channel on the north bank of the river. The Vanamadevi anicut, 9 miles from Cuddalore was built in 1862-1863. Originally 421 feet long, it has also since been improved and is now 506 feet 3 inches in length. It supplies a channel on the south tank. The Tiruvendipuram anicut, 4 miles from Cuddalore lies at the end of a most picturesque reach of the Gadilam, where the river winds under the Mount capper plateau and flows beneath the walls of the well-known temple of Tiruvendipuram. It was built in 1835-1836. It is 436 feet long and it supplies on the south one channel which irrigates very rich lands round about Cuddalore. It also fills the tank at the foot of Mount Capper. The channels from these anicuts irrigate about 8,500 acres in the . The area under the Gadilam channels contains good soil and the supply here is almost perennial. Tirukoilur Anicut There is an old anicut across the Ponnaiyar, four miles below Tirukoilur called the Tirukoilur anicut. It was built in 1863-1864 to increase the supply in the then existing channels which at that time received water only when the river was in high fresh. It was originally, 1,200 feet long, but owing to the damages made by a flood in 1874, it was extended in 1875 to its presents length, 1,497 feet excluding sand vents. Five channels take off from it and irrigate the lands in the Villupuram, Tirukoilur and Cuddalore taluks. As the river gets silted up it is proposed to replace the top two feet of masonry with two feet falling shutters to allow silt to pass during floods. Of its five channels, one called the Pambai channel, formed by utilizing the course of the Pambai, a jungle stream, which falls into the Varahanadhi river, takes off in the north; it is 22 miles 78 chains long and it irrigates 7,272 acres in the Villupuram taluk. The other four channels, known as the Raghavaiyan, Vadamarudur, Shittalingamadam and the Malattar channels take off from the south of the anicut. They fall into chains of tanks and irrigate 15,000 acres in theTirukoilur and Cuddalore taluks. The Malattar, after irrigating 4,400 acres in the first 10 miles, serves as a drain and falls into the Gadilam 12 .

 TRSV STVWXVYSZU 50 The Memattur Anicut The Memattur anicut nine miles above Vriddhachalam was constructed across the Manimuktanadi in 1873. It is 412 feet long and supplies a chain of nine tanks from a channel 7 miles long on the south bank of the river. The total ayacut under it was 5,200 acres. Across the same river, there was also the Vriddhachalam anicut, five miles belowVriddhachalam constructed in 1869-1870. It is 334 feet long and it provides irrigation on both the banks of the river, its anicuts under the north and south main channels being 7,714 and 1,700 acres respectively. In addition to above there were several small and minor irrigation schemes serve the district. Important among them were the Alangal channel which takes off from the Ponnaiyar irrigates over 10,000 acres. The Ellis Choultry anicut near Villupuram ensures irrigation to an already existing ayacut of 15,340 acres and extents irrigational facilities a new ayacut extending over 800 acres. The few channels that serves the anicut were the Maragadapuram-Alangal channel, the Valerada Reddy Channel and Erralur channel. The Vadakkanandal anicut built across river Gomukanathi irrigates 600 acres. The Memathur anicut project across the Manimuktanathi ensures regular supply to a chain of 9 tanks. The net area irrigated in the district through channels, in 1950-51 was 1,93,459 acres. Tanks: There were numerous tanks in the district which apart from the various irrigation projects detailed above increased the irrigational facilities in this district. The tanks were fed by river channels and rain. There were 2,708 tanks in the district out of which 1,250 were with ayacuts of 100 acres and 1,454 were with ayacut of less than 100 acres. Most important among the major tanks of the district were the Veeranam tank, the Wallajah tank, and the Perumal tank 13 . The Veeranam tank in taluk is said to be biggest in the district which has an ayacut over 40,500 acres. It has 23 sluices and most important among them were the Budangudi, the Parappanathan and Karungul. The tank is silted by the Vadavur channel and other jungle streams. Lands in the vicinity of the tank have become fertile has a result of rich silt deposits. The Wallajah tank in the Cuddalore taluk is a small reservoir near Shatiatope anicut. It gets its supply from Sathiatope anicut through Rajan vaikal channel. Consequent on the liberal subsidies granted to ryots for the construction of the wells under the community development projects. National extension service and local development works schemes. Well irrigation has gain a fresh momentum. The number of tube well sin 1950-51 was only 72. Of the other wells. 1,944 belong to Government and 63,479 were private 14 . The Grow-more-food-campaign has also contributed much to the improvement of irrigational facilities in the region. Oil engine pumps have been installed in many places and the total number of such pumps in operation during 1950-51 was 2,881. Thus well irrigation holds prominent place in the district. The total gross area irrigated in the district during 1950-51 was 5,42,919 acres. The area under paddy during 1950-51 was 2,78,712 acres. Among the various taluks of the district, Chidambaram commands the best and largest irrigational facilities in thedistrict, inVriddhachalam taluk, the chief irrigation source was the Vellar River.Tirukoilur, Villupuram and Cuddalore taluks were also fairly well off from the irrigational view point. The remaining taluks were prone to Famine and drought in the event of failure of monsoon. The percent of grass area irrigated with Food crops was 90.0 percent and the balance of 9.93 percent only represents non food crops. On the opening of the various projects and utilisation of the water for irrigation purposes. A rapid increase in the area irrigated took place in south Arcot district under canals. The Prominent Channels that irrigate the are the (1) Rajah Vaikal (2) the Chan Saibh Vaikal (3) the Boodankudi Vaikal (4) the KarungoolyVaikal and (5) Ponnery surplus.

 TRSV STVWXVYSZU 51 Rajah vaikal The Rajah Vaikal head sluice is close to the coleroon anicut and leads directly from there freshes diverted from their on ward progress to the sea by this structure. It irrigates 13 villages in kattumannarkoil and the chief supply being retained for Chidambaram where it irrigates 65 villages. The waters of this channel are similarly with those of the Vadavar rich in the fertilizing vandal. The above mention streams flowing directly from the coleroon and the waters not having time to settle dispossess themselves of this Ingredient, as is the case with the water in the channels leading from the Veeranam tank. The Rajah vaikal has rather absorbed in its course, old kumaratchi, Vailoor and karupoorect., which places and whose purposes it now supplies. Chan Saibh vaikal Under the chan Saibhvaikal irrigation including its branch leading to gavarapett, irrigates 25 villages in the Chidambaram taluk. This channels derives its supply from two sources, the surplus of the Veeranam and the waste water from those Kattumannarkoil villages irrigated by the vadavar which are collected by a stream called the ‘puravadywoday’. These two sources meet near the Viranatham lake and the stream found by their junction then assumes the name chansaibhvaikal. Karungooly Vaikal The Karungooly vaikal leads from a sluice of that name in the Veeranam tank. It irrigates 11 villages in Chidambaram Taluk. Its heed is situated about seven miles from the entrance of the Vadavar into the tank. Boodankudi Vaikal The Boodankudi vaikal is similarly supplied that the head is still further north than that of the karungoolyvaikal its sluice being the last of all along the tank bund, so the supply is scanty. The Boodankudi vaikal irrigates 3 villages in Kattumannarkoil Taluk and 25 villages in Chidambaram Taluk. To irrigate these villages through Boodankudi vaikal, Karungoolyvaikal always suffers considerably and moreover remission have to be given for shavy. The villages under these vaikal do not enjoy the same advantages in point of irrigation as those under the Vadavar, chanSabiah and Rajah vaikal. The Ponnery The Ponnery surplus vaikal flows from the site of what was formerly the Ponnery tank but which is now merely the temporary receptacle of the surplus water flowing the surrounding cultivation and the supply furnished by the Karungoolyvaikal by the side of Chidambaram. Its capabilities may be considered equal to those of the Boodankudi and Karungooly vaikals and irrigates about 3,500 acres. Economics behind Irrigation Systems in South Arcot District We could come gave a glimps of the innate intentions behind the irrigation projects implemented by the colonial masters from the observations of the officials as below Author Cotton observes that “The capital outlay on the Godavery works was 7,40,000; on the Kistnah works 4,60,000. The net revenue from the capital outlay on the Godavery, Kistnab, and Cauvery Delta works for a series of years was 21, 15, and 86 percent respectively”. Further he goes on to say “Let me start by saying that I consider that India and this country are in the most astonishing manner the supplements of each other; that what one wants the other has on both sides; that the 240,000,000 of laborious, diligent, well conducted people of India are exactly what England wants now to further her plans, and that in both ways- both to supply her with the materials and with food, and also to make use of her manufactures”. “I give you the general results of these irrigation works. We have spent 20,000,000 upon them, and we are spending 10,000,000 more upon them now. and the general result is this – that

 TRSV STVWXVYSZU 52 the average cost of irrigating, draining, embanking, and supplying the land with navigation from great rivers has been 2 an acre, and the average increase of produce alone, due to irrigation, has been 1. 10s per acre – 66 percent – besides securing the land from the river-floods, carrying off the heavy local rains, and supplying them with carriage at a nominal price, so that the works are certainly on an average at this moment yielding to the country 100 percent” 15 . Conclusion We could find from the enormous inscriptional evidence found in the Temples of South Arcot that there existed a well knit irrigation system and maintenance system right from the Chola Regime. The net area irrigated in South Arcot District through channels, in 1950-51 was 1,93,459 acres. The Sethiathope Anicut, Tiruvendipuram Anicut, Memathur Anicut, Pelunthurai Anicut and the Tirukoilur Anicut executed in South Arcot District in the 19 th Century increased the extent of irrigated land and state revenue. For instance the Sethiyathope anicut system is an exceptionally remunerative work, the capital cost up to 1931 was about Rs.10.78 lakhs, while its revenue for 1930-31 was about Rs.1.3 lakhs. Thus all the irrigation projects whether it was dams, canals or tanks executed by the colonial state had the intention of increasing the revenue without keeping in mind the irrigation pattern in the district. These irrigation projects on one side increased agricultural production on the other changed the entire pattern of cropping and agrobased infrastructure in the district. REFERENCES 1. Census Hand Book, South Arcot District, 1961 (Madras,1965), p.48. 2. A Statistical Atlas of the South Arcot District Vol.8, Madras, Department of Statistics, 1965,p.85. 3. Central Board of Irrigation and Power, “Irrigation in India through Ages, (New Delhi, 1953), p.5 4. B.S. Baliga, Madras District Gazetteers, South Arcot, (Madras, 1962), p.189. 5. K. Nagarajan, Cauvery From source to sea, (New Delhi, 1975), p.19. 6. K.L. Rao, India’s Water Wealth, Its Assessment, Uses and Projections , (New Delhi, 1976), p.127. 7. Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Op.cit., p.22. 8. C. Ramachandran, East India Company and South Indian Economy (Madras, 1980), p.79. 9. First Report of the Commissioners appointed to Enquire into under the report upon the system of superintending and Executive Publicworks in Madras Presidency, submitted in council of Fort St. George, on 23 rd December 1852 (Madras, 1856), p.105. 10. C.D.Maclean, Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency,Vol. I (A), (Madras, 1885), p.365. 11. A.Mohanakrishnan, Let us know ourselves, (Madras,1980), p.5. 12. B.S.Baliga, Op.cit., pp. 139-140. 13. A Statistical Atlas of the Madras Presidency, Fasli 1360, 1950-51, (Madras, 1965), p. 108. 14. Nirmal Sengupta, Irrigation: Traditional vs Modern, Economic and Political Weekly , Vol. 20, No. 45/47, Special Number (Nov. 1985), pp. 1919-1938. 15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/60245130

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