Cultural Changes and the Environment

Technological impact per Environmental Population (P) x x unit of consumption (T) = impact of population (I)

Figure 1-14 Connections: simplified model of how three factors-number of people, affluence, and technology-affect the environmental impact of the population in developing countries (top) and developed countries (bottom).

the same lifetime family resource consumption level as 2 Evidence from fossils and studies of ancient cultures children in a typical U.S. family. suggest that the current form of our species, Homo Some forms of technology, such as polluting facto- sapiens sapiens, has walked the earth for perhaps ries and motor vehicles and energy-wasting devices, 90,000-195,000 years-less than an eye-blink in the increase environmental impact by raising the T factor earth's 3.7 billion years of life. in the equation. Other technologies, such as pollution Until about 12,000 years ago, we were mostly control and prevention, solar cells, and energy-saving hunter-gatherers who typically lived in small groups devices, lower environmental impact by decreasing and moved as needed to find enough food for the T factor. In other words, some forms of technology . survival. Since then, three major cultural changes have are environmentally harmful and some are environmen- occurred. The agricultural revolution, which began tally beneficial. . 10,000-12,000 years ago, allowed people to settle in villages and raise crops and domesticated animals. ~ RESEARCH FRONTIER Finding ways to reduce over- Next the industrial-medical revolution, which began consumption about 275 years ago, led to a shift from rural villages and animal-powered agriculture to an urban society •. 12l rHINKING A80vr EXPONENTIAL GROWTH What role does using fossil fuels for manufacturing material items, 'J exponential growth (Core Case Study, p. 6) play in each of the agriculture, and transportation. It also involved using factors in the model in Figure 1-147 science to help us improve sanitation and understand and control disease. The third cultural shift, the information-globalization revolution, began about 50 years CULTURAL CHANGES AND ago. It is based on using new technologies for gaining THE ENVIRONMENT rapid access to much more information on a global scale. These technologies include the telephone, radio, Human Cultural Changes television, computers, automated databases, and re- Since our hunter-gatherer days, three major cultural mote sensing satellites. changes have increased the human impact on the Figure 1-15 lists major advantages and disadvan- environment. tages of the advanced industrial-medical revolution

20 CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability Americans) occupied North America for at least 10,000 years before European settlers began arriving in the early 1600s. This was followed by the frontier era (1607-1890), when European colonists began settling North Amer- ica. Faced with a continent containing seemingly inex- haustible forest and wildlife resources and rich soils, Mass production Increased air of useful and pollution the early colonists developed a frontier environmen- affordable tal worldview. They viewed most of the continent as products having vast resources and as a wilderness to be con- Increased water pollution quered and managed for human use. Higher standard Next came the early conservation era (1832-1870), of living for many during which some people became alarmed at the Increased waste scope of resource depletion and degradation in the production United States. They urged that part of the unspoiled Greatly increased wilderness on public lands owned jointly by all people agricultural production (but managed by the government) be protected as a Soil depletion and legacy to future generations. Most of these warnings degradation and ideas were not taken seriously. Lower infant The early conservation period was followed by an mortality era-lasting from 1870 to the present-with an in- Groundwater creasedrole of thefederal government and private citizens in depletion Longer life resource conservation, public health, and environmental expectancy protection. See Supplement 5 on p. S16 for more details and an overview of U.S, environmental history. Habitat destruction and degradation

Biodiversity SUSTAINABILITY AND depletion ENVIRONMENTAL WORLD VIEWS

Are Things Getting Better or Worse? 'Ore 1-15 Trade-ofts: advantages and disadvantages of the A Millennium Assessment (Science §nced industrial-medical revolution and by extension the and Politics) mation-globalization revolution, QUESTION: Which single ntage and disadvantage do you think are the most There is good and bad environmental news, :tant? Experts disagree about how serious our population and environmental. problems are and what we should do about them. Some suggest that human ingenuity by extension the information-globalization revo- and technological advances will allow us to clean up tion. During the last 50 years, living conditions have pollution to acceptable levels, find substitutes for any ved for the majority of the world's population. scarce resources, and keep expanding the earth's abil- 'individuals live longer, are better nourished and ity to support more humans. " ier, and have the freedom to participate in elect- Many leading environmental scientists disagree. d influencing their leaders. This progress, how- They appreciate and applaud the Significant environ- as put an increasing strain on the earth's natural mental and social progress that we have made, but 1: they also cite evidence that we are degrading and dis- rupting the earth's life-support systems in many parts of the world at an exponentially accelerating rate. They fEnvironmental History in the call for much more action to protect the natural capital States that supports our economies and all life. ronmental history of the United States According to environmental expert Lester R. of the tribal, frontier, early conservation, Brown, "We are entering a new world, one where the ern environmental eras. collisions between our demands and the earth's capac- :vjronmental history of the United States can be ity to satisfy them are becoming daily events. Our '-; into four eras. The first was the tribal era, during global economy is outgrowing the capacity of the earth ---.?O million tribal people (now called Native to support it. No economy, however technologically

.. thomsonedu.com/biology/miller 21 Ai

advanced, can survive the collapse of its environmen- reforestation program, we move closer to an economy tal support systems." that can sustain economic progress." ! In 2005, the UN's Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ! was released. According to this four-year study by Environmental Worldviews and Ethics i 1,360 experts from 95 countries, human activities are I degrading or using unsustainably about 60% of the The way we view the seriousness of environmental ,I world's free natural services (Figure 1-4, right) that problems and how to solve them depends on our sustain life on the earth. In other words, we are living environmental worldview and our environmental unsustainably. ethics. I This pioneering comprehensive examination of Differing views about the seriousness of our environ- ~ j the health of the world's life-support systems is also a mental problems and what we should do about them story of hope. It says we have the tools to preserve the arise mostly out of differing environmental world- planet's natural capital by 2050 and describes com- views and environmental ethics. Your environmental mon-sense strategies for doing this. worldview is a set of assumptions and values about The most useful answer to the question of whether how you think the world works and what you think things are getting better or worse is both. Some things your role in the world should be. Environmental are getting better and some are getting worse. ethics is concerned with your beliefs about what is right and wrong with how we treat the environment. a RESEARCH FRONTIER A crash program to gain better and Here are some important ethical questions relating to more comprehensive informationabout the health of the the environment: world'slife-supportsystems • Why should we care about the environment? Our challenge is to not get trapped into confusion and inaction by listening primarily to either of two • Are we the most important species on the planet or are we just one of the earth's millions of species? groups of people. Technological optimists tend to overstate the situation by telling us to be happy and not to • Do we have an obligation to see that our activities worry, because technological innovations and conven- do not cause the premature extinction of other tional economic growth and development will lead to species? Should we try to protect all species or only a wonder world for everyone. In contrast, environmen- some? How do we decide which species to protect? tal pessimists overstate the problems to the point where • Do we have an ethical obligation to pass on to fu- our environmental situation seems hopeless. The ture generations the extraordinary natural world we noted conservationist Aldo Leopold argued, "I have have inherited in as good condition, if not better, as no hope for a conservation based on fear." we inherited?

[Xl Hovy WOULD You VOTE?* Doyou believe that the society • Should every person be entitled to equal protection you live inis on an unsustainable path? Cast your vote online from environmental hazards regardless of race, gen- at www.thomsonedu.com/biology/miller. der, age, national origin, income, social class, or any other factor? This is the central ethical and political Many environmental scientists and leaders be- issue for what is known as the environmental justice lieve that we must and can make a shift toward a more movement. See the Guest Essay by Robert D. Bullard sustainable economy and civilization during your life- . on the website for this book. time. In 2006, Lester R. Brown said, "Sustaining our current global civilization now depends on shifting to 12l THINKING ABOllTOllR RESPONSIBILITIES Howwouldyou a renewable energy-based and a reuse/recycle econ- answer each of the questions above? Compare youranswers omy with a diversified transport system, employing a withthose ofyour classmates. Record your answers and, at sustainable mix of light rails, buses, bicycles, and cars. the end ofthis course, return to these questions to see ifyour answers have changed. Making this transition requires (1) restructuring the global economy so that it can sustain civilization, People with widely differing environmental (2) an all-out effort to eradicate poverty, stabilize pop- worldviews and ethical and cultural beliefs can take ulation, and restore hope, and (3) a systematic effort to the same data, be logically consistent, and arrive at restore natural systems. With each wind farm, rooftop quite different conclusions because they start with dif- solar panel, paper recycling facility, bicycle path, and ferent assumptions and moral principles or values.

I Various environmental worldviews are discussed in "To cast your vote, go the website for the book and then to the appropriate detail in Chapter 26, but here is a brief introduction. chapter (in this case, Chapter 1). In most cases, you will be able to compare how you voted with others using this book throughout the United States Some people in todays industrial consumer so- and the rest of the world. cieties have a planetary management worldview. This

22 CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability view holds that we are separate from nature, that the writings of Aldo Leopold (Individuals Matter, nature exists mainly to meet our needs and increasing below). wants, and that we can use our ingenuity and technology to manage the earth's life-support systems, mostly Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability: for our benefit. It assumes that economic growth is Copy Nature (Science) unlimited. We can develop more sustainable economies and A second environmental worldview, known as the societies by mimicking the four major ways that stewardship worldview, holds that we can manage nature has adapted and sustained itself for several the earth for our benefit but that we have an ethical re- billion years. sponsibility to be caring and responsible managers, or stewards, of the earth. It says we should encourage en- How can we live more sustainably? According to ecol- vironmentally beneficial forms of economic growth ogists and environmental scientists, we should find and discourage environmentally harmful forms. out how life on the earth has survived and adapted for Another world view is the environmental wis- several billion years and use what we learn as guide- dom worldview. It holds that we are part of and to- lines for our lives and economies. tally dependent on nature and that nature exists for Science reveals that four basic components of all species, not just for us. It also calls for encouraging the earth's natural sustainability are quite simple (Fig- earth-sustaining forms of economic growth and de- ure 1-16, p 24): velopment and discouraging earth-degrading forms. • Reliance on Solar Energy: the sun warms the planet According to this view, our success depends on learn- and supports photosynthesis used by plants to provide ing how the earth sustains itself and integrating such food for us and other animals . . environmental wisdom into the ways we think and act. Many of the ideas for the stewardship and • Biodiversity: a great variety of genes, species, . environmental wisdom worldviews are derived from ecosystems, and ecological processes have provided

. ethic, and they form the basis for many of the beliefs of the modern stewardship and environmental wisdom worldviews: All ethics sofar evolved rest upon a single premise: that the individual is a member of a community of interde- pendent parts. That land is a community is the basic concept of ecology, but that land is to be loved and respected is an extension of ethics. The land ethic changes the role of Figure 1-A Individuals matter: Aldo Homo sapiens from conqueror of Leopold (1887-1948) was a forester, .the land-communiiu to plain writer, and conservationist. His book member and citizen of it. A Send County Almanac (published We abuse land because we regard after his death) is considered an environmental classic that inspired the mod- it as a commodity belonging to ern environmental and conservation us. When we see land as a commu- movement. nity to which we belong, we may be- gin to use it with love and respect. Critical Thinking Anything is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, Which of the above quotations and beauty of the biotic com- do you agree with? Which, if any, munity. It is wrong when it tends of these ethical principles do you otherwise. put into practice in your own life?

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------many ways to adapt to changing environmental condi- Figure 1-17 summarizes how we can live more tions throughout the 3.7-billion-year history of life on sustainably by using these four amazingly simple fun- the earth. damentallessons from nature (left side) in designing • Population Control: competition for limited re- our societies, products, and economies (right side) .. sources among species places a limit on how much any Figures 1-16 and 1-17 summarize the sustainability theme one population can grow. If a population grows be- central to this book. yond those limits, its size decreases from changes in the Using the four scientific principles of sustainabil- birth rates and death rates of its members. In nature, no ity to guide our lifestyles and economies could result . population can grow indefinitely. in an environmental revolution during your lifetime. Fig- ure 1-18 lists some of the shifts involved in bringing • Nutrient Recycling: natural processes recycle all about this new cultural revolution. chemicals or nutrients that plants and animals need to stay alive and reproduce. In this recycling process, the wastes or dead bodies of all organisms become food •.. 12l rfllNKING ABOt/T EXPONENTIAL GJ(OW'rfl AND or resources for other organisms. There is little waste 'J $VSTAINABlllIY Is exponential economic growth incompati- in nature. ble with environmental sustainability? Explain

Reliance on Biodiversity Solar Energy

Nutrient Recycling Population Control

Figure 1-16 Four scientific principles of sustainability: these four interconnected principles of sustainability are derived from learning how nature has sustained a variety of life on the earth for about 3.7 billion years. The top left oval shows sunlight stimulating the production of vegetation in the Arctic tundra during its brief summer (solar energy) and the top right oval shows some of the diver- , : sity of species found there during the summer (biOdiversity). The bottom right oval shows Arctic gray I i wolves stalking a caribou during the long cold winter (population controti. The bottom left oval shows r{! Arctic gray wolves feeding on their kill. This plus huge numbers of tiny decomposers that convert !I dead matter to soil nutrients recycle the nutrients needed to support the plant growth shown in the :.:1,· 1,IJ'•.. top left and right ovals (nutrient recycling). II", ''l.I.1."'!..I.• iIiI'll'' 24 CHAPTER 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability ;3~1.•!.I. - '1 .; ~~" could and should be. This means nurturing openness, communication, cooperation, and hope and discouraging close-mindedness, polarization, confrontation, and fear. Much of society today has become shrill and less civil. People scream at one another, take strong posi-

Runs on Rely mostly on tions often without investigating the facts, and refuse perpetual direct and indirect to listen to those with different ideas. This behavior solar energy. solar energy. paralyzes attempts to find workable solutions to common problems and leads to a loss of the most powerful Recycles Prevent and nutrients and reduce waste force for change-hope. wastes. There and pollution and The important environmental issues we face are is little waste recycle and reuse not black and white, but rather all shades of gray be- in nature. resources. cause proponents of all sides have some legitimate and Uses Preserve useful insights. This means that citizens should strive biodiversity to biodiversity to build social capital by finding trade-off solutions-an maintain itself by protecting and adapt to ecosystems and important theme of this book-to environmental prob- new environ- preventing lems and try to agree on a shared vision of the future mental premature extinction they want. Once a shared vision crystallizes, citizens conditions. of species. can work together to develop strategies for imple-

, . Controls Recognize menting their vision beginning at the local level, as the . population size nature's limits citizens of Chattanooga, Tennessee (USA), have done and resource on population (Case Study, p. 26). use of species. size and resource use and learn to A key to building social capital and implementing live within these solutions to environmental problems is to recognize limits. that most social change results from individual actions and individuals acting together to bring about change

'ure 1-17 Solutions: implications of the four scientific clples of sustainability derived from observing nature (left) the long-term sustainability of human societies (right) .

. .Scientific evidence indicates that we have perhaps years and no more than 100 years to make such a tural change. You will witness a historical fork in .. ad at which point We will choose a path toward amability or continue on our current unsustain- course. Everything you do or don't do will playa irt which path we take .

. ing Social Capital: Talking and Listening .Another (Politics and Ethics) " mlustaining natural capital is to build social ~talljy working together to find common ground .ID+j51e,menting an informed and shared vision of a fer~orld based on hope. ~e shift to more sustainable societies and '.' volves building what sociologists call so- : This involves getting people with differ- _., d values to talk and listen to one another, <.;<"',Ogron und, and work together to build un-

. g, trust, and informed shared visions of Figure 1-18 Solutions: some shifts involved in bringing about co:tiununities, states, nations, and the world the environmental or sustainability revolution.

.thomsonedu.com/biology/miller 2S by grassroots action from the bottom up. In other low-income rental units. Chattanooga also built the na- Ii words, individuals matter-another important theme of tion's largest freshwater aquarium, which became the t this book. Research by social scientists suggests that it centerpiece for downtown renewal. The city also de- ~i \: takes only 5-10% of the population of a community, veloped a 35-kilometer-long (22-mile-long) riverfront country, or of the world to bring about major social park along both sides of the Tennessee River running ft II change. Such research also shows that significant so- through downtown. The park is filled with shade trees, cial change can occur in a much shorter time than most flowers, fountains, and street musicians, and draws people think. more than 1 million visitors per year. As property val- I Anthropologist Margaret Mead summarized our ues and living conditions have improved, people and potential for social change: "Never doubt that a small businesses have been moving back downtown. group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change In 1993, the community began the process again iI the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has." in Revision 2000. More than 2,600 participants identi- ;i fied additional goals and more than 120 recommenda- !! tions for further improvements. One goal involves !: Case Study: Chattanooga, Tennessee (Science, transforming an abandoned and blighted area in Economics, and Politics) South Chattanooga into an environmentally ad- Local officials, business leaders, and citizens have vanced, mixed community of residences, retail stores, worked together to transform the U.S. city of and zero-emission industries where employees can Chattanooga, Tennessee, from a highly polluted city live near their workplaces. Most of these goals have to one of the most sustainable and livable cities in the been implemented. United States. Chattanooga's environmental success story, based During the 1960s U.S. government officials rated on people working together to produce a more livable Chattanooga as having the dirtiest air in the United and sustainable city, is a shining example of what States. Its air was so polluted by smoke from its coke other cities can do by building their social capital. ovens and steel mills that people sometimes had to turn on their headlights in the middle of the day. The Tennessee River flowing through the city's industrial center bubbled with toxic waste. People and indus- ~ - Revisiting Exponential Growth tries fled the downtown area and left a wasteland of and Sustainability .. abandoned and polluting factories, boarded-up build- ings, high unemployment, and crime. Making the transition to more sustainable societies and In 1984, the city decided to get serious about im- economies challenges us to devise ways to slow down proving its environmental quality. Civic leaders started the harmful effects of the powerful force of exponential a Vision 2000 process with a 20-week series of commu- growth (Core Case Study p. 6). Accomplishing this vital nity meetings in which more than 1,700 citizens from goal requires better scientiffcunderstanding of our in- all walks of life gathered to build a consensus about terrelated natural and social systems (Figure 1-2), as dis- what the city could be at the turn of the century. Citi- Cussed throughout this book. zens identified the city's main problems, set goals, and We can then use this information to help slow hu- brainstormed thousands of ideas for solutions. man population growth, sharply reduce poverty, pre- By 1995, Chattanooga had met most of its original vent new environmental problems from arising, curb goals. The city had encouraged zero-emission indus- the unsustainable forms of resource use that are eating tries to locate there and replaced its diesel buses with a away at the earths natural capital, build social capital. fleet of quiet, zero-emission electric buses, made by a and in the process create a better world for ourselves new local firm. Downtown car use was reduced by and our children and grandchildn:n. building satellite parking lots and providing free and Exponential growth is a double-edged sword. It can rapid bus service between the lots and the city center. cause environmental harm. But we can also use it posi- Chattanooga also launched an innovative re- tively to amplify environmentally beneficial changes in cycling program after environmentally concerned our lifestyles and economies based on applying the citizens blocked construction of a new garbage incin- four scientific principles of sustainability (Figures J - J 6 erator that would have emitted harmful air pollutants. and 1-J 7). Through our individual and collective ac- These efforts paid off. Since 1989, the levels of the tions or inactions we choose which side of the expo- seven major air pollutants regulated by the EPA in nential growth sword to use in developing more envi- Chattanooga have been lower than those required by ronmentally sustainable lifestyles and economies. What federal standards a challenging and exciting time to be alive! Another project involved renovating much of the city's existing low-income housing and building new

26 CHAPTER1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability