Computers, Graphics, & Learning

Computers, Graphics, & Learning Lloyd P. Rieber The University of Georgia — Athens Copyright © 2000 Lloyd P. Rieber. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Lloyd P. Rieber. The reader bears total responsibility for the time, cost, and labor of downloading the electronic files comprising this book from the world wide web, for the subsequent time, cost, and labor of printing, duplicating, and binding of the text in printed form, and for any other miscellaneous costs that might be incurred. Readers are given no assurances that they will be able to successfully download, open, and print the electronic files. This first edition is offered free to qualifying educators. If you do not qualify for a free copy, then for every full or partial copy made of this text, electronic, printed, or otherwise, the reader agrees to pay the author the specified royalty amount in U.S. dollars. Contact Lloyd Rieber directly for more information via email ([email protected]) or this address: Lloyd Rieber 6114 Nowhere Road Hull, Georgia 30646 USA This page containing the copyright notice must be included as the first page after the title page in each legally reproduced copy. - 2 - CONTENTS Preface 9 OVERVIEW, SCOPE, AND ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK 10 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12 1 — Introduction 13 OVERVIEW 13 OBJECTIVES 13 Comprehension 13 Application 13 PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 13 Some Definitions 14 The First Principle of Instructional Graphics 15 THE IMPORTANCE OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION 16 Graphics in Education 18 Everyday Uses of Graphics and Visual Images 20 WHY COMPUTER GRAPHICS? 20 Advancements in the Production of Computer Graphics 25 QUESTIONING THE MOTIVE TO USE GRAPHICS IN INSTRUCTION 27 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN VERSUS TECHNOCENTRIC DESIGN 29 REVIEW 33 NOTES 33 2 — An Overview of Graphics in Instruction 35 OVERVIEW 35 OBJECTIVES 35 Comprehension 35 Application 35 THE THREE TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS 36 Representational Graphics 36 Analogical Graphics 38 Arbitrary Graphics 40 Combining Characteristics of the Three Types of Graphics 42 MATCHING GRAPHICS WITH LEARNING GOALS 45 Instructional Objectives 45 Domains of Learning 46 - 3 - A GUIDE TO THE INSTRUCTIONAL FUNCTIONS OF GRAPHICS 53 Characteristics of Successful Instruction 54 Five Instructional Applications of Graphics 57 REVIEW 68 NOTES 68 3 — Developing Instructional Computer Graphics on Microcomputers 70 OVERVIEW 70 OBJECTIVES 70 Comprehension 70 Application 70 HARDWARE SYSTEMS: TYPES OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS DISPLAYS 72 PRODUCING STATIC COMPUTER GRAPHICS 73 Overview of Graphic File Formats 75 Command-Based Approaches to Producing Static Computer Graphics 76 GUI-Based Approaches to Producing Static Computer Graphics 84 Second-Hand Computer Graphics: Clip Art, Scanning, and Digitizing 89 PRODUCING ANIMATED COMPUTER GRAPHICS 92 Command-Based Approaches to Fixed-Path Animation 93 GUI-Based Approaches to Fixed-Path Animation 98 Data-Driven Animation 102 THE INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 103 REVIEW 104 NOTES 105 4 — Psychological Foundations of Instructional Graphics 107 OVERVIEW 107 OBJECTIVES 107 Comprehension 107 Application 107 LEARNING THEORY: A PRIMER 108 Behavioral Learning Theory 108 Cognitive Learning Theory 111 VISUAL COGNITION 117 Visual Perception 118 Perceptual Factors Related to Animation 121 Memory Considerations for Visual Information 124 An Overview of Dual Coding Theory 127 Arguments Against Dual Coding Theory 129 - 4 - Memory for Animated Visuals 131 MOTIVATION 133 REVIEW 136 NOTES 136 5 — Review of Instructional Visual Research: Static Visuals 137 OVERVIEW 137 OBJECTIVES 137 Comprehension 137 Application 137 INTERPRETING RESULTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL VISUAL RESEARCH 139 OVERVIEW OF STATIC VISUAL RESEARCH 142 Distraction Effects of Pictures: Review by S. Jay Samuels, 1970 143 Describing the Conditions Under Which Pictures Facilitate Learning 144 Review by Joel Levin and Alan Lesgold, 1978 145 Research Conducted and Reviewed by Francis Dwyer 146 Review by W. Howard Levie, 1987 147 Review by Joel Levin, Gary Anglin, and Russell Carney, 1987 150 A FINAL WORD 155 REVIEW 156 NOTES 157 6 — Review of Instructional Visual Research: Animated Visuals 159 OVERVIEW 159 OBJECTIVES 159 Comprehension 159 Application 159 SOME IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF ANIMATION RESEARCH 162 OVERVIEW OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL ANIMATION RESEARCH AGENDA 163 Learning a Valuable Lesson Early On 166 REVIEW OF ANIMATION IN COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION 167 Research on Inductive Learning 178 Research on Learning Incidental Information from an Animated Display 182 Some Final Comments about Animation Research 184 REVIEW 184 NOTES 185 - 5 - 7 — Designing Graphics for Computer-Based Instruction: Basic Principles 187 OVERVIEW 187 OBJECTIVES 187 Comprehension 187 Application 188 COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 188 Traditional ISD 190 Rapid Prototyping 192 Traditional ISD versus Rapid Prototyping in the Design of Instructional Computer Graphics 199 SOME GENERAL GRAPHIC PRINCIPLES OF SOFTWARE DESIGN FOR COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION 199 Screen Design 203 Some Basic Principles of Graphic Design 212 Color and Realism as Instructional Variables 213 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL COMPUTER GRAPHICS 219 Cosmetic Graphics 220 Motivational Graphics 221 Attention-Gaining Graphics 221 Presentation Graphics 223 Practice 224 REVIEW 224 NOTES 225 8 — Designing Highly Interactive Visual Learning Environments 226 OVERVIEW 226 OBJECTIVES 226 Comprehension 226 Application 227 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 228 Constructivism: An Overview 230 Influence of the Work of Jean Piaget 233 Microworlds 234 THEORY INTO PRACTICE: BLENDING CONSTRUCTIVISM WITH INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 237 Mental Models 237 Simulations and Their Relationship to Microworlds 239 Games and Their Relationship to Microworlds and Simulations 245 Space Shuttle Commander: Practical Constructivism 249 Instructional Design Recommendations Rooted in Constructivism 257 - 6 - REVIEW 262 9 — Multimedia 263 OVERVIEW 263 OBJECTIVES 263 Comprehension 263 Application 263 CONSTRUCTIVISM REVISITED 264 MULTIMEDIA 266 Multimedia and Hypermedia 270 Multimedia and Interactive Video 271 A FINAL WORD 274 REVIEW 276 NOTES 276 BIBLIOGRAPHY 278 CREDITS 296 - 7 - LIST OF BOXES Box 1.1 The Stuff Dreams Are Made Of 19 Box 1.2 Play the Chaos Game 22 Box 3.1 Drawing Circles the Hard Way 82 Box 3.2 Follow the Bouncing Ball 94 Box 4.1 "You Are Here": Visualizing in Short-Term Memory 126 Box 5.1 Seeing A Story With Words Alone 153 Box 7.1 Understanding Rapid Prototyping by Analogy: Making Paper Planes 195 Box 7.2 The Psychology of Everyday Things 200 Box 7.3 Color Use Principles 215 Box 8.1 How Far Can You Throw? — An "Exercise" in Constructivism 232 Box 8.2 Learning in a Virtual Reality 241 - 8 - Preface As the title indicates, this book is about computers, graphics, and learning, as opposed to computer graphics for learning. There is a difference. This book considers and integrates a broad spectrum of information related to the instructional design of visual information for learning and how the computer supports this process. Another way to understand the distinction is to first consider the importance of the three topics independently and then how they relate to each other. The title lists the topics in order from least to most important, so we must start with the last topic — learning — and work our way forward. This is also the order that must be considered when making design decisions involving visualization techniques. The learning process takes center stage and clearly dominates the other two topics throughout this book. Although the learning process is fascinating in and of itself, this book also guides and directs the construction of environments that nurture and enhance learning, often referred to simply as instruction. This book is written for the professionals who design and develop these environments in both formal and informal settings. These individuals are usually referred to as instructional designers and/or instructional developers. Many carry this title as the formal result of graduate-level training; others find such a role thrust upon them, perhaps unexpectedly. For this reason, this book is relevant to anyone concerned with or involved in designing graphics for instruction. This book has a more specific mission beyond general instructional design: to exploit the potential of visualization techniques to enhance and improve learning. Graphics long have been a common part of all instructional strategies. Many of the most valuable principles of how visuals can help learning have been identified apart from computer applications. Therefore, designers have much to gain from applying the general theory and research related to visuals, memory, and learning to instructional design. Considering these knowledge bases becomes even more important when one understands that all graphics are not appropriate for all learning outcomes. Indeed, inappropriate uses of graphics can actually thwart well-intentioned instructional design. We resist the tendency to believe that efforts to apply computers and graphics to learning “break all the rules” of the available theory and research (even if it turns out later to be true in some places). Despite the attention to theory and research, we are careful to remember that our overriding goal

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