>ULL£TTN OF rSYCHOLOQY AND THE !0O0 DIV. 10, AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION Vol i(2)

SPECIAL ISSUE:

CREATIVITY AND PSYCHGPATHQLQ@Y SARAH BENOLKEN AND COLIN MAKTINDALE, EDITORS

AND

ON EXHIBIT AT APA: THE OUTSIDER ART OF HAI TOM ETTfNGER, EDITOR

William Adolphe Bouguereau - At the Edge of the River (Detail) From the collection of Fred and Sherry Ross President Paul M. Farnsworth 1945-•1949 Robert 1 Sternberg (1999-2000) Norman C. Meier 1949-•1950 Department of Psychology Paul M. Farnsworth 1950-1951 Yale University Kate Hevner Mueller 1951 1952 Herbert S. Landfeld .1952 •1953 Box 208205 R. M. Ogden 1953 •1954 New Haven CT 06520 Carroll C. Pratt 1954 •1955 Melvin G. Rigg 1955-•1956 President-Elect J. P. Guilford . 1956•195 7 Sandra Russ (2000-2001) Rudolf Arnheim 1957-1958 Department of Psychology James J. Gibson 1958 •1959 Case Western Reserve University Leonard Carmichael 1959 1960 Cleveland OH 44106 ' Abraham Maslow 1060 1961 Joseph Shoben, Jr. 1961 •1962 Robert B. Macleod Past-President 1962 •1963 Carrol C. Pratt 1963 -1964 Louis Sass (1998-1999) Harry Helson 1964 •1965 Rudolf Arnheim 1965-1966 Secretary-Treasurer Irving L. Child 1966 1967 Constance Milbrath (1999-2002) Robert L. Knapp 1967-•1968 SigmundKoch 1968-1969 APA Council Representative Marianne L. Simmel 1969-•1970 Clair Golomb (1998-2001) Rudolf Arnheim 1970-1971 Frank Barron 1971-•1972 Michael A. Wallach Members-at-Large to the Executive 1972-1973 Frederick Wyatt Committee 1973 1974 Daniel E. Berlyne Stephanie Z. Dudek (1999-2002) 1974-•1975 Julian Hochberg 1975 •1976 David Harrington (1997-2000) Edward L. Walker 1976-•1977 Ruth Richards (1999-2002) Joachim Wohlwill 1978-•1979 Pavel Machotka 1979-1980 Ravenna Helson Bulletin Editor 1980-1981 Nathan Kogan Tom Ettinger (1998-2001) 1981-•1982 Salvatore R. Maddi Department of Psychology 1981 •1982 Stephanie Z. Dudek New York University 1982-•1983 Brian Sutton-Smith 6 Washington Place 1983 •1984 Henry Gleitman New York NY 10003 1984-•1985 Dean Keith Simonton 1985-•1986 Colin Martindale 1986 •1987 Ad hoc Committee Chairs Kenneth J. Gergen 1987-1988 Lawrence L. Marks 1988-1989 Awards: Robert J. Sternberg Nathan Kogan 1989 •1990 Margery B. Franklin 1990 •1991 Fellows: Ellen Winner Howard E. Gruber 1991 •1992 John M, Kennedy 1992 1993 Membership: Colin Martindale Robert S. Albert 1993 1994 Martin S. Lindauer 1994-1995 Nominations: John Kennedy Ellen Winner 1995 1996 Gerald C. Cupchik 1996.•199 7 Publications: Sandra Russ Mark Runco 1997-•1998 Louis A. Sass 1998-•1999 -

^fisffas Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 25

Contents

•>

Creativity and Psychopathology - Sarah Benolken and Colin Martindale, Editors

28 Introduction Colin Martindale and Sarah Benolken 28 Spiraling Upward: A Century of Research on Creativity and Psychopathology Colin Martindale 30 Genius and Insanity Cesare Lombroso 36 Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum Louis A. Sass 38 Are there Mental Costs to Creativity? James C. Kaufman and Robert J. Sternberg 39 Creativity and Psychopathology from a Darwinian Perspective Dean Keith Simonton 40 Subclinical Psychopathology, Dynamics, and "Normal Creativity" David Schuldberg 42 Creativity and Psychopathology Anthony Storr 43 Creativity and Liability for Schizophrenia Dennis K, Kinney and Elizabeth Ralevski 44 "Creative Advantage," Mood Disorders, and What We All Can Learn Ruth Richards and Dennis K. Kinney 47 Fractals, Madness, and Creative Achievement Arnold M. Ludwig 48 Sensation Seeking, Creativity, and Psychopathology Marvin Zuckerman 50 Disinhibition, Dopamine, and Creativity Colin Martindale, Oshin Vartanian, and Jonna Kwiatkowski 54 Great Wits Ally'd to Madness? Is That a Fact? Gordon Claridge 55 Creativity and Psychopathology Albert Rothenberg 59 Positive Affect and Creativity: Symptom of Psychopathology or Component of Creative Process? Pamela J. Shapiro and Robert W. Weisberg 62 The Collaborative Achievement of Creativity and Pathology Kenneth J, Gergen 63 Creativity and the Stock Market Norman Holland 65 Death by Character Assassination: Or How Modernist Lies Discredited Academic Art Fred Ross

^M^^&s^m^m 26 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

66 Psychopathology and Creativity in a Normal Sample of Advantaged Women Ravenna Nelson 61 The Conscious Use of Creative Activities to Combat Anxiety and Depression in Adolescents David M. Harrington 69 Creativity, Emotional Problems, and the Psychotherapy Process in Children . Sandra W. Russ 70 Creativity, Psychoanalysis, and Psychodiagnostics: Past, Present, and Future Tom Ettinger 11 Art Therapy: Creative Processes and Created Products Tom Ettinger 72 Creativity and Psychopathology: A Case Study Mary Herzog 72 The Flying Immigrant: A Reflection on Creativity and Self-Stigmatization Sarah Benolken 73 Enhancing Creativity in Therapists: What can be learned from the Shaman? Anne E. Martindale 16 Searching for the Meaning of Art Pavel Machotka

Division 10 News 78 Message from the President Robert J. Sternberg 78 Message from the President-Elect Sandra W. Russ 79 Message from the Past President Louis A. Sass 80. Announcements 82 Division 10 2000 APA Program

On Exhibit at APA: The Outsider Art of HAI - Tom Ettinger, Editor 85 Preface Tom Ettinger 85 Introduction Raymond D. Fowler 87 Art for Inspiration Jamie Chamberlin 89 Psychological Revelations: The Outsider Artists of Hospital Audiences, Inc. Tobi Zausner 92 List of Works on Exhibit Elizabeth Marks Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 27

Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Discussion From the collection of Fred and Sherry Ross

;^lg|^Ji^.rf^^ 'W®^Mm$si^M$ 'ifclliiitfe 28 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Scarlett Dawn Davis comes first to mind. Without her, we could never have produced this issue. We couldn't get Adobe PageMaker to do anything'of any use, and it rebelled at every turn. When Scarlett gave orders, the program Colin Martindale knew that it had better obey them. The first author would like to take this University of Maine occasion to thank Scarlett for always being there when he needed her, not only in this case but in so many others across the last 20 years. She is an expert at Sarah BenoLken desktop publishing, and could have asked a high fee for her work on this issue, New York, New York She charged nothing. Regard the layout of the issue as a gift to Division 10 from her. We thank Stevie Wilson and Sarah Jordan at APA for putting up wii h When he became president of Division 10, Robert J. Sternberg had the laud­ our questions and teaching us a lot. We'll miss them, as—shocking thougli ii able goal of establishing a journal for the division. A look at income from dues may be to them and no doubt a great relief as well—this is our final venture and how much the division has in reserve showed him that this was not a fea­ into desktop publishing. The issue was produced in spite of the incompetence sible goal. However, both he and the executive committee felt that the division of several people. Rather than naming them, we shall leave them unwept and does have enough income and reserves to upgrade from a Newsletter to a Bul­ unsung as is certainly their deserved fate. Readers may wonder where we letin that would carry substantive articles. It was felt that this would be of obtained the funds to produce so many full-color pages. They will have to keep interest to current members and would help to draw now members. Though wondering. Almost all of the money for these pages came from a very gener­ our dues are modest, one does like to feel that he or she is getting something for ous donation to Division 10 made for this purpose. The donor wishes to re­ his or her money. Whether one is starting a bulletin or a journal, it takes time main anonymous. We hope that we speak for all of Division 10 in offering our for people to hear about it and begin submitting high-quality articles. It was profound gratitude for this gift. felt that a good way to begin the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts would be special theme-issues devoted to topics that would be of interest to all members Colin Martindale of the division. With this issue, we shall see if that is in fact a good way to start Department of Psychology This special issue of the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts is devoted to University of Maine creativity and psychopathology. The reader will note that most of the major Orono ME 04469 theorists have contributed articles. For this, we sincerely thank them, as con­ tributors had only a bit over a month to prepare their articles. Other names one might expect to see had quite good reasons for not being able to contribute. Spiraling Upward: Kay Jamison, for example, has just sent her regrets for being unable to send an A Century of Research on article. She only learned of our invitation after returning—literally hours be­ fore the Bulletin had to be sent to the printers—from England. Creativity and Psychopathology Though there is a growing consensus that creativity and psychopathology are related, there is not unanimity, and there is not agreement as to how or to Colin Martindale what extent they are related. In the first part of the Bulletin, we have arranged University of Maine * articles roughly from those in which it is argued that the relationship is close I t through those in which it is argued that the relationship is moderate or slight to In 1900 it was widely believed that genius and insanity are intimately related | those in which it is argued that that there is little or no relationship. Articles and that creativity is in large part transmitted genetically. The same is widely ! the authors of which explore in various ways relationships between creativity believed in 2000. The route from 1900 to 2000 is a strange one. Almost all, and psychopathology follow these. At the end of the Bulletin is a section on an that was known about the relationship between creativity and psychopathology exhibition at APA of paintings by mentally disturbed people. It was edited by and genetics in 1900 had seemingly been discredited by the 1950's. Only in the Tom Ettinger. last several decades have we come back to a view of creativity similar to that The question of the relationship between genius and insanity goes back to held in 1900. In some ways we know more about creativity today than then. In antiquity. For all we know, the men in the overleaf painting by Sir Lawrence other ways, we actually know less. Alma-Tadema might have been imagined to be discussing this very issue. We At the end of the 19lh century, Galton's (1869) view that creativity is a genetic begin, though, with more modern times. After a brief introductory article, we trait that runs in families was widely accepted. By the 1950's this view had largely have included some excerpts from Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso knew things been rejected not so much on the basis of evidence, but because of the that it took us more than 100 years to rediscover; he is often disdainfully cited environmentalistic bias of the times. The few studies of the heritability of creativ­ but apparently never read. He saw similarities between genius and insanity but ity (see Nichols, 1976, for a review) had all yielded quite low heritability coeffi­ explained them in an incorrect way. One ought not throw the baby out with the cients. These studies can be faulted on the basis of small sample size and invalid bath water. The sections from his Genio e Folie that we have included are or unreliable measures of creativity. They did, though, lend support to ;in rather anecdotal, but if one reads the rest of the book he or she will see that environmentalistic explanation of creativity. It is no surprise to anyone who lins Lombroso in fact used quantitative methods that were advanced for his time. read Galton that he analyzed his data incorrectly. His construction of family trees One should not blame him for not anticipating that terms such as "lunacy" is often suspect. For example, he claimed to find a number of eminent relatives of would not be politically correct words a century later. We hope that you will Sir Isaac Newton; the problem is that it is quite unlikely that any of these people read his 'Conclusions'. Read correctly, his views were moderate. were in fact related to Newton. In seeking to make his case, Galton is often Whether one speaks of the fin de siecle of the 19,h or 20th centuries, there are completely unconvincing. Having a great-aunt who was fond of reading, for remarkable similarities as to opinions on the relationship between creativity example, is hardly compelling evidence for genius being familial. In a reanalysis and psychopathology. In view of this, we have included reproductions of some of his data, Bullough, Bullough, and Mauro (1981) were able to demonstrate thai late 19th-century paintings. Whether they depict a discussion or people in a Galton's own data show that creativity does not in fact run in families. It is now state of reverie—from which creative ideas so often spring—the reader will clear that we should not expect it to do so. Creativity is widely viewed as an see their relevance. emergenetic trait. That is, it will only manifest itself if all of a number of sub- We offer our sincere gratitude to Fred and Sherry Ross for allowing us to traits (e.g., capacity to think in an analogical manner, love of novelty and a dis­ reproduce these paintings from their extensive collection without permission taste for traditional dogmas, capacity for extremely hard work, very high self- fees. There are so many people to thank that we only know where to begin. confidence, love of mental activity, high ego strength, and so on) are present. To the extent that these traits are at least partially under genetic Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 29

Jules Joseph Lefebvre- Girl M'ith Mandolin From the collection of Fred and Sherry Ross 30 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts control, it is unlikely to find them all present in members of the same family to be careful in discriminating similarity from identity. Lombroso and even unless they are identical twins. This is precisely what Waller et al. (1993) have Eysenck may have gone too far in putting psychotic and creative thinking on the found. For identical twins, they found an intraclass correlation of .60 for a cre­ same continuum. Only time will tell. Martindale (1980) made such a mistake in ative personality scale, whereas the intraclass correlation for the scale was es­ dismissing Rothenberg's (1979) janusian and homospatial thinking as nothing sentially zero (-.02) for fraternal twins. Were creativity additive rather than more than primary process cognition. They are similar but far from identical, multiplicative or emergenetic, these results would mean that—at least for the We have to be careful to avoid identifying schizotypy with interest in ideas and scale used in their research—creativity is 100% heritable. Be this as it may, happiness with hypomania. Perhaps it is all in the way we use words. This \n Galton was right in arguing that creativity is to a large extent under genetic something to keep in mind when reading Lombroso, who used the vocabulary o f control but wrong in his theory as to the mechanism of genetic transmission. another age. Around 1900, degeneration theories, such as that of Lombroso (1895) were widely accepted. Lombroseo presented a general theory concerning the rela­ References tionship between creativity and what would today be called schizophenic and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discover}/ and invention New York: Harper. affective psychoses. The general theory is wrong, but if we break his theory Gould, S.J. (1996). The mismeasure of man. New York: W.W. Norton. down into its components, we see that he was totally wrong in some ways but in Martindale, C. (1980). New information of the rate at which Pallas Athena sprang other ways was aware of tilings we are only now rediscovering or have not yet from the head of Zeus (Review of Rothenberg, The emerging goddess: The creative rediscovered. On the level of genetics, Lombroso knew that creativity is inter­ process in art, science and other fields), Contemporary Psychology, 25, 802-803. twined genetically with predisposition to affective and schizophenic psychoses, Rothenberg, A. (1979). The emerging goddess: The creative process in art, science criminality, alcoholism, and psychopathy. This has been established across the . and other fields. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. last several decades (see Eysenck, 1995, for a review). However, Lombroso's Rushton, J.P., & Ankey, CD. (1995). Brain size matters: A reply to Peters. Canadian explanation of the relationship was wrong. He ascribed it to degeneration of the Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49, 562-569. brain caused mainly by environmental toxins and passed from generation to Note: Citations not found above may be found in Martindale, Vartanian, and generation in a Lamarckian fashion. Thus, he was aware of the genetic relation­ Kwiatkowsi later in this issue. ship but explained it incorrectly. According to Lombroso, degeneration is accompanied by both mental and Colin Martindale physical "stigmata." Let us first consider the former. Lombroso and other de­ Department of Psychology generation theorists were astute psychologists. They very explicitly stated that University of Maine creative people are prone to defocused attention (compare Mendelsohn, 1976), Orono ME 04469 that they tend to make remote associations (compare Mednick, 1963), that they tend to think of their ideas in what Kris (1952) called a primary process state of consciousness, that they are markedly oversensitive on a physiological level (see Martindale, 1999, for modem empirical evidence), that their personalities are contradictory (compare Csikszentmihalyi 1997), and so on. Research in the 1950's and 1960's showed that creative people tend to describe themselves with adjectives suggesting lack of inhibition. Lombroso already knew this, as I pointed out several decades ago (Martindale, 1971). Lombroso (1895) pointed out a number of physical stigmata that he attrib­ uted to degeneration. Because his theory of .degeneration was wrong does not mean that his observations were wrong. For all we know, more creative people may have a higher rate of physical deformities, facial asymmetries, and the like. Genius and Insanity The question is well worth looking into. Lombroso also availed himself of the hundreds of studies done during the 19th century concerning the relationship Cesare Lombroso between brain size and complexity of the brains of geniuses as opposed to com­ mon people. These studies are still being falsely discredited (e.g., Gould, 1996) A theory, which has for some years flourished in the psychiatric world, admits and ignored in spite of the fact that they have been replicated and shown to be that a large proportion of mental and physical affections are the result of degen­ sound (Rushton & Ankey, 1995). eration, of the action, that is, of heredity in the children of the inebriate, the After degeneration theories were discredited, thinking on creativity took an syphilitic, the insane, the consumptive, etc.; or of accidental causes, such as odd turn. Psychoanalyists followed Freud in relating creativity to neurosis. lesions of the head or the action of mercury, which profoundly change the tis­ This was singularly inappropriate given that anxiety or anything that increases sues, perpetuate neuroses or other diseases in the patient, and, which is worse, cortical arousal decreases rather than increases creativity (Martindale, 1999).. aggravate them in his descendants, until the march of degeneration, constantly By mid-century a number of people such as Rogers and Maslow were arguing growing more rapid and fatal, is only stopped by complete idiocy or sterility. that creativity was actually related to positive mental health. Given the number Alienists have noted certain characters which very frequently, though not con­ of obviously creative people who were a bit odd to put it mildly, no one except stantly, accompany these fatal degenerations. Such are, on the moral side, apa­ the ill informed should have taken these theories seriously. thy, loss of moral sense, frequent tendencies to impulsiveness or doubt, psychi­ As noted in several articles in this issue, researchers in the 1960's and 1970's cal inequalities owing to the excess of some faculty (memory, aesthetic taste, started to note analogies between schizophrenic and creative thought. At about etc.) or defect of other qualities (calculation, for example), exaggerated mutism the same time, clear evidence started to come in concerning a genetic relation­ or verbosity, morbid vanity, excessive originality, and excessive pre-occupation ship between creativity and schizophrenia. Then, researchers such as Andreasen with self, the tendency to put mystical interpretation on the simplest facts, the and Jamison found high rates of affective disorder amongst creative people. abuse of symbolism and of special words which are used as an almost exclusive Eysenck (1995) explained how creativity could be related to both affective and mode of expression. Such, on the physical side are prominent ears, deficiency of schizoid disorders with his theory of psychoticism and cognitive disinhibition. I beard, irregularity of teeth, excessive asymmetry of face and head, which may describe' his theory, which resembles that of Lombroso on the descriptive but be very large or very small, sexual precocity, smallness or disproportion of the not the explanatory level, in my article with Oshin Vartanian and Jonna body, lefthandedness, stammering, rickets, phthisis, excessive fecundity, neu­ Kwiatkowski in this issue. tralized afterwards by abortions or complete sterility, with constant aggravation In studying the relationship between creativity and psychopathology, we have of abnormalities in the children. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 1(2) 31

Height more developed by half, and the inferior or cerebellar portion. It is the same First of all il is necessary to remark the frequency of physical signs of degen­ with the smallness of the frontal arch compared to the parietal. eration, only masked by the vivacity of the countenance and the prestige of repu­ tation, which distracts us from giving them due importance. The simplest of these, which struck our ancestors and has passed into a proverb, is the smallness of the body, Famous for short stature as well as for genius were: Horace {lepidissimum homunculum dicebat Augustus), Philopoemen, Narses, Alexander {Magnus Alexander corpore parvus erat), Aristotle, Plato, Epicurus, Chrysippus, Laertes, Archimedes, Diogenes, Attila, Epictetus, who was accustomed to say, "Whom am I? A little man." Among great men of tall stature I only know Volta, Goethe, Petrarch, Schiller, D'Azeglio, Helmholtz, Foscolo, Charlemagne, Bismarck, Moltke, Monti, Mirabeau, Dumas pere, Schopenhauer, Lamartine, Voltaire, Peter the Great, Washington, Dr. Johnson, Sterne, Arago, Flaubert, Carlyle, Tourgueneff, Tennyson, Whitman.

Rickets Agesilaus, Tyrtaeus, Aesop, Giotto, Aristomenes, Crates, Galba, Brunelleschi, Magliabecchi, Parini, Scarron, Pope, Leopardi, Talleyrand, Scott,,Owen, Gib­ bon, Byron, Dati, Baldini, Moses Mendelssohn, Flaxman, Hooke, were all ei­ ther rachitic, lame, hunch-backed, or club-footed.

Pallor This has been called the color of great men; "Pulchrum sublimium virorum florem" (S. Gregory, Orationes XIV.). Marro ascertained that this is one of the most frequent signs of degeneration in the morally insane.

Emaciation The law of the conservation of energy which rules the whole organic world, explains to us other frequent abnormalities, such as precocious grayness and baldness, leanness of the body, and weakness of sexual and muscular activity, which characterize the insane, and are also frequently found among great think­ ers. Lecamus has said that the greatest geniuses have the slenderest bodies. Figs. 1-3. Kant's'Skull. Figs. 5-6. Fusinieri's Skull. Demosthenes, Aristotle, Cicero, Giotto, St. Bernard, Erasmus, Salmasius, Kepler, 4. Volta s Skull. 7-8. Foscolo's Skull. Sterne, Walter Scott, John Howard, D'Alembert, Fenelon, Boileau, Milton, Pas­ cal, Napoleon, were all extremely thin in the flower of their age. Others were weak and sickly in childhood; such were Demosthenes, Bacon, Descartes, New­ In Volta's skull I have noted several characters which anthropologists con­ ton, Locke, Adam Smith, Boyle, Pope, Flaxman, Nelson, Haller, Korner, Pascal, sider to belong to the lower races, such as prominence of the styloid apophyses, Wren, Alfieri, and Renan. simplicity of the coronal suture, traces of the median frontal suture, obtuse facial angle (73°), but especially the remarkable cranial sclerosis, which at Physiognomy places attains a thickness of 16 millimeters; hence the great weight of the skull Mind, a celebrated painter of cats, had a cretin-like physiognomy. So also (753 grams). had Socrates, Skoda, Rembrandt, Dostoievsky, Magliabecchi, Pope, Carlyle, The capacity of the skull in men of genius, as is natural, is above the average, Darwin, and among modern Italians, Schiaparelli, who holds so high a rank in by which it approaches what is found in insanity. (De Quatrefages noted that mathematics. the greatest degree of macrocephaly was found in a lunatic, the next in a man of genius.) There are numerous exceptions in which it descends below the ordi­ Cranium and Brain nary average. Lesions of the head and brain are very frequent among men and genius. The It is certain that in Italy, Volta (1,860 c.crn.), Petrarch (1,602 c.cm.), Bordoni celebrated Australian novelist, Marcus Clarke, when a child, received a blow (1,681 c.cm.), Brunacci (1,701 c.cm.), St. Ambrose (1,792 c.cm.) and Fusinieri from a horse's hoof which crushed his skull. The same is told of Vico, Gratry, (1604 c.cm.), all presented great cranial capacity. The same character is found Clement VI., Malebranche and Cornelius, hence called a Lapide. The last three to a still greater degree in Kant (1,740 c.cm.), Thackeray (1660 c.cm.), Curvier are said to have acquired their genius as a result of the accident, having been (1,830 c.cm.), and Turgenev (2,012 c.cm.). unintelligent before. Mention should also be made of the parietal fracture in Le Bon studied twenty-six skulls of French men of genius, among whom Fusinieri's skull; of the cranial asymmetry of Pericles, who was on this account were Boileau, Descartes, and Jourdan. He found that the most celebrated had surnamed Squill-head by the Greek comic writers; of Romagnosi, of Bichat, of an average capacity of 1,732 cubic centimeters; while the ancient Parisians Kant, of Chenevix, of Dante, who presented an abnormal development of the .offered only 1,559 c.cm. Among the Parisians of today scarcely 12 percent left parietal bone, and two osteomata on the frontal bone; the extreme prog­ exceed 1,700 c.cm., a figure surpassed by 73 percent of the celebrated men. nathism of Foscolo and his low cephalic-spinal and cephalic-orbital index; the But sub-mirocephalic skulls may also be found in men of genius. Wagner ultra-dolichocephaly of Fusinieri (index 74), contrasting with the ultra- and Bischoff, examining twelve brains of celebrated Germans, found the ca­ brachycephaly which is characteristic of the Venetians (82 to 84); the transverse pacity very great in eight, very small in four. The latter was the case with occipital suture of Kant, his ultra-brachycephaly (88.5), platycephaly (index of Liebig, Dollinger, Hausmann, in whole favor advanced age may be advanced height 71.1), the disproportion between the superior portion of his occipital bone, as an excuse; but this reason does not exist for Guido Reni, Gambetta, Harless, Foscolo 32 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

(1426), Dante (1493), Hermann (1358), Lasker (1300). Shelley's head was wrote with the left hand. Mancinism or leftsidedness is today regarded as a remarkably small. character of atavism and degeneration. In eighteen brains of German men of science Bischoff and Rudinger found congenital anomalies of the cerebral convolutions, especially of the parietal. Sterility In the brains of Wiilfert and Huber, the third left frontal convolution was greatly Many great men have remained bachelors; others, although married, have developed with numerous meanderings. In Gambetta this exaggeration be­ had no children. "The noblest works and foundations," said Bacon, "have came a real doubling; and the right quadrilateral lobule is divided into two proceeded from childless men, which have sought to express the images of parts by a furrow which starts from the occipital Fissure; of these two parts the their minds, where those of their bodies have failed. So the care of posterity is inferior is subdivided by an incision with numerous branches, arranged in the most in them that have -no posterity." And La Bruyere said, "These men have form of stars, and the occipital lobe is small, especially on the right. neither ancestors nor descendants; they themselves form their entire posterity." "The comparative study of these brains," writes Herve, "shows that indi­ Croker, in his edition of Boswell, remarks that all the great English poets had vidual variations of the cerebral convolutions are more numerous and more no posterity. He names Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Milton, Otway, Dryden, marked in men of genius than in others. This is especially the case in regard to Rowe, Addison, Pope, Swift, Gay, Johnson, Goldsmith, and Cowper. Hobbes, the third frontal convolution which is not only more variable in men of genius, Camden, and many others, avoided marriage in order to have more time to but also more complex, especially on one side, while in ordinary persons it is devote to study. Michelangelo said, "I have more than enough of a wife in my very simple both on the left and on the right. Without doubt the individual art." Among celibates may be mentioned also: Kant, Newton, Pitt, Fox, arrangements which may be presented by the brains of men of remarkable in­ Fontenelle, Beethoven, Gassendi, Galileo, Descartes, Locke, Spinoza, Bayle, telligence may also be found in ordinary brains, but only in rare exceptions." Leibnitz, Malebranche, Gray, Dalton, Hume, Gibbon, Macaulay, Lamb, Bentham, Leonardo da Vinci, Copernicus, Reynolds, Handel, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Schopenhauer, Camoens, Voltaire, Chateaubriand, Flaubert, Foscolo, Alfieri, Cavour, Pellico, Mazzini, Aleardi, Guerrazzi. And among women: Florence Nightingale, Catherine Stanley, Gaetana Agnesi (the math­ ematician), and Luigia Laura Bassi. A very large number of married men of genius have not been happy in marriage: Shakespeare, Dante, Marzolo, Byron, Coleridge, Addison, Landor, Carlyle, Ary Scheffer, Rovani, A. Comte, Haydn, Milton, Sterne, Dickens, etc. St. Paul boasted of his absolute continence; Cavendish altogether lacked the sexual instinct, and had a morbid antipathy to women. Flaubert wrote to George Sand: "The muse, however intractable, gives fewer sorrows than woman. I cannot reconcile one with the other. One must choose."

Unlikeness to Parents Nearly all men of genius have differed as much from their fathers as from their mothers (Foscolo, Michelangelo, Giotto, Haydn, etc.). That is one of the marks of degeneration. For this reason one notes physical resemblances be­ tween men of genius belonging to very different races and epochs; for example, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, and Giovanni of the Black Bands; or Casti, Sterne, and Voltaire. Humboldt, Virchow, Bismarck, Helmholtz, and Holtzendorf, do not show a German physiognomy. Byron was English neither in his face nor in this character; Manin did not show the Venetian type; Alfieri and d'Azeglio had neither the Piedmontese character nor face. Carducci's face is not Italian. Nevertheless, one finds very notable and frequent exceptions. Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Cellini, presented the Italian type.

Precocity Another character common to genius and to insanity, especially moral insan­ ity, is precocity. Dante, when nine years of age, wrote a sonnet to Beatrice; Fig. 4. Frontal Lobe of same. Fig.]. Gauss s Brain. Tasso wrote verses at ten. Pascal and Comte were great thinkers at the age of " 5. Dinchlet s Brain. 2. Frontal Lobe ofsame . thirteen, Former at fifteen, Niebuhr at seven, Jonathan Edwards at twelve, " 6. Hermann s Brain. 3 Brain of a German Workman Michelangelo at nineteen, Gassendi, the Little Doctor, at four, Bossuet at twelve, and Voltaire at thirteen. Goethe wrote a story in seven languages when he was Stammering scarcely ten; Wieland knew Latin at seven, meditated an epic poem at thirteen, Men of genius frequently stammer. I will mention: Aristotle, Aesop, and at sixteen published his poem, Die Vollkommenste Welt. Schiller was only Demosthenes, Alcibiades, Cato of Utica, Virgil, Manzoni, Erasmus, Malherbe, nineteen when his epoch-making Rauber appeared. Victor Hugo composed C. Lamb, Turenne, Erasmus and Charles Darwin, Moses Mendelssohn, Charles Irtamene at fifteen, and at twenty had already published Han d'Islande, Bug- V., Romiti, Cardan, Tartaglia. Jargal, and the first volume of Odes et Ballades; Lamennais at sixteen dictated the Paroles d'un Croyant. Pope wrote his ode to Solitude at twelve, and at Lefthandness eighteen published his Hours of Idleness. Moore translated Anacreon at thir­ Many have been left-handed. Such were: Tiberius, Sebastian del Piombo, teen. Raphael was famous at fourteen. Michelangelo, Flechier, Nigra, Buhl, and Raphael of Montelupo, Bertillon. Leonardo da Vinci sketched rapidly with his left hand any figures which struck Delayed Development him, and only employed the right hand for those which were the mature result Delay in the development of genius may be explained, as Beard remarks, by of his contemplation; for this reason his friends were persuaded that he only the absence of circumstances favorable to its blossoming, and by the ignorance of teachers and parents who see mental obtusity, or even idiocy, where there is Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 33

only the distraction or amnesia of genius. Many children who become great plished in the presence of reason, which floats above it with open eyes." This men have been regarded at school as bad, wild, or silly; but their intelligence definition is the more exact since many poets have composed their poems in a appeared as soon as the occasion offered, or when they found the true path of dream or half-dream. Goethe often said that a certain cerebral irritation is their genius. It was thus with Thiers, Pestalozzi, Wellington, Du Guesclin, necessary to the poet; many of his poems were, in fact, composed in a state Goldsmith, Burns, Balzac, Frensnel, Dumas pere, Humboldt, Sheridan, bordering on somnambulism. Klopstock declared that he had received several Boccaccio, Pierre Thomas, Linnaeus, Volta, Alfrieri. Thus Newton, mediating inspirations for his poems in dreams. Voltaire conceived during sleep one of on the problems of Kepler, often forgot the orders and commissions given him the books of his Henriade; Sardini, a theory on the flageolet; Seckendorf, his by his mother; and while he was the last in his class he was very clever in beautiful ode to imagination, which in its harmony reflects its origin. Newton making mechanical playthings. Walter Scott, who also showed badly at school, and Cardan resolved mathematical problems in dreams. It is said that La was a wonderful storyteller. Klaproth, the celebrated Orientalist, when follow­ Fontaine composed in a dream his Deux Pigeons, and that Condillac com­ ing the courses at Berlin University, was considered a backward student. In pleted during sleep a lesson interrupted during his waking hours. Coleridge's examination once a professor said to him: "But you know nothing, sir!" "Ex­ Kubla Khan was composed in ill health, during a profound sleep produced by cuse me," he replied, "I know Chinese." It was found that he had learnt this an opiate; he was only able to recall fifty-four lines. Holde's Phantasie was difficult language alone, almost in secret composed under somewhat similar conditions.

Misoneism Genius in Inspiration The men who create new worlds are as much enemies of novelty as ordinary It is very true that nothing so much resembles a person attacked by madness persons and children. They display extraordinary energy in rejecting the dis­ as a man of genius when meditating and moulding his conceptions. According coveries of others; whether it is that the saturation, so to say, of their brains to Reveille-Parise, the man of genius exhibits a small contracted pulse, pale, prevents any new absorption, or that they have acquired a special sensibility, cold skin, a hot, feverish head, brilliant, wild injected eyes. After the moment alert only to their own ideas, and refractory to the ideas of others. Thus of composition it often happens that the author himself no longer understands Schopenhauer, who was a great rebel in philosophy, has nothing but words of what he wrote a short time before. Marini, when writing his Adone, did not feel pity and contempt for political revolutionaries; and he bequeathed his fortune a serious bum of the foot. Tasso, during composition, was like a man pos­ to men who had contributed to repress by arms the noble political aspirations sessed. Lagrange felt his pulse become irregular while he wrote. Alfieri's of 1848. sight was troubled. Some, in order to give themselves up to meditation, even put themselves artificially into a state of cerebral semi-congestion.. Thus Schiller Vagabondage plunged his feet into ice. Pitt and Fox prepared their speeches after excessive Love of wandering is frequent among men of genius. I will mention only indulgence in port. Paisiello composed beneath a mountain of coverlets. Heine, Alfieri, Byron, Giordano Bruno, Leopardi, Tasso, Goldsmith, Sterne, Descartes buried his head in a sofa. Bonnet retired into a cold room with his Gautier, Musset, Lenau. "My father left me his wandering genius as a heri­ head enveloped in hot cloths. Cujas worked lying prone on the carpet. It was tage," wrote Foscolo. Holderlin, after his much-loved wife had entered a con­ said of Leibnitz that he "meditated horizontally," such being the attitude neces­ vent, wandered for forty years without settling down anywhere. Every one sary to enable him to give himself up to the labor of thought. Milton composed knows of the constant journeys of Petrarch, of Paisiello, of Lavoisier, of Cellini, with his head leaning over his easy chair. Thomas and Rossini composed in of Cervantes, at a time when travelling was beset by difficulties and dangers. their beds. Rousseau meditated with his head in the full glare of the sun. Shelley Meyerbeer traveled for thirty years, composing his operas in the train. Wagner lay on the hearthrug with his head close to the fire. All these are instinctive traveled on foot from Riga to Paris. methods for augmenting momentarily the cerebral circulation at the expense of the general circulation. Unconsciousness and Instinctiveness It must be added that inspiration is often transformed into a real hallucina­ The coincidence of genius and insanity enables us to understand the aston­ tion; in fact, as Bettinelli well says, the man of genius sees the objects which ishing unconsciousness, instantaneousness and intermittence of the creations his imagination presents to him. Dickens and Kleist grieved over the fates of of genius, whence its great resemblance to epilepsy, the importance of which their heroes. Kleist was found in tears just after finishing one of his tragedies: we shall see later, and whence also a distinction between genius and talent. "She is dead," he said. Schiller was as much moved by the adventures of his "Talent," says Jtirgen-'Meyer, "knows itself; it knows how and why it has reached personages as by real events. T. Grossi told Verga that in describing the appa­ a given theory; it is not so with genius, which is ignorant of the how and the rition of Prina, he saw the figure come before him, and was obliged to relight why. Nothing is so involuntary as the conception of genius." "One of the his lamp to make it disappear. Brierre de Boismont tells us that the painter characters of genius," writes Hagen, "is irresistible impulsion. As instinct com­ Martina really saw the pictures he imagined. One day, someone having come pels the animal to accomplish certain acts, even at the risk of life, so genius, between him and the hallucination, he asked this person to move so that he when it is dominated by an idea is incapable of abandoning itself to any other might go on with his picture. thought. Napoleon and Alexander conquered, not from love of glory, but in obedience to an all-powerful instinct; so scientific genius has no rest; its activ­ Contrast, Intermittence, Double Personality ity may appear to be the result of a voluntary effort, but it is not so. Genius When the moment of inspiration is over, the man of genius becomes an creates, not because it wishes to, but because it must create." ordinary man, if he does not descend lower; in the same way personal inequal­ Many men of genius who have studied themselves, and who have spoken of ity, or, according to modern terminology, double, or even contrary, personality, their inspiration, have described it as a sweet and seductive fever, during which is one of the characters of genius. Our greatest poets, Isaac Disraeli remarked their thought has become rapidly and involuntarily fruitful, and has burst forth (in Curiosities of Literature), Shakespeare and Dryden, are those who have like the flame of a lighted torch. Mozart confessed that musical ideas were produced the worst lines. It was said of Tintoretto that sometimes he surpassed aroused in him, even apart from his will, like dreams. Hoffmann often said to ' Tintoretto, and sometimes was inferior to Caracci. Great tragic actors are very his friends, "When I compose I sit down to the piano, shut my eyes, and play cheerful in society, and of melancholy humor at home. The contrary is true of what I hear." Lamartine often said, "It is not I who think; my ideas think for genuine comedians. "John Gilpin," that masterpiece of humor, was written by me." Cowper between two attacks of melancholia. Gaiety was in him the reaction from sadness.. It was singular, he remarked, that his most comic verses were written in his saddest moments, without which he would probably never have Somnambulism written them. A patient one day presented himself to Abernethy; after careful Bettinelli wrote: "Poetry may almost be called a dream which is accom­ examination the celebrated practitioner said, "You need amusement; go and hear Grimaldi; he will make you laugh, and that will be better for you 34 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

than any drugs." "My God," exclaimed the invalid, "but I am Grimaldi!" insane. Socrates presented a photo-paraesthesia which enabled him to gaze al Klopstock was questioned regarding the meaning of a passage in his poem. He the sun for a considerable time without experiencing any discomfort. The replied, "God and I both knew what it meant once; now God alone knows." Goncourts, Flaubert, Darwin had a kind of musical daltonism.

Stupidity Amnesia The doubling of personality, the amnesia and the misoneism so common Forgetfulness is another of the characters of genius. It is said that Newtois among men of science, are the keys to the innumerable stupidities which in­ once rammed his niece's finger into his pipe; when he left his room to seek for trude into their writings. Flaubert made a very curious collection of these, and anything he usually returned without bringing it. Rouelle generally explained called it the Dossier de la sottise humaine. Here are some examples: "She did his ideas at great length, and when he had finished, he added: "But this is once not know Latin, but understood it very well" (Victor Hugo in Les Miserables). of my arcana which I tell to no one." Babinet hired a country house, and after "Wherever they are, fleas throw themselves against white colors. This instinct making the payments returned to town; then he found that he had entirely for­ has been given them in order that we may catch them more easily" (Bernardin gotten both the name of the place and from what station he had started. Diderot de Saint Pierre in Harmonie de la Nature). "When one has crossed the bounds hired vehicles which he then left at the door and forgot, thus needlessly paying there are no limits left" (Ponsard). "Bonaparte was a great gainer of battles, coachmen for whole days. He often forgot the hour, the day, the month, and but beyond that the least general is more skillful than he" (Chateaubriand, Les even the person to whom he was speaking; he would then speak long mono­ Buonaparte et les Bourbons). " Grocery is respectable. It is a branch of com­ logues like a somnambulist. Rossini, conducting the orchestra at the rehearsal merce. The army is more respectable sill, because it is an institution, the aim of of his Barbiere, which was a fiasco, did not perceive that the public and even which is order. Grocery is useful, the army is necessary" (Jules Noriac in Les the performers had left him alone in the theatre until he reached the end of an Nouvelles). act.

Hyperaesthesia Originality If we seek, with the aid of autobiographies, the differences which separate a Hagen notes that originality is the quality that distinguishes genius from man of genius from an ordinary man, we find that they consist in very great part talent. And Jiirgen-Meyer: "The imagination of talent reproduces the stated in an exquisite, and sometimes perverted, sensibility. fact; the inspiration of genius makes it anew. The first disengages or repeats; The first time that Alfieri heard music he experienced as it were a dazzling in the second invents or creates. Talent aims at a point which no one perceives. his eyes and ears. He concludes, with Sterne, Rousseau, and George Sand, that The novelty, it must be understood, resides not in the elements but in their "there is nothing which agitates the soul with such unconquerable force as shock." Novelty and grandeur are the two chief characters which Bettinelli musical sounds. Malibran, on first hearing Beethoven's symphony in C minor, attributes to genius. Cardan conceived the idea of the education of deaf mutes had a convulsive attack and had to be taken out of the hall. Musset, Goncourt, before Harriot; he caught a glimpse of the application of algebra to geometry Flaubert, Carlyle had so delicate a perception of sounds that the noises of the and geometric constructions before Descartes. Stoppani admits that the geo­ streets and bells were insupportable to them; they were constantly changing logical theory of Dante, with regard to the formation of the seas, is at all points their abodes to avoid these sounds, and at last fled in despair to the country. in accordance with the accepted ideas of today. But the principal cause of their melancholy and their misfortunes is the law Genius divines facts before completely knowing them. And it is on account of dynamism which rules in the nervous system. To an excessive expenditure of those divinations which all precede common observation, and because ge­ and development of nervous force succeeds reaction or enfeeblement. It is nius, occupied with lofty researches, does not possess the habits of the many, permitted to no one to expend more than a certain quantity of force without and because, like the lunatic and unlike the man of talent, he is often disor­ being severely punished on the other side; that is why men of genius are so dered; the man of genius is scorned and misunderstood. Ordinary persons do unequal in their productions. Melancholy, depression, timidity, egoism, are the not perceive the steps which have led the man of genius to his creation, but they prices of the sublime gifts of intellect, just as uterine catarrh, impotence, and see the difference between his conclusions and those of others, and the strange­ tabes dorsalis are the price of sexual abuse, and gastritis of abuse of appetite. ness of his conduct. Rossini's Barbiere and Beethoven's Fidelio were received Milli, after one of her eloquent improvisations, which are worth the whole with hisses; Boito's Mefistfele and Wagner's Lohengrin have been hissed al existence of a minor poet, falls into a state of paralysis which lasts several days. Milan. Everyone knows the treatment accorded to Fulton and Columbus, and, Mohammed after prophesying fell into a state of imbecility. "Three suras of in our own day to Schliemann, who found Ilium where no one else had dreamed the Koran," he said one day to Abou-Bekr, "have been enough to whiten my of looking for it. hair," In short, I do not believe there has ever been a great man who even at the height of his happiness, has not believed and proclaimed, even without cause, Conclusions that he was unfortunate and persecuted, and who has not at some moment ex­ Between the physiology of the man of genius and the pathology of the in­ perienced the painful modifications of sensibility which are the foundation of sane, there are many points of coincidence; there is even actual continuity. The melancholia. frequency of genius among lunatics and of madmen among men of genius, Foscolo confesses that "very active in some directions, he was in others explains the fact that the destiny of nations has often been in the hands of (lie inferior to a man, to a woman, to a child." It is known that Corneilte, Descartes, insane; and shows how the latter have been able to contribute so much to (he Virgil, Addison. La Fontaine, Dryden, Manzoni, Newton, were almost inca­ progress of mankind. pable of expressing themselves in public. Monge resolved the most difficult In short, by these analogies, and coincidences between the phenomena of problems of a differential calculus, and was embarrassed in seeking an alge­ genius and mental aberration, it seems as though nature had intended to teach braic root of the second degree which a schoolboy might have found. One of us respect for the supreme misfortunes of insanity; and also to preserve us from Lulli's friends used to say habitually on his behalf: "Pay no attention to him; he being dazzled by the brilliancy of those men of genius who might well be com­ has no common sense: he is all genius." pared, not to the planets which keep their appointed orbits, but to falling stars, lost and dispersed over the crust of the earth. Parasthesia To the exhaustion and excessive concentration of sensibility must be attrib­ Abridged from Chapter II of Part I and Chapter IV of Part IV of Cesarc uted all those strange acts showing apparent or intermittent anaesthesia, and Lombroso, The man of genius, London: Walter Scott, 1895. Citations and analgesia, which are to be found among men of genius as well as among the footnotes have been omitted to save space. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 35 36 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum mood disorder are correct. What I suggest, however, is that this finding is rn« tributable, at least in part, to a kind of cultural sampling bias, namely, the proml« Louis A. Sass nence in her samples of writers who fall into a broadly defined concept of the Rutgers University romantic tradition. I also question the assumption that it is a superiority of inspirational capacity In the pages below, I offer a synopsis of an article that is to appear in a that accounts for the higher proportion of persons with affective rather than forthcoming issue of the Creativity Research Journal. I also offer, in more schizophrenic disorders in Jamison's samples. We should recall, after all, Ihfil detail, some of the more provocative parts of the argument in my article. In success depends in large measure on factors extrinsic to the inherent originality "Schizophrenia, Modernism, and the 'Creative Imagination'," I consider the or cogency of one's work — including the ability to promote oneself by ncf* relationship between creativity and the "schizophrenia spectrum" of personal­ working, the ability to share the concerns of one's audience, and, perhaps mosl ity and mental disorders in the light of differing notions of creativity and the important, the instinct to deviate just enough but not too much from socio! creative process. As I point out, many of the dominant conceptions of creativ­ expectations and norms. At most of these tasks, schizotypes, and certainly ity in psychology and psychiatry derive from romanticist ideas about the "cre­ schizophrenics, might well be at a disadvantage in comparison with normals — ative imagination"; they differ considerably from notions central in modernism and perhaps especially in comparison with many persons with affective disor­ and postmodernism. der. Whereas romanticism views creative inspiration as a highly emotional, Some recent findings by Kinney, Richards, et al. (in press) are relevant here. Dionysian, or primitive state, modernism and postmodernism emphasize pro­ They found that persons with multiple schizotypal signs demonstrated a high cesses involving hyper-self-consciousness and alienation ("hyperreflexivity"; degree of involvement in creative activities, and that this was especially marked see Sass, 1992). Although manic-depressive or cyclothymic tendencies seem on avocational activities, such as poetry writing and sophisticated photogra­ especially suited to creativity of the romantic sort, it can be argued that schiz­ phy; presumably, to engage in avocational pursuits, hobbies done for one's oid, schizotypal; schizophreniform, and schizophrenic tendencies have more own pleasure, does not require either self-promotion or congruence of perspec­ in common with the (in many respects, anti-romantic) sensibilities of modern- tive with a potential audience. isrn and postmodernism. Here it is worth recalling Thomas Kuhn's (1970) famous distinction between In the paper, I criticize a book by the psychologist Kay Jamison, Touched "normal" and "revolutionary" science. The distinction may have relevance be­ with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament (1993; see yond the domain of science alone. The normal scientist, in Kuhn's view, is a also 1990), for treating romantic notions of creativity as if they defined creativ­ person who works within a prevailing cultural paradigm, engaging in the puzzle- ity in general. 1 also argue that Jamison's denial or neglect of the creative po­ solving activity of making and verifying predictions and of resolving anoma­ tential of persons in the schizophrenia spectrum relies on certain diagnostic lies in accord with some widely accepted world-view, model, and set of prac­ oversimplifications: an overly broad conception of affective illness and an ex­ tices and techniques. The revolutionary scientist is the one who postulates a cessively narrow conception of schizophrenia that ignores the creative poten­ new paradigm, a radically different framework that changes the prevailing rules tial of the schizophrenia spectrum. of the game so radically as to render it incommensurable with earlier perspec­ I do not deny the results of the empirical studies—many of them method­ tives. Although "normal" scientific work can certainly be creative (here, of ologically rigorous—that have indeed demonstrated a strikingly high correla­ course, there will be important differences of degree), it is surely less pro­ tion between affective disorders or propensities and various indices of creative foundly innovative than the revolutionary kind. And what is true in science is potential or achievement, along with an often surprisingly low association of true as well in literature and the arts: like scientists, creative artists also differ creativity with schizophrenic conditions. I believe that Jamison (along with in the degree to which they adopt and work creatively within prevailing stylis­ David Schuldberg and others) is certainly correct to criticize the past tendency tic conventions as opposed to shattering these conventions and recasting them to associate creativity only or primarily with schizophrenic forms of pathology. anew. (I might note as well that I do not dispute, and am inclined to accept, much of Various writers have questioned Kuhn's concept of "paradigm", and several what Jamison says about the likely nature of creative processes in mood-disor­ have disputed his nearly dichotomous way of separating normal from revolu­ dered individuals.) My paper, however, is an attempt to put some of the recent tionary science. Few, however, doubt that his distinction does capture some­ empirical findings into a larger theoretical context — a context that, I argue, thing of importance. For my purposes, Kuhn's ideas have two significant im­ shows that these studies do not necessarily demonstrate all that they have been plications. or might easily be taken to show regarding the creativity or creative potential of One implication is to remind us of the degree to which much successful cre­ persons in the schizophrenia spectrum. ative work — though not perhaps innovation of the highest degree — actually 1 do object to Jamison's characterization of schizophrenia in purely negative relies on considerable conventionality of perspective, viz., the ability to pre­ terms (her only clinical characterizations of schizophrenia in Touched with Fire suppose and work within traditional frameworks of understanding. A second describe it as a "dementing illness" akin to Alzheimer's disease; see pp. 74, implication is that there will inevitably be many more normal scientists than 96). I also object to a failure to appreciate the existence or relevance of specific revolutionary ones. Indeed, if we speak of scientists who have had reasonably kinds of creativity that are associated with distancing or self-consciousness — successful careers (and if we accept Kuhn's narrative of long periods of normal a kind of creativity prominent in modernist and postmodernist literature and art science punctuated by more brief-lived crises and sudden change), then this and probably also in scholarly or intellectual fields that require abstract and last point is true virtually by definition. critical thinking, such as philosophy and physics (on the latter point, see Storr, One should expect, then, that in a broad-based sample of so-called "creative" 1972, and the findings of Post, 1994, re "thinkers"). individuals, especially those who are successful in the eyes of the world, there I agree that persons who merit a schizophrenic diagnosis are seldom success­ will nearly always be a predominance of individuals who are conventional in fully creative, at least in the eyes of the world. But as I point out, this does not this specific sense, that is, conventional enough to work comfortably, albeit hold for the schizophrenia spectrum of conditions; nor should one assume that "creatively," within standard frameworks — to do the puzzle-solving and con­ there is nothing at least potentially creative about the thinking of many persons trolled innovation inherent in "normal" science or in "normal" art. This raises with schizophrenia itself. The lack of successful creative accomplishment may the possibility that what accounts for the higher proportion of persons with a well be due to factors that are distinct from the presence of creativity or cre­ connection to affective than to schizophrenic psychosis might, surprisingly ative potential itself, including poor health and the limited social networks of enough, have as much to do with the greater conventionality of the former as many people with schizo with their superior originality or innovativeness/jerse. phrenia, as well as their relative lack of interest in (or competence for) interper­ Of relevance here is the work — well-known in Europe — of the phenom- sonal or narcissistic display. enologically oriented Heidelberg psychiatrist, H. Tellenbach (1961), on what I do not deny that the majority of Dr. Jamison's diagnoses of the presence of he calls the "Typus Melancholicus" personality orientation or type. As Tellenbach Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 37

and his student, the psychiatrist Alfred Kraus (1977,1982), argue, many of the Octavio Paz has aptly referred to as "a bizarre tradition and a tradition of the persons who have a predisposition to endogenous depression seem, as people. bizarre" (Paz, 1974, pp. 1-2, quoted in Sass, 1992, p. 30). Much postmodernist to be extremely preoccupied with and dependent on social norms and social art questions the possibility of real innovation, recognizing instead our inevi­ approval, and to have little sense of distance or alienation from social roles. In table belatedness, our inability, as it were, not to be quoting whenever and empirical work, Stanghellini & Mundt (1997; Mundt et al,, 1997) found this to however we speak. be especially true of persons with unipolar depression and with the bipolar II So it seems that, neither in modernism nor in postmodernism, does the Kuhnian type of illness. Tatossian (1994, p. 300) and Stanghellini (1997, p. 8) have narrative truly apply. Either we are in the age of constant crisis, of permanent, argued that a similar norm-orientation is characteristic of many manic indi­ even institutionalized, revolution — modernism; or else we are in an age of viduals — who may well be overtly rebellious, yet whose manic self-assertion permanent self-consciousness and ironic mockery, in which no single para­ and occasional iconoclasm actually betrays a remarkable preoccupation with digm can provide a structure or background against which "normal" creativity and dependence on social roles and expectations (see also Cohen, 1954). (Ernst might take place — postmodernism. Both these orientations are ones for which Kretschmer's [1925] conception of the cyclothymic and Bleuler's [1922] of the schizoid, schizotypal, and schizophrenic individuals might seem to have a spe­ syntonic type have many affinities with these notions of Typus melancholicus cial affinity and where they would seem to have a better chance of achieving and Typus manicus) The originality of such persons may be highly dependent some kind of recognition or acceptance. I do not mean to imply that persons in on the way acute phases of mania or melancholia can heighten one's pattern of the schizophrenia spectrum or those with a schizothymic disposition will nec­ perception sufficiently — but without transforming it overly much — so that essarily be more numerous in certain creative populations than are persons in one may be roused out of a more chronic conventionality of perspective that is the affective spectrum or with a cyclothymic disposition; the above-mentioned a more traitlike feature of one's underlying personality style. advantages of those in the affective realm - practicality, ability to network, Perhaps mania and melancholia should be seen, then, not as a source of radi­ residual conventionality of perspective, etc. — may still be decisive. This does cal innovation so much as of a heightening, and subtle transmutation, of modes imply, however, that successfully creative schizophrenics, schizotypes, and of perception that remain reasonably familiar to the majority of other people in schizothymes may at least be more common in the modernist/postmodernist the culture. This would contrast with the situation of the schizothyme or periods or contexts than they are in romanticism and postromanticism, and that schizotype, whose basic orientation tends to be unconventional or even a-con- the relative advantage of persons of the affective type of disposition will at ventional. (This contrast corresponds, on the non-psychotic plane, to that be­ least be lessened in the former contexts. tween the "understandability" of affective delusions as against the supposed It would be difficult, in any case, to deny the profound influence on 20th "bizarreness" of those characteristic of schizophrenia [Jaspers, 1963].) An­ century modernism and postmodernism and its accompanying sensibility that other difference is that in the case of the schizotype, the move from eccentricity has been exerted by such probable schizophrenics (or, possibly, schizoaffectives) into psychosis or near-psychosis seems liable to fragment or block rather than as the poet Friedrich Holderlin, the writer and man of the theatre Antonin Artaud to potentiate imaginative productivity, or to move it too far off the rails of the (Sass, 1996), and the dancer Vaslav Nijinsky; by such probable schizoaffectives normal human form of life to lead to much in the way of creative production as August Strindberg and Gerard de Nerval; by such severely schizotypal (or that will be socially acknowledged. (Overtly psychotic phases of mania or mel­ possibly, schizophrenic) persons as Alfred Jarry and Raymond Roussel; as well ancholia are also unlikely to be productive—especially if we speak of socially as by many individuals who appear to be of a markedly schizoid or schizothy­ acceptable work—but the less persistent nature of these psychotic periods pre­ mic temperament including Baudelaire, Kafka, Joyce, Beckett, Nietzsche, vents them from having such a devastating effect on overall creative productiv­ Wittgenstein, de Chirico, Salvador Dali, Marcel Duchamp, and Andy Warhol ity.) (on Wittgenstein, see Ogilvie, in press; Sass, 1994). These writers, philoso­ As Wolfgang Blankenburg (1971) has argued, a schizophrenic or schizotypic phers, and artists are (for better or worse) responsible for encouraging some of orientation involves detachment from the world of "natural evidence," from all the most profound innovations of modern art and of modern consciousness — that is socially and practically taken for granted by the members of a given including a rejection of traditional narrative and naturalistic representation in society. Blankenburg points out that this has some similarities to the process of fiction, painting, and the theatre; an overturning of standard notions of beauty "bracketing" in Husserlian phenomenology, the act whereby one withdraws and the art object; and a revision of widely held notions about the essential commitment from assumptions that are usually so taken-for-granted as to re­ unity of the individual ego or self. In none of these instances of innovation can main invisible. Through a detachment that, from a psychological standpoint, the aesthetic or philosophical contribution in question be said to be a simple has a certain schizoid quality, one gains the capacity to free oneself from the consequence of personal characteristics of the author or artist; many other fac­ constraining perspectives of normal experience. In this way, two things are tors are obviously involved, including larger cultural trends that transcend fac­ made possible: explicit awareness of what usually remains tacit and assumed, tors of individual personality. Yet it would be equally naive to think that these and an opening up to the possibility of alternative perspectives or frameworks. innovations occurred entirely m spite of these personal tendencies: after all, in Anthony Storr (1972) argues along related lines. He suggests that the capacity each case the distinctive contribution does in fact resonate with or reflect one to create a wholly new model of the universe demonstrated by such figures as or another aspect what can be termed the creator's schizoid or schizotypal pro­ Newton and Einstein (the classical examples of revolutionary scientists in the pensities. Kuhnian sense) is itself dependent on an ability to detach from conventional perspectives, an ability that can only be achieved by individuals with a pre­ References dominantly schizoid orientation (p, 67). Blankenburg, W. (1991). La perte de {'evidence naturelle- line contribution a la Bearing all this in mind, we might return now to modernism and psychopathologie des schizophreniespauci-symptomatiques, transl. J.-M. Azorin & Yves postmodernism, recalling two prominent features in these movements: first, an Totoyan. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. (A translation of Der Verlust der intense self-consciousness, especially about the normally presupposed aspects naturlichen Selbsverstdndlichkeit. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1971). or features of an experiential world, and second, a constant seeking of radically Bleuler, E. (1922). Die Probleme der Schizoidie und der Syntonic Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 78, 373-399. new perspectives. Modernism differs from previous eras of art precisely by its Cohen, M. B., Baker, G., Cohen, R. A., Fromm-Reichman, F, & Weigert, E.V. (1954). tjonslanl demand for innovation—its avant-gardism, if you will. It is as if, in' An intensive study of twelve cases of manic-depressive psychosis. Psychiatry, 17, 103- much modernism, only art that aspires to be revolutionary in a Kuhnian sense 137. Id acceptable. "Normal" art may not be considered to be art at all, but only Jamison, K. R, (1990), Manic-depressive illness, creativity, and leadership. Chapter kitsch, mere academic painting, middle-brow fiction, or the like. 14 of F. K. Goodwin & K. R. Jamison (Eds.), Manic-depressive illness, pp. 332-368. The modernist emphasis on rule-breaking tends, paradoxically enough, to New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. normalize radical innovation; this necessarily calls into question its truly radi- Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the artistic temperament. New York: Free Press. onl nature, thereby to some extent undermining the Kuhnian distinction I have Jaspers, K. (1963). Generalpsychopathology, trans. J. Hoenig & M.W. Hamilton. Chi­ postulated. This is but one of many paradoxical features of modernism — which cago: University of Chicago Press. 38 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Kinney, D. K,, Richards, R. L., Lowing, P. A., LeBlanc, D., & Zimbalist, M. E. (in vancements that can be achieved in a field. Some of these types of advance* press). Creativity in offspring of schizophrenics and controls. An adoption study. Cre­ ments are paradigm preserving. For example, forward incrementations build ativity Research Journal. on already existing ideas and move these ideas to the next step in a progression. Kraus, A. (1982). Identity and psychosis of the manic-depressive. In A. J. De Komng, Other types of advancements are paradigm destroying. For example, reinitiation* & F. A. Jenner (Eds.), Phenomenology and psychiatry. London- Academic. involve radical departures from existing ideas, with the ideas starting from n Kraus, A. (1977). Sozialverhalten undPsychose Manisch-Depressiver. Stuttgart: Enke. Kretschmer, E. (1925). Physique and character, trans. W.J.H. Sprott. "New York: different vantage point than ideas that have currency at a given time. Harcourt, Brace, and World. The paradigm-preserving ideas are analogous to what Kuhn (1962) referred Kuhn, T. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions, 2nd Ed. Chicago: University of to as "normal science" and the paradigm-destroying ideas to what Kuhn called Chicago Press. "revolutionary science," although the concepts in the propulsion theory apply Mundt, C.,. Backenstrass, M., Kronmuller K. T., Fiedler, P, Kraus, A., & Stanghellini, to any field, Perhaps different types of art (poetry versus fiction, or form n I G. (1997). Personality and endogenous/major depression: An empirical approach to Typus versus expressive painting) are best suited for different types of contributions melancholicus: 2. Validation of Typus melancholicus core-properties by personality in­ Maybe Nobel Prize winners and Pulitzer Prize winners are more likely ihfin ventory scales. Psychopathology, 30, 130-139. their non-winning counterparts to be trying out new forms and creating brand Ogilvie, J. (in press). On self conceiving: Philosophical yearnings in a schizophrenic context. Creativity Research Journal. new products. Paz, 0. (1974). Children of the mire: Modern poetry from Romanticism to the Avant- One hypothesis could be that creators who consistently produce higher-level, Garde. Cambridge MA and London: Harvard Univ. Press. groundbreaking contributions are more likely to be mentally ill than are Uioho Post, F. (1994). Creativity and psychopathology: A study of 291 world-famous men. who produce works that are less revolutionary. This hypothesis could help British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 22-34. explain the discrepancies in mental illness and different types of creating (e.g., Sass, L. (1992). Madness and modernism: Insanity in the light of modern art, litera­ Jamison, 1995; Ludwig, 1998) and the tendency for the most accomplished )fl ture, and thought. New York: Basic 1992. also be more likely to suffer from mental illness (Kaufman, 2000; Ludwig, Sass, L. (1994). The paradoxes of delusion: Wittgenstein, Schreber, and the schizo­ 1995). phrenic /mW.Jtbaca NY: Cornell U. Press. Sass, L. (1996). "The catastrophes of heaven": Modernism, primitivism, and the mad­ The ability to see the world in a completely innovative way may come with it ness of Antonin Artaud. Modernism/Modernity, 3, 73-91. unique price tag. The thought processes that underlie this type of creativity Stanghellini, G. (1997). For an anthropology of vulnerability. Psychopathology, 30, 1- may be more tied to unhealthy processes (e.g., schizophrenia or manic depres­ 11. sion) than is creative thought that is more founded in a traditional style. Cre« Stanghellini, G., & Mundt, C. (1997). Personality and endogenous/major depression: ative people defy the crowd (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995), and part of this defi­ An empirical approach to Typus melancholicus: 1, Theoretical issues. Psychopathology, ance may be the key to their psychological undoing. 30, 119-129. Storr, Anthony (1972). The dynamics of creation. New York: Atheneum. Tatossian, A. (1994).Lasubjectivite. InD. Widlocher(Ed.), Traitedepsychopathologie, References pp. 253-318. Pans Presses Universttaires de France. Jamison, K. R (1989). Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers Tellenbach, H. (1961). Melancholic. Berlin: Springer. and artists. Psychiatry, 52, 125-134. Jamison, K R. (1993). Touched with fire. New York: Free Press. Kaufman, J. C. (1999, August). Twentieth-century creative writers: Similarities, Louis A. Sass differences, and predictors of success. In V. J. Cassandro (Chair), Empirical Studies of Graduate School of Professional Psychology Outstanding Creative Personalities. Symposium presented at the meeting of the Ameri­ Rutgers University can Psychological Association, Boston. 152 Frelinghuysen Road Kaufman, J. C. (2000). Genius, lunatics, and poets: Mental illness in prize-winning Piscataway NJ -08854 authors. Manuscript submitted for publication. Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago. Are There Mental Costs to Creativity? Ludwig, A. M (1995). The price of greatness. New York: Guilford Press. Ludwig, A. M. (1998). Method and madness in the arts and sciences. Creativity Research Journal, 11, 93-101. James C. Kaufman and Robert J. Sternberg Post, F. (1996). Verbal creativity, depression and alcoholism: An investigation of one Yale University hundred American and British writers. British Journal of Psychiatry. 168, 545-555. Sternberg, R. J. (1999). A propulsion model of types of creative contributions, Re­ Are mentally ill people drawn to the creative arts? Is engaging in creative view of General Psychology, 3, 1-18. behavior hazardous to one's health? Do different kinds of creative acts (e.g., Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J C, & Pretz, J E. (2000). Applying the creative propul­ sion theory to the arts. Manuscript submitted for publication. writing poetry or painting) correspond differently to the level or rate of mental Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd. New York: Free Press illness? These are some of the questions we are addressing in our current research. Robert J. Sternberg Jamison (1989, 1993), Ludwig (1995), and Post (1996) found higher rates of Department of Psychology mental illness (usually bipolar disorder) in poets than in other types of writers; Yale University Kaufman (1999) found that female poets were more likely to suffer from men­ P.O. Box 208205 tal illness than were male writers and female fiction writers. Ludwig (1998) New Haven CT 06520 examined a sampte of visual artists and found that an expressive and emotive style was more associated with higher rates of mental illness than was a more Creativity and Psychopathology from a Darwinist Perspective formal style. Kaufman (2000) and Ludwig (1995) found that the "super" elite (as measured by winning Nobel and Pulitzer prizes and by the Creative Achieve­ Dean Keith Simonton ment Scale (Ludwig, 1995), respectively) were more likely to suffer from men­ University of California, Davis tal illness than were the merely eminent. Over the past several years, I have been developing a Darwinian theory of One possible yet unexplored explanation for these diverse findings is the creativity (e.g., Simonton, 1988, 1995, 1999a, 1999b). The model was origi importance of distinguishing among creative contributions. Sternberg and his nally inspired by Donald Campbell's (I960) "blind-variation and selective->e- colleagues (Sternberg, 1999; Sternberg, Kaufman, & Pretz, 2000) have pro­ tention" model of creative Ihought (Simonton, 1998). The theory, like posed a propulsion model of creative contributions, with different types of ad­ Campbell's model, is a form of what I call "secondary Darwinism," that is, it Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 39

operates on the assumption that creativity involves processes analogous to Darwinian personality as one of the lesser revolutionary scientists (e.g., so- Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection (Dennett, 1995). Just as called precursor geniuses). biological evolution must begin with what Darwin termed "spontaneous varia­ Although the relationships illustrated in the figure are purely hypothetical, tion;" so must the creative process begin with what Campbell styled "blind there is ample empirical support for most sections of the graph. The evidence variation." The adjective "blind" was probably not the best choice, because for comes from both psychometric (e.g.. Cattell & Butcher, 1968: Eysenck, 1995; many it implies that there are no constraints whatsoever on the process. Nei- Hudson, 1966) and historiometric (e.g., Ludwig, 1995, 1998; Post, 1994) llier biological evolution nor human creativity operates according a totally ran­ sources. dom mechanism. Biological variants are restricted by such factors as chromo­ somal linkage and differential mutation rates across the chromosome. Ide­ ational variants are constrained by such factors as scientific paradigms, aes- ihetic styles, ideological values, and personal themes. Science Art In fact, a central feature of the Darwinian theory is that the amount of "blind­ ness" in a set of ideational variations is a continuous variable. At one extreme Normal Revolutionary Academic Avant- are problems so straightforward and mundane that they could be solved almost garde algorithmically, and at the other extreme are problems so original and elusive Creative that they require a genuine "shot in the dark." An example would be truly genius serendipitous discoveries. In between are problems that feature varying de­ grees of constraints (including what kinds of heuristics are most likely to lead to a solution). Some domains of creative achievement impose severe a priori restrictions on the range of acceptable ideational variations, whereas other do­ mains allow much more unrestrained ideational variations. Thus, scientific disciplines, on the whole, oblige more restrictions than do most artistic disci­ plines. Nevertheless, within the sciences, what Kuhn (1970) called "normal science" requires more constraints (viz., the paradigm) than "revolutionary sci­ ence" (in which the paradigmatic rules are overthrown). Likewise in the arts, Low academic forms of creative expression are more rule and technique bound than are avant-garde forms of expression. Moreover, even within a specific domain Low High , one can distinguish the degree of creative genius displayed. Some normal Psychopathological Tendencies scientists are more creative than other normal scientists, just as some revolu­ tionary scientists are more creative than other revolutionary scientists. Ac­ Figure 1. Hypothetical relationships among creative genius (G), domain of cording to the Darwinian theory, the higher the level of creativity displayed by creativity, and psychopathological tendencies, according to a Darwinian a person within a given domain, such as avant-garde music, the more unre­ theory of creativity (based on Figure 3.3 in Simonton, 1999b, p.94) strained are his or her ideational variations. Individual differences in the degree of variational "blindness" are then asso­ ciated with a host of other factors, including sociocultural context, develop­ Admittedly, considerable scatter would necessarily appear around the predicted mental experiences, and personality traits (Simonton, 1999b). In particular, positive linear functions. A revolutionary scientist'may be either more or less the more a given individual exhibits the traits of a "Darwinian personality," the prone to psychopathology than the corresponding line in the figure might sug­ more he or she will generate ideational variations that are less confined by gest. Yet according to the Darwinian theory of creativity, psychopathological tradition, norms, logic, or fact. A key component of the assessment of a person's tendencies are but one of a great many variables that determine the creator's Darwinian personality is his or her tendency towards psychopathology. These proclivity for unrestrained ideational variations. In my book Origins of Ge­ psychopathological tendencies include various symptoms of mental disorder - nius: Darwinian Perspectives on Creativity, 1 do my utmost to provide a fairly such as depression, substance abuse, nervous breakdowns, and maladaptive exhaustive inventory (Simonton, 1999b). Furthermore, I embed these predic­ tions in the larger context of other Darwinian models, such as those concerning behaviors - which are assumed to be the joint function of both genetic inherit­ creative insight (Epstein, 1990), birthorder effects (Sulloway, 1996). and sty­ ance and environmental experiences (e.g., childhood trauma). In any case, the listic change in the arts (Martindale, 1990). Because the theory behind Figure greater the person's leaning toward mental disorder, the more likely he or she 1 is integrated as part of a more comprehensive theoretical system, it may pro­ will be an artist rather than a scientist. In addition, among artists, those with vide a valuable framework for understanding the "mad genius" issue. But, in more psychopathological dispositions will have higher odds of displaying avant- line with the Darwinian theory, whether this suggestion turns out to be true garde creativity, whereas those will less will be inclined more toward academic depends on my own placement in the graph! creativity. Lastly, and significantly, for creators working within the same spe­ cific domain, such as normal science, those with stronger tendencies toward psychopathology will exhibit more creative genius than will those with weaker References lendencies. Barron, F. X. (1963). Creativity and psychological health. Princeton, NJ. VanNostrand. Campbell, D. T. (1960). Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought as I realize that this Darwinian theory probably appears a bit complicated. So I in other knowledge processes. Psychological Review, 67, 380-400. hope that Figure 1 will help make the theory's predictions more clear. The Cattell, R. B., & Butcher, H. J. (1968). The prediction of achievement and creativity vertical axis represents individual differences in creative genius (e.g., as de­ Indianapolis: Bobbs-Bemll fined by Galton's G; see Galton, 1869; Simonton, 1991). Dennett, D. C. (1995). Darwin's dangerous idea: Evolution and the meanings of life. The horizontal axis depicts individual differences in psychopathological ten­ New York: Simon & Schuster. dencies (e.g., as assessed by the MMPI or the EPQ: see Barron, 1963; Eysenck, Epstein, R. (1990). Generativity theory and creativity In M. Runco & R. Albert (Eds.), 1995). At the top of the graph are shown the ranges in these tendencies that are Theories of creativity (pp. 116-140). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. lypical for creators practicing normal science, revolutionary science, academic Eysenck, H. J. (1995). Genius- Tire natural history of creativity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press art, and avant-garde art. Under each of these ranges is an upward sloping line Galton, F. (1869J. Hereditary genius1 An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Lon­ that indicates the positive relation between this Darwinian personality charac­ don: Macmillan. teristic and the magnitude of creative genius most likely to be exhibited by a Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: Univer­ particular individual. Hence, among normal scientists, those who display the sity of Chicago Press. most creativity within the constraints of the paradigm will have about the same 40 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Ludwig, A. M. (1995). lite price of greatness Resolving the creativity and madness forms of affect, interpersonal abrasiveness and conflict, schizotypal traits, nar­ controversy. New York: Guilford Press. cissistic features, aggression, and alcohol and substance use. Some researchers Ludwig, A. M. (1998). Method and madness in the arts and sciences. Creativity Re­ have observed that, unlike members of pathological groups, creative individu­ search Journal, 11, 93-101. als show both signs of health and signs of psychopathology, providing support Martindale, C. (1990). The clockwork muse: The predictability of artistic styles. New for two causal factors. One candidate healthy characteristic is Frank Barron's York: Basic Books. Post, F. (1994). Creativity and psychopathology: A study of 291 world-famous men. ego-strength, found to distinguish members of some creative groups from schizo­ British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 22-34. phrenic subjects, even when both groups show high scores on an indicator of Simonton, D. K. (1991). Latent-variable models of posthumous reputation: A quest for schizotypy (Barron, 1972). Galton's G. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 607-619. Simonton, D. K. (1988). Scientific genius: A psychology of science. Cambridge: Cam­ Six dimensions of creativity-pathology research bridge University Press. The six primary varieties of symptoms or traits discussed here as foci for Simonton, D. K. (1995). Foresight in insight? A Darwinian answer. In R. J. Sternberg shred-trait research are: positive-symptom schizotypal cognitive traits (posi­ & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of insight (pp. 465-494). Cambridge, MA: Massa­ tive Thought Disorder), negative-symptom schizotypal cognitive traits (nega­ chusetts Institute of Technology Press. Simonton, D. K. (1998). Donald Campbell's model of the creative process; Creativity tive symptom Thought Disorder), negative symptom schizotypal affective traits as blind variation and selective retention. Journal of Creative Behavior, 32, 153-158. (flat affect), hypomania, depression, and impulsivity. Simonton, D. K (1999a). Creativity as blind variation and selective retention: Is the creative process Darwinian? Psychological Inqui/y, 10, 309-328. Positive and negative thought disorder Simonton, D. K. (1999b). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. Disorders of thought, especially ih&form of thought, have traditionally been New York: Oxford University Press. viewed as the hallmark of schizophrenia. More recently, formal Thought Dis­ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. order has been well documented in affective disorder as well (Jamison, 1990b; New York: Pantheon. Magaro & Harrow, 1985). A current research question concerns the correspon­ dence of specific forms of thought disorder to specific forms of psychopathol­ Dean Keith Simonton ogy. Manic patients tend to be characterized by pressure of speech, derailment, Department of Psychology combinatory and overinclusive thinking, as well as interpersonal engagement One Shields Avenue (Jamison, 1990b; Johnston & Holzman, 1979). Jamison and others argue that University of California such productive cognitive disturbances are most akin to the processes of cre­ Davis CA 95616 ativity. In contrast, specifically schizophrenic Thought Disorder is more likely to include poverty of speech, illogicality, loose associations, tangentiality, pov­ Subclinical Psychopathology, Dynamics, erty of content, underinclusion, absurdity, confusion, loss of conceptual bound­ and "Normal Creativity" aries in "contamination" and "fluidity", and unusual and idiosyncratic language (Cuesta & Peralta, 1993; Jamison, 1990b). It is also possible to distinguish David Schuldberg between positive symptom and negative symptom forms of Thought Disorder University of Montana (Harrow & Quinlan, 1985). Negative symptoms are potentially very important, and they can also be connected to characteristics of gifted or high-functioning The association of insanity and creativity is embedded in larger philosophi­ autistic or Aspberger's syndrome individuals (Frith & Frith, 1991). cal, spiritual, as well as empirical questions about the relationships among de­ viance, illness, suffering, and generativity. Sophocles' drama Philoctetes—the Flat affect story of a master archer who possesses a bow that cannot miss but also a chronic Flat affect here serves as shorthand for schizotypal and negative symptom, wound—has become a central metaphor for these linkages, encompassing both schizophrenia-like, affective characteristics, also including anhedonia and per­ physical and mental disorder. haps inappropriate affect. Unpublished work has investigated normal personal­ Until the 1970's modern conceptions of the connection between creativity ity characteristics and creativity test scores in a group of high scorers on the and madness emphasized apparent similarities between novel ideas in creativ­ Wisconsin Physical Anhedonia scale (Chapman, Chapman, & Raulin, 1976) ity and the unusual thought and behavior of persons with schizophrenia (e.g., and provides tantalizing indications that some subjects with "flat affect" may Hasenfus & Magaro, 1976; Martindale, 1975). In the past twenty-five years the perform better on certain creativity tests. role of schizophrenia has been questioned, with recent work underscoring emo­ tional states and affective disorder. Categorical approaches to creativity and Hypomania mental disorder, generally employed m studies of the historically eminent and This form of expansive mood and behavioral acceleration is central to cre- in family studies, attempt to treat creativity and madness as all or none phe­ ativity-psychopathology connections drawn by Andreasen (1987), Richards nomena. A different approach, emphasized here, examines stylistic similarities (Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, & Merzel, 1988), and Jamison (1990a, 1993). and personality characteristics. This review focuses on six symptom-like char­ Hypomanic affect is also associated with some of the forms of positive symp­ acteristics, all sometimes considered part of the "schizophrenia spectrum". tom Thought Disorder just described. The term "spectrum" can have two meanings (Schuldberg & Sass, 1999). Depression The first suggests that different kinds of psychopathology lie in a continuous Some workers have focused on the connection between depressed affect, dimensional space of classification. The second meaning implies a continuum with its emotional sensitivity and awareness, and creativity (Haynal, 1976). A of severity in psychological disturbance, ranging downward from exemplary role for depression is included in some theoretical and empirical work on bipo­ functioning to normality, through less severe psychopathology, to the most se­ lar disorder and creativity (Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Jamison, Gerncr, vere disorders. The latter notion of a vertical schizophrenia spectrum allows Hammen, & Padesky, 1980). Recent experimental work links depressive-like viewing symptoms as continuous traits, helps in understanding psychological experience and creative activity (Kaufman & Vosburg, 1997). Some authors processes underlying both creativity and psychopathology, and points toward have suggested that mixtures of depressed and elated affect may be key ongoing person-environment dynamics in psychopathology and health. It is (Richards, 1997; Schuldberg, 1994). also important to consider creativity as a continuous variable, to look at "every­ day", non-eminent creativity. This approach has been advanced in the work of Impulsivity Ruth Richards and her collaborators (e.g., Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, & A number of investigators, including Barron (1963), have suggested an as* Merzel, 1988). Examples of traits shared by both creative and pathologi­ sociation between impulsive, antisocial behavior and creativity. Norm-brcalr« cal groups include "Psychoticism", impulsivity, hypomania, depression and other Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 41

ing antisocial behavior may co-occur with or be indistinguishable from the References originality of creative individuals who depart from existing conventions. Im- Akiskal. H S., & Akiskai, K. (1988). Reassessing the significance of bipolar pulsivity also enters this discussion via the construct of Psychoticism, put for­ disorders: Clinical significance and artistic creativity. Psychiatry and Psycho- ward by Eysenck (e.g., 1995) as a central trait in creativity. Scales developed biology, 3, 29s-36s. by Eysenck and colleagues to measure Psychoticism, notably the "P" scale of Andreasen, N. J. C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence rates in •m earlier version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; Eysenck & writers and their first degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, liysenck, 1975), have been contaminated with impulsivity and antisocial traits 1288-1292. (Bishop, 1977; Block, 1977). Andreasen, N. J. C, & Canter, A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychiatric symptoms and family history. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 15,123-131. Contributions of the six traits to creativity Barron, F. (1963). Creativity and psychological health: Origins of personal Al this point it appears that the relative contribution of schizotypal and af­ vitality and creative freedom. N.Y.: Van Nostrand. fective symptoms to scores on paper and pencil creativity measures depends Barron, F. (1972). Artists in the making. New York: Seminar Press. very much on specific measures used. Across several datasets correlations in­ Bishop, D. V. (1977). The P scale and psychosis. Journal of Abnormal Psy­ dicate positive associations between creativity and both schizophrenia-like chology, 86, 127-134. positive schizotypal symptoms and hypomanic characteristics. Behavioral im­ Block, J. (1977). The P scale and psychosis: Continued concerns. Journal of pulsivity, which can also occur in hypomania, is also related to creativity mea­ Abnormal Psychology, 86, 431-434. sures. There is some — but not strong — justification for separating cognitive Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P., & Raulin, M. L. (1976). Scales for physical (schizophrenia-like) and affective (hypomanic) characteristics. There is sub­ and social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 374-382. stantial overlap in the variance that creativity tests share with psychometric Cuesta, M. J., & Peralta, V. (1993). Does formal thought disorder differ among measures of these two constructs. Hypomania generally accounts for the major patients with schizophrenic, schizophreniform, and manic schizoaffective dis­ share of the variance in these creativity test scores. orders? Schizophrenia Research, 10, 151-158. Viewing both pathology-like traits and creativity as continua implies that Eysenck, H. J. (1995). Genius: The natural history of creativity. Cambridge: varying levels occur both across individuals and, state-like, within the same Cambridge University Press. individual over time. If we accept the view—put forward by Richards (Richards, Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975/ Manual for the Eysenck Person­ Kinney, Lunde, Benet, & Merzel, 1988), Kinney et al. (in press), Akiskal ality Questionnaire. London: Hodder & Stoughton. (Akiskal & Akiskal, 1988), Prentky (in press), Russ (1993), and others — of a Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1991). Elective affinities in schizophrenia and child­ curvilinear relationship between such traits and creativity, we have allowed hood autism. In P. E. Bebbington (Ed.), Social psychiatry: Theory, methodol­ nonlinearity into our picture of creativity-pathology causal relationships. If ogy, and practice, pp. 65-89. New Brunswick; NJ: Transaction. dynamics — changes with time — are also included in our models, the result is Gottschalk, A., Bauer, M. S., & Whybrow, P. C. (1995). Evidence of chaotic a picture of human functioning, in both its sublime and its troubling aspects, mood variation in bipolar disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 947- describable as a Nonlinear Dynamical System. An interesting feature of such 959. systems is that under certain conditions they may be capable of chaotic behav­ Harrow, M., & Quinlan, D. M. (1985/ Disordered thought and schizophrenic ior (see Schuldberg, 1998, 1999), something now speculated to be relevant to psychopathology. N.Y.: Gardner. the creative process (Richards, 1996; Schuldberg, 1999) and to psychopathol- Hasenfus, N.„ & Magaro, P (1976). Creativity and schizophrenia: An equal­ ogy (e.g., Gottschalk et al, 1995). ity of empirical constructs. British Journal-of Psychiatry, 129, 346-349. Several characteristics of chaotic systems are especially relevant to under­ Haynal, A. (1985). Depression and creativity. N.Y.: International Universi­ standing creativity. First, small differences in starting point, as well as small ties Press. "chance" environmental influences, can have large and increasingly diverging Jamison, K. R. (1990a). Manic-depressive illness and accomplishment: Cre­ effects on course and outcome. This provides a way to understand "serendip­ ativity, leadership, and social class. In F. K. Goodwin & K. R. Jamison (Eds.), ity." Secondly, the path of a chaotic system never returns to the same place Manic-depressive illness, pp. 332-367. NY: Oxford University Press. while also going in the same direction. This provides understanding of "nov­ Jamison, K. R. (1990b). Thought disorder, perception, and cognition. In F. elty" and "originality". Finally, the behavior of chaotic systems can manifest ,K. Goodwin, K. R. Jamison (Eds.), Manic-depressive illness, pp. 247-280. NY; so-called fractal properties of self-similarity, symmetry, and scaling phenom­ Oxford University Press. ena. I argue elsewhere (Schuldberg, 1999) that these provide a way to under­ Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the stand the recognizable "style" of an artist's work. artistic temperament. N.Y.: Free Press. Creative process emerges not as a straight-line path of "progress" toward a Jamison, K. R., Gerner, R. H., Hammen, C, & Padesky, C. (1980). Clouds product, but rather involves possibly complex trajectories around attractors, and silver linings: Positive experiences associated with primary affective dis­ regions (corresponding to genres and styles) where the process may orbit and orders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 198-202. then leave (Zausner, 1996). Creative endeavors can exhibit apparently cyclic, Johnston, M. H., & Holzman, P. S. (1979). Assessing schizophrenic thinking. sometimes more complicated, sometimes catastrophically changing trajecto­ San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ries (Schuldberg, 1998). The behavior of Nonlinear Dynamics can be richer Kaufman, G., & Vosburg, S. K. (1997). "Paradoxical" mood effects on cre­ and more complicated than patterning described in simple narrative trajecto­ ative problem-solving. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 151-170. ries of progress or tragedy. Such models can even, I suspect, generate trajecto­ Kinney, D. K., Richards, R. L., Lowing, P. A., LeBlanc, D., Zimbalist, M. E.s ries reflecting the fractured visions of modernism and postmodernism (Sass, & Harlan, P. (in press). Creativity in offspring of schizophrenics and controls: 1992/1994, in press). An adoption study. Creativity Research Journal. Nonlinear systems can be constructed linking together familiar and fairly Magaro, J., & Harrow, M. (1985). Thought disorder: A function of schizo­ simple "off the shelf psychological models that are already well-known. When phrenia, mania, or psychosis? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, we look at the interactions of several dynamic psychosocial processes at once, 35-41. familiar models combine to become capable of seemingly discontinuous change Martindale, C. (1975). Romantic progression: The psychology of literary and unexpected surprise. Such a "somewhat-complicated" view of creativity history. NY: Hemisphere. — as emerging from several relatively simple but non-linearly coupled sub­ Prentky, R. A. (in press). Mental illness and roots of genius. Creativity Re­ systems — suggests that the moment-to-moment changes in lives' patterns can search Journal. be very interesting, changing suddenly, difficult to "steer", defying prediction Richards, R. (1996). Does the lone genius ride again? Chaos, creativity and and tight control and deeply textured. community. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 36, 44-60. Richards, R. (1997). Conclusions: When illness yields creativity. In M. A. 42 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Runco & R. Richards (Eds.,), Eminent creativity, everyday creativity, and health, order in ourselves that the discoveries of science and the formal beauties of the pp. 485-540. Greenwich, CT.: Ablex. arts are so important to us. It is the nagging sense of incoherence and incom­ Richards, R., Kinney, D. K., Lunde, I., Benet, M., & Merzel, A. P. C. (1988). pleteness within that drives artists and scientists to create new entities. Creativity in manic depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and con­ The disputed relation between psychopathology and creativity is not hard lo trol subjects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 281-288. resolve if the outline given above is correct. Human beings are less accurately Russ, S. W. (1993/ Affect and creativity: The role of affect and play in the adjusted to any one environment than are creatures with built-in progammes. creative process. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. Because of this, they are never completely satisfied, and are always able to Sass, L. A. (1992/1994). Madness and modernism; Insanity in the light of imagine something better. Necessity may be the mother of invention, but dis­ modern art, literature, and thought. New York: Basic Books. (Harvard Univer­ satisfaction is its father. If we were perfectly content with the world as it is, wc sity Press edition, 1994.) should not be moved to make scientific discoveries, invent imaginary heavens, Sass, L. A. (in press), Schizophrenia, modernism, and the "creative imagina­ write novels, paint pictures, or compose music. Blissful happiness is not con­ tion": On creativity and psychopathology. Creativity Research Journal. ducive to imaginative invention. Schuldberg, D. (1994). Giddiness and horror in the creative process. In M. P. Therefore, it is not surprising that some of the most inventive and creative of Shaw & M. A. Runco (Eds.), Creativity and affect, pp. 87-101. Norwood, N. mankind should also be those who tend to be at odds with the world and them­ J.: Ablex. selves. If one's own self and the world appear incoherent, the greater the pres­ Schuldberg, D. (1998). Creativity, bipolarity, and the dynamics of style. In S. sure to seek coherence. In the field of pathology, we see this happening in W. Russ (Ed.), Affect, creative experience, and psychological adjustment, pp. schizophrenics, whose delusions are an attempt to make sense out of their hal­ 221-237. Washington, D. C: Taylor and Francis. lucinations and other bizarre sensory experiences. Schuldberg, D. (1999). Chaos theory and creativity. InM. Runco & S. Pritzker Manifest, severe mental illness precludes creativity activity. Artists who be­ (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity, Volume 1, pp. 259-272. N.Y.: Wiley. come schizophrenic nearly always show deterioration in their drawings and Schuldberg, D., & Sass, L. A. (1999). Schizophrenia. In M. Runco & S. paintings, which usually become stereotyped, repetitive, and dull. Manic pa­ Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity, Volume 2, pp. 501-514. N.Y.: Wiley. tients may be brim-full of new ideas, but are too restless to record them or Zausner, T. (1996). The creative chaos: Speculations on the connection be­ elaborate upon them. Depression of any severity prevents the sufferer from tween non-linear dynamics and the creative process. In, W. Sulis, & A. Combs engaging in any creative activity at all. (Eds.), Nonlinear dynamics in human behavior, pp. 343-349. Singapore: World But liability to mental illness is a different story. A number of studies have Scientific. confirmed the observation that writers, particularly poets, are prone to manic- depressive illness. And there is little doubt that schizotypal or schizoid person­ David Schuldberg alities are commonly found among great abstract thinkers. In both groups, Department of Psychology creative production may be functioning as a defense; that is, as a way of ward­ University of Montana ing off or diminishing the threat of mental illness. Missoula MT 59812 In his autobiography, Graham Greene wrote: "Writing is a form of therapy; sometimes I wonder how all those who do notwrite, compose or paint can man­ Creativity and Psychopathology age to escape the madness, the melancholia,the panic fear which is inherent in the human condition." (Greene, 1981) For those who are prone to depession, avoidance of the plunge into the abyss Anthony Storr is a major undertaking. Those who have creative gifts are fortunate, because Oxford, England they can use their talents to gain recurrent fixes of public recognition which enhance their shaky self-esteem. Dickens and Balzac are both examples of Human beings are the most successful species because they are inventive and writers liable to severe depression who kept it at bay by constant overwork. Il creative. Creativity in both science and the arts demands the use of the imagi­ is also true that the act of writing, by objectifying negative emotions, can en­ nation; that is, the ability to think of things which do not yet exist, or to form able the writer to control and overcome grief and despair. Writing can be a way new concepts which link together entities which had previously appeared to be of self-exploration; and a means of self-affirmation and self-expression for those separate. The creation of integrated wholes out of discrete data is the funda­ who find such things difficult to achieve in ordinary life. mental organizing activity of human nature. From the moment of birth, human Let me briefly turn to the other great group of psychiatric disorders. beings are trying to make sense out of the whole, to find regularities, to impose Schizophrenics mostly lose whatever creative powers they had when their ill­ patterns. ness becomes established. John Nash, the Princeton mathematician who won a This is because human biological adaptation to the world is partial and in­ Nobel prize in 1994, spent most of thirty years in mental institutions suffering complete. Imagine a creature who is accurately adjusted to the environment in from schizophrenia. He recovered; but the work in game theory for which he which it lives. Aeons of evolution have programmed exact responses to all got the prize was completed before he became psychotic. normal environmental challenges. All its biological requirements, for food, The near relatives of schizophrenics often show divergent and loosely asso­ reproduction, sleep, warmth, and companionship are met without difficulty. ciative styles of thought which resemble the overinclusive thinking of Who could ask for anything more? There would be no reason for such a crea­ schizophrenics, but which in normal people, may indicate originality. A touch ture to be inventive or to engage in'imaginative activity. But, as we all know, of so-called thought disorder may be fruitful. that is not the human condition. One characteristic of people described as exhibiting schizoid or schizotypical Creativity is a by-product of not being precisely in tune with external reality. personalities is their reduced capacity for close interpersonal relationships. Nei­ If we were perfectly satisfied, perfectly adjusted, we should not be imaginative, ther ICD-10 nor DSM-IV mention that a enhanced capacity for creative ab­ inventive, or curious. Nor should we need the arts. Works of art are so com­ stract thought sometimes goes hand-in-hand with this comparative isolation pelling because they reflect back to us what we all want to do; connect the Many of the greatest philosophers have had personalities in which the capacity prose and die passion, create order out of our unruly feelings while at the same for abstract thought has dominated them to the exclusion of human emotions time expressing them. If we were governed by built-in instinctual patterns, the like love. The list of philosophers who formed no close personal ties includes order would already have been imposed, and we should simply obey what Na­ Descartes, Locke, Hobbes, Pascal, Spmoza, Kant, Leibniz, Schopenhauer, ture impelled us to do, with no need for imagination. As it is, we are always Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Wittgenstein. Newton, who might be described looking for patterns which make sense; and we have to create these for our­ as a natural philosopher, was also a bachelor throughout his long life. What­ selves because they are not given to us by Nature. Both science and the arts ever passing relationships these thinkers had, none of them married, and most create new areas of order, and it is because we lack the sense of continuing Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 43 of them lived alone for the greater part of their lives. Einstein, who married Karlsson (1970), and Kauffman, et al. (1979). Each of these studies found twice, nevertheless described himself as "a longer, who never belonged with elevated creativity in the healthier biological relatives of probands with a diag­ his whole heart to the state, his country, his circle of friends, or even his closer nosis of schizophrenia. In his Icelandic sample, for example, Karlsson (1970) family, but who felt with regard to all those ties a never overcome sense of found that the biological relatives of schizophrenic probands were significantly being a stranger with a need for solitude." (Einstein, 1934)" more likely than people in the general population to be recognized in Wlw's This suggests that some of the traits of personality described in psychiatric Who for their achievements in creative professions. In a study of families from manuals as pathological are actually adaptive in the widest sense because they the Boston area (Kauffman. Grunebaum, Cohler & Gamer, 1979), tests and are necessary for man?s greatest achievements in both science and the arts. interviews were administered to children of schizophrenic, mood-disordered, These examples bolster my conviction that we need to get rid of the medical and healthy control mothers. Among the offspring of the ill mothers, there was model from our psychiatric diagnostic classifications, and replace it with some­ a group of six children who were judged to be not only healthy but also more thing which takes more account of human variability. At present, we are label­ creative than any of the control children. All but one of these unusually cre­ ling some of the most valuable human beings who have ever existed as patho­ ative children had a schizophrenic or schizoaffective mother. A similar finding logical because they don't fit our implicit, dubious standards of 'normality'. was reported by Heston and Denney (1968), in their study of a U.S. sample of adult adoptees who had been bom to schizophrenic or matched control moth­ References ers, but had been separated from their biological mothers shortly after birth. Einstein, A. (1934). Welthild. Quoted in Folsing, A., trans., E. Osers (1977). Albert As expected, the "index" adoptees who had a schizophrenic biological mother Einstein. London: Viking, p. 26. had a significantly higher prevalence of schizophrenia than did the control Greene, G. (1981). Ways of escape. Harmondsworth: Penguin, p. 211. adoptees. In addition, however, Heston and Denney made the serendipitous discovery that, among the psychologically healthy index adoptees, there was a Anthony Storr subgroup that had more creative jobs and hobbies than the control adoptees. 45 Chalfont Road These three studies' findings of greater creativity among the healther relatives Oxford 0X2 6TJ of schizophrenics are very important. These studies were also limited, how­ ENGLAND ever, because they either (a) investigated only eminent levels of creativity in a few professions, (b) involved post-hoc findings, or (c) used creativity ratings Creativity and Liability for Schizophrenia that were based on clinical impressions and were made by raters who were aware of subjects' diagnoses or their relation to the schizophrenic probands. Dennis K. Kinney, Ph.D. and Elizabeth Ralevski, Ph.D. Kinney, Richards, Lowing, LeBlanc, Zimbalist, and Harlan (in press) studied Harvard Medical School a sample from Denmark that included 36 index adult adoptees who had a bio­ logical parent with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and 36 demographically matched Ruth Richards, M.D., Ph.D. control adoptees who had no biological family history of psychiatric hospital­ University of California at San Francisco ization. The adoptees were diagnosed by investigators who were blind to the creativity measures, and the creativity of the adoptees' vocational and The notion that liability for schizophrenia might be associated with unusual avocational activities was rated by other investigators who were blind to the creative potential has long been the subject of theoretical speculation. In re­ adoptees' personal and family history of psychiatric illness. Adoptees' creativ­ cent decades, this idea has received considerable empirical support from a va­ ity was rated using scales of demonstrated reliability and validity, The Lifetime riety of studies that have used complementary research designs. Based on his Creativity Scales (Richards, Kinney, Binet and Merzel, 1988; the scales are survey of several studies reporting that /w/mospitalized subjects with high scores available in Kinney, Richards, and Southam, in press). These scales were ap­ on the schizophrenia scale of the MMPI were described by people who knew plied to descriptions of adoptees' vocational and avocational activities that them well as more inventive than other subjects, Gottesmann (1965) proposed were obtained from structured interviews. The investigators hypothesized, as that there might be "adaptive value in moderate proportions of pathological in related studies on bipolar disorders (Runco and Richards, 1997), that adoptees genes." A similar hypothesis was subsequently proposed by Eysenck (1993), who were more likely to have genetic liability for schizophrenia (and thus might who suggested that his Psychoticism scale indexed a continuous personality tend to have more unconventional modes of thinking and perceiving), but did variable, which in its most severe form would be associated with marked psy- not have schizophrenia itself, would tend to be more creative. As hypoth­ chopathology, but when present to a milder degree would be associated with esized, adoptees who were not schizophrenic, but had either schizotypal or elevated levels of creativity. In studies on college students, Schuldberg (1990) schizoid personality disorder or multiple schizotypal signs, which other re­ found significant positive correlations between paper and pencil measures of search links with genetic liability for schizophrenia (e.g., Kety et al., 1994), creative traits, attitudes, and behaviors on the one hand, and a scale of hypo­ had a significantly higher mean creativity rating than other subjects. Creativity thetical psychosis-proneness (involving perceptual aberrations and magical was most strongly correlated with "positive" schizotypal signs (magical think­ thinking) on the other. In other research involving college students\ Martindale ing, recurrent illusions, and odd speech). and Dailey (1996) found evidence suggesting that creativity, as assessed by Taken together, the results of these various studies suggest the possibility that paper and pencil measures, might be related to Eysenck's scale for psychoticism, genes which increase liability for schizophrenia in conjunction with as yet un­ linked by a tendency toward cognitive and behavioral disinhibition. Ralevski known environmental factors may also have a positive side, in the form of (2000) found that eminent visual artists scored significantly higher than indi­ enhanced creative functioning. Such enhanced creativity may represent a type viduals in non-creative professions on various scales of psychosis-proneness, of compensatory advantage that (analogous to the heterozygote advantage of including unusual experiences, cognitive disorganization, and psychoticism; increased resistance to malaria that is conferred on carriers of the gene for the study's results suggested that eminent creativity may be linked to liability sickle-cell anemia) might help to maintain a schizophrenia liability gene in the for psycbopathology. However, while these various studies were important, population, despite the low fertility of schizophrenics themselves. A forth­ they were limited in that they did not involve persons who actually had schizo­ coming special issue of the Creativity Research Journal^ edited by Louis Sass phrenic disorders or were known to be biologically related to someone with a and David Schuldberg, will deal in greater detail with these issues of "creativ­ diagnosis of schizophrenia. ity and the schizophrenia spectrum." Further research on the relation of cre­ It is thus of particular interest that Sass (1992) reviewed biographical infor­ ativity to liability for schizophrenia is needed, particularly in light of the rapid mation on a number of the century's most influential avante-garde artists and progress being made in molecular genetics. As it becomes possible to detect concluded that many had schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Also of great im­ genes for schizophrenia, it will also become increasingly important to know portance are the pioneering studies conducted by Heston and Denney (1968), whether such genes are also associated with positive behavioral phenotypes, such as creativity. 44 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

References state is mild, by contrast, and still carries the compensatory advantage: resis­ Eysenck, H.J. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestion for a theory. Psycho­ tance to malaria. In addition, one of us (R.R.) wrote a monograph on creativity logical Inquiry, 4, 147-178. and psychopathology, and the state of the art at that time (Richards, 1981). A Gottesman, I. (1965). Personality and natural selection. In S.G. Vandenberg (Ed.), Methods and goab in human behavior genetics. New York: Academic Press. key conclusion was that many previous studies converged to support the rel­ Heston, L.L,. & Denney, D (1968). Interaction between early life exprience and bio­ evance of both "affective psychosis" and schizophrenia to creativity, either in logical factors in schizophrenia. In D. Rosenthal & S. Kety (Eds.), The transmission of individuals or families; one sees that the compensatory advantage model fit schzophrenia, 363-376. New York: Pergamon Press. this very well. (See Richards, 1997, 1999). Karlsson, J.L. (1970). Genetic association of giftedness and creativity with schizo­ We wondered therefore, for everyday people, if there might be an advantage phrenia. Hereditas, 66, 177-182. to liability to bipolar disorders, one that runs in families, and could be related Kauffmann, C, Grunebaum, H., Cohler, B., & Gamer, E. (1979). Superkids: Compe­ to the strong genetic contribution of bipolar disorders—an advantage that might tent children of psychotic mothers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 1396-1402. even have evolutionary implications? Might this advantage, moreover, come Kety, S.S., Wender, P.H., Jacobsen, B., Ingraham, L.J., Jansson, L., Faber, B., & Kinney, out more strongly in the better functioning relatives than in those with the most D.K. (1994). Mental illness in the biological and adoptive relatives of schizophrenic adoptees. Replication of the Copenhagen Study in the rest of Denmark. Archives of severe psychiatric disabilities? Let us keep well in mind that any advantage for General Psychiatry, 51(6), 442-55. creativity which includes genetic factors needs ultimately to be passed on at the Kinney, D.K., Richards, R.L., Lowing, P.A., LeBlanc, D., Zimbalist, M.A., & Harlan, everyday level—we're talking about reproductive advantage—no matter how P. (in press). Creativity in offspring of schizophrenics and controls: An adoption study. remarkable certain eminent creative people may be. This point has implica­ Creativity Research Journal. tions for the so-called "Lone Genius" (Richards, 1996) in our society and his or Kinney, D.K., Richards, R.L. & Southam, M. (in press). Everyday creativity and the her relationship to everyday creators. Such a creative advantage should also be Lifetime Creativity Scales. In M.A. Runco (Ed.), Handbook of creativity research. somewhat independent of time and culture, to be passed down steadily through Martindale, C, & Dailey, A. (1996). Creativity, primary process cognition and person­ the generations. ality. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(4), 409-414. Ralevski, E. (2000). A study of the relationship bewtween creativity and psychopa- Using our Lifetime Creativity Scales (Richards, Kinney, Benet, & Merzel, thology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, York University, Downsview, Canada. 1988a; Kinney, Richards, & Southam, in press-b, including the actual Richards, R., Kinney, D.K., Benet, M. & Merzel, A.P.C. (2988). Assessing everyday scales), we indeed found that this occurred (Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, creativity: Characteristics of the Lifetime Creativity Scales and validation with three & Merzel, 1988b). That is, there was higher "peak creativity" among the large samples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 476-85. better functioning relatives of people with bipolar disorders. Earlier and > Runco, M., & Richards, R. (Eds.) (1997). Eminent creativity, everyday creativity and subsequent work all supported this general picture (see review by Richards, health. New York: Basic Books. 1981, and the edited collection by Runco & Richards, 1997: studies by Sass, L.A. (1992). Madness and modernism- Insanity in the light of modern art, litera­ Akiskal & Akiskal (1988), Schuldberg (1990), and Eckblad & Chapman ture and thought. New YorkL: Basic Books. Schuldberg, D. (1997). Schizotypal and hypomanic traits, creativity, and psychologi­ (1986) linking milder disorders or hypomanic traits with creativity). In our cal health. Creativity Research Journal, 3(3), 218-230. research, we looked at manic-depressives, cyclothymes, and their normal relatives, along with controls. However, one should note that the most Dr. Dennis Kinney prevalent "bipolar spectrum disorders" are not bipolar at all, but are unipolar McLean Hospital NBG-28 in nature: pure unipolar depression and dysthymia (Akiskal & Akiskal, 1992; 115 Mill Street Akiskal & Mallya, 1987). As it occurs, with depression too, the findings Belmont MA 02478 appear relevant. In a subsequent study, we found higher everyday creativity in those depressives with a family history of bipolar disorders, compared to depressives lacking this family history (Richards, Kinney, Daniels, & "Creative Advantage," Mood Disorders, Linkins, 1992). and What We AH Can Learn Pathology in Eminent Creative Artists—-but for Scientists...? Ruth Richards Around that time, and at first unknown to us, Nancy Andreasen (Andreasen & University of California, San Francisco Powers, 1974; Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Andreasen, 1978) and Kay Jamison (Jamison, Gerner, Hammen, & Padesky, 1980) published groundbreaking studies Dennis K. Kinney about creativity and mood disorders in both eminent and in everyday people. Harvard Medical School Andreasen's (1978, 1987) work, in particular, showed the association of emi­ nent-level artistic creativity with pure depression (unfortunately family history "Creativity and madness!?" said some colleagues with amazement in the wasn't explicitly correlated with individual diagnosis), along with a high rate late 7(Ts and early 80's, when we first began to plan studies to explore possible of bipolar disorders. Notably, at that time, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual relationships between creativity and major psychiatric disorders—bipolar dis­ of Mental Disorders (or DSM-III, 1980) listed two relevant criteria for the orders and schizophrenia. We had history on our side. Plato and Aristotle, hypomanic phase of cyclothymic personality disorder: productivity, and sharp­ among others, thought there was definitely something there. John Dryden had ened and unusually creative thinking. Something new was indeed in the air written, in Absalom and Achitophel, "Great wits are sure to madness near al­ and we were all breathing it (Richards, in press-a). Plus some of us had long lied; And thin partitions do their bounds divide." Below, three areas are con­ known (e.g., Barron, 1969) how "pathological" the personality test responses sidered pertaining to: (a) everyday creativity; (b) eminent creativity; and the of creative artists could sometimes look, on the MMPI and other indices. question (c) "What does this mean for all of us?" The hypothesis of creativity- Andreasen and Jamison's critical contributions, combined with their later pathology association not only appears to be valid, but to have implications writings (e.g., Andreasen, 1987; Jamison, 1990, 1993), and related findings of that, extend far beyond those for psychiatric populations. They may, in fact, other investigators (e.g., Eysenck, 1993, 1994; Ludwig (1995); see others in affect us all. Runco & Richards, 1997) truly helped change the landscape of clinical psy« chological and psychiatric practice. A far cry from people laughing aboui A Compensatory Advantage?: Our Everyday Creativity "creativity and madness," the New York Times eventually carried an editorial , In 1978, one of us coauthored a paper with Steven Matthysse (Kinney & on the subject ("Making Art of Madness," October 15, 1993, A14). Whftl Matthysse, 1978) suggesting the possibility of a compensatory advantage to solace for stigmatized patients and families, when the risk that pursued thcni genes that increase vulnerability to behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia. actually included a potential benefit. Here, one may compare sickle cell anemia, in which the full disorder is painful, What therefore was found? Indeed for eminent creative artists and writers— serious, and can cause early death; yet, the more prevalent heterozygous carrier that is, those creators whose work received widespread social recognition— Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 45

Andreasen (1987), Jamison (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990), and others (see Runco What Does This Mean For All of Us? & Richards, 1997) found that there was a very high risk indeed of having a Each one of us is potentially affected by these findings, as addressed by three mood disorder; this risk was as high as 80% among Andreasen's eminent cre­ points involving (a) a potential "creative advantage" in normals: (b) state, as ative writing teachers at the Iowa Writers' Workshop (Andreasen 1987). well as trait, effects that appear also to occur in the general population; and (c) This was not to suggest that creativity made people sick. We do not in fact the freeing effect, for all of us, if we don't automatically pathologize the "ab­ know what would have happened if these eminent persons had not been so normal." creative; they might well have fared worse. (Virginia Woolf certainly thought so.) Whatever its origins, creativity often seems to work in the service of health A potential creative advantage may appear among normal relatives of bipo­ (Richards, 1990, 1997). In any case, these are complex and multistranded lar individuals. First, psychopathology may not even be necessary in an indi­ relationships; the varied possible relations between creativity and psychopa- vidual for a "creative advantage" related to bipolar liability to be operative. In thology can be classified, for simplicity, using a five-part typology of direct and this case, many more people could carry a creative advantage than was sus­ indirect effects (Richards, 1981, 1990, 1999); these categories in turn can be pected. We found that even the psychiatrically normal relatives of bipolars multiple and overlapping. There exist, moreover, as many kinds of association appeared to show an advantage for everyday creativity (Richards et al., 1988b). between creativity and health (Rhodes, 1990; Richards,) 990; Runco, Ebersole, This result is reminiscent of Coryell et al.'s (1989) finding of increased general & Mraz (1997), and others). One cannot stress enough: There is no one road to achievement in families with liability for bipolar disorder. Furthermore, al­ creativity. though individual pathology wasn't indicated in these next cases—it is also consistent with enhanced creativity in the families with mood disorders studied by Andreasen (1987), McNeil (1971), and Karlsson (1970), among others (see Direct Relationship of Pathology to Creativity Richards, 1981). Psychopathology can contribute to content and process of creativity. Con­ sider John Ruskin's loosely associated writings about his manic episodes or In this instance, a familial relationship between creativity and bipolar disor­ William Styron's moving accounts of his depressions (see Richards, 1997). ders is not necessarily about suffering and illness at all, but about various risk factors—ones which may in part be genetically determined—and that might Indirect Relationship of Pathology to Creativity have positive as well as deleterious effects. (These beneficial effects are viewed Pathology may lead to creative expression, as in cathartic writing, which in in our own contextual framework of value.) What might make the difference turn may come to enhance perspective, empowerment, psychological and physi­ in how the risk is expressed? This is a very important question indeed, and cal health, and a greater giving to others. Early writing of John Cheever once needs further work. Let us not overlook one hopeful possibility: that the right helped this Pulitzer Prize winning author deal with a difficult family situation; intervention for a young person at risk might not only decrease morbidity from it later came to help a great many others. Regarding the environment, pathol­ mood disorders, but enhance creative potential and productive contributions to ogy may also drive "occupational drift," bringing persons into career situations society (Richards & Kinney, 1990). (e.g., flexible, unsupervised, nonconformist work) where their creativity can One should also keep in mind that a very high proportion of society may blossom. carry liability for bipolar disorders. Based on estimates by Akiskal and asso­ ciates (Akiskal & Akiskal, 1992; Akiskal & Mallya, 1987) of prevalence of Direct Relationship of Creativity to Pathology bipolar "spectrum" disorders, and now including "normal relatives," as well, Artistic creativity, in particular, may elicit unsuspected material, anxiety, and perhaps even as much as 10% of the population could carry this bipolar liabil­ decompensation—one reason that humanistic psychologist Rollo May (1975) ity. Furthermore, other qualitatively different "spectrum" disorders may also wrote The Courage to Create. However, note too that, under the right condi­ be linked with forms of everyday creativity. (See Kinney, Richards, Lowing, tions, such short term distress can ultimately lead to health. LeBlanc, & Zimbalist (in press-b), regarding the schizophrenia spectrum, in a forthcoming special issue of The Creativity Research Journal, edited by Louis Indirect Relationship of Creativity to Pathology Sass and David Schuldberg (in press) and devoted entirely to this topic). One must indeed wonder why certain widely prevalent and painful disorders with Consider conflicts which are not worked through, as in II, above, but lead to significant genetic contributions persist across cultures, and down through the internal or external difficulties and to subsequent escape. Substance abuse is generations, rather than being selected against and disappearing. Is there a one common attempt to flee inner demons. Then there is external disapproval compensatory advantage? Do some people—even many people— benefit of either creative child or adult, who is perhaps ostracized or ridiculed, lacks unawares? support, decompensates, and copes badly, or escapes. Certain state, as well as trait, effects linked with a creative advantage and Third Factor Which Can Affect Both Creativity and Pathology liability for bipolar disorder are also found in the general population. We One compelling example involves familial liability or risk for bipolar disor­ need to look at state factors as well as trait factors in creativity-psychopathol­ ders (or schizophrenia?), here as a third factor. This could independently raise ogy relationships. For individuals with bipolar disorders, the state of mild (he odds of (a) overt pathology, and/or (b) creative accomplishment, as in the hypomania appears particularly relevant, both to everyday creativity (e.g., normal first-degree relatives of bipolar persons who show a creative advan- Jamison et al., 1980; Richards & Kinney, 1990) and to eminent creativity lage. (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; note the high percentage of "bipolar II" individu­ What about non-artists? Ludwig's (1995) extensive and rigorous historio- als, with only hypomanic "highs," among Andreasen's (1987) creative writ­ graphic research confirmed a creativity-psychopathology association for emi­ ers). The possibility of subclinical hypomania in "psychiatrically normal" rela­ nent artists, while at the same time producing an interesting surprise: a much tives of bipolar individuals needs investigation as well (Richards et al, 1988b). healthier picture for non-artists, including scientists, with a notable contingent It is interesting indeed that hypomanic traits have also predicted for creativity of social scientists. This finding was roughly consistent with the other major across general and nonclinical college populations (Schuldberg, 1990; Eckblad i study on scientists, performed by Juda (1949-1950), in which scientists were & Chapman, cited in Richards, 1997, and others). Patterns of mood variability somewhat more psychologically healthy than artists (see Richards, 1981,1997). have also been proposed to play a interesting role in creative capacity and What we still don't know, however, for Ludwig's (1995) study, or for Juda's cognitive style; both the ability and motivation for creativity could be affected (1949-1950), is what the family history was for these high-functioning eminent (Andreasen, 1987; Jamison, 1980, 1993; Richards, 1993, 1994; Schuldberg, non-artistic creators. We therefore cannot rule out the operation of a compen­ 1994). satory advantage (Kinney & Matthysse, 1978) related to an eminent creator's Mood elevation can potentially lead to all of the following: cognitive, affec­ family psychiatric history (Richards, 1997). tive, and motivational advantages for creativity (e.g., Richards, 1981). Among these, certain hypotheses have recently been in the spotlight. Mood elevation has been linked to the creativity-associated phenomenon of overinclusion in 46 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

general populations (e.g., Isen & Daubman, 1984), and has also predicted for ways to respond to changing circumstances and personal needs, both physi­ creative problem solving directly (Eysenck, 1993; Isen & Daubman, 1984; Isen, cally and psychologically (e.g., Helson, Roberts, & Agronick, 1995; Martindale, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987; Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; also see Hirt in Runco 1993) and as creative appreciators as well as initiators, faced with new soci­ & Pritzker, 1999; Richards, 1994.) etal trends or possibilities (e.g., Richards, 1996, 1997, in press-a). Special Overinclusive thinking, in fact, is the centerpiece of Eysenck's (1993) pro­ subpopulations may also help issue in new artistic eras and awarenesses (e.g., posed link between his "psychoticism" dimension and creativity, a relationship Sass, in press). said to exist broadly within the population and to explain creativity-psychopa- Yet let us not assume we already have the fullest picture of benefits. Creativ­ thology associations across multiple psychiatric conditions. One should note, ity may in addition help us become more altruistically minded and wise (Jamison, however, differences in manic and schizophrenic types of overinclusion 1993; Richards, 1994; Wink & Helson, 1997; see Eysenck (1993) for a differ­ (Andreasen & Powers, 1974) as well as differences in other aspects of manic ent view), more consciously aware, more spirituality adept, more flexibly able and schizophrenic thought (e.g., Shenton, et al. 1989). (See also commentary to access altered states of consciousness, and more capable of healing our­ by Richards (1993), and other contributors to a special issue of Psychological selves and our planet (Krippner, in Runco & Pritzker, 1999; Richards, 1999b, Inquiry, for diverse perspectives on Eysenck's position). We need to know in press-a, Miller & Cook-Greuter, 2000). Surely we do not yet know the full much more about such patterns in creativity, including the nonlinear dynamical potential of our creativity! systems (chaos theory) qualities that may help illuminate such states (Richards, At a historical time of environmental degradation, overpopulation, 1997, in press-b; Richards, 1999b; Schuldberg, 1999; Zausner, 1998). Nor is and escalating conflict, when some futurists give us little more than a decade to this just about psychiatric clients and their families. Similar factors may be turn things around before wholesale catastophe (e.g., Laszlo, 2000), let us free operative in creativity for us all. and depathologize our creative populations—and, indeed, our own potential— There may be a freeing effect, for all of us, if we don 't automatically and look at the real illnesses that threaten us all. pathologize the "abnormal. " In our more conformist modes, we may at times pathologize certain behaviors that are "abnormal" simply because they are dif­ References ferent. At times, however, they may instead be highly beneficial, and through Albert, R.S. (in press). The achievement of eminence as an evolutionary strategy. In the diversity they provide, enhance the adaptive capabilities of individuals and M.A. Runco (Ed.) Creativity research handbook) Vol. 2. Creskill, N J.: Hampton Press. society (Richards, 1997). Akiskal, R, & Akiskal, K. (1988). Reassessing the prevalence of bipolar disorders: Clinical significance and artistic creativity. Psychiatry and Psychobiology, 3, 29-36. Increased public awareness of creativity-psychopathology relation­ Akiskal, H. & Akiskal, K. (1992). Cyclothymic, hyperthymic, and depressive tem- ships has led to a major breakthrough—sad indeed that it is needed—for the pera-ments as subaffective variants of mood disorders. In A. Tasman & M.B. Riba (Eds.)., mental health industry, which can often get too fixated on what is wrong and on Review of psychiatry, Vol. 11 (pp 43-62). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. "fixing it" rather than asking what is going right. Positive potentials related to Akiskal, H., & Mallya, G. (1987). Criteria for the "soft" bipolar spectrum: Treatment creativity can be overlooked and even pathologized, if they appear too bizarre. implications. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 23, 67-73 This opens a vitally important discussion about what we call "abnormal" when Andreasen, N.C. (1978). Creativity and psychiatric illness. Psychiatric Annals, 8, 113- it is doing no harm, and merely departs from a hypothetical norm. It might 119. instead do good, and be employed in clinical settings as a strength. As we are Andreasen, N.C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence rates m writers and their first-degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1288-1292. now seeing in mind-body medicine and expressive arts therapies, creativity Andreasen, N.C, & Canter, A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychiatric symptoms and may at times be people's best medicine (Richards, 1997; Runco & Richards, family history Comprehensive Psychiatry, 15, 123-131. 1997; Zausner, 1996). Andreasen, N.C, & Powers, P. (1974). Overinclusive thinking in mania and schizo­ In addition, findings such as those of Schuldberg (1990, in press) or Russ (in phrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 452-456. press) suggest that patterns of so-called mood and thought aberration can occur Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process New York- Holt, Rinehart & in general populations, and can be predictive of creativity—much more broadly Winston. than just for mood disordered (or schizophrenic) families. Plus, there is evi­ Coryell, W., Endicott, J., Keller, M., Andreasen, N., Grove, W., Hirschfeld, R.M.A., & dence that we can all have muted moodswings with some congruence to bipo­ Scheftner, W. (1989). Bipolar affective disorder and high achievement: A familial asso­ ciation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 983-995. lar patterns (cited in Richards, 1997). Holzman and associates (e.g., Shenton, Eckblad, M., & Chapman, LJ. (1986). Development and validation of a scale for hy- et al., 1989) and others have presented evidence of "thought disorder" in the pomanic personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 3, 214-222. normal relatives of psychiatric patients, qualitatively similar to those of their Eysenck, H. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory. Psychologi­ affected relatives, but much more muted—including colorful responses which cal Inquiry, 4, 147-178. might have received high scores on The Torrance Tests of Creativity) Thinking Eysenck, H. (1994). Creativity and personality- Word association, origence, and (Richards, 1997/ psychoticism. Creativity Research Journal, 7(2), 209-216, The question then becomes how and why, more than whether, a particular Goodwin, F & Jamison, K.R. (1990). Manic-depressive illness. New York: Oxford "abnormality" is produced. This raises the possibility that we should "broaden Helson, R., Roberts, B.W., & Agronick,G (1995) Enduringness and change in cre­ ative personalityand the prediction of occupational creativity Journal of Personality our acceptable limits of normality," both to free our own fuller selves, and to and Social Psychology, 69, 1173. make available to our clients and patients the full measure of their precious Isen, A.M., & Daubman, K.A. (1984). The influence of affect on categorization. Jour­ medicine of "creativity." nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1206-1217. Here, then, one finds widespread and potentially adaptive phenomena re­ Isen, A.M., Daubman, EC A, & Nowicki, G.P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates cre­ lated to creativity and to liability for bipolar disorders. This creativity-psycho­ ative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131. pathology association may occur across different family members, and not just Jamison, K.R. (1990) Manic-depressive illness, creativity, and leadership. In F.K, within the same individual. If there is a compematoiy advantage, it is one we Goodwin, & KR. Jamison, Manic-depressive illness (pp. 332-267J New York: Oxford University Press. need to learn much more about. Such an association may even have evolution­ Jamison, K.R. (1993). Touched with fire. New York. Free Press. ary implications, and help perpetuate our memes (or units of cultural inherit­ Jamison, K.R., Gemer, R., Hammen, C, & Padesky, C. (1980). Clouds and silver lin­ ance) as well as our genes (Albert, in press; Richards, 1997). Indeed, we may ings: Positive experiences associated with primary affective disorders. American Joui • only be starting to plumb the significance of a "creative advantage" linked to nal of Psychiatry), 137, 198-202 psychiatric risk which, again, must be able to cross vastly different cultures, Juda, A. (1949-1950). The relationship between highest mental capacity and psychic and times throughout human history, and at the everyday level, to persist either abnormalities. American Journal of Psychiatry, 106, 296-307. genetically and/or mimeticatly (Richards, 1990, 1997; in press-a). Karlsson, J.L. (1970). Genetic association of giftedness and creativity with schizo» A subpopulation of creative upstarts may certainly help us challenge the sta­ phrenia Hereditas, 66, 177-181. Kinney, D.K., & Matthysse, S.M. (1978). Genetic factors in the transmission of tus quo, and shake off the numbing effects of habituation, to which creative schizophrenia. Annual Review of Medicine, 29, 459-473. people are more immune (Martindale, 1993). It may give us more flexible Kinney, D.K., Richards, R., Lowing, P.A,, LeBlanc, D., & Zimbalist, M.E. (in press-n). Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 47

Dwtlivily in offspring of schizophrenics and controls: An adoption study. Creativity Shenton, M.E., Solovay, RR, Holzman, P.S., Coleman, M.A., & Gale, H.J. (1989). Hpsvnir.h Journal Thought disorder in the relatives of psychotic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, Kinney, D.K., Richards. R., & Southam, M. (in press-b). Everyday creativity, its 46, 897-901. imscss-mcnl, and the Lifetime Creativity Scales. The handbook of creativity Hampton Wink, P., & Helson, R. (1997) Practical and transcendent wisdom: Their nature and I'rcss. some longitudinal findings. Journal of Adult Development, 4(1), 1-15. Lnszlo, E. (2000). Macroshift 2001-2010- Creating the future in the early 21s' century. Zausner, T. (1998). When walls become doorways: Creativity, chaos theory, and physical Sun lose: toExcel. illness. Creativity Research Journal, 11, 21-28 Ludwig. A.M. (1995). The price of greatness. New York: Guilford. Mnrtindale, C. (1993). Psychotieism, degeneration, and creativity. (Commentary on Ruth Richards Uyscnck's Creativity and personality. Suggestions for a theory). Psychological Inquiry, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center 4(3). 212-217. Univerrsity of California McNeil, T. (1971). Prebirth and postbirth influence on the relationship between ere* San Francisco CA nlivc ability and recorded mental illness Journal of Personality, 39-391-406. Miller, M.E., & Cook-Greuter, S.R. (Eds.). (2000). Creativity, spirituality, and tran­ scendence. Paths to integrity and wisdom in the mature self. Stamford, CT: Ablex Pub!. Fractals, Madness and Creative Achievement Corp. New York Times Editorial (1993, 15 October). Making art of madness. A14. Arnold M. Ludwig. Rhodes, C. (1990). Growth from deficiency creativity to being creativity. Creativity University of Kentucky Research Journal, 3, 287-299. Richards, R. (1981). Relationships between creativity and psychopathology Here is the basic paradox. We know that eminent members within the cre­ Genetic Psychology Monographs. 103, 261-324. ative arts have a far higher lifetime prevalence of mental illness than those in Richards. R. (1990). Everyday creativity, eminent creativity, and health. "Afterview" foi CRJ special issues on "Creativity and Health." Creativity Research Journal, 3, 300- the sciences. We also know that creative artists and scientists show no appre­ 326. ciable differences in the extent of their originality, innovativeness and creative Richards, R. (1993). Everyday creativity, eminent creativity, and psychopathology. achievement. So within the creative arts, there appears to be a relationship (Commentary on Hans Eysenck's Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory). between mental illness and the extent of creative achievement, but within the Psychological Inquiiy, 4(3), 212-217. investigative professions, creative achievement tends to be associated with Richards, R. (1994). Creativity and bipolar mood swings: Why the association? In mental stability. How do we explain these discrepancies? M.P. Shaw & M.A. Runco (Eds.). Creativity and affect (pp. 44-72) Greenwich: Ablex The answer to this puzzle naturally has to do with the nature of these profes­ Richards, R. (1996). Does the lone genius ride again?: Chaos, creativity, and commu­ sions and their criteria for creative achievement. Within the creative arts, for nity. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 36(2), 44-60. Richards, R. (1997). When illness yields creativity. In M. Runco & R Richards, Emi­ example, what matters most is the person's personal vision of the world. With nent creativity, everyday creativity, and health (pp. 485-540). Greenwich, CT: Ablex. this expectation, artists, writers and composers may draw inspiration from their Richards.R. (1999-a). Affective disorders. In M. Runco and S. Pritzker (Eds.). The persona] conflicts or drug experiences to offer their audiences new ways of Encyclopedia of creativity, Vol. I (pp. 31-43) San Diego: Academic Press. seeing nature and interpreting human experience. The situation is different for Richards, R. (1999-b). The subtle attraction: Beauty as a force in awareness, creativ­ scientists and academicians. Insights gained from psychotic, neurotic or chemi­ ity, and survival. In S. Russ (Ed.). Affect, creative experience, and psychological adjust­ cally induced experiences are not acceptable because they violate the funda­ ment (pp 195-219). PhiladelphiaBrunner/Mazel. mental assumptions of science, which rely on predictability, replication, and Richards, R. (in press-a). Creativity and the schizophrenia spectrum?: More and more reliability. What this suggests is that the kinds of public and professional ex­ interesting. Creativity Research Journal (Commentary for special issue on "Creativity pectations about acceptable forms of creative expression influence whether and the Schizophrenia Spectrum") mental illness may be advantageous or detrimental to career success. Richards, R. (in press-b). Millennium as opportunity: Chaos, creativity, and Guilford's Structure-of-Intellect Model. Creativity Research Journal. . In my studies over the years on the relationship between creativity and psy­ Richards, R., & Kinney, D. (1990). Mood swings and creativity. Creativity Research chopathology, I have become increasingly impressed that certain fundamental Journal, 3, 202-217. principles account for the differences observed among the different profes­ Richards, R.s Kinney, D.K., Benet, M., & Merzel, A.P.C. (1988a). Assessing everyday sions. From my perspective, the fractal model of geometry seems ideally suited creativity: Characteristics of the Lifetime Creativity Scales and validation with three to explain the seemingly discrepant findings and for dealing with the concep­ large samples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 476-485. tual chaos surrounding this relationship. So far this model has been applied Richards, R., Kinney, D,, Daniels, H., & Linkins, K. (1992). Everyday cre­ primarily to certain natural objects such as seacoasts, snowflakes or rocks. The ativity and bipolar and unipolar affective disorder: Preliminary study of personal and term fractal describes any of the classes of complex geometrical shapes that family history. European Psychiatry, 7, 49-52. commonly exhibit the property of self-similarity. A self-similar object is one Richards. R,, Kinney, D.K., Lunde, I, Benet, M., & Merzel, A.P.C. (1988b). Creativ­ ity in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and control subjects. Journal whose component parts resemble the whole. This reiteration of irregular de­ of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 281-288. tails or patterns occurs at progressively smaller cases and can, with purely ab­ Runco, M., & Pritzker, S. (1999). The Encyclopedia of creativity, 2 vols. San Diego: stract entities, continue indefinitely. Each part of each part with magnification Academic Press. will look basically like the object as a whole. Runco, M., & Richards, R. (1997). Eminent creativity, everyday creativity, and health. I have found that the invariant properties of self-similarity occur at every Greenwich, CT: Ablex Publ. Corp Runco, M.A., Ebersole, P., & Mraz, W. (1997). Creativity and self-actualization. In level in the relationship between creative achievement and psychopathology. M.A, Runco & R. Richards (Eds.). Eminent creativity, everyday creativity, and health For example, at the most macroscopic level, the comparisons between creative (pp. 265-274). Stamford, CT: Ablex Publ. Co. artists and scientists reveal those in the creative artists are far more likely to Russ. S.W. (in press). Primary process thinking and creativity: Affect and cognitiion. show various types of emotional disturbances than members of the sciences. Creativity Research Journal. At the next level of analysis, when we only focus on the investigative profes­ Sass, L.A. (in press). Schizophrenia, modernism, and the "creative imagination." Cre­ sions, comparisons between members of the social sciences and those of the ativity Research Journal. natural sciences show that those in the former group are far more likely to be Schuldberg, D. (1990). Schizotypal and hypomanic traits, creativity, and psychologi­ emotionally disturbed than those of the latter group. Then, in more detailed cal health. Creativity Research Journal, 3, 218-230. comparisons among the creative arts professions, members of the expressive Schuldberg, D. (1994). Giddiness and horror. In M.P. Shaw & M.A. Runco (Eds.). Creativity and affect (pp. 87-101). Stamford, CT: Ablex Publ. Co. arts (i.e., literature, visual arts) are far more likely to be emotionally disturbed Schuldberg, D. (1999). Chaos theory and creativity. In M. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.). than those in the performing arts and even more so than those in the formal arts Encyclopedia of Creativity, Vol. 1 (pp. 259-272). San Diego: Academic. (e.g., architecture). Then, on the more detailed level of analysis, when the Schuldberg, D. (in press). Six subclinical "spectrum" traits in "normal creativity." Cre­ focus is just on writers, poets are more likely to be emotionally disturbed than ativity Research Journal. fiction writers who in turn are more likely to be disturbed than nonfiction writ- Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts ers. At an even more fundamental level, these same differences tend to hold up pendent. Although the SSS tends to be related to all four subscales the stron­ for different types of styles in the visual arts. Painters, sculptors and photogra­ gest and most consistent correlations are with the NES External Sensation scale phers who prefer a more emotive style tend to be more emotionally disturbed and secondarily with the Internal Sensation scale. than those displaying a more symbolic style, who, in turn, show more emo­ Sensation seeking has little relationship to cognitive types of novelty seek­ tional disturbances than those displaying a more formal style. ing. Given this fact we would expect to find that creativity in sensation seekers In essence, what this means is that persons in professions that require more would be expressed in the arts and literature rather than in science. Creative logical, objective, and formal modes of expression tend to be more emotionally scientists are not necessarily low or high sensation seekers. Albert Einstein stable than those in professions that require more intuitive, subjective, and was certainly the most creative thinker in physics. The theory of relativity was emotive forms. The same pattern applies at every single level of comparison, initially based on imaginative "thought experiments" (internal sensation seek­ not only with respect to the different professions but also with respect to differ­ ing) in which he would imagine himself riding light waves through the uni­ ent types of creative styles. What these observations also suggest is that a verse. But he was also a sensation seeker in actions. He liked to sail his small complex interaction seems to exist between creative individuals and their pro­ boat out into storms and he played a game involving steering toward larger fessions. Individuals seem to be drawn to professions and subprofessions within craft and averting collision by veering away at the last moment, laughing glee­ these professions and to particular forms of expression within these fully. subprofessions in which the requirements for creative expression best suit their Costa and McCrae (1992) developed a major factor scale called "Openness temperaments and their particular cognitive style. Those who are more emo­ to Experience" with facets for the areas of expression: fantasy, aesthetics, ac­ tionally unstable seem more inclined than those who are less so to gravitate tions, feelings, ideas, and values. Correlating this scale with the Impulsive toward professions that either encourage or at least do not discourage more Sensation Seeking (ImpSS) scale from the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality emotive forms of expression. Those who are more emotionally stable are more Questionnaire, we found that only two of the openness facets correlated sig­ inclined than those less stable to gravitate toward professions that encourage nificantly with ImpSS: fantasy and actions (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, more rational forms of expression. This seems to happen relatively at macro­ Teta, & Kraft, 1993). The older form of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSSV) scopic and more microscopic levels of comparison, even including compari­ was also correlated with the Openness scale, but Experiencing Seeking (ES) sons between individuals with different forms or styles of creative expression. was the only one of the four SSS subscales correlating with the Openness scale. Future studies in this area should explore further the implications of my theory McCrae (1987) correlated the Openness and SSS scales with performance about the fundamental principles governing the relationship between creative tests of "divergent thinking," a measure of creativity. Both the Openness and expression and psychopathology within the different professions. SSS Total scores correlated with the total score on the divergent thinking tests. Whereas one might expect the ES subscale of the SSS to have the higher corre­ References lation with divergent thinking the correlations were significant and of similar Ludwig, A.M. (1995). The price of greatness Resolving the creativity and madness magnitude with all of the SSS subscales. controversy. New York: Guilford. ' Divergent thinking is apparently a characteristic of the general sensation seek­ Ludwig, A.M. (1998). Method and madness in the arts and sciences. Creativity Re­ ing trait. But divergent thinking does not necessarily lead to creative activity. search Journal, 1193-101. Sensation seekers have some tendency to believe in psychic phenomena like Ludwig, A.M. (1994). Creativity activity and mental illness in female writers. Ameri­ mental telepathy and psychokinesis (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). They are also can Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1650-1656. interested in drugs like LSD that produce unusual internal sensations and per­ ceptions. Odd ideas or distorted perceptions are not creative. Arnold M. Ludwig Department of Psychiatry Psychopathology University of Kentucky Divergent thinking can be creative or a sign of psychopathology. Suppo.se 3470 Blazer Parkway someone gives a response to a Rorschach blot that cannot be found in any of Lexington KY 40509. the frequency tables of normal response to the blot. He is then asked to de­ scribe the characteristics of the blot which determine his response. If the ex­ aminer can then see the same image it is scored as 0+ or a good original re­ sponse. Such responses are a sign of intelligence and creativity. But suppose Sensation Seeking, Creativity, and Psychopathology the psychologists and his colleagues cannot see the patient's perception. In that case it is an 0- and an accumulation of such responses raises the suspicion Marvin Zuckerman of psychosis. University of Delaware Schizophrenics engage in a great deal of divergent thinking expressed in their delusions and hallucinations. Unlike the creative writer or artists these Sensation seeking is related to creativity through its relationship with prefer­ experiences are not sought after and they are usually disturbing to the patient. ences for novelty in sensations and experiences. In fact, seeking of novel as Even before they become schizophrenic those with schizotypal personality dis­ well as complex and intense sensations and experiences is the core of the defi­ order have some odd and unusual beliefs in the supernatural and some believe nition of sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Creativity is the ability they have special powers of telepathy and clairvoyance. Their thinking at this to make or invent something which is novel, imaginative, and "beautiful" (in stage is divergent but not delusional. Magical ideation and perceptual aberra­ art and crafts) or both "true" and "elegant" (in science). A creative person does tion were characteristic of young persons who later developed psychoses not follow or imitate others but gives us a new view of the world or some aspect (Chapman, Chapman, Kwapil, Eckblad, & Zinser, 1994). Sometimes someone of it. Sensation seekers appreciate the novel, but only those who have special like a mathematician, artist or musician has produced creative work in their talent or intelligence are capable of actually creating something original. Of field before they become schizophrenic. Schizophrenia does not enhance bui course creativity as a trait may extend beyond the realms of art, science, and usually destroys their capacity for creative activity. The productions of .in scholarship. Anyone can be creative in all but the most routinized activities. artist during his schizophrenia psychosis are 0- not 0+. Even a criminal may be "creative" in designing and executing his crimes. There is no evidence of a link between schizophrenia and creativity bill Pearson (1970) devised a Novelty Experiencing Scale (NES) consisting of Jamison (1993) has amassed a great deal of evidence suggesting that manic four subscales: External Sensation (thrill seeking activities), Internal Sensation depressive illness is found in a much greater proportion of creative novelist, (fantasy, feeling, dreams), External Cognitive (solving puzzles, challenging playwrights, poets, and artists than in the general population. Their ancestor! games, manual skills), and Internal Cognitive (solving conceptual problems). and descendants also show a high incidence of the disorder. The cognitive and sensation dimensions of the two scales were relatively inde­ Of course most persons with bipolar disorder are not writers or artists and Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 49 their only expression of creativity during their manic phases is in the pursuit of and Kiers, 1991). Other than the P scale, impulsivity, sensation seeking, au­ immediate gratifications in spending, sex and, if they are in business occupa­ tonomy, and aggression scales define the positive pole of the factor and scales tions, wild, extravagant schemes for making money. But for those who are for socialization, responsibility and restraint define the opposite pole. I would engaged in creative arts the hypomanic phases of their disorders are associated therefore argue that it is psychopathy and the ImpUSS supertrait which are with periods of extraordinaiy productivity, whereas the depressive phases are associated with crealivity and not schizophrenia. As noted previously, manic- periods of sterility. There are a number of characteristics of the manic phase of depressive disorder, with or without psychosis, is associated with creativity in the disorder that may enhance creativity including: fluency of thinking (diver­ those who have other talents. gent), flexibility, speed, energy, euphoria, and the ability to work long hours without the need for sleep. What they produce in their manic exuberance may References require a great deal of editing afterwards but it is essentially coherent enough Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P., Kwapil, T. R., Eckbtad, M E., & Zinser, M. C (1994). to be a great work. Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Manic periods can be described as "sensation seeking out of control." The 103, 171-183. hypomania scale of the MMPI is the most consistent correlate of sensation Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO-PI-R-Revised NEO Personality Inven­ tory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. seeking in that test (Zuckerman, 1979). Patients diagnosed with bipolar disor­ Cronin, C, & Zuckeiman, M. (1992). Sensation seeking and bipolar affective disor­ ders in a hospital setting scored higher on the SSS than other patients regard­ der. Personality and Individual Differences, 73,385-387. less of whether they were in the manic or depressive stage at the time of hospi­ Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the artistic talization (Cronin & Zuckerman, 1992). A group of persons responding to a temperament. New Yoi k: The Free Press. general survey who reported that they had been diagnosed as manic-depres­ Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1976). Psychoticism as a dimension of personal­ sive, but who were presumably in a normal state at the time they took the test, ity. New York. Crane, Russak, & Co. scored higher on the SSS than matched controls (Zuckerman & Neeb, 1979). McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Even the offspring of patients diagnosed as bipolar disorder who were not them­ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1256-1265. Numberger, J. I., Jr., Hamovit, J., Hibbs, E. D., Pellegrini, D., GurofF, J. J., Maxwell, selves symptomatic, scored higher than the offspring of controls on the SSS M. E., Smith, A., & Gershon, E. S. (1988). A high-risk study of primary affective disor­ (Numberger et ah, 1988). This finding suggest a genetic basis for the associa­ der: Selection of subjects, initial assessment, and 1 - to 2-year follow-up. In D. L. Dunner, tion between bipolar disorder and sensation seeking. E. S. Gershon, & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Relatives at nskfor mental disorder (pp. 161-177). Apart from the genetic.connection, sensation seekers and persons with bipo­ New York: Raven Press. lar disorder share a number of biological traits (see Zuckerman, 1994) includ­ Pearson, P. H. (1970). Relationships between global and specific measures of novelty ing augmenting of the cortical evoked potential in response to intense stimuli seeking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 34, 199-204. and low levels of the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO). These biological Tobacyk, J. J., & Milford, G. (1983). Belief in paranormal phenomena: Assessment and instrument development and implications for personality. Journal of Personality characteristics are also rated to the trait of impulsivity, closely linked to sensa­ and Social Psychology, 44, 1029-1037. tion seeking. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. The personality disorder most closely associated with sensation seeking is Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, antisocial personality disorder or, to use the older diagnostic terminology, psy­ Zuckerman, M. (1989). Personality in the third dimension: A psychobiological ap­ chopathy. All psychopaths are high sensation seekers and sensation seeking is proach. Personality and Individual Differences, 70,291-418. a major motivational explanation for their unusual and risky ways of seeking Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seek­ excitement, and their indifference to risks. Are psychopaths creative? This ing. New York: Cambridge University Press. association has not been directly studied to any great extent. Zuckerman, M , Kuhlman, D. M., & Camac, C (1988). What lies beyond E and N? Factor analyses of scales believed to measure basic dimensions of personality Journal Eysenck and Eysenck (1976) suggested that schizophrenia and psychosis are of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 96-107. associated with creativity. They maintain that schizophrenia persists in the Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J., Teta, P., & Kraft, M. (1993). A com­ population despite the fact that schizophrenics (particularly males) have a low parison of three structural models of personality: The big three, the big five, and the reproductive rate because it is linked to a more adaptive trait: creativity. It is alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 757-768. difficult to imagine how a trait like creativity would be of sufficient advantage Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Thornquist, M., & Kiers, H. (1991). Five (or three) in early hominid hunter-gathering groups to offset the obvious deleterious ef­ robust questionnaire scale factors of personality without culture. Personality and Indi­ fects of schizophrenia. Judging from the treatment of schizophrenics in early vidual Differences, 12, 929-941. history (ostracism from the community at best and death at worst) their sur­ Zuckerman, M., & Neeb, M. (1979). Sensation seeking and psychopathology. Psy­ chiatry Research, 1, 255-264. vival would be problematic and their reproductive possibilities close to zero. Evolutionary explanations are difficult to test although genetic linkage of traits find diagnoses may become demonstrable in the near future. Marvin Zuckerman Eysenck and Eysenck conceive of psychoticism as a dimension extending Department of Psychology from the normal to the most severe psychoses with major mood disorders and University of Delaware antisocial personality disorders intermediate. They developed a psychoticism Newark DE 19716 (P) scale to define this dimension. It is this dimension which they say is linked to creativity. In fact, the highest scoring groups on the dimension are success­ ful German expressionist artists, art students, and creative writers. But is the Disinhibition, Dopamine, and Creativity dimension appropriately conceived as one of psychoticism? Zuckerman (1989) has argued that trie P dimension and scale might be more Colin Martindale, Oshin Vartanian, and Jonna Kwiatkowski appropriately labeled "psychopathy" in view of the fact that the highest scoring University of Maine clinical groups on the scale are delinquents and criminals notpsychotics (mostly schizophrenics). Eysenck and Eysenck claim that this is due to the influence of A number of theorists (e.g., Eysenck,1995; Martindale, 1995; Mednick, 1963; I he tendency to deny pathology as measured by a Lie scale. But they also Mendelsohn, 1976) have argued that attentional focus or breadth of associative conceive of the Lie scale as measuring conformity, and therefore its negative horizon is the crucial factor in explaining creative inspiration. Wallas (1926), relationship with P could be represent the nonconformity typical of psycho­ following Helmholtz (1896), argued that the creative process is characterized paths. by four stages: The first stage is referred to as preparation, during which the In factor analytic studies the P scale has proven to be the strongest marker for creative person encounters a problem, gathers the presumably relevant infor­ n (rait named "Impulsive Unsocialized Sensation Seeking" (ImpUSS, mation, and engages in normal problem solving. Helmholtz stated that only Zuckerman, Kuhlman and Camac, 1988; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thronquist, fairly trivial problems could be solved during this stage. His practice was to 50 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts lay the problem aside and work on something else. This is referred to as the other words, it is extremely uncommon for any individual to possess simulta­ incubation stage. During this stage, the creative person probably does not for­ neously all the necessary subtraits for the exhibition of an emergenic trait such get entirely about the problem; rather it remains in the fringes of his or her as creativity (Martindale, 1999b). Among the traits that seem necessary for awareness (Martindale, 1995). The third stage is illumination, during which real-life creativity are an IQ of at least 120, capacity to think about abstract the creative solution simply occurs to the creator unaccompanied by any sense concepts in an analogical fashion, tendency toward cognitive disinhibition and of mental effort. Finally, during the stage of verification, the creative person defocused attention, tendency to connect remotely associated ideas, love of" determines the viability of the new insight. It is apparent that the stages of novelty and a distaste for traditional dogmas, love of extremely hard work, preparation and verification are characterized by a state of focused attention, tendency to persevere on a problem until it is solved, love of mental activity where cognitive abilities must be directed toward addressing a specific prob­ (ideas in scientists and images in artists), extremely high self-confidence, a lem. The self-reports of many eminently creative people suggest that inspira­ very broad range of interests, high ego strength or resilience, and so on tion occurs in a reverie-like state in which attention is defocused (Ghiselin, (Martindale, 1989). Emergenesis explains why, contrary to Galton's (1869) 1952). Martindale (1995) argues that there is no unconscious work on the assertion, creative achievement does not run in families (Bullough, Bullough, problem during the incubation stage. Rather, the problem remains in the fringes & Mauro, 1981): Even though members of a given family possess genetic of awareness in more creative people. Because of this, some seemingly ran­ similarities, it is unlikely that they will possess all the necessary characteristics dom idea provides the hint that makes everything fall into place in the illumina­ for the exhibition of creative behavior. tion stage. Less creative people forget about the problem altogether, because Nichols (1976) conducted a large-scale review of twin studies and compared they have more focused attention, so the hint passes unnoticed. That is, the the heritability coefficients of twelve types of cognitive abilities. The heritabil- hint providing the key to the solution of the problem cannot draw the problem ity coefficient of divergent thinking, an aspect of creativity, was only .22. This into focal attention. was lower than the coefficient of all other cognitive abilities, which had an Martindale (1995, 1999a) has argued that as opposed to being locked more average heritability of .42. However, the studies Nichols (1976) reviewed have or less permanently in a state of defocused attention, as Eysenck implies, cre­ been criticized because the sample size was very small, and the measures of ative people are characterized by a tendency or ability to oscillate back and divergent thinking were not very reliable or valid (Martindale, 1999b). Waller forth along a cognitive continuum. One pole of the continuum is characterized et al. (1993) conducted a much more systematic investigation using data from by analogical, free-associative, concrete, and irrational thinking. This pole of identical and fraternal twins. For identical twins, they found an intraclass cor­ the continuum is accompanied by defocused attention and low cortical arousal. relation of .60 for a creative personality scale, whereas the intraclass correla­ The creative insight is hypothesized to occur toward this pole of the continuum. tion for the scale was essentially zero (-.02) for fraternal twins. Waller et a/.'s The other pole of the continuum is characterized by logical, abstract, and real­ (1993) results indicate the presence of a substantial multiplicative genetic com­ ity-oriented thinking. This pole of the continuum is accompanied by focused ponent in even potential creativity. Were the genetic contributations to creativ­ attention and higher levels of cortical arousal. The verification of a creative ity additive, these results would indicate that creativity, at least as measured by idea is hypothesized to occur in this state. Martindale explains creativity in this test, is 100% heritable. terms of variability in focus of attention and type of thought; This variability is Attention and arousal levels are under the control of cortical neurotransmit- in turn attributed to variability in general level of cortical activation. ter systems (Robbins, 1997). Eysenck (1995) argues that high levels of dopam­ Martindale (1971, 1989) and Eysenck (1995) view creativity as a cognitive ine and low levels of serotonin cause the defocused attention found in creative disinhibition syndrome that is characterized by a broad associative horizon or individuals. It appears as if arousal and attention states are the dynamic prod­ state of defocused attention. Such a state corresponds to having a large number ucts of several interacting neurotransmitter systems. Having reviewed a large of ideas in consciousness at the same time. This enables the creative person to body of psychophrmacological studies, Coull (1998) concluded that "the dopam­ discover associations among ideas previously thought to be unrelated inergic system is associated with the 'executive' aspects of attention such as (Martindale, 1995). When analyzed, a creative idea is always one that brings attentional set-shifting or working memory" (p. 343). CoulPs (1998) conten­ together such seemingly unrelated ideas (Martindale, 1981). Attention is the tion is supported by Ashby, Isen, and Turken, who have implicated dopamine focal point of one's conscious experience (Martindale, 1991). Narrowly fo­ in executive cortical decision making involved in creativity. Interestingly, they cused attention is accompanied by a high level of cortical arousal. As cortical were initially led to this hypothesis not by way of attentional factors , but be­ arousal declines, attention becomes less and less focused. Dykes and McGhie cause of the finding that positive affect facilitates creattive problem solving (1976) and Mendelsohn (1976) have demonstrated that more creative people (Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987). Robbins (1997) has in turn emphasized tend to have less focused attention than do less creative people. This conten­ the role of ascending serotonergic pathways in behavioral inhibition and oppo­ tion is supported by Martindale, who has shown in a number of studies that sition to noradrenergic and dopmainergic systems. Far from being unitary con­ creative insight is more likely to occur during states of low cortical arousal, cepts, arousal and attention are multi-dimensional processes that are regulated which causes defocused attention, and that—when asked to be creative—more by the dynamic interaction between various neurotransmitter systems (Coull, but not less creative people go into states of low cortical arousal (see Martindale, 1998). 1999a). This is apparently an automatic reaction, because, as compared with less creative people, more creative people perform poorly on biofeedback tasks Creativity and psychopathology (Martindale & Armstrong, 1974; Martindale & Hines, 1975). How may we Martindale's (1971, 1989) theory of creativity derives from the analogic explain these differences in attentional capacity? between creative and psychotic thought noted by Lombroso (1895) and others, Eysenck's (1995) theory is based on the genetic relationship between creativity Genetic theories of creativity and psychopathology (e.g., McNeil, 1971). Several studies have reported »!1 From 30-60% of the variance in most personality traits and cognitive abili­ overrepresentation of highly creative individuals among the families of ties can be accounted for genetically (Plomin, Owen, & McGuffin, 1994). We schizophrenics (Heston, 1966; Karlsson, 1968). As noted in a number of nr« should thus expect to find a fairly large genetic component to underlie creativ­ tides in this issue, creative people—especially writers and artists—seem la ity. Many researchers view creativity as an emergenetic trait (Eysenck, 1995, exhibit higher than normal rates of psychopathology than do uncreative pcoplOi Martindale 1999a; Waller, Bouchard, Lykken, Tellegen, & Blacker, 1993). Schizophrenia per se is detrimental to creativity, but creative people often cr* Emergenesis refers to a process whereby a trait is expressed if and only if a hibit signs of schizotypal personality disorders. Affective disorders seem (o htf number of independent subtraits or abilities are simultaneously present. Be­ more common among creative as opposed to uncreative people. On the oiluif cause the relationship among the subtraits is multiplicative in nature, the ab­ hand, creativity seems to be negatively related to neuroticism. sence of any one component is sufficient to block the occurrence of the Eysenck (1995) has hypothesized that the personality dimension of emergenetic trait. Thus, even though many of the subtraits may be normally psychoticism (P) is the underlying link between creativity and psychopullifls distributed, the emergenetic trait itself shows a log-normal distribution. In ogy. Along with extraversion and neuroticism, P constitutes the third dimtfb Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 51

Jiion of his personality system (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). According to rise to cognitive disinhibition and a state of defocused attention characteristic liysenck (1995), P is a genetically transmitted and normally distributed trait of both populations (Eysenck, 1995). Eysenck's is not the only theory to relate Ihnl predisposes people to various types of mental disorders excluding neuro­ high dopamine levels to creativity. Several studies have demonstrated that tics. As one's score on P increases, so does one's chance of developing a psy­ positive affect facilitates creative problem solving (Isen, 1993). According to chiatric syndrome. High scorers on P are characterized as impulsive, creative, Ashby, Isen. and Turken's (1999) neurobiological theory, positive affect en­ impersonal, tough-minded, aggressive, cold, antisocial, unempathic, and ego­ hances creativity because it increase the release of brain dopamine into the centric. Low scorers are conventional, restrained, tender-minded, and altruis­ anterior cingulate, which in turn increases the flexibility of the executive-atten­ tic Based on data obtained from 2680 adult twin pairs, Heath, Cloninger, and tion system. According to this model, the dopamine projection from the ven­ Martin (1994) reported that genetic factors account for 35% of the additive tral tegmental area into the anterior cingulate facilitates selection processes, variance in P. and the dopamine projection from the substantia nigra into the striatum facili­ By placing psychoses and other mental disorders-excluding neuroses—along tates switching between various response alternatives. The models of Eysenck one continuum, Eysenck (1995) asserts that these disorders share a common (1995) and Ashby, Isen, and Turken (1999) differ in that whereas the former genetic cause, although he leaves open the possibility that predisposition to theory emphasizes the role of dopamine in regulation of cognitive state, the different disorders may have other genetic causes as well. He revived the theory latter theory emphasizes the interaction between affect and dopamine levels. of Einheitspsychose first proposed in the nineteenth century: all functional psy­ choses share a common underlying feature (Griesinger, 1861). This idea is Psychoticism and creativity supported by several lines of evidence: Decades of studies of psychiatric clas- We have conducted three large-scale studies designed to test Eysenck's theory si fication have revealed diagnostic difficulties in distinguishing between schizo­ and to pit it against Martindale's theory. Creativity has been found to be corre­ phrenia and affective disorders, and figures for percentage agreement between lated with both extraversion and P, but the relationship is not always statisti­ psychiatrists only range from 55% to 63% (Kretiman et al., 1961). Also, sev­ cally significant. Creativity correlates more highly with a cognitive disinhibi­ eral genetic studies have revealed that there is an excess of schizophrenia in tion scale that we are developing. This suggests that the crucial factor is not children of parents with affective disorders, and vice versa (Tsuang, Winokur, psychoticism, as Eysenck suggests, but disinhibition, as Martindale suggests. & Crowe, 1980). Furthermore, Eysenck (1995) points out that studies have The correlation between P and extraversion and creativity can be shown to be consistently shown that the family histories of people at risk for schizophrenia due to the disinhibition items in the measures of P and extraversion. not only have a higher than expected number of creative people; criminals, Eysenck argues that creative people are in a rather permanent state of defocused alcoholics, and people with affective disorders are also over-represented. People attention, so they should perform well on latent inhibition and negative prim­ who score low on P are normal and conventional. Moderate levels of P are a ing tasks, whereas Martindale holds that creative people focus or defocus their "risk factor" for creativity; as P increases, we go through alcoholics, criminals, attention according to situational demands. Our results have tended to favor affective disorders, schizo-affective disorders, to schizophrenia. Martindale's theory. As yet unpublished research shows that the performance In accordance with Eysenck's hypothesis, a substantial body of evidence shows of more creative people is in fact significantly worse on a latent inhibition task that creative people and schizophrenics score higher than normal subjects on P than that of less creative people. Kwiatkowski, Vartanian, and Martindale (1999) {see Eysenck, 1995). In addition, non-schizophrenic relatives of schizophrenics found no correlation between creativity and performance on a negative prim­ score high on P and are psychphysiologically similar to them (Claridge, ing task. They also reported a negative correlation between creativity and reac­ Robinson, & Birchall. 1985). In Eysenck's view, this is indicative of the fact tion time on an unambiguous Concept Verification Test, and a positive correla­ that both populations are low on cognitive inhibition. This assertion is sup­ tion between creativity and reaction time on an ambiguous or conflictual Stroop ported by their performance on latent inhibition and negative priming tasks, color-naming task. In later as yet unpublished research, we found that that the both of which tap attentional processes (Beech & Claridge, 1987; Beech, Powell, reaction times of more creative people is significantly slower than that of less McWilliam, & Claridge, 1989). In contrast to normal subjects, creative and creative people on Navon's (1977) global-local task. On this task, people are schizophrenic subjects are less capable of blocking out task-irrelevant infor­ asked to name, for example, an H made up of small H's or S's. If asked to name mation on attentional tasks. Eysenck (1995) explicitly predicted that—like the large letter, the small letters making it up have no effect. If asked to name schizophrenics and people who score high on P—more creative people should the small letters, reaction time is slowed if the small letters conflict with the perform better on latent inhibition tasks and worse on negative priming tasks. large letter. The more creative one is, the slower his or her reaction time is to In latent inhibition tasks, an irrelevant stimulus in the first part of an experi­ name the small letters. Creative people on this task, as in real life, attend to ment becomes relevant in the second part of the experiment. In negative prim­ both the forest and the trees; less creative people miss the forest for the trees. ing tasks, people are told to ignore a supposedly irrelevant prime that turns out Our results show that creative people are better than uncreative people at both to be relevant on the next trial. Normal people do poorly on these tasks, be­ focusing and defocusing attention. This is contrary to Eysenck's hypotheses cause they attentionally filter out irrelevant stimuli; since they are unable to do but consistent with those of Martindale. so, psychotics do well on these tasks. Eysenck's (1995) and Martindale's (1989, 1999a) theories of creativity are Creativity, dopamine, and serotonin very similar but differ in their details. The main difference between the two There are five types of dopamine receptors that can be divided into two sub­ theories is a matter of degree. Both theorists agree that the thought processes families: The Dl subfamily includes the Dl and D5 receptors, and the D2 of creative people resemble those of psychotics more than those of normal, subfamily includes the D2, D3, and D4 receptors (Jensen, Pedersen, Din, & conventional, and uncreative people. Eysenck merely thought that the resem­ Andersen, 1996). Evidence from several studies suggests that the receptor blance is great, whereas Martindale holds that it is rather slight. Eysenck ar­ genes corresponding to the D2 subfamily play functionally important roles in gues that creative people are prone to defocused attention in general. Martindale the regulation of temperament, personality, and psychopathology (e.g., Seeman, argues that situational factors are crucial. Though creative people may be prone Guan, & VanTol, 1993). The Dl and D5 receptors are apparently involved in to mildly defocused attention, they can focus or defocus attention according to the regulation of motor behavior (e.g., De Vries, Cools, & Shippenberg, 1998). task demands. As explained above, they tend to defocus attention when neces­ Although the relationship between dopamine levels and P has not been in­ sary, as on tasks calling for creative responses; however, they are perfectly vestigated on the level of DNA, there is substantial indirect evidence linking capable of focusing their attention on tasks requiring that attention be focused, the two variables. First, D2 and D4 receptors are elevated in postmortem brains as on an intelligence test (Martindale & Hines, 1975) or a latent inhibition or tissue of patients with schizophrenia (Seeman, Guan, & Van Tol, 1993). Sec­ negative priming task. ond, it has been shown that the prevalence of the Al allele of the Taq I poly­ Eysenck has hypothesized that creative and schizophrenic subjects share cog­ morphism of the DRD2 is significantly increased in patients with Tourette's nitive similarities because both populations have high dopamine and low sero­ syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, alcoholism, substance tonin levels. In other words, it is this neurotransmitter combination that gives abuse, and posttraumatic stress disorder (Blum et al, 1990; Comings, Muhleman, 52 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Aim, Gysin}& Flanagan, 1994; Comings etal., 1991; Noble etal., 1993). These patient populations also score higher on P as compared to control subjects The dopamine D4 receptor gene, ethnicity, and novelty seeking (Eysenck, 1995). According to Cloninger's (1987a) unified biosocial theory of personality, the . There are three major classes of serotonin receptors. However, two serotonin majority of variance in individual differences can be accounted for using the receptor genes in particular seem to be relevant to P and creativity. First, the three temperament dimensions of Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, and Re­ proportion of allele 2 of the 5-HT2a receptor gene, which has been localized to ward Dependence. Cloninger (1987a) has defined Novelty Seeking as the "ten­ the long arm of chromosome 13 (Warren, Peacock, Rodriguez, & Fink, 1993), dency toward intense exhilaration or excitement in response to novel stimuli or is significantly higher in patients with schizophrenia (Williams et ah, 1996). cues for potential rewards or potential relief of punishment, which leads to Second, allelic variants at the 5-HT2c receptor gene have been associated with frequent exploratory activity in pursuit of potential rewards as well as active variations in Cloninger's (1987a) temperament dimensions of Reward Depen­ avoidance of monotony and potential punishment" (p. 575). Previous studies dence and Persistence (Kuhn et al., 1999). Not only.do patients with schizo­ using large twin samples have demonstrated that approximately 50 percent of phrenia have higher P scores than normals (Eysenck, 1995), but P shares many the additive variance in Novelty Seeking is accounted for by genetic factors conceptual similarities with Cloninger's (1987a) dimension of Persistence. Thus, (Stallings, Hewitt, Cloninger, Heath, & Eaves, 1996). Cloninger has hypoth­ it seems as if the 5-HT2aand 5-HT2c receptors may be implicated in regulating P. esized that Novelty Seeking is mediated by cortical dopaminergic activiiy (Cloninger, Svarkic, & Przybeck, 1993). Allelic association The D4 receptor is the product of the D4 receptor gene (DRD4). The DRIX Due to recent advances in molecular genetics, Ashby, Isen, and Turken's gene has four exons (I-IV) (see Figure 1, adopted from Paterson, Sunohara, & (1999), Eysenck's (1995), and Martindale's (1999a) hypotheses are now test­ Kennedy, 1999). An exon is a DNA sequence that encodes and gives rise to h able at the level of DNA. The introduction of quantitative genetic technology polypeptide sequence. The DRD4 gene is highly polymorphic. Lichter et al, into molecular genetics has revolutionized the latter field over the last decade (1993) reported that at the exon III polymorphism "the alleles vary not only in (Plomin, Owen, & McGuffin, 1994). It is now possible to link a genetic poly­ the number of repeats (2*8 or 10 repeat units) but also in the sequence of (he morphism at a particular neurotransmitter site on a chromosome to behavioral, repeats and the order in which they appear" (p. 767). In addition, Chang, Kicld, personality, and cognitive variables (Plomin & Caspi, 1997). Theoretically, Livak, Pakstis, and Kidd (1996) undertook a global survey of D4DR polymor­ the most important departure point has been to move away from a one gene- phisms in 1327 individuals from 36 different cultures and found considerable one disorder model (OGOD) toward a view of complex traits as being caused cross-cultural differences in the distributions of its allelic frequencies. The 1- or mediated through the effects of a composite of potentially distinguishable repeat occurred much more frequently in the Americas (mean frequency * genetic constituents (Plomin, Owen, & McGuffin, 1994). Allelic associa­ 48.3%) compared to East and South East Asia (mean frequency = 1.9%). Ori­ tion has provided geneticists with a powerful tool to solve this problem. Ge­ entals are lower on a number of traits that are necessary for or correlated with neticists define complex traits as those that are caused by the influence of mul­ creativity (e.g., impulsivity, high self-confidence, aggressiveness, nonconfor­ tiple genetic loci, or as "phenotypes that do not exhibit classic Mendelian re­ mity) than are Americans (Rushton, 1995). Thus, the differential distribution cessive or dominant inheritance attributable to a single gene locus" (Lander & of the 7-repeat allele at least indirectly suggests that it may be related to cre­ Schrok, 1994, p. 2037). The definition of a complex trait is analogous to that ativity. of an emergenetic trait, such as creativity. In other words, because creativity is a complex trait with a strong heritable component (Waller et ah, 1993), it is 1996 marked a breakthrough year in genetic mapping: The independent teams highly probable that it is under the influence of several gene loci. Alleles are of Ebstein et al. (1996) and Benjamin et al. (1996) reported an association different forms of DNA found at a particular locus on a chromosome (Plomin between the dopamine D4 receptor gene and Novelty Seeking in Israeli and & Caspi, 1997). Allelic association refers to the relationship between allelic American samples. Because the results from those two studies showed an variants (i.e., polymorphisms) and quantitative variables, such as personality association between the variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) at the exon traits. Because complex traits are hypothesized to be influenced by several III region, they seem to suggest that allelic variation at that locus plays a "func­ genetic loci, they are also referred to as polygenic traits (Gottesman, 1997). tional" role in the regulation and expression of Novelty Seeking (Paterson, Sunohara, & Kennedy, 1999). Because Novelty Seeking is one of the emergenetic traits necessary for creativity (Martindale, 1989), these findings al least indirectly link dopamine and creativity. The next step is obvious. Wq need some DNA from more and less creative people. Once we have it, the first place to look for differences would be on chromosome 3 at the exon III region of the DRD4 receptor gene. The alleles at this locus are not, of course, influ­ 13bp repeat enced by unconditional positive regard, child-rearing practices, praise, punish­ ment, or any environmental factors at all. This may help explain why creative thinking is very easy to teach but completely impossible to learn. {(jtointtt References (IttplkslKTi Ashby, F. G.. Isen, A M , & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition Psychological Review, 106, 529-550. 5' • i i p ! ~ ' ' > Beech, A. R. & Clandge, G. (1987). Individual differences in negative priming Brit­ r-*-", Eion JrHExon II1* Exon IIIH hm IV • ish Journal of Psychology, 78, 349-356. Beech, A. R., Powell, T., McWilliam, J., & Claridge, G. (1989) Evidence of reduced cognitive inhibition in schizophrenia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 109- ViLl'HGly 116. 13b?dc!ciwi rTtSIG) Benjamin, L, Li, L., Patterson, C, Greenberg, B. D., Murphy, D. L., & Hamer, D. H (1996). Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and GlyllAHj/ measures of novelty Seeking. Nature Genetics, 72,81-83. {C+31C1 Blum, K., Noble, E P., Sheridan, P. J., Montgomery, A., Ritchie, T., Jagadeeswaran, P., ilbpCddun Nogann, H., Bnggs, A R, & Cohn, J. B. (1990). Allelic association of human dopamine (H06l»tltf D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 2055-2060. rtg«:t I. 'Atgnn. j 53!* j*k wit.1 poI'Moftf': jits i'KDj hm :m w." iv.wsl sun ftiionKjiM rave ba- Bullough, V., Bullough, B., & Mauro, M. (1981) History and creativity: Research tdr.aSal, problem and some possible solutions Journal of Creative Behavior, 15, 102-116. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 1(2) 53

Chang, E, Kidd, J. R., Livak, K. J., Pakstis, A. J„ & Kidd, K. K. (1996). The world­ & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 211-228). New York: Plenum. wide distribution of allele frequencies at the human dopamine D4 receptor locus. Hu­ ' Martindale, C. (199!). Cognitive psychology: A neural-network approach. Pacific man Genetics, PS, 91-101. Grove, CA' Brooks/Cole. Claridge, G. S., Robinson, D. L., & Bircball, P. M. A. 91985). Psychophysiological Martindale, C. (1995). Creativity and connectionism. In S. M. Smith, T. B., Ward, & evidence of "psychoticism" in schizophrenics' relatives. Personality and Individual Dif­ R. A., Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 249-268). Cambridge, MA: ferences, 6, 1-10. MIT Press. Cloningcr, C. R. (1987a). A systematic method for clinical description and Martindale, C. (1999a). Biological bases of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Hand­ classification of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 975-990. book of creativity (pp. 137-152). New York- Cambridge University Press. Cloninger, C. R. (1987b) The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire, Version IV, Martindale, C. (1999b). Genetics In M. A. Runco & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.). Encyclope­ St. Louis, MO: Department of Psychiatry, Washington university School of Medicine. dia of creativity (pp. 767-771). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Comings, D. E., Muhleman, D , Ann, C , Gysin, R., & Flanagan, S. D. (1994). The Martindale, C, & Annstrong, J. (1974). The relationship of creativity to cortical acti­ dopamine D2 receptor gene: a genetic risk factor in substance abuse. Drug and Alcohol vation and its operant control. Journal of Genetic Psychology. 124, 311-320. Dependence, 34, 175-180. Martindale, C. & Hines, D. (1975). Creativity and cortical activation during creative, Coull, J. T. (1997). Neural correlates of attention and arousal: insights from electro- intellectual, and EEG feedback tasks. Biological Psychology, 3, 71-80. physiology, functional neuroimaging and psychophnnacology. Progress in Neurobiol­ McNeil, T. F. (1971). Prebirth and postbirth influence on the relationship between ogy, 55,343-361. creative ability and recorded mental illness Journal of Personality, 39, 391-406. De Vries, T. J., Cools, A. R, & Shippenberg, T. S. (1998). Infusion of a D-l receptor Mednick, S. A. (1963) The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological agonist into the nucleus accumbens enhances cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization. Review, 69, 220-232. Neuroreport, 9, 1763-1768. Mendelssohn, G. A. (1976). Associative and attentional processes in creative perfor­ Dykes. M. & McGhie, A. (1976). A comparative study of attentional strategies in mance. Journal of Personality, 44, 341-369. schizophrenics and highly creative normal subjects. British Journal of Psychiatry, 128, Navon. D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual 50-56 perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 353-383. Ebstein, R. P., Novick, O., Umansky, R., Priel, B., Osher, Y., Blaine, D., Bennett, E. R., Nichols, R. C. (1976). Twin studies of ability, personality and interests. Homo, 29, Nemanov, L., Katz, M., & Belmaker. R. H. (1996). Dopamien D4 receptor (D4DR) exon 158-173 III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Na­ Noble, E. P., Blum, K., Khalsa, M. E, Ritchie, T.s Montgomery, A, Wood, R. C, Fitch, ture Genetics, 12, 78-80. R. J., Ozkaragoz. T., Sheridan, P. J., Anglin, M. D., Paredes, A., Treiman, L. J. & Sparkes, Eysenck, H. J. (1995). Genius: The natural history of creativity. Cambridge: Cam­ R. S. (3 993). Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with cocaine depen­ bridge University Press. dence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 33, 271-285. Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Ques­ Paterson, A.D., Sunohara, G. A., & Kennedy, J. L. (1999). Dopamine D4 receptor tionnaire. San Diego, CA: EDITS. gene: Novelty or nonsense? Neuropsychopharmacolofcy, 21, 3-16. Galton, F. (1869/1978). Hereditary genius. New York: Julian Friedman. Plomm, R. & Caspi, A. (1997). DNA and personality. European Journal of Personal­ Ghiselin, B.(Ed.).(1952). The creative process, Berkeley: University of California Press. ity, 12, 387-407.Plomin, R., Owen, M. J., & McGuffm, P. (1994). The genetic basis of Gnesinger, W. (1861). Die Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten. complex human behaviors. Science, 264, 1733-1739. Stuttgart: Krabbe. Robbins, T. W. (1998). Arousal system and attentional processes. Biological Psychol­ Heath, A. C, Cloninger, C. R., & Martin, N. G. (1994). Testing a model for the ge­ ogy, 45,51-11. netic structure of personality: A comparison of the personality systems of Cloninger Rushton, J. P. (1995). Race, evolution, and behavior: A life history perspective. New and Eysenck. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 762-775. Brunswick NJ: Transaction. Helmholtz, H. von (1896). Vortrdge undReden. Brunswick: Friedrich Vieweg. Seeman, P., Bzowej, N. H,, Guan, H., Bergeron, C, Reynolds, G. P., Bird, E. D. Riederer, Heston, L. L. (1966). Psychiatric disorders m foster home reared children of schizo­ P., Jellinger, K. & Tourtellotte, W. W. (1987) Human brain Dl and D2 dopamine recep­ phrenic mothers. British Journal of Psychiatry), 772,819-825. tors in schizophrenia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's disease. Hoyer, D., Clarke, D. E., Fozard, J. R., Hartig, P. R., Martin, G. R., Mylecharane, E. J., Neuropsychopharmacology, 1, 5-15. Saxena, P. R., & Humphrey, P. P. A. (1994). International Union of Pharmacology clas­ Seeman, P., Guan, H., & Van Tol, H. H. (1993). Dopamine D4 receptors elevated in sification of receptors for 5-Htdroxytryptamine (serotonin). Pharmacological Reviews, schizophrenia. Nature, 365, 441-445. 46, 157-203. Stallings, M. C, Hewitt, J. K., Cloninger, C. R., Heath, A. C, & Eaves, L. J. (1996). Isen, A. M. (1993). Positive affect and decision making. In M. Lewis & J. Havilland Genetic and environmental structure of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: (Eds.), Handbook of emotion (pp. 261-277). New York: Guilford Press. Three or four temperament dimensions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates 70, 127-140. problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131. Tsuang, M. T., Winokur, G., & Crowe, R. R. (1980). Mortality risks of schizophrenia Jensen, A. A., Pedersen, U. B., Din, R, & Andersen. P. H. (1996). The dopamine Dl and affective disorders among first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia, ma­ receptor subfamily: structural and functional aspects. Biochemical Society Transactions, nia, depression and surgical conditions. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 497-504. 24, 163-169. Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World. Karlsson, J. L. (1968). Genealogical studies of schizophrenia. In D. Rosenthal S. & S. Waller, N. G., Bouchard, T. J., Lykken, D. T., Tellegen, A, & Blacker, D. M. (1993). Kety (Eds.), The transmission of schizophrenia (pp. 201-236). Oxford:Pergamon. Creativity, heritabihty, familiality: Which word does not belong? Psychological Inquiry, Knorr, E. & Neubauer, A. C. (1996). Speed of information-processing in an inductive 4, 235-237. reasoning task and its relationship to psychometric intelligence. Personality and Indi­ Warren, J. T., Peacock, M. L., Rodriguez, L. C, & Fink, J. K. (1993). An Mspl poly­ vidual Differences, 20, 653-660. morphism in the human serotonin receptor gene (HTR2): detection by DGCE and RFLP Kreitman, N., Sainsbury, P., Morrissey, J , Towers, J., & Scrivener, J. (1961). The analysis. Human Molecular Genetics, 2, 338. reliability of psychiatric assessment- An analysis. Journal of Mental Science, 107, 887- Williams, J., Spulock, G., McGuffm, P., Mallet, J., Nothen, M. M., Gill, M., Aschauer, 90K. H., Nylander, P-O, Macciardi, F., & Owen, M. J. (1996). Association between schizo­ Kris, E. (1952). Psychoanalytic explorations in art. New York: International Univer­ phrenia and T102C polymorphism of the 5-hydroxytryptamine type 2a-receptor gene. sities Press. The Lancet, 347, 1294-1296. Kwiatkowski, J., Vartanian, O., & Martindale, C. (1999). Creativity and speed of mental processing. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 17, 187-196. Colin Martindale Lander, E. S. & Schork, N. J. (1994). Genetic dissection of complex traits. Science, Department of Psychology 265, 2037-2048. University of Maine Lichter, J. B., Narr, C. L, Kennedy, J. L., Van Tol, H. H. M„ Kidd, K. K, & Livak, K. Orono ME 04469 J, (1993). A hypervariable segment in the human dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene. Human Molecular Genetics, 2, 767-773. Lombroso, C. (1895). The man of genius. London: Walter Scott. Martindale, C. (1971). Degeneration, disinhibition, and genius. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 7, 177-182. Martindale, C. (1981). Cognition and consciousness. Homewood, IL: Dorsey. Martindale, C. (1989). Personality, situation, and creativity. In J. Glover, R. R. Ronning, 54 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Great Wits Ally'd to Madness? Is That a Fact? (Eysenck, 1995), or in terms of 'schizotypy', construed as a potentially healthy trait, in principle predisposing to psychosis, but without any necessary patho­ Gordon Claridge logical connotations (Claridge, 1997). (The latter interpretation, I gather from Oxford University the 'schizotypy grapevine', does not go down well with some researchers of the construct, who wish to see schizotypy confined to notions about schizophrenic Most things in psychology (like life) evoke strong views and counter-views, deficit, a view that would preclude a role in normal, let alone supernormal, But the subject of this special issue seems to be up there among the top rankings functioning. The evidence, I suggest, is against that limited formulation (sec for controversy; possibly surpassed only by disputes about the existence or Claridge 1997, 1999)). otherwise of the paranormal. At least, that is the conclusion I have come to None of the above is meant to imply that creative expression always stems after several decades of intermittently contemplating the matter, and wonder­ from psychotic modes of thought. Why should it? Creativity is a broad con­ ing why it was. In the course of my musings I have noticed that the madness/ cept. The purpose here has merely been to draw attention to the relative negleci creativity connection is often dismissed (sometimes in the guise of that more by academic psychology of a good idea, one that the rest of the world has had pointed statement of hostility, indifference) by quite eminent creativity research­ in its mind for centuries. Its establishment now as a less than fringe theme in ers, some of whom scarcely ever mention the subject. At the other extreme are creativity research is therefore to be applauded. But equally important, in my those who think the idea obvious, and that evidence for it is all around us. In view, is the opportunity it offers for promoting a greater empathy with the in­ between - individual differences being largely dimensional - there are people sane. They, especially schizophrenics, are the most marginalised, neglected, with varying shades of opinion, from open-minded scepticism to guarded en­ and poorly treated of the mentally ill. It would certainly do something to miti­ thusiasm. It is they who, as serious researchers, grapple with difficult questions gate their bad press if creativity research discovered, and drew attention to, about definition and measurement of constructs - including madness and cre­ some of the more positive qualities of the schizotypy /schizophrenia spectrum. ativity themselves - which, by their very nature, are quite resistant to psy­ Even more interesting: what if - fanciful though it might seem at present - it chometric enquiry and experimental investigation or manipulation. turned out to be true, as some have argued (Karlsson, 1978; Crow, 1996), thai As for myself, I feel I lean too much towards the 'obvious1 end of the con­ the genes for schizophrenia really are the same as those for genius? I know a tinuum to claim membership of this third group. It is true that over the years I few schizophrenics who would appreciate the irony! have dabbled in the more scientific side of creativity research, but that has been mostly driven by a series of graduate students, past (Woody & Claridge, References 1977; Rawlings, 1985) and present (J. Brod; B, Miller). By instinct I have Cameron, N. (1939). Schizophrenic thinking in a problem-solving situation. Journal always felt more comfortable with the biographical, clinical perspective, as of Mental Science, 85, 1012-1035 Claridge, G. (Ed.) (1997). Schizotypy: implications for illness and health. Oxford: exemplified in the writings of Jamison (1993), Storr (1989), Ludwig (1996), Oxford University Press. and many others who have written in that vein about creativity. Certainly I Claridge, G. (1999). Esquizotipia: teoria y medicion. Revista Argentina deClimca found my own excursion into the topic from that point of view (Claridge, Pryor, Psicologica, 8, 35-51. & Watkins, 1998) more pleasing than the laboratory experimentation. Claridge, G., Pryor, R., & Watkins, G. (1998). Sounds from the bell jar. Cambridge. My preference originated years ago in a conjunction of two things: on the one MA: Malor Books. hand, being introduced, in my studies of schizophrenic thought disorder, to the Crow, T.J. (1996). Language and psychosis: common evolutionary origins. Endeav­ now little used notion of'overinclusive thinking' (Cameron, 1939); and, on the our, 20, 105-109. other hand, discovering in the course of testing psychotic patients for this elu­ Eysenck, H.J. (1995). Genius.the natural history of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. sive quality what amazingly original minds some of them had. Overinclusive? Jamison,K.R. (1993). Touched with fire. New York: The Free Press. Divergent? Did it matter? They seemed the same idea, with different labels, Karlsson, J.L. (1978). Inheritance of creative intelligence. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. depending on whether you were a clinical/abnormal psychologist or a creativ­ Ludwig, A.M. (1996). The price of greatness. New York: Guilford. ity person. All that was then^needed for my final conversion to the 'obvious' Rawlings, D. (1985). Psychoticism, creativity and dichotic shadowing. Personality position was eventual arrival in the distinguished University to which I have and Individual Differences, 6, 737-742. been attached ever since, and where, on the other side of the fence (as it were), Sass, L.A. (1992) Madness and modernism. New York: Basic Books. it has been possible to note the abundance of eccentricity (and on occasions Storr, A. (1989). Churchill's black dog. London. Collins. frank insanity) among the highly gifted. Woody, E. & Claridge, G. (1977). Psychoticism and thinking. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 241-248. Of course, the usual caveat applies here, about whether such personal obser­ vations - and the biographical studies that partly help to sustain them - can Gordon Claridge seriously contribute to the topic: the selectivity of individual case material and Department of Experimental Psychology the inherent bias of even the most carefully conducted surveys are well-re­ Oxford University hearsed criticisms. Still, the sheer volume of accumulated evidence must count South Parks Road for something towards establishing the ecblogical validity of the madness/cre­ ativity connection. Added to which, by now, as Sass (1992) has illustrated so Oxford 0X1 3UD brilliantly, the softer clinical material can be sensibly woven together with a ENGLAND mainstream of fact and theory in experimental psychopathology and neurobiol­ ogy- Creativity and Psychopathology However, my purpose here is not to enter that debate: it is more to try to understand why it has been so prolonged. I am sure there are many reasons, but Albert Rothenberg two - one emotional, the other intellectual, and mutually reinforcing - are rather Harvard University persuasive. Madness is a frightening, alien condition, something distant from the perceived healthy self, and on close acquaintance to be distanced even Is creativity related to bipolar disorder? further from it. Is it surprising that those most qualified to provide insights into Although there have historically been numerous speculations about connec­ creativity and madness should be among the most reluctant to do so? Then tions between creativity and various types of psychopathology, in recent years there is the paradox of madness as a disabling, dysfunctional state, set along­ an increasing number of claims have appeared in both professional and popu­ side the competence and finesse inherent in the creative process. How can they lar literature that a specific connection between bipolar disorder (previously possibly be related! The answer is to be found, it would be argued, not so much designated manic-depressive disorder) and creativity has been proven (Jamison, in the frenzy of madness/?erse, but in the cognitive styles of'psychotic person­ 1993). If valid, the presumption of highly valued creative accomplishment alities'; whether judged according to 'psychoticism' in an Eysenckian sense Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 1(2) 55 linked with such illness would be very encouraging for all bipolar disorder graphical works (English language) have been published for 100% of Ameri­ sufferers and, as some have argued, might even help dispel some of the heavy can and English Nobel Laureates in Literature but for only 6% of all American layer of stigma connected with mental illness in general. Some investigators and English Nobel Laureates in Economics, Peace, Physics, Chemistry, and have moreover alleged that the disorder is itself a causative or facilitative fac­ Medicine (Biology) combined (Rothenberg, 2000). Famous literary person­ tor for creativity, suggesting that the symptom of flight of ideas provides cre­ ages are clearly popular as biographical subjects and anecdotal and hearsay ative associations (Jamison, 1993) and that depressive feelings heighten aes­ accounts of flamboyant or aberrant behavior, often richly elaborated, may be thetic sensibility(Schildkxaut et al, 1994). Such allegations are consistent with prima facie construed as evidence for psychopathology. time-honored romantic notions about connections between suffering and art. In a survey of published evidence for a connection between bipolar illness Presumed support for the idea of an intrinsic connection between bipolar and creativity, Andreasen and Glick cited studies by Juda (1949), Ellis (1926), disorder and creativity has come primarily from a handful of studies, Andreasen and McNeill (1971). Juda investigated, primarily through psychiatric interviews, (Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Andreasen, 1987)) carried out psychiatric inter­ 294 German artists and scientists. She, however, reported an incidence of only views with 30 Writers in Residence at the University of Iowa Program in Cre­ 1.3% manic-depressive psychosis and, for her overall results, concluded the ative Writing and with 30 controls. An incidence of 43 % bipolar illness was following: "There is no definite relationship between highest mental capacity reported in the writer group and 10% in the controls. This investigator has and psychic health or illness, and no evidence to support the assumption that stated that several well-known writers such as "Philip Roth, Kurt Vonnegut, the genesis of highest intellectual ability depends on psychic abnormalities" John Irving, Robert Lowell, Flannery O'Connor and John Cheever" (Andreasen, (p.306). Ellis studied the biographies of 1,020 eminent persons listed in the 1987, p. 1288) had at one time been visiting faculty in the program. Although British Dictionary of National Biography and diagnosed the following: 4.2% the writer group she interviewed were matched for age, sex, and educational insane, 8% melancholic, and 5% with traits suggestive of a personality disor­ status with controls, the latter group consisted of the following: "hospital ad­ der. No bipolar or manic-depressive illness was diagnosed in this early ac­ ministrators, businessmen, social workers, lawyers, medical and computer sci­ count and no behavior suggestive of that condition was described. In a study ence students" (Andreasen & Canter, 1974, p.125). Variables pertinent to cre­ attempting to assess familial and genetic associations between creativity and ativity such as socio-economic class, academic or peer recognition and success mental illness, McNeill assessed 72 Danish adopted subjects and their rela­ were not at all compared for the control and subject groups. Intelligence was tives, the subjects designated as highly creative on the basis of their having had only matched in the non-randomly later selected second half of the subject some official recognition in the fields of performing arts, graphic arts, literary groups, the test period covering a span of fifteen years. Moreover, as the inves­ pursuits, science, and commerce/business. He found only one subject with tigator carried out all interviews herself and no independent ratings or evalua­ manic depressive psychosis, and one and two subjects respectively in the pos­ tions were carried out, investigator "blindness" was absent regarding assess­ sibly related categories of affective reaction and reactive psychosis. ments of both subjects and controls. Another confounding factor influencing Richards et al. (1988) also drew their subjects from a Danish adoption study, the type of group selected and the diagnosis of depressive features is that the using documented diagnostic assessments of 77 adoptee relatives and then as­ Iowa Program has long served as a retreat for writers at times of career shifts or sessing creative accomplishments. Three levels each of vocational and setbacks. avocational creativity were defined. The following example presented of the Jamison (1989) studied a British group of 47 prizewinning artists and writ­ vocational category of "high peak creativity" indicates different types of crite­ ers. Slating that the design of the study could not allow for systematic diagnos­ ria for creativity or eminence than those considered in data from the studies tic inquiry regarding mania and hypomania, Jamison reported that 38% of the already cited: "Entrepreneur who advanced from chemist's apprentice to inde­ sample had been treated for an affective illness. No controls, however, were pendent researcher of new products before-starting a major paint manufactur- used in the study. Investigator interviews here also were not "blind" and no • ing company, and whose operation surreptitiously manufactured and smuggled attempt at differential diagnosis was made. Subjects were asked only "whether explosives for the Danish Resistance during World War II" (p.285). Results or not they had received treatment, and the nature of that treatment, for a mood failed to demonstrate a connection between overall peak creativity and manic disorder" (p. 126), and no further diagnostic assessment was reported. This deficit depressive disorder but instead showed an association with cyclothymic disor­ was compounded by the fact that subjects were self-selected which, in the ab­ der (chronic fluctuating mood disturbance involving numerous periods of hy- sence of controls, introduced the possibility of an overrepresentation of psychi­ pomanic symptoms and of mild depressive ones). Richards, Kinney, Lunde et atric illness in the group. In addition, although results have been reported as a/.interpreted this result as suggesting that the creative subjects had a "bipolar applying to all types of creativity, they were at best applicable only to the play­ liability" (p.287). wright and poet subjects because numbers of designated mood disordered sub­ Overall, therefore, there is no demonstrated evidence for an association be­ jects in other categories were too small, e.g., 1 biographer, 1 artist, 2 novelists tween bipolar or manic-depressive illness and creativity. As for other types of (calculated from given percentages). mental illnesses, there is a long tradition connecting creativity with a range of Ludwig (1995) carried out an investigation of individual biographies (prima­ psychopathology starting from the ancient Greek philosophers and, in psychia­ rily English language) of 1004 persons reviewed in the New York Times during try, receiving impetus in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from the period 1960-1990. The New York Times list was cross-checked with other the works of Lombroso (1891) and Lange-Eichbaum (1928) on genius and popular biography listings. Subjects in the sample ranged from Albert Einstein insanity. The substance of this tradition is highly conjectural and filled with and William Faulkner to Mae West and Casey Stengel. Although rates of bipo­ anecdotal accounts unmatched with any data, regarding the potentially large lar illness were not reported, 3% of all subjects and 10% of artists (including number of creative persons throughout history having no indications at all of writers and others) were assessed as having at least one episode of mania dur­ mental illness or psychopathology. Recently, a review of 29 contemporary studies ing their lives compared with a cited U.S. sampling incidence of manic illness regarding creativity and mental illness in general has been carried out and the of 0.4 to 1.2%. Despite the large number of subjects studied, the Ludwig sam­ reviewers found little scientific evidence for a connection Waddell, 1998). More­ pling of primarily popular and celebrity biographies as well as exclusive reli­ over, as I shall describe below, direct research on creativity and creative pro­ ance on single biographical sources and use of non-professional assessors for cesses indicates there is no causative or facilitative association. Without re­ constructing psychiatric diagnoses limit the validity of the investigatory con­ viewing further unmediated correlational studies regarding presumably psy- clusions. Although biographies may provide reliable information of various chopathological variables, therefore, I shall clarify empirical findings regard­ types, they are primarily non-professional secondary sources which often tend ing creative processes and creativity directly and their pertinence to questions to include, even emphasize, the disabilities and foibles of famous people. For regarding mental health and the broad range of mental illnesses. diagnostic purposes, therefore, they may be misleading. Major biographers re­ fused over several years to write a biography of the comedian Jack Benny be­ Janusian and Homospatial Processes cause he lived what was considered an uninteresting happy life. In a recent In previous investigations based on structured intensive interview series, assay of biographies written about Nobel laureates, it was determined that bio­ documentary analyses, and experimentation, I have found evidence for specific 56 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

forms of creative cognition, namely the janusian (Rothenberg 1971, 1973a, ' the 12 Nobel laureates and an independently designated high creative group of 1973b, 1979, 1990, 1994, 1996) and homospatial (Rothenberg 1976, 1979, 63 Yale undergraduates showed a tendency to janusian process—manifested 1988, 1990, 1994) processes. The janusian process consists of actively con­ by extremely fast opposite-word responses to the stimuli—in comparison with ceiving multiple opposites or antitheses simultaneously. During the course of two types of control groups: 18 psychiatric patients'with a wide range of diag­ the creative process, opposite or antithetical ideas, concepts or propositions are noses (schizophrenic disorder=2; borderline personality disorder=9; brief re­ deliberately and consciously conceptualized side-by-side and/or as co-existing active psychosis=l; major depressive disorder=2; anorexia nervosa=T; opioid simultaneously. Although seemingly illogical and self-contradictory, these for­ substance abuse=l; alcohol dependence^; narcissistic personality disorder= 1), mulations are constructed in clearly logical and rational states of mind in order and 53 Yale undergraduates independently designated as low creative who were to produce creative effects. They occur as early conceptions in the develop­ drawn from the same population as the high creative students. The clear ctif ment of artworks and scientific theories and at critical junctures at middle and result was that rapid opposite response was significantly greater in the Nobel later stages as welt. Because they serve generative functions during both for­ laureate and high creative student groups than in both the patients and low mative and critical stages of the creative process, these conceptions usually creative students (range of p <. OO3-.05). Speed of opposite responding amony undergo transformation and modification and are seldom directly discernible the creative subjects was extremely rapid, averaging 1.1 to 1.2 seconds from in final created products. They are formulated by the creative thinker as central the time the experimenter spoke the stimulus word, suggesting the formulation ideas for a plot, character, artistic composition, or as solutions in working out of simultaneous or, virtually simultaneous, opposite associations. practical and scientific tasks. The high creative and low creative student group also gave a significantly Simultaneity of the multiple opposites or antitheses is a cardinal feature. Op­ greater number of popular responses than the patients. This commonality re­ posite or antithetical ideas, beliefs, concepts or propositions are formulated as sponse is consistent with an assumption that the student groups were normal simultaneously operating, valid or true. Firmly held propositions, for example, controls. In addition, none of the Nobel laureates had a history of psychiatric: about the laws of nature, the functioning of individuals and groups, and the disorder. Results of the experiment therefore distinguished between mental ill­ aesthetic properties of visual and sound patterns are conceived as simultaneously ness and tendencies to creative thinking through the janusian process. true and not-true. Or, opposite or antithetical propositions are entertained as The homospatial process consists of actively conceiving two or more discrete concomitantly operative. A person running is both in motion and not in motion entities occupying the same space, a conception leading to the articulation oj at the same time, a chemical is both boiling and freezing, or kindness and new identities. In the course of creating literary characters, metaphors, com* sadism operate simultaneously. Previously held beliefs or laws are still consid­ plete works of art, or scientific theories, creative persons actively conceive ered valid but opposite or antithetical beliefs and laws are formulated as equally images and representations of multiple entities as superimposed within the same operative or valid as well. spatial location. These sharply distinct and independent elements may be rep­ These formulations within the janusian process are waystations to creative resented as discrete colors, sounds, etc., organized objects such as knives and effects and outcomes. They interact and join with other cognitive and affective human faces, or more complex organizations such as entire landscape scenes. developments to produce new and valuable products. One of these develop­ or else a series of sensory patterns or written words together with their concrete ments may be a later interaction with unifying homospatial process effects. or abstract meanings. This conception is a figurative and abstract one in the Others may be the use of analogic, dialectic, inductive and deductive reasoning sense that it represents nothing that has ever existed in reality; it is one of the to develop theories, inventions, and artworks. The phases of janusian process, bases for constructive and creative imagination. One of the tenets known from sometimes overlapping and sometimes occurring in very rapid succession, con­ universal sensory experience is that two objects or two discrete entities can sist of the following: 1) separation from existing knowledge or aesthetic can­ never occupy the same space. Nor can more than two. The creative person, ons; 2) the recognition and choice of salient and conflicting opposites and an­ however, brings multiple entities together in a mental conception for the pur­ titheses in a scientific, cultural or aesthetic field; 3) the formulation of the pose of producing new and valuable ideas, images, sound patterns and meta­ opposites or antitheses operating simultaneously; 4) integration into elaborated phors. creations (Rothenberg, 1996). Because of the difficulty in maintaining multiple elements in the same spatial Because such thinking is unusual and seemingly illogical on the surface, it location, the homospatial conception is frequently a rapid, fleeting, and transi­ has been confused with the thinking in psychosis or in what in psychoanalysis tory mental experience. Although this form of cognition often involves the is described as primary process cognition. One of the characteristics of primary visual sensory modality, and like all constructive imagination is probably easi­ process is an absence of contradictions and, for the purpose of disguise of est to describe in visual terms, the superimposed entities may be derived from unconscious contents, substitution of opposites for each other. Characteristic any one of the sensory modalities. There may be entities and sensations of the of an early childhood period prior to the development of reality oriented sec­ gustatory, olfactory, auditory, kinesthetic or tactile type. ondary process cognition, primary process structures are also identified in the The homospatial process is a not a form of primary process condensation or delusions and hallucinations of persons suffering from psychosis. An example displacement despite the sharing of superficial similarities such as the breaking of this is when a schizophrenic patient says to a doctor, "I am a human like of spatial restrictions. Unlike condensation, the homospatial process involves yourself but I am not a human." This delusional statement is superficially no spatial substitutions or compromise formations, but sensory entities are con­ similar to janusian formulations but, in distinction, it is truly illogical. Psy­ sciously and intentionally conceived as occupying an identical spatial location chotic patients do not appear to be aware of the contradiction when making This produces a hazy and unstable mental percept rather than the vivid images such assertions and they therefore may be considered to manifest the primitive characteristically due to primary process because consciously superimposed primary process mode rather than a creative one. discrete spatial elements cannot be held in exactly the same place. From this The janusian process is distinct from psychosis and from other forms of men­ unstable image, a new identity then is articulated in the form of a metaphor oi tal illness as well. An assessment of this distinction was carried out in an ex­ other type of aesthetic or scientific unity. Also, whereas in primary process periment performed with Nobel Prize laureates in the physical sciences, psy­ condensation aspects of various entities are combined in the same spatial area chiatric patients, and Yale University undergraduates (Rothenberg, 1983). in order to represent all of those entities at once, the homospatial process in­ Among the Nobel laureates were Allan Connack, developer of the principle of volves no combinations but rather whole images interacting and competing foi the CAT scan type of X-ray, Arthur Kornberg, first to synthesize DNA, Donald the same location. For example, a patient's dream about man named Lipstein Glaser, inventor of the Bubble Chamber, David Baltimore, discoverer of the is reported by Grinstein (1983, p.187) "and shown to be a clear-cut instance of a reverse transcriptase enzyme and its role in genetic change. A word association condensation of the names Grinstein and Lipschutz. Rather than such a com­ test consisting of 99 Kent-Rosanoff stimulus words and one chaff stimulus promise formation in a mental image which necessarily involves change oi word was individually administered to each subject. Responses were electroni­ transformation of one or both of the elements entering into the compromise cally recorded, with speed of responding measured in the time span of one- the homospatial process operating with these same name elements would in- hundredth of a second. The purpose of the experiment was to find out whether Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 57

stead involve mental images of the full names Grinstein and Lipschutz as nei­ chopathological thinking and creative thinking, with respect to the superficial ther combined nor modified nor adjusted but visualized unchanged within ex­ characteristics and affective accompaniments of these processes, is a thin one. actly the same mentally depicted space. However, the underlying psychological dynamisms are worlds apart. Although the homospatial process involves sensory images and the alteration The homospatial and janusian processes are both active, intentional opera­ of ordinary perceptual experience, it is a conscious, deliberate, and reality- tions that are employed for purposes of producing creations. They therefore oriented mode of cognition. Ordinary perceptual experience is consciously appear during the course of a creative process after the person has developed a manipulated and mentally transcended in order to create new and valuable en­ particular creative goal such as writing a novel, constructing a sculpture or tities. The homospatial process is a type of logic transcending operation I have developing a scientific theory. At this point, the truly creative person is ori­ called a "translogical process" (Rothenberg, 1978-9). Such a process deals ented toward producing something outside of himself, is rational, affectively with reality by improving upon it. It is an adaptive, healthy mode of cognition. appropriate (elated at finding a breakthrough, for example), and is completely Experimental assessment of the creative effect of the homospatial process aware of logical distinctions. His emotional energy is not directed toward him­ has been earned out by means of an externalized concrete representation of the self, as in psychopathology, and he knowingly formulates unusual conceptions mental conception consisting of transilluminated superimposed slide images in order to improve on reality and to create. He is able to take mental risks and (Rothenberg. 1988). In one experiment the function of the process in literary formulate the seemingly illogical and incredible because he is relatively free of creativity was assessed (Rothenberg & Sobel, 1980). Ten pairs of slide images, anxiety and can assess reality well. At those moments, his thinking is unham­ specially constructed to represent literary themes of love, animals, war, aging pered by emotional interference. Unlike bipolar or schizophrenic psychotic etc., were projected superimposed and side-by-side respectively to an experi­ episodes where bizarre thinking develops together with an inability to tolerate mental and matched control group of creative writers. For example, one of the anxiety, or when anxiety or rigid forms of cognition appear due to any form of test image pairs consisted of 5 nuns walking together in front of St. Peter's psychopathology, the creative process requires an ability to tolerate anxiety superimposed with 5 racing jockeys on horses. Subjects in both groups were and flexible cognitive functioning in order to proceed. In sum, when creative instructed to produce short literary metaphors inspired by each of the projected people suffer from mental illness, the illness interferes rather than facilitates images. Results were that metaphors produced in response to the superim­ creative processes. Although they may be afflicted with symptoms at various posed images, representing externalizations of the homospatial conception, were periods of their lives, or even at various times during a day or week, the symp­ blindly rated significantly more highly creative by independent writer judges toms cannot be operative at the time they are engaged in a creative process or it than the metaphors produced in response to the side-by-side images (z = 4.65, will not be successful. Homospatial and janusian processes are healthy ones. p < 0.0003). By shortening time of exposure of the projected images and en­ As creative forms of cognition, the processes induce adaptation to social, psy­ couraging mental imaging in another identically designed experiment with other chological, and physical environment through,improvement and change. Jeal­ creative writer groups (Rothenberg & Sobel, 1981), resulting metaphors pro­ ousy, hatred, revenge and other preoccupations of mental illness may serve to duced in the superimposed condition were rated significantly higher in creativ­ determine the themes and contents of a work of art but the processes that mold ity than those of the controls (p<.05), supporting a conclusion that creative such preoccupations into great creations are healthy, not pathological. effects were due to mental superimposition of imagery. Although these processes are healthy, they are, however, trying and difficult In order to trace connections between the visually stimulated homospatial to employ. Holding janusian conceptions in consciousness generates both in­ conception and a visual creative result, and to replicate the findings in artistic creativity, another experiment was carried out with visual artists (Sobel & tellectual and emotional strain as, for example, conceiving of something lying Rothenberg, 1980). Subjects were asked to create pastel drawings in response horizontally and vertically at the same time, the idea of dry rain, or of the sun to either superimposed or side-by-side slide images under the same experimen­ rising and setting simultaneously. All of these conceptions have in some way tal conditions as in the literary experiment. Independent artist and art critic served as janusian formulations in creative processes. Thinking such thoughts judges rated the products and the result was a highly significant condition by in a serious way produces feelings of tension and mental strain. Similarly, with composition interaction {F= 6.99, p <.001), the superimposed image presenta­ homospatial conceptions, there is tension in intentional visualizations of a face tion producing significantly more highly creative drawings (p < .05). Also, and a tree occupying exactly the same space, a piranha fish interposed with the ratings of specific features of line, color, etc. of the drawings themselves gave moon, or a nun and a racehorse jockey superimposed. Again, these concep­ evidence that they were produced from superimposed mental representations. tions have been used in creative processes. Mental strain is involved in mini­ Another experiment was carried out with highly talented award winning art­ mally keeping the superimposed entities together. ists to assess whether the results of all the previous experiments could have This mental, and an often accompanying, emotional strain is usually a lim­ been due to stimulus presentation effects (Rothenberg, 1986). Single images ited one for creative people, because it occurs during creative activities, and were constructed to represent composite foreground-background displays of not necessarily at other times. Mental and emotional strain that arises in cre­ llie same slide pairs used in transilluminated superimposition. This experi­ ative activities may or may not appear in other aspects of a creative person's ment also showed significantly higher rated created products in response to the life. When it cannot be confined to work periods and endeavors, however, the superimposed images (z - 2.27, p < .01). All the experiments together indicate tension associated with creative thinking may directly and indirectly affect other (i distinct connection between consciously constructed superimposed images activities and interpersonal relationships. representing the homospatial conception and the production of creative effects. For these and other reasons, such as the special difficulties in achieving so­ cial acknowledgement and reward, creative people who are not otherwise psy- 11 The Creative Process and Mental Illness chiatrically ill may show emotional and mental strain to a greater degree than One of the reasons for the traditional conflation of mental illness and creativ- healthy noncreative persons. They may behave in unusual ways and seem at ily is the unusual quality of both janusian and homospatial processes. Because times highly eccentric, cyclically disturbed, or psychotic and they may suc­ (hey differ a good deal from everyday types of conceiving, particularly logical cumb to the constant tension of their work and suffer frank illness. This is not stepwise ones, they may be mistaken for mentally ill ways of thinking and to say that psychiatric illness occurs in creative people only because of their behavior. That something is both true and not true at the same time is highly work. Psychopathology of many types does exist side by side with creativity; illogical and, on the surface, quite irrational. That two or more elements can symptoms must be coped with or transformed for effective creative results. It occupy the same space is beyond the dictates of our experience and it seems a is important to note that creative work can be risky. Although janusian, formulation of the incredible, bizarre and fantastic. Persons in the throes of homospatial and other creative operations derive from healthy functions, they severe mental illness do indeed have such conceptions as these, believe liter- generate mental conflict and tension. While causing difficulties for their users, | ally in them, and allow them to guide their behavior. Creative persons who they lead to the gratifying achievement of lasting works of art, novels, poems ' have been mentally ill have surely also believed literally in such conceptions and scientific theories. and been unable to use them in a creative way. The borderline between psy- 58 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

References Andreasen, N.C.(t987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence rates in writers Positive Affect and Creativity: Symptom of Psychopathology and their first degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1288-1292. or Component of Creative Process? Andreasen, N.C., & Canter A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychiatric symptoms and family history. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 15, 123-131. Pamela J. Shapiro and Robert W. Weisberg Ellis, H.A. (1926). A study of British genius, London: Grant Richards. Temple University Grtnstein, A. (1983). Freud's rules of dream interpretation. New York: International Universities Press. Jamison, K.R. (1989). Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers Recent research examining the association between creativity and and artists. Psychiatry, 52, 125-133. psychopathology suggests that the underlying mechanisms of psychopathologicn! Jamison, K.R. (1993). Touched with fire. New York: Free Press. illness may be associated with creativity in some way (Andreasen, 1987; Juda, A. (1995). The relationship between highest mental capacity and psychic Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Coryell, Endicott, Keller, Andreasen, Grove, \ abnormalities. American Journal of Psychiatry, 106, 296-307. Hirschfeld, & Scheftner, 1989; Eysenck, 1993, 1994; Jamison, 1989, 1993: Lange-Eichbaum, W. (1928J. Genie, irsinn undruhm. Munchen: Reinhardt. Post, 1994; Richards, Kinney, Lunde, Benet, & Merzel, 1988; Woody & Lombroso, C (1891). The man of genius. London: Scott. Claridge, 1977). Moreover, in those studies which employed modern diagnos­ Ludwig, A.M. (1995). The price of greatness. New York: Guilford Press. tic criteria, the majority of evidence points to a particular type of psychopathol­ McNeill, T.F. (1971). Prebirth and postbirth influence on the relationship between creative ability and mental illness. Journal of Personality, 39, 391-406. ogy—the spectrum of bipolar affective disorders—as creativity-enhancing Richards, R., et al. (1988). Creativity in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their (Andreasen, 1987; Andreasen & Canter, 1974; Andreasen & Powers, 1975; normal relatives, and control subjects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 281-288. Coryell etal., 1989; Jamison, 1989,1993; Richards et al., 1988). Most authors Rothenberg, A.(1971). The process of janusian thinking in creativity. Archives of have assumed that this association is evidence for a causal link between bipolar General Psychiatry, 24, 195-205. disorder and creativity, with positive components of bipolar disorder in some Rothenberg, A. (1973a). Word association and creativity. Psychological Reports, way enhancing creative thinking. However, the great majority of the studies 33,3-12. examining the relationship between bipolar disorder and creativity have relied Rothenberg, A. (1973b). Opposite responding as a measure of creativity. Psycho­ on correlational data, and one study which attempted to test causal predictions logical Reports, 33, 15-18. (Weisberg, 1994) found no evidence for mania or hypomania causing increased Rothenberg, A. (1976). Homospatial thinking in creativity. Archives of Genera! creativity of thinking in the classical composer Robert Schumann. The present Psychiatry, 33, 17-26. Rothenberg, A. (1978-79). Translogical secondary process cognition in creativity. paper proposes that there is in reality no link between bipolarity and creativity, Journal of Altered States of Consciousness, 4, 171-187. and what appears to be a link between positive affective states and creativity is Rothenberg, A. (1979). The emerging goddess. The creative process in art, science in actuality positive affect produced by creative work. and other fields. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. It is noteworthy that, even among those authors whose research sup­ Rothenberg, A. (1983) Psychopathology and creative cognition. A comparison of ports a creativity/psychopathology relationship, discussions of the nature of hospitalized patients, Nobel laureates, and controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 937-942. this relationship emphasize that creativity appears to be enhanced in those higher Rothenberg, A. (1986). Artistic creation as stimulated by superimposed versus functioning individuals with less severe or subsyndromal manifestations of psy­ combined-composite visual images. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, chological disorder, and in the unaffected family members of bipolar individu­ 370-381. als (e.g., Andreasen, 1987; Jamison, 1993; Richards, 1994; Richards et al., Rothenberg, A. (1988). Creativity and the homospatial process: Experimental 1988). This raises the possibility that the apparent association between cre­ Studies. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 11, 443-459. ativity and psychopathology may actually reflect nonpathological elements of Rothenberg, A. (1990). Creativity and madness: New findings and old stereotypes. cognition, motivation, and affect common to both creativity and bipolarity Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. (Jamison, 1993; Richards, 1981; Richards, 1994; Schuldberg, 1990, 1999; Rothenberg, A. (1994). Studies in the creative process: An empirical investigation. Shapiro & Weisberg, 1999). That is, previous studies have not distinguished In: J M. Masling, & R.R. Borns'tein, (Eds.), Empirical perspectives on object low level expressions of an underlying bipolar disorder from the normal affec­ relations theory (195-245). Washington: American Psychological Association Press. Rothenberg, A. (1996). The janusian process in scientific creativity. Creativity tive variability that accompanies creative activity. Shapiro and Weisberg (1999) Research Journal, 9, 207'-232. have proposed that some of the research supporting an association between Rothenberg A. (2000) [Biographical works on Nobel laureates].Unpublished raw creativity and bipolar affective disorders may be confounded by reports of nor­ data. mal cognitive, affective, and motivational correlates of creativity that are con­ Rothenberg, A., & Sobel, R.S (1980). Creation of literary metaphors as stimulated fused with similar, but etiologically distinct symptoms of bipolar disorder. These by superimposed versus separated visual images. Journal of Mental Imagery, 4, common components include: positive affect; high energy and task motivation; 77-91. cognitive focus, fluency, and flexibility; associative processes; and personality Rothenberg, A., & Sobel, R S. (1981). Effects of shortened exposure time on the factors (Russ, 1993; Sternberg & Lubart, 1993). If we accept that creativity creation of literary metaphors as stimulated by superimposed versus separated visual and affect each occurs on a continuum (Akiskal, 1988; Richards et al., 1988; images. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 1007-1009. Schildkraut, J.J., Hirschfeld, A.J., & Murphy, J.M.(1994). Mind and mood in Schuldberg, 1990,1999; Eastwood, Whitton, Kramer, & Peter, 1985), then the modem art II: depressive disorders, spirituality, and early deaths in the abstract study of affect, motivation, and creative cognition in nonclinical, noneminent expressionist artists of the New York school American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, samples may aid our understanding of the apparent association between cre­ 482-487. ativity and bipolar spectrum disorders, and help to distinguish psychopatho- ' Sobel, R.S., & Rothenberg, A (1980). Artistic creation as stimulated by superim­ logical symptoms from those normal changes in affect, motivation, and cogni­ posed versus separated images. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, tion associated with immersion in creative work. 953-961. Waddeil, C. (1998). Creativity and mental illness: Is there a link? Canadian Journal In this paper we briefly review and compare selected studies that have evalu­ of Psychiatry, 43, 166-172. ated the relationship of specific affective symptomatology to creativity and creative processes in eminent, clinical, noneminent, and nonclinical samples. Albert Rothenberg Evaluation of the evidence suggests that even in eminent and clinical samples, Harvard University groups with demonstrated clinically significant affective symptomatology, cre­ PO Box 1001 ative activity is most often associated with normal elevations of positive affect Canaan NY 12029 and concomitant increases in task motivation and cognitive focus.

Affective Symptoms and Creativity in Eminent and Clinical Samples A number of studies have explored the effects of affective symptomatology Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 59 on creativity, specifically, the relationship of manic, hypomanic, and depres­ Schuldberg, 1990, 1999; Shapiro & Weisberg, 1999). These studies operate sive symptoms and episodes to the individual's creative ideation, production, within a continuum model of both creativity and affect, assessing noneminent and trait creativity. Jamison (1989) inquired about the specific affective symp­ everyday creativity and what Schuldberg has called "psychopathology-like" toms experienced before and during creative episodes and found that 89% of traits in university students (Schuldberg, 1999, p.222). the eminent writers and artists in her sample (n = 47) had experienced "intense, Schuldberg (1990) administered the Wisconsin Hypomanic Traits scale highly productive, and creative episodes" (pp. 127-128). Sixty percent reported (Eckblad & Chapman, 1986) and a number of pencil and paper creativity mea­ that intense feelings and moods were essential to their creative process and sures to a large sample of university students. He found that hypomanic per­ another 30% considered these moods to be very important aspects of creative sonality traits and impulsivity in university students were positively correlated ideation and production. Between 60% and 90% of all subjects reported pro­ with creativity scores on the Alternate Uses Test (Guilford, Christensen, nounced increases in enthusiasm, energy, self-confidence, speed of mental as­ Merrifield, & Wilson, 1978), the How Do you Think Test (Davis, 1975; Davis sociations, fluency of thoughts, positive mood, concentration, emotional inten­ & Subkoviak, 1975), and the Adjective Checklist Creative Personality Scale sity, well-being, and rapid thinking, during creative activity. However, less (ACL-CPS; Gough, 1979). In a recent large-scale study, Schuldberg (1999) than half of the subjects reported a decreased need for sleep, a symptom which administered the MMPI-2 Hypomania and Depression scales along with the is often critical in distinguishing clinical hypomania from normal happiness, same creativity measures noted above. Correlations between scores on the and less than 30% reported increases in those behavioral symptoms of hypo- Hypomania scales and creativity measures were positive and significant. Cor­ mania typically associated with negative consequences, such as hypersexual­ relations between the Depression scales and creativity measures were negative ity, reckless money spending, and argumentativeness. and significant. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that "hy- Richards and Kinney (1990) also evaluated subjects' ratings of the impor­ pomanic-like" traits may facilitate creativity, while depressive traits suppress tance of specific affective symptoms during their creative experiences com­ or interfere with an individual's expression of creativity. pared to other times. In this noneminent sample of affective disorder patients Shapiro and Weisberg (1999) conducted a systematic study of trait and their relatives, the highest rated symptoms were enthusiasm, energy, confi­ bipolar symptomatology and creative personality in a nonclinical and noneminent dence, fluency, euphoria, associative speed, emotional intensity, well-being, sample (n=52). Bipolar symptomatology was assessed with the Revised Gen­ rapid thinking, and impulsivity. Notice that 8 of these 10 symptoms are the eral Behavior Inventory (GBI; Depue, Krauss, Spoont, & Arbisi, 1989), an same as those reported most frequently by Jamison's (1989) sample of eminent inventory of symptomatic behaviors typically associated with depression and writers and artists. In the same study, Richards and Kinney (1990) asked indi­ mania or hypomania. The content of individual items covers mood, motiva­ viduals who had been diagnosed with bipolar I, bipolar II, or unipolar depres­ tional, cognitive, and somatic changes specific to affective disorders. Trait sion, about their most creative mood states. The majority of bipolar 1 patients creativity was assessed with the ACL-CPS (Gough, 1979). GBI scores ac­ reported that they were most creative while experiencing mildly elevated or counted for a significant proportion of the variance (38%) in ACL-CPS scores, normal mood states. The bipolar II patients reported that they were most cre­ with hypomanic-plus-biphasic scores predicting significantly greater creativity ative during both mildly elevated (44%) and very elevated (45%) mood states. and depression symptoms having a suppressive effect. ACL-CPS creativity As Richards and Kinney (1990) point out, because bipolar II patients experi­ scores were highest when hypomania-plus-biphasic scores were high and de­ ence only periods of hypomania, their elevated mood states are by definition pression scores were low—a pattern of results mirroring that of Schuldberg always mild. For this reason, the authors report that the proportion of bipolar II (1999). An examination of these results suggested that there might be some j patients who experience their greatest creativity during mildly elevated mood optimal combination or pattern of GBI depression (D) and hypomanic-plus- states, is actually closer to 89%. However, it is telling that almost half of the biphasic scores (HB) associated with higher'creativity scores. In order to ex­ bipolar II patients reported being most creative during their "milder" mildly plore this possibility, a criterial split on the two GBI dimensions was performed elevated states, which are presumably quite similar to normal positive affect. using the non-affective-pathology cutoff (9HB/1 ID) recommended by Depue Among the unipolar patients, 18% reported feeling most creative during mildly et al. (1989), and participants' scores were assigned to one of four affective elevated states, and 27% during very elevated mood states. Once again, by patterns: cyclothymic (high HB/high D), hyperthymic (high HB/low D), dys­ definition, unipolars do not experience hypomania or periods of clinically sig­ thymic (low HB/high D), and euthymic (low HB/low D). Results demonstrated nificant mood elevations, so it seems safe to combine these figures and reason­ that the ACL-CPS creativity scores of individuals meeting GBI criteria for a j able to assume that this new 45% figure represents an elevated but normal hyperthymic affective pattern were significantly higher than those of cyclothy- ; positive mood. An additional 36% of unipolar patients reported that they were mic, dysthymic, or euthymic pattern groups, suggesting that if a bipolar/ere- j most creative during periods of normal moods. To summarize, the Richards ativity relationship exists, it is related to a hyperthymic affective pattern. ,! and Kinney (1990) results indicate that 75% of bipolar I patients, 89% of bipo­ In as much as previous research on specific symptoms associated lar II patients, and 81 % of unipolar patients report that their peak creative expe­ with creative work has demonstrated a pattern of positive symptoms that may riences occur during periods of normal or mildly elevated mood. or may not be indicative of bipolarity (Jamison, 1989; Richards & Kinney, Two caveats are necessary to put these findings in perspective. First, retro­ 1990), Shapiro and Weisberg (1999) evaluated the contribution of particular spective self-reports of affect are subjective and may reflect variation in the GBI behavioral and affective symptoms to the association between creativity subjects' reporting styles and sensitivity to affective changes relative to baseline and the spectrum of bipolar disorders. Stepwise multiple regression identified slates. This is most noticeable in the Richards and Kinney (1990) study in a predictor set of six GBI hypomania-plus-biphasic items underlying this asso­ which the terms "normal," "mildly elevated," and "very elevated," mood states ciation. There were two high-energy items; an item indicative of sensation- * may reflect very different levels of positive affect for the different diagnostic seeking and risk taking; an item indicative of cognitive changes; an item re- ? groups. Second, a related but more critical problem lies in establishing criteria fleeting intense task absorption; and an item indicative of ideational fluency ) to separate hypomanic symptomatology from normal positive affect. Although and accelerated processing speed. Combined with the depression scores, these ; I he Jamison (1989) and Richards and Kinney (1990) studies are extremely valu­ six symptoms were a stronger predictor of ACL-CPS creativity scores than was < able for generating hypotheses relevant to a creativity/bipolarity association, the entire constellation of 28 hypomania-plus-biphasic symptoms, accounting controlled between-group designs, with systematic evaluation of specific symp­ for an additional 12% of the variance in ACL-CPS scores (Shapiro & Weisberg, ; toms, symptom clusters, and both trait and state affect will be necessary to test 1999). such hypotheses. We suggest that these six symptoms are nonpathological cognitive, affective, and motivational correlates of creative activity that are causally unre­ Affective Symptomatology in University Students lated to bipolar spectrum disorders. In fact, all of these "symptoms" can easily Several studies have used validated measures to assess specific hypomanic be recast as "traits" that are traditionally associated with creativity (for review • (raits and symptoms that might be associated with creativity, in conjunction see Barron & Harrington, 1981; Feist 1999; and Russ, 1993). It is especially with objective psychometric creativity measures (Eckblad & Chapman, 1986; noteworthy that these six symptoms are remarkably similar to those identified 60 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

by both clinical and eminent samples as occurring during intense creative epi­ Scheftner, W. (1989). Bipolar affective disorder and high achievement: A familial asso­ sodes (Jamison, 1989; Richards & Kinney, 1990). An important distinction, ciation. American Journal of Psychiatry), 146, 983-988. however, is that very few of the students in the Shapiro and Weisberg (1999) Davis, G. A., & Subkoviak, M. J. (1975). Multidimensional analysis of a personality- based test of creative potential. Journal of Educational Measurement, 12, 37-43. study would qualify for a diagnosis of mood disorder. Depue, R.A., Krauss, S., Spoont, M R., & Arbisi, P. (1989). General Behavior Inven­ Shapiro, Weisberg, and Alloy (2000) have since repeated the multiple re­ tory identification of unipolar and bipolar affective conditions in a nonclinical university gression analysis and affective pattern comparisons reported above with a sub­ population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 117-126. stantially larger sample (n = 949). Their results demonstrate that the direction Eastwood, R. M., Whitton, J. L., Kramer, P. M., & Peter, A. M. (1984). Infradian of die relationship between GB1 assessed affectivity and creativity found in the rytlims: A comparison of affective disorders and normal persons. Archives of General earlier Shapiro and Weisberg (1999) study holds in a larger, more representa­ Psychiatry, 42, 295-299. tive sample. There were, however, two important differences. First, although Eckblad, M., & Chapman, L. J (1986). Development and validation of a scale for still highly significant, the proportion of variance in ACL-CPS creativity scores hypomanic personality. Journal of AbnormalPsychology, 95, 214-222. Eysenk, H. J. (1993). Creativity and personality: Suggestions for a theory. Psychologi­ accounted for by GBI symptoms was considerably smaller in this sample (13%), cal Inquiry, 4, 147-178. and second, the pattern of results for individual predictors differed, so that the Eysenk, H. J. (1994). The measurement of creativity. In M. A. Boden (Ed.), Dimen­ GBI hypomanic-plus-biphasic symptoms alone were not a significant predictor sions of creativity (pp. 199-242). London: MIT Press. of ACL-CPS creativity scores. These differences most likely reflect the greater Feist, G. J. (1999a). Influence of personality on artistic and scientific creativity. In R. number of GBI scores above the criterial hypomanic and depressive cutting J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 273-296) Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­ scores (13HB/1 ID) for cyclothymia in this large sample. It may be that affec­ versity Press. tive symptomatology at the level of disorder has very different consequences Goodwin, F. K., & Jamison, K. R. (1990). Manic-depressive illness^ Oxford: Oxford for trait creativity than subsyndromal and normal affective variability. Analy­ University Press. Guilford, J. P., Christensen, P. R, Merrifield, P. R., & Wilson, R. C. (1978). Alternate ses of affective patterns in this large sample produced the same pattern of re­ uses' Manual of instructions and interpretations. Orange, CA: Sheridan Psychological sults as the earlier study (Shapiro & Weisberg, 1999). The ACL-CPS creativ­ Services. ity scores of the hyperthymic pattern group (n = 21) were significantly higher Gough, H. G. (1979). A creative personality scale for the Adjective Check List. Jour­ than those of the cyclothymic (n = 151), dysthymic (n = 126), or euthymic nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1398-1405. pattern group (n = 651). ACL-CPS creativity scores of the dysthymic group Jamison, K. R. (1989). Mood disorders and patterns of creativity in British writers and were significantly lower than those of all other groups. artists Psychiatry, 52, 125-134. Contrary to previous research, which reported higher creativity in cyclothymes Jamison, K, R. (1993,) Touched with fire: Manic-depressive illness and the artistic (Richards et al., 1988), the GBI criterial cyclothymes in each of our samples temperament New York: Free Press Post, F. (1994). Creativity and psychopathology: A study of 291 world-famous men. did not demonstrate increased trait creativity relative to normals. Given that British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 22-34. cyclothymes experience periods of both depressed and hypomanic/biphasic Richards, R. L (1981). Relationships between creativity and psychopathology: An symptoms, it is possible that the suppressive effects of depression symptoms evaluation and interpretation of the evidence. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 103, on creativity neutralize any positive creative advantages associated with low 261-324. level hypomanic/biphasic symptomatology. An alternate explanation is that Richards, R. L. (1994). Creativity and bipolar mood swings: Why the association? In the specific hypomanic/biphasic symptoms experienced by cyclothymes are M. P. Shaw & M. A. Runco (Eds.), Creativity and affect, (pp. 44-72). Norwood, NJ: qualitatively different from those of hyperthymes. Although Akiskal (1992) Ablex. argues for inclusion of hyperthymic temperament as part of the bipolar spec­ Richards, R. L., & Kinney, D. K. (1990). Mood swings and creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 3, 202-217. trum, the notion of unipolar mania and hypomania is controversial (Goodwin Richards, R. L., Kinney, D. K., Lunde, I., Benet, M., & Merzel, A. (1988). Creativity & Jamison, 1990) and hyperthymia is not included among the affective disor­ in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and control subjects. Journal ders in either of the current diagnostic systems (DSM-IV: APA, 1994; RDC: of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 281-288. Spitzer, Endicott, & Robins,, 1989). It may be the case that GBl-assessed Russ, S W. (1993). Affect and creativity: The role of affect and play in the creative cyclothymes reflect a true bipolar diathesis, whereas GBI-assessed hyperthymes process. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. are simply highly energetic, positive, motivated, and creative individuals. Schuidberg, D. (1999). Creativity, bipolarity, and dynamics of style. In S. W. Russ In conclusion, it has frequently been assumed by researchers heretofore that (Ed.), Affect, creative experience, and psychological adjustment, (pp.221-237). Phila­ the positive affect reported by creative individuals in the throes of their work delphia: Brunner/Mazel. Schuidberg, D. (1990). Schizotypal and hypomanic traits, creativity, and psychologi­ has been the result of the influence of the positive pole of bipolar disorder on cal health. Creativity Research Journal, 3, 218-230. creative thinking (Jamison, 1989; Jamison, 1993; Richards, 1994; Richards & Shapiro, P J, & Weisberg, R. W. (1999). Creativity and bipolar diathesis: Common Kinney, 1990). The present analysis, in contrast, points to the possibility that behavioural and cognitive components. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 741-762. positive affect and concomitant increases in task motivation, energy, and cog­ Shapiro, P. J., Weisberg, R. W., & Alloy, L. B. (2000, June). Creativity and bipolarity nitive focus are an outgrowth of the creative individual's immersion in work Affective patterns predict trait creativity. Poster session presented at the annual conven­ that is going well and may be independent of affective psychopathology. tion of the American Psychological Society, Miami Beach, FL. Spitzer, R.A., Endicott, J. & Robins (1989). Research diagnostic criteria-third edi­ tion, updated. Biometrics Research Division, Evaluation Section, New York State Psy­ References chiatric Institute, New York. Akiskal, H. S. (1988). Cyclothymic and related disorders. In A Georgotas & R. Cancro Sternberg. RJ. & Lubart, T.l. (1993) Investing in creativity. Psychological Inquiry, 4, (Eds.), Depression and mama, (pp. 86-95) New York: Elsevier. 229-231. Akiskal, H. S. (1992). Delineating irritable and hyperthymic variants of the cyclothy­ Weisberg, R. W. (1994). Genius and madness?. A Quasi-experimental test of the hy­ mic temperament. Journal of Personality Disorders, 6X 326-342. pothesis that manic-depression increases creativity Psychological Science, 5, 361-367. American Psychiatric Association (1994,1 Diagnostic and statistical manual of men­ Woody, E. & Claridge, G (1977). Psychoticism and thinking. British Journal of So­ tal disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC. Author. cial and Clinical Psychology, 16, 241-248. Andrcasen, N. C. (1987) Creativity and mental illness Prevalence rates in writers and their first degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144^ 1288-1292. Andreasen, N. C, & Canter, A. (1974). The creative writer: Psychiatric symptoms Pamela J. Shapiro and family history. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 15, 123-131 Department of Psychology Andreasen, N. C, & Powers, P. S. (1975). Creativity and psychosis: An examination Temple University of conceptual style. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 70-73 Philadelphia PA 19122 Barron, F., & Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and personality An­ nual Review of Psychology, 32, 439-476. Coryell, W., Endicott, J., Keller, M„ Andreasen, N., Grove, W., Hirschfeld, R., & Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 61

of discourse on mental life, and for over a century scholars and practitioners have added an equally thick lamination of text on issues of psychopathology and creativity. So we stand today with thousands of distinctions, terms, conjec­ The Collaborative Achievement of tures, suppositions and the like to stimulate our dialogues and sharpen our Creativity and Pathology sensitivities. How much more is now required? Have we even begun to exhaust the implications of all that is extant? More important, however, are the socio­ Kenneth J. Gergen political implications of this form of description and explanation. As many Swarthmore College critics observe, psycho/biological accounts of human action support and sus­ tain an individualist ideology. As we come to believe in minds within bodies as Masterpieces...are the outcome of many years of thinking in common, of the source of human action, so do we lend support to narcissism, alienation, llitnking by the body of the people, so that the experience of the mass is behind loneliness, exploitation, and communal neglect within the culture more gener­ I he single voice. ally (cf. Sampson, 1993 ; Bellah, et al. , 1985 ; Slater, 1970). In granting Virginia Woolf, A Room of Her Own scientific credibility to the assumption that creativity is the expression of what is most unique and independent within the individual, we favor these same Let us begin by resuscitating a common consciousness, one so shunted to the tendencies within the culture. To identify the "creative" being is to identify as margins of psychological inquiry as to approximate a collective suppression. well the "less than creative," and subtly to ask each of us to isolate ourselves For in spite of what else we declare about creativity and psychopathology, we from the commonness of others and embark on a lonely and self-centered search nrc also aware that both these concepts are children of history and of culture. of self. Wc know that such concepts have not always been with us, and the manner in It is in this context that my own work (or more precisely, that work which is which they are understood within western culture is historically perishable (cf. problematically credited to "me" as a bounded agent) has been devoted to ex­ Marsella and White, 1978; Gordon, 1990; Fee, 2000; Kutchins and Kirk, 1997). ploring the possibilities of relational understanding of human action (cf. Gergen, The contemporary concept of creativity owes much to 19th century romanti­ 1994; 1997). The principle challenge has been to reconceptualize the attributes cism, in which we could imagine mysterious reservoirs of seathing energy lurk­ traditionally assigned to individual minds as manifestations of relationship, ing within the depths of individual psyches (cf. Gimpel,1991; Grana, 1967; and in so doing lay the groundwork for new practices (e.g. educational, thera­ Gergen, 2000). From these energic reservoirs sprang the creative impulse. This peutic, organizational) within the culture. My particular focus has been on the deep interior of the psyche was linked on the one hand to the world of the emotions, meaning, and our understanding others. Colleagues with similar in­ sacred, from whence the enormous value we now place on creative inspiration vestments have demonstrated ways in which individual reasoning, memory, (in/spiriting). Simultaneously, however, the energies were held to be a constitu­ and attitudes are more properly conceived as components of relational process ent of the profane world of nature, from whence our contemporary belief that (cf. Potter and Wetherell, 1987; Billig, 1987; Pennebaker, Paez, and Rime, wc can chart and predict the character of creativity. Yet, as a constituent of 1997; Middleton and Edwards, 1990). nature, the deep interior also had its darker and more bestial side, the uncon­ How can we account, then, for creativity and psychopathology as relational trollable impulses that stimulated the Freudian imagination. Thus, creativity phenomena? In my view we should not search for a single way. As we limit the and psychopathology were companions of the deep interior, and it is this con­ range of discourse so do we circumscribe the forms of action in which we may ceptual legacy that invites us now to see creativity and psychopathology as engage. Rather, just as in the case of individualist discourse we should propa­ linked. Lurking behind today's inquiries are the images of Baudelaire, VanGogh, gate a multiplicity of relational languages - in much the same way that we now Keats, Scheile, Rops, Coleridge, Nietzsche, and "the mad scientist." have a plurality of individualist discourses. In the case of creativity, there are It is the denial of these cultural and historical underpinnings that enables us significant projects under way. Many creativity researchers - Stein, Simonton, now to treat creativity and psychopathology as palpable realities - "out there" - and Amabile among them - have explored the influence of the social context on independent of we who have deemed them so. It is when we believe we can creativity. Ideally, however, a relational view would press past causal models step out of history and culture and freeze the present posture of our understand- • to incorporate larger confluences, matrixes, or dynamical systems. For ex­ ing, that we can see ourselves as measuring, predicting, and probing universal ample, literary and rhetorical theorists have lead the way in seeing literary cre­ phenomenon- slowly unlocking the secrets of human nature. To be sure, there ativity as embedded within larger semiotic histories (cf. Booth, 1961; LeFevre, tire benefits deriving from this apotheosis of contemporary consciousness - a 1987; Wolff, J., 1981). In psychology Frank Barron's (1995) ecological orien­ sense of professional optimism, purpose, and community among them. Nor do tation represents a major opening to relational conceptualiztion. The synthesiz­ I wish to discount the rich array of concepts, narratives, metaphors, and conjec- ing work of Montuori and Purser (1999) is also enormously useful. Likewise in lurcs that have derived from the naturalizing of creativity and psychopathol­ the case of pathology, we find significant, headway toward relational under­ ogy. The profession has made a substantial contribution to our contemporary standing in Harry Stack Sullivan's work (1953 ), Erving Goffrnan's writing ( distlogues, and has stimulated a rich array of practices - for therapists, educa­ 1961), and the contributions of various postmodern therapists (cf. Anderson, tors, organizational developers, and more. These are no mean accomplishments. 1997). At the same time, we must recognize our current conceptions of creativity and For my own part, I find it useful to consider both creativity and pathology as pfilhology as fundamentally optional. There is nothing about human activity in outcomes of coordinated activities - among human beings, to be sure, but as itself that demands our particular interpretations. The phenomena in themselves well between humans and the world we designate as extra-human. Further, it is do not restrict our options of interpretation; rather, our interpretive choices helpful to distinguish between two forms of coordination. On the one hand we restrict what we take to be the phenomena. Again, this is not to deny the value find a relational fashioning of action. By this I mean that the action of any of our contemporary perspectives. While condemnable in certain respects, our person is not a possession of the person alone, nor is it the outcome of forces conceptions of psychopathology are tied closely to a humane and caring atti­ acting upon the person from elsewhere, but it is a manifestation of the coordi­ tude toward those who seem unable to function within society. And most (but nation among persons and their material surrounds. That we have artists who not all) conceptions of creativity sustain an appreciation for unique accom­ paint, for example, requires a tradition of culturally meaningful action, from plishments, especially those that seem enriching to cultural life. We should be actions constituting our institutions of training to highly precise movements of much the poorer by abandoning these views. the hand and eyes as the brush is guided over the canvas. And of course, these At the same time, there is much to be said for simultaneously facing up to the actions cannot be separated from a range of coordinated artifacts (e.g. paint, problematic character of contemporary conceptions. On the one side are the canvas, previously existing paintings). In addition to the coordination of ac­ diminishing returns to be derived from further elaborations of creativity and tion, there is also the closely linked relational generation of meaning . That psychopathology as uniquely psychological phenomena (with or without bio­ there are institutions of art training, careers in art, genres of art, and the like logical subsrates).Westem culture has been the beneficiary of over 2000 years requires a community of meaning - relations among persons in which the rel- 62 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Artsi evant discourses of the real and the good are given life. The very idea of "a what enviously) of the artist's unusual amount of drive, extraordinary capacity creative work of art" requires a matrix of meaning in which there is recognition for sublimation, and laxity of repression (Holland, 1966). of a tradition, a value placed on deviation (e.g. "progress," an "avant garde"), Such claims, no matter how eminent the claimant, rest on a certain concept! and distinctions made as to what are proper and prized deviations as opposed of the artist and the work. Plato and Freud carried around in their heads a! to improper or banal. To treat the painter as a creative agent is to suppress the three-part model of artistic creativity, the one most of us use. A, the artist, complex array of relationships of which the painterly act is but a single mani­ creates B, the work of art, which then affects C, the audience. Artist A has I festation. Like psychopathology, creativity lies neither within the actor nor the something called "genius" or "creativity" that enables him to put certain prop-1 eye of the beholder, but within an extended relational process. erties "in" B, a work of art—call them, for the time being, "beauty." Then this "beauty" gives C an "aesthetic" experience, whatever that is. The artist's cre­ References ativity A causes the artistic object B, and the artistic object B causes our re­ Anderson, H. (1997). Conversation, language, and possibilities. New York: Basic sponse C. Books. This model is commonsensical, and something vaguely like this must take Baron, F. 1995). No rootless flower: An ecology of creativity. Creskill, NJ: Hampton place. But it rests on what we now recognize as a quite confusing "container" Press. metaphor (Redd)', 1979; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). How can we improve that Bellah, R. et al. (1985). Habits of the heart. Berkeley: University of California Press. simple, ABC picture? I say, by comparing it to the stock market. Bitlig, M. (1987). Arguing and thinking. London: Cambridge University Press. What does the stock market have to do with creativity? (Except for Wall Booth, W. (1961). The rhetoric of fiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fee, D. (Ed.) (2000). Pathology and the postmodern London: Sage. Street's creating ever new ways of losing our money.) For one thing, stock Gergen, K.J. (1994). Realities and relationships. Cambridge: Harvard University Press: pricing may be the only subject on which there is more literature than creativ­ Gergen, KJ. (1997). The place of the psyche in a constructed world. Theory and Psy­ ity. For another, 1 can appeal to the authority of Marcel Proust, hardly your chology, 2, 723-746 average broker. It was Proust, I believe, who first analogized the rise and de­ Gergen, K..J. (2000). The saturated self, 2nd.ed. New York: Basic Books, cline of various composers and novelists and painters to the stock market. On Gimpcl, J. (1991). Against art and artists. Edinburgh- Polygon. the current literary stock market, for example, Wordsworth and Wallace Stevens Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and are up, Tennyson and T. S. Eliot are down. other inmates,. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. We can draw an analogy between literary value and the value of a share of Gordon, R.A. (1990). Anorexia and bulimia, Anatomy of a social epidemic. Cam­ bridge, MA: Blackwell. stock, or, I should say, not "value," but "price." The problem in what is called Grana, 1967> Modernity and its discontents. New York: Harper and Row. pricing theory is, What sets the price of a certain share of stock? It is the same Kutchins , H., & Kirk, S.A. (1997). Making us crazy. New York: Free Press. problem as Proust's with literature: What sets the value of Wordsworth or LeFevre, K.B. (1987). Invention as a social act. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Uni­ Tennyson? versity Press. With stock pricing as with creativity, there is a traditional, commonsensical Marsella, A,. & White, G. (Eds.) (J 978). Cultural conceptions of mental health and A-causes-B-and-B-causes-C point of view. In 1934 Benjamin Graham and therapy Dordrecht: Reidel. # David Dodd published a famous book called Security Analysis, it established Middleton, D., & Edwards, D (1990). Collective remembering. London: Sage. "fundamental analysis." The investor was to examine balance sheets, profit Montuori, A., & Purser, R.E. (1999). Social creativity. Vols. I and II. Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press. and loss statements, sales trends and every piece of information one could get Pennebaker, J.W., Paez, D., & Rime, B. (Eds.) (1997). Collective memory of political about the company behind the stock in order to arrive at the underlying "funda­ events. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. mental" value of the stock (just as a literary critic might examine a poem to Potter, J., & Wetherell, M. (1987) Discourse and social psychology Beyond attitudes determine its true value). Then the investor's strategy becomes elementary. and behaviour. London: Sage Buy stocks "undervalued" relative to their fundamentals and short stocks "over­ Slater, P. (1970). The pursuit of loneliness Boston: Beacon Press. priced" by the market. The market will someday come to its senses and give Sampson, E.E (1993). Celebrating the other. Boulder, CO: Westview. the stock its correct value, and the investor is bound to make money. Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The interpersonal theory ofpsychiatry . New York: Norton. When you listen to E. F. Hutton, E. F. Hutton will be talking from this model. Wolff, J. (1981). The social production of art. New York: St. Martin's Press. Your broker may say that Behemoth Industries is "undervalued," and it's time Kenneth J. Gergen to buy, or that Dumbscheme.com is "overvalued," and it is time to sell. That is Department of Psychology what you will hear from a broker whose profits depend precisely on your buy­ Swarthmore College ing and selling because of this forecasting and advising. 500 Swarthmore Avenue When you turn from the securities industry to the professors of finance (who Swarthmore PA 19081 do not profit from your buyings and sellings), you find an altogether different model of stock market prices. The professors' research relies on computer studies of stock prices over many, many years, even pre-computer years. They try to correlate prices with past stock prices, with market indexes, with com­ Creativity and the Stock Market pany earnings and profits, with inflation, with interest rates, even with baseball averages or the height of women's skirts. With a unanimity quite rare among Norman Holland academics, Nobel prize winners and assistant professors alike come to the same University of Florida conclusion. They can't find any correlations that amount to anything (Cootner, 1967; Brealey, 1983). The editors of this issue of the Bulletin set this topic, an overview of "cre­ From the professors' point of view, wisdom in the stock market begins in ativity and pathology." I 'd like to suggest that that our editors, like most writ­ typically academic fashion, with a Latin quotation. Res tantum valet quantum ers on this much-vexed subject, are looking through the wrong end of the tele­ vendi potest. A thing is worth as much as it can be sold for (Brealey, 1983). scope. The traditional question, What is the relation between madness and Thus, as recent stock market history has shown, one can make a fortune by creativity?, does not pose a valid issue. buying and holding a "dot-com" stock laden with losses that, by any fundamen­ I believe that, even though some of our heaviest hitters have linked psycho- tal measure, should have negative value. Why? Because a stock is worth what pathology and creativity. Plato treated artistic genius as a sort of god-inspired people will pay for it, and so long as someone is willing to pay big bucks for a insanity, and that idea has persisted through the Renaissance and down to us. dot-com stock, it will be worth big bucks. In other words, it is not something Creativity equals some kind of divine madness. Psychoanalysis and its deriva­ "in" the stock that determines its value, it is the response. What determines the tives offer the only heavy competitor to Plato's view: creativity expresses un­ price of a stock or anything else, for that matter, your house or your Picasso, is conscious urges, often conflicted or neurotic urges. Freud (1908) spoke (some­ what somebody else will pay you for it. The properties of the company do not Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 63

(liMtirmine the price, the psychology of the investor does, and the investor's hearing or speaking that marks out that person's special medium in the visual lihilily to make that psychology felt in the efficient market of a stock exchange. arts, music, or literature. Somehow an artist's medium gets tangled up with The clever investor in Dumbscheme.com is trying to guess, not the price a identity at the deepest, earliest level. I agree with all that. Logically, though, yi'iir from now—-no one can do that—and not the earnings a year from now. No these things may be necessary but they are not sufficient to explain the artist's line can do that, either. The clever investor is trying to guess how other inves- successful creation. 11»r.'i will value those earnings a year from now or, still more precisely, how The same admonition applies to predicting creativity. Can we look at people til her investors will guess other investors will value those earnings a year from and predict they will or will not be creative? No. We don't know they are Now or two years from now or five years from now. The problem is to predict creative until they have produced what Albert (1975) calls "genius-level work," Wlmi (he average opinion will be of the average opinion. Indeed it is an infinite (p. 143), that is, work recognized by the rest of us as great. For this reason, (Juries: one tries to predict what the average opinion will be of the average "There are no 'might-have-beens,' no undiscovered geniuses, no potential ge­ opinion of the average opinion of the average opinion (and so on, for as many niuses cruelly snuffed out or mysteriously prohibited" (p. 145). Why? Be­ Iterations as you have patience for). All of these, of course, are quite impos­ cause. I say, there are no more undervalued geniuses than there are underval­ sible tasks, and as a result, no matter how much research you do, you cannot ued stocks. predict whether a given stock will go up in price or not (Granger & Morgenstern, Take the classic case, Emily Dickinson. During her lifetime, the few people i')70;Cragg&Malkiel, 1982). to whom she showed her poems just patted her on the head. When poetic tastes Now what does all this have to do with the arts? Well, notice that the literary changed a half century after her death, she was "discovered" and proclaimed Hiock exchange, for example, is also a perfect market. Once I have read a poem the greatest woman poet in American literature. No one could have predicted by Wordsworth or Tennyson, 1 have all the relevant information. Notice, too, in 1886 that we would call her a great genius, although it was undoubtedly true how similar the question of evaluation is. If I say John Barth is a great novelist, as of 1956 that she was. The "creativity" of Emily Dickinson was not, then, 1 nm really saying something like, People will be reading Barth a hundred or something she "had," but a complex interaction between the poet and her audi­ two hundred years from now, kids will be studying him in school, professors ence. will be writing learned articles about hiin, and so on. This is the same impos­ In short, 1 am trying to get us away from the usual simple picture of sible prediction as trying to say how the investing public will value the earn­ creativity. The artist has something called "creativity" such that the artist can ings ofDumbscheme.com five or ten years from now. put things in an object that make it "great art" (or science) and that object Further, the artistic world has a counterpart to the theoretical tug-of-war causes us, its audience, to have an experience of greatness. Instead, I argue, between the securities industry's fundamental analysis and the finance profes­ "creativity" involves a double creativity, a collaboration between artist and sions1 efficient market theory. When "fundamental" analysis suggests the price audience, not simply something "in"—confined to—the artist. The audience Ik a function of certain properties of the stock itself (the company's balance seeks out and praises the kinds of things that open up the audience's sheet, say), that is like saying aesthetic appreciation is a function of certain creativity. That being in principle indeterminable, we can never identify properties "in" the poem or the picture. But investors' expectations will drive creativity solely in the artist or, for that matter, "greatness" solely in the work up the price of tulip bulbs or dot-com stocks regardless of fundamental proper- of art. We need to look at the whole artistic transaction. I ies. And it must be equally clear that a fad for postmodernism or metaphysical Notice that this stock market analogy applies to many other phenomena. wit or projective poetry will change all our evaluations of previous literature. After all, I'm simply updating for the.dot-com era the old saying that beauty is .T. S. Eliot's (1950) famous epigram, "The past [is] altered by the present as in the eye of the beholder. For example, why is a best seller a best seller? much as the present is directed by the past," applies just as well to the stock Because of something "in" the book? No. Because many readers find that they exchange as to literature. can get satisfaction from that book, and then enough people buy the book to On the literary stock market, Wordsworth is up and Tennyson is down. Why? make it a best-seller. So with advertising. We recognize an ad as "creative" if Not because of any intrinsic properties. What they wrote has not changed since the advertiser places it in a test market and sales of the product go up. As for II whs published. Rather, we no longer value tight rhymes very highly, and we movie stars, we say that Gwyneth Paltrow "has something," "sex appeal" or might well prefer Wordsworth's rather eccentric blank verse to Tennyson's "box office" or "star quality." But again, isn't it a matter of what psychological Kinder form. We no longer value philosophical rumination or dramatic mono­ needs we can satisfy with a Gwyneth Paltrow? In politics, we speak of some­ logue, Tennyson's favorite forms. We do value a study of childhood like thing called charisma. To understand a politician's charisman, though, we need Wordsworth's Prelude. Critics have a hard time with T. S. Eliot's conserva- to ask the citizenry rather than look into the biography of the leader. I Nm. We tend to value more Wallace Stevens' playing with philosophical para­ Importantly, in the therapeutic setting, meaning is not "in" the symptom, doxes and his deconstructing the questions of perception and knowledge. Hence dream, verbal slip, or association. Rather we say something about those things, Sicvcns and Wordsworth go up on the stock exchange and Tennyson and Eliot and then an act of interpretation and evaluation by patient or therapist com­ go down, not as a result of anything they wrote but because of the way readers pletes the transaction. We or our therapist endow our words about a symptom, n n< I critics value what they wrote. dream, slip, or association with meaning by our subsequent actions. What does this say abut literary creativity? We regard Shakespeare as cre- The reason we find ourselves going from the stock market to literary creativ­ m i vc and a genius, but not Edgar Guest. Evidently, when you think about it, we ity to political charisma to the role of free associations in therapy is not that I only award the term "creative" at the beginning of the artistic transaction if we am scatterbrained, although that is a possibility. Not only the word "creativity" I4iiinl the appreciation at the end. To talk about creativity, Tennyson's creativ­ but a whole lot of other words—attraction, appeal, symbolism, structure, mean­ ity or Shakespeare's, then, is like talking about prices on the stock market. ing, even stimulus—we could go on and on—a whole lot of the words we use As for psychopathology, the poet can be as nutty as Kleist or as sobersided as both in ordinary discourse and in trying to think through problems like creativ­ Wallace Stevens, but if, to use Dr. Johnson's wise phrase, the poetry "pleases ity, rest on that simple ABC, stimulus-response model of the human. They many and pleases long," we will say the poet was "creative." In a nutshell, base response on a certain property contained "in" the stimulus. In more recent psychopathology does not correlate with with creativity, one way or the other. psychology, though, we have recognized that any given response involves the I hat does not mean that we cannot identify characteristics of artists and other interaction of top down and bottom up, inside out and outside in. creative people. I agree wholeheartedly with Ellen Winner (1982), for ex­ Ultimately, then, I am asking which of two fundamental models of the hu­ ample, when she notes that it is characteristic of creative people that they are man being we find more telling. Are human beings passive creatures deter­ driven. They can't stop writing or painting or composing. If something should mined by various bottom-up stimuli ranging from advertisements and political happen to make them stop, an illness, say, or military service, they find a way, manipulators to the poems of Milton and Shakespeare? Or are human beings or else they just about go crazy. I believe, too, and Howard Gardner (1993) active creatures who use bottom-up stimuli like poems, advertisements, politi­ reports research along these lines, that a creative genius in the arts establishes cal figures, and dreams, to form and to satisfy their own psychological needs? airly in childhood a special relationship with the particular kind of seeing or 64 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

. contrast, Picasso produced around 80,000 paintings. If dealers could convince References clients that Picasso was a great painter, they could make fortunes selling his Albert, R. S. (1975) Toward a behavioral definition of genius. American Psycholo­ paintings, which were often thrown together in a matter of minutes or hours. gist, 30, 140-151. To convince customers that Picasso and other modern painters were consum­ Beardsley, M. (1958). Aesthetics. New York. Harcourt Brace. Brealcy, R. A. (1983). An introduction to risk and return from common stocks (2d Ed.). mate masters, it was necessary also to convince them that there was something Cambridge MA: MIT Press. wrong with the beautiful and well crafted paintings of the academic painters. Cootner, R H. (Ed.). (1967). The random character ofstoc k market prices (Rev. Ed.). Frankly, do we really want the works of Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, and Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Willem DeKooning to be representatives of the best of what mankind can pro­ Cragg, J. G., & Malkiel, B. (1982). Expectations and the structure of share prices. duce? They are hoaxes, plain and simple. To be a great artist, one needs cre­ Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ativity, special talents, and above all, years of hard work. As noted in several of Eliot, T. S. (1950). Tradition and the individual talent [1919], In Selected essays (New the articles in this issue, some psychologists believe there may be a genetic Edition) (pp. 3-11), New York: Harcourt Brace. relationship among creativity, criminality, and psychopathy. Eysenck argues Freud, S. (1908). Creative writers and day dreaming. In The standard edition of the complete psychological works (Vol. 9, pp. 142-153) that moderate amounts of, what he calls psychoticism predisposes one to cre­ Gardner, H. (1982). Art, mind, and brain- A cognitive approach to creativity. New ativity. Too much psychoticism predisposes one to criminality, psychopathy, York: Basic Books. and psychosis. At best, one could say that some Modern art is at least "interest­ Gardner, H. (1988). Creative lives and creative works: A synthetic scientific approach. ing." It is not beyond the pale, however, to suggest that much (if not most) of it In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.J, The nature of creativity: Contemporary psychological perspec­ was produced by conmen and "artists" who had conned themselves into think­ tives (pp. 298-321). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ing that they were producing great art. Gardner, H. (1993). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the lives of You can't fool all of the people all of the time, and fortunately, creative Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New York: Basic Books. Goodman, N. (1976). Languages of art (2d Ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett. artistic minds tend to think for themselves. In increasing numbers, hundreds of Granger, C. W. J., & Morgenstem, O. (1970). Predictability of stock market prices. young artists are seeking training in realistic art from the handful of "ateliers" Lexington MA: D. C. Heath. that have modeled their programs of training after those of prior centuries. Holland, N. N. (1966). Psychoanalysis and Shakespeare. New York: McGraw-Hill. Such training is all too absent in most university art departments. A list of such Holland, N. N. (1975). 5 readers reading. New Haven: Yale University Press. ateliers can be found by contacting the American Society of Classical Realism Holland, N. N. (1986). The miller's wife and the professors: Questions about the in Minneapolis. Modernism went right over the edge, hitting its inevitable transactive theory of reading. New Literary History, 17, 423-447. dead-end with blank canvases, piles of rocks on the floor, and Pop-artist Andy Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago and London: Uni­ Warholl exhibiting a Brillo box or Campbell's soup can as a work of art. In his versity of Chicago Press. article in this issue, Norm Holland uses the metaphor of the stock market to Malkiel, B. (2000). A random walk down Wall Street (7th Ed.). New York: Norton. describe creative reputations. In the art world, it is not really a metaphor. Proust, M. (1981). Cities of the plain. In Remembrance of things past (C. K. Scott Moncrieff & T. Kilmartin, Trans.). New York: Random House. Unfortunately, we cannot sell short works by Picasso, Pollock or De Kooning. Reddy. M. (1979). The conduit metaphor. In A Ortony (Ed). Metaphor and thought If we could, it is about time to short the modernists, as their prices will most (pp. 284-324). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. certainly be dropping precipitously as was predicted in Forbes Magazine's, June Winner, E. (1982). Invented worlds: The psychology of the arts Cambridge MA: 12,2000 article by Gregory Hedberg of Hirschl and Adler Gallery in New York Harvard University Press. (page 106). The prices of most fine academic paintings are still grossly under­ valued, but have come roaring back from the ridiculous lows of the middle of Norman N. Holland the twentieth century. Paintings by the top names like Bouguereau, Gerome, Department of English Rossetti, and Waterhouse, that were selling for a few thousand dollars 20 or 30 University of Florida years ago (a few hundred dollars 40 to 50 years ago) are now selling for a "few" P.O. Box 117310 million dollars each. But there are still many major names from the period Gainesville FL 32611 whose works can be purchased for $ 10,000 to $ 100,000, like Jean George Vibert, Ernst Louis Meissonnier, and Jules Joseph Lefebvre. The person in the street never could afford original paintings and always hated modern art. Go to any store selling reproductions. The Picassos and Pollocks are gone. They have Death by Character Assassination: been replaced by beautiful reproductions of works by academic artists. The Or How Modernist Lies Discredited Academic Art a modernist scam is almost over, but many in the art world are still falling for it, and there are billions that stand to be lost when the bottom inevitably drops out. Fred Ross During most of the 20th Century, the type of propaganda that has been hurled at academic artists is so insidious that people trained in the arts have been For over 90 years, there has been a concerted and relentless effort to dispar­ literally taught to discredit, out-of-hand, any work containing well-crafted fig­ age, denigrate, and obliterate the reputations, names, and brilliance of the aca­ ures or elements, or any other evidence of technical mastery. All the beauty demic artists of the late 19th Century. This included successfully removing and subtlety of emotions, interplay of composition, design and theme, the in­ from our institutions of higher learning, all the methods, techniques and knowl­ terlacing of color, tone and mood, are never seen. The viewer has been taught edge, of how to train skilled artists. Five centuries of critical data was nearly that academic painting on a prima facie basis is bad by definition, bad by virtue thrown into the trash. It is incredible how close Modernist theory, backed by an of its resorting to the use of human figures, themes or stories and objects from enormous network of powerful and influential art dealers, came to acquiring the real world complete control over thousands of museums, university art departments, and Prestige suggestion causes such people to assume automatically that a work journalistic art criticism. We have fully and fairly analyzed their theories (or, must be great if it is by any of the "big names" of modern art, so they at once better, excuses) and have found them wanting in every respect, void of sub­ start looking for reasons why it must be praised. Any failing to find greatness stance and built on a labyrinth of easily disproved fallacies, suppositions and is not considered a failing in the art but in the intelligence and sensibilities of hypotheses. the viewer. Students operating under that kind of intimidating pressure, you A variety offerees brought about the triumph of Modernism. One was sim­ can be sure, will find greatness no matter at what they are looking. The re verso ply greed on the part of art dealers. Bouguereau worked long hours (70 to 80 of this has been trained into them when they view academic paintings. They hours per week) across the course of his career but was only able to produce have been taught that works exhibiting realistic rendering are "bad art" and about 800 paintings. This was still a prodigious output by old master stan­ therefore any good that is seen is not due to qualities inherent in the artist ft; dards. Because of his internal drive for perfection, he could do no more. By accomplishment, but are rather due to a lack of intelligence and taste in tin- Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 65 viewer. The same intimidating pressure works in reverse to ensure that a work ture, religion and ambitions were fertile subject matter for the taking. An open hy Bouguereau, Lord Leighton, Frederick Hart, or Jules Lefebvre will not be book to be drawn composed and painted with a tradition of training and a Hecn as anything other than bad by definition, network of institutions in place to find, nurture and bring to fruition the great­ l-'ew students in a school with this kmd of dictatorial brain-washing will ever est artistic talents of their day. i isk exploring or even listening to opposing views, for fear of being stigma­ tized from that point on with some undesirable label (e.g., "stupid," "taste­ Fred Ross may be contacted via less," or "reactionary") universally despised—a very effective deterrent to Sarah Jordan at APA independent thought. Thus the visual experience of well-drawn representa- lional elements is perceived as a negative, adhominem, that proves with knee- jerk autornaticity the presumed "badness" of the art and its creator. Fred Ross is the Chairman of the Art Renewal Center and Executive Adminis­ Il is especially ironic that these are the same people who trumpet the virtues trator of the Committee to Write the Catalog Raisonnee of William Bouguereau. mid inalienable right to freedom of expression, while they surreptitiously He has recently spoken at Sotheby's, the Dahesh Museum, and the University nnd steadfastly conspire to remove that freedom from those with whom they of Memphis. He has written on 19th century art for over 20 years, and has been disagree. Equally ironic is the charge that academic painting is "uninspired," published in Forbes Magazine, the American Arts Quarterly, the Classical w proclamation issued by critics who are unable to see beyond the technical Realism Journal, the Victorian Society in America Newsletter, the Chronicle of vii'iuosity for which they condemn it, to see what is being said. This rich visual Higher Education, andArtnet.com. He and his wife Sherry also own a renowned language is wasted on eyes that will not see. It would be no different than collection of 19lh Century European paintings. dismissing out-of-hand, a piece of music as soon as it was determined that n»ics, chords and keys were used, or dismissing any work of literature upon noticing words arranged in grammatically correct sentences. That is not to say that all academic art is great, or above criticism. Cer­ Psychopathology and Creativity in a Normal Sample of tainly, it is not. It would be no less fallacious to issue blanket praise to an Advantaged Women entire category than to condemn it. Academic painting ranges from brilliantly conceived and deeply inspired, to flat and silly, depending on the subject and Ravenna Helson Ihc artist. That being said, I find even the worst of it more meaningful than art University of California, Berkeley bused on the ridiculous notion that it is somehow important to prove the can- vns is flat, and/or that one needs no skill or technique to be an artist—views In considering the relation between creativity and psychopathology in the generally embraced by those who condemn the entire category of academic Mills Longitudinal Study, which began as a study of creativity in women (Helson, ml. Their point seems to be to elevate to legitimacy that which has removed all 1999), I have found it helpful to distinguish creative potential and creative HUindards and prior defining characteristics of art. In other words, by defining achievement. Creative potential refers to traits such as originality, symbolic non-art as art, the logical conclusion is that art is non-art. interests, openness to complexity, and unconventionality as they are assessed I f you are a musical artist in this century and you are moved by something in on inventory measures of creativity. Creative achievement refers to successful your life, you can write a moving song about it. If you are horrified by AIDS, realization of potential in products or performances that receive public recog­ Hppalled by racism, scandalized by government corruption, encouraged by nition for their creative contribution. We have found that the openness and examples of human kindness, exhilarated by beautiful scenery or enthralled unconventionality of creative potential are often associated with psychopatho- with the subtleties of human relationships, you can find beautiful ways of logical tendencies, and that creative achievement often provides the cure. In expressing it providing you have mastery over your medium, and a poet's the Mills Study the participants are a representative sample of women who houI. If indeed you are a poet or a writer, you can find countless means within graduated from Mills College in 1958 or 1960. They have been studied at ages lhe conventions of language to express your thoughts and feelings, and even 21, 27, 43, 52, and 61, with 99-112 women (original N = 140) participating at each follow-up. All had sufficient resources to graduate from this private endeavor to affect actively those people who will read or hear your work. You women's college and most are well-functioning today. An impressive number run use your art to change peoples' minds and even change the world. of the women who had high scores on creative potential at age 21 (indicated by But if you are a Modern or Post-modem artist, every possible method of a composite of inventory measures) were working productively in creative fields expressing these feelings and ideas has been removed. Story telling, drawing, at age 52, as assessed by the Occupational Creativity Scale (Helson, Roberts, Illusion, perspective, modeling, and harmonious blending of these with color, & Agronick, 1995). The sample includes writers, artists, choreographers, jour­ |i>nc and design are all forbidden to you. Nothing at all from the real world or nalists, academics, and psychotherapists. even your dreams is permitted. At the end of this issue of the Bulletin of Psy­ chology and the Arts, there are some reproductions of paintings by psychotic Whether or not women with creative potential at age 21 had become creative nil ists. In being untrained, they are no different than many supposedly "great" achievers by age 52, they did increase over these years on measures of toler­ modern artists. However, many of them paint these immature and unskilled ance of ambiguity, intellectuality, and other aspects of what we have termed works from their heart, probably encouraged in their infantile approach by the intrapsychic maturity (Helson & Pals, 2000). However, women who became success of Modernism. It would be a sad state of affairs, indeed, if it were true creative achievers increased not only in intrapsychic maturity but also on indi­ ilml one had to be emotionally ill before he or she could paint to communicate ces of psychosocial maturity, such as tolerance and capacity for long-range, emotion and feeling. self-chosen goals. A particularly important aspect of psychosocial develop­ In the late 20lh Century it is increasingly being recognized that the greatest ment is the formation of identity. Helson and Pals (2000) showed that forma­ iirl ists were not establishment old-order supporters, but are more appropri­ tion of a cohesive identity was conducive to the actualization of creative poten­ ately thought of as liberal activists, both for the advancement of our culture tial, that is, to becoming a creative achiever. Interestingly, young women with ihkI the righting of societies wrongs. William Bougereau, for example, the creative potential who did not become creative achievers had more trouble in I'resident of L'Ecole des Beaux Arts and married to an American, Elizabeth identity-formation than women low in creative potential. The explanation, we .l.inc Gardener, single-handedly spearheaded the opening of the great French believe, is that creative potential involves an openness to wayward or destruc­ nendemies to women. These artists spoke to our hearts and feelings. They tive thoughts and impulses that works against the integration of personality. One woman with creative potential in the sample committed suicide in early expressed: the good and the bad—the beauty of life and the horrors of war— middle age. Several others had poor control of their considerable anxiety, hos­ ihc rapture of love and the fear of abandonment—the joys of family life and tility, or narcissism, leading to interpersonal conflicts, unwise life decisions, ihe plight of the homeless—the exaltation of nature and the debasement of and cumulative disadvantage. An almost universal form of psychopathology societies outcasts—the heady heavenly heights, and the steamy fires of hell. among these women, if "psychopathology" is the appropriate term, was inef- All of humanity's fear, feelings, accomplishments, problems, history, litera­

• iM*>!» U'?s»»*^.."!! i~.;i\;',,, *'' ity- < 'fjrMTWiaMa^rsxurj

66 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and tlie Artsl fectiveness and achievement below their potential. Writing is a form of therapy; sometimes I wonder how all those who do not: Women who became creative achievers put their work at the center of their write, compose or paint can manage to escape the madness, the melancho­ lives. Though they were already more ambitious than other women as college lia, the panic fear which is inherent in the human situation. seniors, our data indicate that identity-formation or consolidation continued to Graham Greene, 1980, p. 9 fj take place at least through early middle age. Identity based on work integrated When I started to paint, I felt transported into a kind of paradise...In every­ their personalities and gave them direction in difficult life situations. They were day life, I was usually bored and vexed by the things that people were jj not free from painful life problems, and at age 43 they scored higher than other always telling me I must do. Starting to paint, I felt gloriously free, quiet, women on negative emotionality. But they also scored high on ego resilience, and alone. and their sense of creative purpose enabled them to channel their depression or Henri Matisse, rage in the content or conduct of their creative work. For a number of creative quote by Gopnik, 1992, p. 113 achievers, the formation or consolidation of creative resolve was the key factor in the transformation of threatening life situations in the years after college. There is considerable evidence that professional writers, artists, musicians These findings no doubt depend in part on the fact that participants in the and actors exhibit higher levels of psychological distress, including depression study attended college in the 1950s, when women faced many obstacles in their and anxiety, than are observed in the general population or within other de­ attempts to develop an identity as a creative person, and when many women manding professions (e.g., Ludwig, 1995). As the quotes cited above suggest, did not undertake careers. Our study shows how important it is for women with there is also intriguing anecdotal evidence that some highly creative profes­ creative potential to have work ambitions and the opportunity to engage in sionals in these fields use creative activity to reduce their psychological dis­ creative work. However, I believe that our main findings apply to men as well tress. If people who are especially prone to psychological problems discover as to women and to cohorts younger and older than that of the Mills women. the therapeutic properties of artistic activities by the time they are adolescents For example, in a sample of male and female students and professionals in the or young adults, they may become especially attracted to and eventually enter visual arts, Dudek, Bemeche, Berube, and Rogers (1991) found personality the artistic professions in which those activities can be pursued, thereby con­ characteristics associated with creative commitment that were similar to those tributing to (though certainly not fully accounting for) the over-representation in the Mills sample. Our description of the use of negative emotionality by of psychologically distressed people within those professions. ; creative achievers receives support from the experiments of Sheldon (1995) In order to shed some empirical light on these speculations, I have turned to with male and female graduate students in several fields. Our findings also call data emerging from an ongoing study of creatively active adolescents involved to mind some of Barron's ideas about the paradox of order and disorder in the in various artistic fields to see whether artistically-talented young people have creative personality (1963b) and his description of the creative individual as discovered the therapeutic benefits of artistic activity by adolescence and whether both sicker and saner than the average person (1963a)._Even among creative adolescent artists who view themselves as depressed or anxious are especially • achievers, the tendencies to disorder may outweigh the ability of the individual attuned to those benefits. to give order and meaning to them*} at least over certain periods of life, or in certain fields and periods of history (Martindale, 1975). Nevertheless, the per­ Method sonality of the creative achiever seems to have an important alchemical func­ The data presented here were provided by 848 high school students in five tion of transforming potential psychopathology into gold. cohorts who voluntarily completed psychological questionnaires in the weeks just prior to attending a selective residential arts school during the summers of References 1995-1999. Students were selected for admission to the school by means of a Barron, F. (1963a). Creativity andpsychological health. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. portfolio-based, state-wide talent search and immersed themselves in the study Barron, F. (1963b). The needs for order and disorder as motives in creative activity. In of animation (n = 73), creative writing (n = 136), dance (n = 80), film and C.W. Taylor & F. Barron (Eds.), Scientific creativity. New York: Wiley. video-making (n = 41), music (n = 133), theater (n = 160) or the visual arts (n Dudek, S.Z., Berneche, R., Berube, H.. & Roger, S. (1991). Personality determinants = 225) during one of the school's month-long summer programs. The research of the commitment to the profession of art. Creativity Research Journal, 4, 367-389. participants were approximately 60% and 57% European-American. Most were Helson, R. (1999). A longitudinal study of creative personality in women. Creativity about to enter 11th or 12* grade. Students completed a modified version of the Research Journal, 12, 89-101. Adjective Check List (Gough, 1952) which included the adjectives "anxious" Helson, R., & Pais, J.L. (2000). Creative potential, creative achievement, and personal growth. Journal of Personality, 68, 1-27. and "depressed." In a separate questionnaire students also indicated the degree Helson, R., Roberts, B.W., & Agronick, G.S (1995). Enduringness and change in cre­ to which each of more than 80 motives was relevant to their own artistic and ative personality and the prediction of occupational creativity. Journal of Personality creative activities by using a 4-point rating scale ranging from "not relevant" to and Social Psychology, 69, 1173-1183. "extremely important: one of the special, fundamental, and most important rea­ Martindale, C. (1975). Romantic progression. The psychology of literary history Wash­ sons I do my art". (These motivation items had been developed from previous ington, D.C.: Hemisphere students' free responses to open-ended questions about their own creative and Sheldon, K.M (1995). Creativity and goal conflict. Creativity Research Journal, 8, artistic motivations.) The motivational questionnaire included items describ­ 299-306 ing several forms of self-therapy including avoidance of depression, working through problems, escaping daily hassles, calming and soothing oneself, pre­ Ravenna Helson serving one's sanity, feeling secure, remaining focused, and having an emo­ Institute of Personality and Social Research tional outlet. Eight of these self-therapeutic items and information about how University of California frequently they were identified as "extremely important" and by whom. 4143 Tolman Hall #5050 Berkeley CA 94720 Results Frequency of Self-Reported Anxiety and Depression. Approximately 48% of the creatively active adolescents in this sample de­ The Conscious Use of Creative Activities to scribed themselves as anxious and about 22% described themselves as depressed. Combat Anxiety and Depression in Adolescence These percentages varied substantially across artistic fields with respect to self- described depression (g < .001), but not with respect to anxiety (p > .50). David M. Harrington From a developmental perspective, it is interesting to note that the adoles­ University of California, Santa Cruz cent writers in this sample described themselves as depressed more frequently than any of the olher six artistic groups. Indeed, the writers were significantly Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 67

more apt to describe themselves as depressed than all non-writers combined pleasures of self-exploration, enhanced self-esteem, self-expression, develop­ 07% vs. 19%. p < .001). This pattern is suggestively similar to that reported ment of self-identify, preparation for future careers, and the altruistic and gift- l\y Ludwig (1995, pp. 137-138) who found higher lifetime rates of depression giving satisfactions so often involved in creativity. Though many creatively mining eminent creative writers than among any of the other groups he studied. active adolescents appear to be artistically motivated in part by the prospect of self-therapeutic benefits, it is important to realize that other powerful motiva­ Identification of Self-Therapeutic Motives as "Extremely Important" to tional factors are also at play in energizing and sustaining their creative en­ Artistic Activity!. deavors. Between 12% and 29% of these adolescents described the eight self-thera- |U:niic motives as "extremely important" to their own artistic activities. As A cbwwledgements expected, students who described themselves as anxious or depressed were I wish to thank Rob Jaffe, Director of the California State Summer School for more apt to identify self-therapeutic benefits of creative activities as extremely the Arts (CSSSA) as well as the CSSSA staff and teachers for facilitating this important than were their less anxious or depressed peers. The differences research. I also thank the hundreds of CSSSA students who gave graciously of were quite dramatic in some cases. Adolescents who described themselves as their time and without whom this research would not have been possible. J "depressed", for example, cited the avoidance of depression motive more than thank Paul Sanders, Tina Chin, Anndee Rickey, Kathryn Player and many un­ iwicc as often as their peers and were almost twice as apt to cite the self-therapy dergraduate assistants who helped create, collect and process these data. This nnd preservation of sanity motive as extremely important to their own artistic research was funded by a series of small grants from the Academic Senate's nativities. Committee on Research and by the Dean of the Social Sciences at the Univer­ sity of California, Santa Cruz. Importance of Self-Therapeutic Motives to Adolescents Who Did or Did Not Describe themselves as "Depressed" or "Ajixious" References The evidence suggests that many creatively-inclined people have discovered Gopnik, A. (1992). The unnatural The New Yorker, October 12, 1992, Pp. 106-113. pome of the self-therapeutic benefits of artistic activities by adolescence and Gough, H. G. (1952). The Adjective Check List. Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo I Ik adolescent artists who describe themselves as depressed or anxious are Alto, CA. Greene, G. (1980) Ways of escape. London: Bodley Head. more frequently availing themselves of those benefits than young artists who Ludwig, A. M. (1995). The price of greatness: Resolving the creativity and madness lire not reporting such levels of distress. controversy. New York. The Guilford Press.

Discussion, Cautions, and Speculations David M. Harrington Though these preliminary findings certainly need to be replicated and ex­ Department of Psychology plored in other samples (indeed, it would be very interesting to extend this University of California hlndy to younger and older people and to creatively active people in fields other Santa Cruz CA 95064 (linn the arts) and other methods, a few cautions and tentative speculations regarding their possible implications seem appropriate. It is possible that the self-therapeutic benefits of certain artistic activities lend to attract,anxious or depressed young people to them and to the profession Creativity, Emotional Problems, and the which they are typically pursued. Such processes could contribute to (but cer- Psychotherapy Process in Children ininly not fully explain) the over-representation of psychological distress and psychopathology observed in several artistic professions (e.g., Ludwig, 1995). Sandra W. Russ The data presented here do not address the important issue of whether these Case Western Reserve University lirtistic activities actually provide therapeutic benefits or whether they simply ftirikc these adolescents as doing so. The question of whether artistic activities Much of my current thinking and research on affect and creativity in chil­ do in fact provide therapeutic benefits to those who engage in them is certainly dren has been strongly influenced by my experiences as a child psychothera­ worth investigating for both humanitarian and theoretical reasons. In addition, pist. One of my first jobs (30 years ago) was as a psychologist in a child I he data presented here do not speak at all to the matter of motives which may guidance center where I saw many children in psychotherapy. What I noticed function beyond the reach of conscious awareness. Unfortunately, such mo­ with many of the children was that as they worked on their problems through tives also lie beyond the reach of the methods used in this research. talking, playing, and drawing, their thinking became more creative. They would I n focusing upon the use of artistic activities for the alleviation of psycho­ come up with original ideas, funny jokes, creative images, and interesting sci­ logical distress, it is possible to leave readers with the mistaken impression that ence projects. The population I was working with was primarily anxious and/ most adolescents who engage in such activities are psychologically distressed or depressed children - what we would label the internalizing disorders today. (they are not) or that they engage in these activities exclusively, primarily or I also worked with a significant number of borderline disorder children. These most commonly for self-therapeutic reasons (they do not). children showed thinking that was already very fluid, often original, but not The reader should be reminded that only 22% of these adolescents described well integrated or oriented to reality. And they had raw primitive emotions and themselves as depressed and only 48% described themselves as anxious. The emotional imagery. 1 observed that, when therapy helped these children, they majority of these students are not presenting themselves as particularly dis­ would also become more creative. But the process of therapy was totally dif­ tressed. ferent than for the anxious and depressed children and the mechanisms under­ Let the reader also be aware that more extensive analyses of these students' lying the increase in creativity were probably very different. The research in motivational responses (to be reported elsewhere) reveal that they identify a the field today speaks to the differences between these populations and to the number of other motives as extremely important to their artistic activity as different mechanisms and processes underlying creativity. frequently or more frequently than they cite the therapeutic motives focused upon here. These other frequently cited and powerful motives include many Internalizing Disorders, Creativity Research, and Therapy which might be characterized as "pleasures of the imagination" such as enjoy­ Why would therapy improve creativity in children who are anxious or de­ ing using one's imagination, making images, creating characters, producing pressed? Basically, we assume normal cognitive and emotional development music, solving problems, playing, experimenting, and experiencing surprises in these children (Tuma & Russ, 1993). In general, they have normal problem during their creative processes. They also include the pleasurable experience solving and critical thinking abilities. Developmentally, these children have of freedom and autonomy, the excitement of artistic challenge and risk, the internal fears and conflicts or have experienced an external traumatic event 68 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

(death of a parent; witnessed a violent accident) that overwhelmed them. Many Russ (Ed.), Affect, Creative experience and psychological adjustment, (pp. 3-17) Phila^ forms of therapy help the child express feelings, think about the fears or events, delphia: Brunner/Mazel. and, in various ways, master and integrate the feelings. What are they doing in Kris, E. (1952). Psychoanalytic explorations in art. New York: International Univer sities Press. therapy that might facilitate creativity? They are broadening their access to Leichtman, M. & Shapiro, S. (1980). An introduction to the psychological assessment emotional memories and images. This increase in emotional associations should of borderline conditions in children: Borderline children and the test process. In J. Kwawer, broaden the search process for associations important in divergent thinking H. Lerner, P. Lerner, & Y A. Sugarman (Eds.), Borderline phenomena and the Ror­ and transformation abilities. This explanation is consistent with Bower's (1981) schach Test. New York: International Universities Press, pp 343-366. associative network theory and Getz and Lubart's (1999) emotional resonance Russ, S. (1988). The role of primary process thinking in child development. In H theory (1999). Using a different theoretical framework, it is consistent with Lerner, & P. Lerner (Eds.), Primitive mental states and the Rorschach, (pp. 601-618). psychoanalytic conceptualizations that less repression and increased access to Madison, CT: International Universities Press primary process thinking should increase creativity (Holt, 1977; Kris, 1952). Russ, S. (in press). Primary process thinking and creativity. Affect and cognition. Creativity Research Journal. There is a growing body of research supporting these ideas. For example, in Russ, S.W., & Grossman-McKee, A. (1990). Affective expression in children's fan several different populations of children, we have found relationships between tasy play, primary process thinking on the Rorschach, and divergent thinking. Journal o} the amount and variety of affect in pretend play and divergent thinking. Chil­ Personality Assessment, 54, 756-771. dren who have more affect themes in their play and a greater variety of affect Russ, S , Robins, D., & Christiano, B. (1999). Pretend play: Longitudinal predictiori themes have higher divergent thinking scores, independent of IQ (Russ & of creativity and affect in fantasy in children. Creativity Research Journal, 12, 129-139 Grossman-McKee, 1990; Russ, Robins, & Christiano, 1999). In a very recent Russ, S. & Schafer, E. (2000). Affect in play, divergent thinking, and emotional memo-; study (Russ & Schafer, 2000), the variety of affect in play related to the amount ries. Manuscript in preparation. of emotion in children's memories and to originality of divergent thinking. An Tuma, J. &vRuss, S. (1993). Psychoanalytic psychotherapy with children. In T.; important next step is to demonstrate that repeated play sessions will increase Kratochwill & R Morris (Eds.). Handbook of psychotherapy with children and adoles­ cents (pp. 131 -161). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. creative thinking and emotional expression on a variety of tasks. Another pos­ Urst, J. (1980). The continuum between primary and secondary thinking. Toward a sible explanation for increases in creativity following therapy would be an in­ concept of borderline thought. In J. Kwawer, H Lerner, P. Lerner, & A. Sugarman (Eds.), crease in positive affect and joy in daily life. We know from Isen's (1999) work Borderline phenomena and the Rorschach Test. New York: International Universities that positive affect increases creative thinking. Press, pp. 133-154. i

Borderline Disorders, Therapy, and Creativity Sandra W. Russ Children with borderline disorders, and bipolar children as well, are flooded Department of Psychology with primitive images and emotions that are not well integrated. Why would Case Western Reserve University therapy improve creativity in these children? These children already have ac­ Cleveland OH 44106 cess to primary process thinking and emotional associations. Their thinking is often fluid. However, they have difficulty organizing their thoughts and cognitively integrating their emotions. Psychotherapy helps the child to de­ velop a repressive barrier and organize their thinking. Creativity, Psychoanalysis, and Psychodiagnostics: Past, Present Borderline children have many psychotic-like features. They experience and Future primary process ideation in raw, unmodulated forms (Leichtman & Shapiro, 1980). Oral and aggressive material is frequently intense, unintegrated and Tom Ettinger overwhelming to the child. The accompanying affect is anxiety or terror. These New York University children also have many strengths. As they progress in therapy, they are better able to control and integrate primary process ideation. Often, the therapist uses Research on psychoanalytic hypotheses emerged in force in the 1950's when a mix of cognitive techniques (differentiating inside from outside) and psycho- Kris's (1952) theory of "regression in the service of the ego" held sway. Holt's dynamic or attachment theory techniques of fostering better object relations (c. 1956-1970) PriPro Manual (Manual for the Scoring of Primary Process and internal representations of others. Theorists have pointed out the relation­ Manifestations in the Rorschach) is the predominant psychodiagnostic instru­ ship between the development of primary process thought and the develop­ ment to emerge from this era. Primary process responsivity includes motiva­ ment of object relations and the interpersonal world (Urist, 1980). As these tional, affective, and cognitive dimensions: libidinal and aggressive content developmental processes work together in therapy, primary process becomes organized according to the formal mechanisms of condensation, displacement better integrated, and in my clinical experience, these children can become and symbolization. Secondary process responsivity is captured by various Con­ quite creative. They have harnessed their primary process. (Russ, 1988; in trol and Defense scores. The Adaptive Regression Index (ARJ) combines mea­ press) sures of the need for defense against primary process material and the effec­ In conclusion, child psychotherapy focuses on cognitive and emotional pro­ tiveness with which it is controlled. In dozens of published studies, Holt and cesses that reduce symptoms and help children feel better. Although the pur­ his colleagues have compared creative / noncreative groups as well as high / pose of psychotherapy is not to increase creativity, many of these same pro­ low creative individuals who share the same arts career (including painting, cesses are also involved in the creative process. There needs to be more com­ jazz music, literature, and architecture). Creativity is defined via career achieve­ munication between creativity researchers and scholars and psychotherapy re­ ment, as recognized by the gatekeepers of the particular arts profession. Con­ searchers and scholars. Advances in one area could foster advances in the vergent validity has been established through the nonpsychodynamic creativity other. tests of Guilford,'Torrance, and others. Overall, PriPro results demonstrate that High Creatives manifest more extreme (vitalized and explicit) primary References process ideation coupled with robust, adaptive secondary process controls (se­ Bower, G.H. (1981). Mood and memory American Psychologist, 36, 129-148 curely defended High Creatives exhibit less need for control). Visual artists Getz, I., & Lubart, T. (1999). The emotional resonance model of creativity. Theoreti­ most consistently fit this profile (perhaps because the Rorschach inkblots are cal and practical extensions. In S. Russ (Ed), Affect, creative experience and psycho­ visual stimuli). Thus, Kris's (1952) hypothesis is largely substantiated by PriPro logical adjustment (pp. 41-56). Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel. research, both past (Pine and Holt, 1960) and present (Russ, 1999). Holt, R.R (1977) A method for assessing primary process manifestations and their control in Rorschach responses. In M. Rickers-Ovsiankina (Ed.), Rorschach psychol­ Importantly, concordant findings-yet to be integrated with PriPro research- ogy (pp. 375-420). New York: Kreiger Publisher. have emerged from Martindale's ((1990) Regressive Imagery Dictionary (RID). Isen, A. (1999). On the relationship between affect and creative problem solving. In S. The RID is a computerized word count program that automatically sorts typed 70 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

form. Gantt (1996), for example, describes a seminal experiment where highly Ettinger, T. (1999). Introduction: Paradigm shifts in twentieth-century art and critical trained therapists were asked to sort 1000 drawings into six categories (major theory. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 22, 485-530, NY: International depression, schizophrenia, mania, organic mental disorder, mental retardation, Universities Press. and non-patient). For all categories, there were more correct classifications Gantt, L. (1996). Art-based diagnosis: Fact or fantasy? American Journal of Art Therapy, 35, 9-31. than mistakes; when content was held constant, and form alone was adjudi­ Gardner, H. (1982). Artistry following damage to the human brain. In A Ellis (Ed.,), cated, significance levels increased substantially. This research has culminated Normality and pathology in cognitive functions, pp. 299-323. New York; Academic Press. in Gantt's Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale (FEATS), comprised of 13 items Kaufman, B., & Wohl, A. (1992). Casualties of childhood. A developmental perspec­ (energy, integration, line quality, detail, color, and so on). The FEATS reliably tive on sexual abuse using projective drawings. New York: Brunner / Mazel. discriminates patients from non-patients (p < .005 for each item). As Gantt Kluft, E. S. (Ed.) (1992/ Expressive and functional therapies in the treatment of mul­ (1996) writes, "I would be the first to declare that the subject matter selected by tiple personality disorder. Springfield, IL: Thomas Books. the artist is of great importance, especially in actual therapy. However, we Naumberg, M. (1973). Introduction to art therapy. NY: Teachers College Press. need to investigate more fully how form communicates to us, since form gener­ McNiff, S. A. (1998). Art-based research. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Paivio, A. (1978). A dual coding approach to perception and cognition. In H.L. Pick & ally seems to be outside one's conscious control" (p. 20). E Salzman (Eds.), Modes of perceiving and processing information. Hillsdale, NJ: Art therapy makes a second major contribution in its elucidation of the pro­ Erlbaum. cess of symbolization, awareness, integration, and growth. In the context of Singer, J., Ed., (1990). Repression and dissociation. Chicago: University of Chicago therapy, artistry is a process of discovery wherein unarticulated experience, Press. often stored in visual or bodily codes, is gradually unearthed and given tangible form. Once the flux of chaotic inner experience is safely externalized in art, it Tom Ettinger can be examined, using language. Through the magic of shared words, the Department of Psychology dark inner world can be tamed, controlled, relabeled, restructured, and reinte­ New York University grated, all of which facilitates healing and emotional growth. This is especially 6 Washington Place clear in art therapy with troubled children, whose visual expressions are rela­ New York NY 10003 tively uncontaminated by aesthetic ideals, and whose capacity for verbal report is relatively undeveloped (Kaufman & Wohl, 1992). Equally compelling is the art of adults severely abused as children, whose conflicts stem from repressed or dissociated trauma (Kluft, 1993). There has been much empirical research, Creativity and Psychopathology: A Case Study external to the profession of art therapy, that implicitly supports its underlying theories. Two interrelated research domains are especially relevant (Ettinger, Mary Herzog 1999): New York, New York (1) The dual code theory of .cognitive psychology holds that words and images are encoded, stored, and retrieved via distinct information processing Noy (1970) argues that neurotics and creative artists share the same basic routines; they enmesh through semantic mapping and linking mechanisms psychopathology but that ".the solution found by creative artists is the exact (Paivio, 1978). Unconscious material may be retained in visual/bodily memory dynamic opposite of the neurotic solution. There is a redundancy and repeti­ codes, severed from linguistic representation. As Bucci (1985) has written, tion and freezing in a neurosis with a tendency to resist change whereas cre­ "linkage to language is necessary for structural change in the nonverbal sche­ ativity is characterized by never-ending attempting to originate new and daring mata to occur. This may be understood in terms of both the communicative patterns of interaction" (p. 253). The following case study illustrates the ca­ functions of language and its role in regulating behavior and organizing thought" pacity of an artistic individual to move increasingly from neurotic toward cre­ (p. 592). This information processing model is securely embedded within cog­ ative solutions. nitive neuroscience. The right brain predominantly controls the somatosensory Jane wears bright red lipstick and some small, brightly colored accessory to system, facial / gestural / postural information, the broader nonverbal affect each of our sessions. The warm colors are intentional, an expression of herself lexicon, and nonverbal memory codes; the left brain is specialized for language as a vibrant and creative woman which stands in stark contrast to the depressed and analytic reasoning. As Gardner (1982) writes, "The brain seems better and muted character of her family of origin. Jane came to New York several conceived of as a set of complex, multifaceted computational devices: included years ago to launch her career as a singer/composer after experiencing a con­ are specific mechanisms for dealing with linguistic, graphical, musical and siderable degree of recognition in her own country. She soon felt an acute other forms of symbolic information ranging from the numerical to the inter­ sense of dislocation and isolation and had difficulty jump-starting her profes­ personal. Each of these domains involves its own neurological substrates" (p. sional life at the same level of success she had previously enjoyed. She was most interested in promoting and performing her first CD of original songs, 319). Clearly, the wide array of findings from neuroscience (brain imaging which are an unusual blend of hauntingly sung and spoken poem/lyrics with techniques, EEG's, neurosurgery) and cognitive psychology (information pro­ folk/jazz melodies that recount her lifelong journey through challenging psy­ cessing models) converge: Visual and bodily memories involve substrates and chic terrain. Referred to me by a local arts organization, she sought treatment codes distinct from linguistic representation; these domains may be dissociated to obtain support for this endeavor. or linked. (2) The controversy surrounding the recovery of repressed memories has Jane is the only child of a woman who, at age five, discovered her own ' spurred a similarly rich-if more fervent-literature that bears directly on creativ­ mother dead from cancer. Jane's mother was unable to mourn her mother's ity in the art therapy setting.A "Recovery" denotes visual/bodily memories, death, and instead remained identified with her, living her own life in a state of perhaps manifest in disorganized flashbacks or cryptic symptoms, that gradu­ emotionally monotonous hypochondriacal preoccupation. Jane's liveliness threatened her mother, who could not adequately mirror Jane's vitality and ally become accessible to verbal description. Recovery per se is now a scien­ enthusiasm. Jane's father's ability to enjoy her temperament was only slightly tifically affirmed phenomenon (Singer, 1990); the current quandary concerns greater than her mother's. When Jane's parents attend one of her concerts, they criteria for assessing the relative accuracy of any given conscious recollection do not congratulate her of verbalize any reaction to her performance. (Brown, Scheflin, and Hammond, 1998; n.b. chapter 17: Distinguishing be­ tween true and false memories). By her midteens, Jane was involved in singing and acting. At age 15, she was diagnosed with a cancer that was surgically removed. Feeling that she had References to be stoic for her parents' sake, she repressed her terror of the operation and of Brown, D., Scheflin, A., & Hammond, D C. (1998). Memory, trauma treatment, and the possibility of death. Her mother had always been more nurturing to her the law. NY: Norton during episodes of childhood illness, and had encouraged her not to get too Bucci, W. (1985). Dual coding: A cognitive model for psychoanalytic research. Jour­ excited, to rest, and to lie down, as if physical exertion was somehow danger- nal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 33:571-607. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 71 oiis. Jane came to believe that her cancer was a punishment for her efforts to out a small taperecorder and plays his dance "music" for me. It consists of a separate from her mother through her budding creativity, sexuality, and aggres­ series of staccato spiels by Stephan, selling various self-improvement regimes sion. in lunatic, mostly female, voices. Pretty soon I can't stop laughing either. He Despite a recurrence of cancer at age 25, Jane survived and continued to joins me When the excitement recedes a bit, I inform him for the umpteenth develop as an actress, singer and songwriter, yet rarely earned enough money time that in my capacity as an expert on mental health, he is not crazy, that from her work to live comfortably, relying instead on grants and occasional creative process experiences are different from going crazy, and that it is a financial assistance from her parents. At age 30, she became a client in a mark of mental health, not mental illness, to experience pleasure and joy. It is lluirapeutic community, which offered her treatment in a style similar to the not hypomanic to laugh 1 remind him that at our meeting the previous week, encounter groups of the 1960s and 1970s, in which catharsis was the primary before he began making his dance, he had felt he was going crazy because he goal of treatment. She married a psychotherapist member of this community, felt so bored, sad, empty, and tense. I point out that the bored-sad:empty-tense whom she described as reliable but depressed and emotionally withholding. At state has heralded the start of his dancemaking process in the past, and that it (i[;c 40, following a miscarriage, months of severe insomnia, and the demise of also seems to be not mental illness, but a part of his creative process. Stephan her marriage, she was hospitalized with major depression. Notably, she be- feels reassured. He leaves the session in a state of high excitement, anticipat­ cnine unable to function at the same age as her grandmother had been at the ing his next rehearsal. lime of her death. She came to believe that she had needed to collapse in order Stephan is an immigrant. He grew up in a totalitarian country. He is still lo find the psychic space in which to explore hitherto unacknowledged and haunted by the memory of a government jingle that was constantly played on unexpressed aspects of herself. television when he was a preschooler, the gist of which was "Don't run away! following her hospitalization, she worked closely with a warm and skillful Everything is great here!" By age 5, he had memorized the name of every psychiatrist, who tolerated her regressed state without medicating her and who capitol city of every country in the free world, along with all the major air umctioned as a father figure who could handle her negative feelings, respond routes out of his country. At age 14 he taught himself English. At 22, having nppropriately to her sexuality, and encourage her creativity. Through their work exhausted the professional possibilities available to him in his native country, together, she was able to begin to mourn, if not entirely repair, her mother's he obtained a student visa and came to New York. He survived by working "off I'niiure to provide a secure physical and emotional basis for her experience of the books" as a restaurant dishwasher, and found housing in an abandoned Uftnlinuity of being. Due to this work and the support of two friends from a building without electricity and running water. But soon he attracted powerful writers' group, she was able to complete her CD. Several of the songs on it mentors, who supported his application for immigrant status under the INS refer to her search for wholeness and inspiration via communion with an in­ regulations for extraordinarily gifted artists. Last September, he received his spiring male ego ideal. green card. Offers of work with distinguished producers and theater institu­ Jane expressed doubts about working with me in any depth. She feared she tions have poured in ever since. He has been able to move to an apartment with would experience herself as needy and demanding, and that I would not be working utilities in a safe neighborhood, and to purchase his first air condi­ Strong enough to survive her negative feelings, However, it was crucial to her tioner and CD player. He no longer has to work at anything but performance creative development that she rework her relationship with her unavailable and choreography. niolher through the here-and-now experience of transference. She often expe­ Stephan was identified as gifted at age 4, by a family friend who was a cel­ rienced me as unengaged and passive, feared I might be incompetent, and had ebrated writer. She saw to it that he received early training in both dance and difficulty sensing my presence, sometimes asking for the reassurance of physi­ visual art. Stephan was also first identified as "crazy" around the same time. cal contact with me. Her ability to repeatedly express anger at and disappoint­ He describes himself as a hyperactive, extremely willful child, who nursed an ment in me allowed her to incorporate me as an ideal figure. She wrote a song obsession with airplanes and flying. His parents started sending him to a psy­ nhoul her dream of me encouraging her to dive into water from a high place. A choanalyst, and Stephan remained in psychoanalysis for the next 18 years, until medical scare over an enlarged gland precipitated memories of her original he immigrated to the United States. ameer diagnosis, but this time she was able to express in therapy the feelings of Stephan's parents divorced when he was 8. His father, an alcoholic entrepre­ nbftndonment, self-hatred, and fear of annihilation that she had buried as an neur with a penchant for gambling, alternately beat him and ignored him. His Adolescent cancer patient. mother, a dancer herself, is according to Stephan an emotional woman who If creativity is to reach full potential in an individual, the mature ego ideal, suffers from mood swings. Her social functioning, however, has always been iik fuel for artistic creation, needs to be based on integrated identification with good, and she has never been diagnosed as suffering from a major mental ill­ positive paternal and maternal images that represent the active and passive ness. I would have to interview her myself to diagnose or rule an affective iiHpccts of creativity. Jane's newest songs reflect such a successful integration. disorder; as a practicing theraspist I would never rely on the description of an amateur biographer to do so. References Possible parental problems notwithstanding,' Stephan has always found Noy, P. (1970). Form creation in art: An ego-psychological approach to creativity. humself in the role of the sole identified patient in his family. I think his early l\\\hoanalytic Quarterly, 48, 250-253. hyperactivity may have been in part a response to his father's physical vio­ lence. Miiry Herzog Stephan has undertaken therapy with me in New York because, in addition to I 06 Prospect Park West his conviction that he is "crazy" and needs to be monitored by a mental health Brooklyn NY 31215 professional on an ongoing basis, he often feels lonely, isolated and different from everybody else. Although he has numerous close friends and a romantic relationship, he is not the world's most gregarious person. He often feels angered by casual acquaintances he thinks are "phoney," and detests going to The Flying Immigrant: A Reflection on Creativity and Self-Stigmatiza- parties and bars. He keenly enjoys various solitary activities like reading, paint­ tion ing, and swimming. When I interpret his mild social avoidance as related to his experience of his father's intrusive violence, and remind him of the pleasure he Sarah Benolken often finds in solo pursuits, he seems relieved. To be alone does not mean to be New York, New York schizoid. I think my repeated challenges to Stephan's definition of himself as "crazy" "Sarah, I'm afraid I'm going crazy. I'm having too much fun! I can't stop are helping him to feel less, alone, isolated and different, and to feel more laughing during my rehearsals!" Stephan, a thirty year old dancer/choreogra­ entitled to express his own point of view, both professionally and in personal pher whose work is critically acclaimed in Europe and New York, then pulls relationships. Stephan doesn't enjoy the feeling that he is "crazy." When he 72 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

calls himself "crazy" he invalidates his own experience in a self-hating way. As one of my supervisors used to enjoy pointing out, Stephan might be "keep­ The Use of Primary Process in Healing ing his family around," or, in other words, maintaining early attachment bonds, For a therapy client to solve or resolve a problem, there must be a change in by calling himself crazy. Expert opinion and popular myth linking creativity the way the client sees the problem or there must be an insight about a new way and mental illness provide reinforcement for the relational paradox here: Stephan to handle the problem. This would involve a creative process. By the time that may only be able to feel "part of the family" if he accepts the role of misfit, the'non-psychotic client seeks treatment, he or she has usually exhausted most, oddball, stranger. But Stephan's dilemma is not an abstract theoretical prob­ if not all, rational means of handling the problem. This type of client usually lem. It is his life. needs assistance in either accessing or understanding the primary process state Stephan is in no sense "crazy" in any real-world, functional sense. In fact, he in order to facilitate a new way of conceptualizing or solving the problem. is quite healthy and mature according to the criteria by which most practicing Both Freud (1965/1900) and Jung (1969c/1936) used dreamwork as a primary psychotherapists assess mental health. He carries on durable friendships and a method to gain access to the unconscious, primary process content. For many romantic sexual relationship. He has no inhibitions regarding work. He doesn't years, therapists commonly employed dreamwork or related methods of treat­ suffer from insomnia or any behavioral compulsions., He keeps his clothes ment. More recently, Moreno developed psychodrama, a therapeutic method clean and pays his rent on time. He feels emotions acutely, but his feelings that involves having the client and others physically perform improvisational neither overwhelm him nor disorganize his life. His persistence and self-disci­ dramas that reflect the client's conflicts (Fox, 1987; Moreno, 1985; Williams, pline in building a meaningful life under difficult circumstances are admirable 1989). During enactment of the psychodrama it is common for participants to and even inspiring. become less logical, very emotional, and experience a mild state of dissocia­ Stephan doesn't suffer from what Bollas (1981) has termed "normotic ill­ tion—in other words, to access a primary process state. Often participants ness" (p. 135). Bollas uses "normotic illness" to describe the characterological report that both the experience of participating in the psychodramatic action emptiness, affectlessness and vacuity that affect so many people who, because and the cognitive work that is done after the drama result in achieving a shift in they lack a sense of self, never feel lonely, isolated, and different. Alas, normosis the perception of the problem. Psychodrama training emphasizes the need for is not a DSM classification. It is unlikely to become a variable in creativity cognitive processing after the enactment; for every hour of action, three hours research. People like Stephan don't fit in to the harsh schemata of conventional of cognitive processing is considered essential to allow proper and safe inte­ psychiatric diagnosis. When we realize this, our response can be either to keep gration (G. Taylor, training seminar on "Psychodramatic methods for dissocia­ trying to fit them in, cutting off an arm or leg, perhaps, in the process, or to try tive disorders and PTSD," 10/2-10/3/93). to come up with an entirely new model of mental and behavioral functioning. The popularity of the relatively new treatment of EMDR (Eye Movement That would finally make creativity research creative. Desensitization and Reprocessing) among therapists may be due to the fact that its effect on the brain may bridge the gap between primary process and second­ References ary process thought. The eye movements of EMDR are similar to the move­ Bollas, C. (1981) The shadow of the object. New York: Basic Books. ments of the eyes during REM, or dreaming sleep, which is a primary process state. EMDR trainers maintain that EMDR is not the same as hypnotherapy Sarah Benolken (Shapiro & Forrest, 1998). EMDR has been found to increase communication 24 East 12th Street, Suite 503 of the areas of the brain traditionally related to primary and secondary process New York NY 10003 thought. Studies of the PET scans of clients undergoing EMDR have shown that there is more glucose transfer between the right hemisphere (historically associated with emotion or primary process states) and the left hemisphere Enhancing Creativity in Therapists: What can be learned from (historically associated with logic or secondary process thought) of the brain the Shaman? than occurred in comparison therapies (van der Kolk, 1994). Therapists and researchers report finding that EMDR is an effective method of enhancing the Anne E. Martindale therapy process (Lipke, 1994; Shapiro, 1995; Wilson et al., 1995; 1997; van Schenectady, New York Etten & Taylor, 1998)

Creativity and Primary Process Thinking Shamanism and Alternative Healing Methods A relationship between creativity and regression (primary process thought) In non-industrial cultures, healing for problems (both psychological and physi­ has been established for many years. Martindale (1981) defines primary pro­ cal) was the domain of a shaman or tribal healer. Harner (1990) believes that cess thought as synthetic, irrational and unrelated to reality, whereas secondary the low level of technology in cultures where shamanism flourishes has forced process thought is analytic, rational, and reality-oriented. Primary process is the people living there to develop to the highest possible degree mental means the state that is characteristic of dreams, reveries, and altered states of con­ of coping with problems. Individuals selected to fill the role of shaman often sciousness. Wallas (1926) described four stages in the creative process: prepa­ were selected because they were different in some way, or were subjected to ration, incubation, illumination, and elaboration. The stage of illumination is ordeals that would make them different (Harner, 1990; Neumann, 1973/1949; the stage during which the individual becomes aware of a new combination of Singer, 1994). Being a shaman requires that the individual participate in inten­ elements previously studied during the preparation stage and often set aside tional regression to the primary process state, or what Harner (1990) refers to (the incubation stage). The more a person is able to combine disparate ele­ as "non-ordinary reality" or the "shamanic state of consciousness." For in­ stance the "vision quest" often involves the individual spending days in isola­ ments or ideas, the more likely the person is to experience a creative response tion with little or no food or rest. These methods result in episodes of sensory (Mednick, 1962; Mendelsohn, 1976). This means that a person who can ac­ deprivation, which is one of the easiest ways to induce primary process states cess the primary process or synthetic level of consciousness has the potential to (Schultz, 1965; Solomon et al, 1961; Zubek, 1969). Other shamanic tech­ come up with more creative ideas. Early theorists discussed similar ideas. niques include the use of psychedelic substances (e.g., peyote mushrooms) or Jung (1969b/1958, 1969c/1936) discussed the unconscious as the source of the use of drumming or rattling to encourage regression into a dreamlike state creativity. He found that "gifted creative people have permeability between the (Arrien, 1993; Harner, 1990). The drumming and rattling methods used by the conscious and unconscious" (Jung, 1969b/1958, p. 70). Kris (1952) concurred, shamanic healers are not random; they are performed at very specific rhythms using somewhat different terminology, when he said that the creative person is and speeds that maximize regression into a primary process state. Jilek (1974) characterized by the ability to shift back and forth between primary process and demonstrated with EEGs that these rhythms induce theta waves, a deeper level secondary process states. Secondary process, or logical thought is used to than the alpha stale that is "most productive in the production of trance states." elaborate or refine the idea that originated as the result of a novel combination Theta occurs across many mammalian species during REM, or dreaming sleep of ideas, which is likely to occur in a synthetic or primary process state. Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 73

(Winson, 1985). onstrate some degree of empathy, the student has a good chance of succeeding In some shamanistic techniques, such as "guardian spirit retrieval" (in which in the program. (he shaman attempts to restore a lost "power animal" to the person), the sha- A student's survival in any graduate program can also mean demonstrating iii.m and the person needing healing go into a primary process state simulta­ alignment with'the basic clinical orientation of the faculty. Many programs are neously. In others, particularly those involving the use of psychedelic drugs, now solely or primarily cognitive-behavioral in approach. For certain prob­ only the shaman enters a primary process state to help determine the appropri- lems, cognitive behavioral methods are extremely effective; therefore, good nic remedy. This remedy is specific to the individual and is based on the shaman's training in these methods is essential, but these methods entail secondary pro­ inierpretation of the information gleaned in his/her own primary process state. cess, problem-solving, rational approaches. Students in these programs usu­ In cither case, the person receiving treatment is the recipient of the shaman's ally receive little if any training in depth psychology methods, or encourage­ 'wn creative process. Each individual is given a personalized treatment, tai­ ment to explore these methods. This results in the production of many psy­ lored to the individual personality and the problem as interpreted by the sha- chologists who feel comfortable with only secondary process, cognitive-be­ uvin. Harner (1990) is very clear that the shaman is able to master the realms havioral methods of Iherapy. nl'both ordinary (secondary process) and non-ordinary (primary process) real- i i y The shaman is able to move between the states deliberately and with inten- What we can learn from the shaman lion, which is considered a sign of the shaman's power. This definition paral­ Healing involves creativity. It involves seeing problems in new ways. It lels what Jung (1969b/1958) and Kris (1952) said about the creative person. involves touching the irrationality of the primary process state, as well as pro­ In our own culture, alternative methods based on ancient methods of healing cessing what is gleaned there with secondary process thought, We, as psy­ hie growing in popularity. The Foundation for Shamanic Studies offers inten­ chologists, and mental health professionals, can choose to provide a balance sive workshops all over the United States that teach people how to use shamanic between these two, or we can remain lopsided and focus primarily on the use of techniques. Additionally, there is increasing demand for workshops on Reiki secondary process methods. The clients are telling us that they are going to get imd Therapeutic Touch. Reiki is a 2.500-year-old Tibetan method of accelerat­ in touch with the irrational side, with us or without us. If we are not able to ing the healing of physical or psychological imbalances by channeling energy. assist with this, they will seek an alternative healer who will. The wise thera­ The healer uses laying on of hands during a meditative state. The recipient is pist will be willing and able to help the client access primary process as suits olso in a relaxed or meditative state, Reiki treatment has been shown to change the case. It matters not to the client whether his needs are rational enough to hemoglobin and hematocrit levels in recipients (Wetzel, 1989). Therapeutic suit the therapist or whether the methods that he finds helpful can be proven Touch is another alternative method that involves the healer manipulating the beyond a reasonable doubt. If the client obtains meaning and assistance from iiiicrgy field (aura) of the recipient to clear away energy blockages (Rreiger, the treatment, there is benefit. I''79; McCrae, 1987; Meehan, 1992). Therapeutic Touch is becoming ac- If therapists are to heal instead of be'eoming merely "goal setting assistants" eeplcd in the nursing profession. It is non-invasive and patients report im­ or "life coaches," we must learn from the shaman. If the current academic proved well being after treatments. There are experimental studies that sup­ system is training psychologists to deal with only secular, rational, secondaiy port the effectiveness of Therapeutic Touch. In one study, individuals were process content and methods, and does not provide any training to help train­ given a puncture wound in the arm. All subjects had to put their arm through a ees maneuver in the realm of primary process, non-ordinary reality, it is not hnrrier that prevented them from knowing whether or not they received any surprising to find psychologists who are reluctant or unable to deal adequately Intervention. The wounds healed significantly faster in the Therapeutic Touch with the irrational and who reject and discount the methods that focus on the condition (Wirth, 1992). Another study showed a decreased request for anal­ irrational. * gesics after surgery for those who received real (versus mimicked) Therapeutic If we are going to provide what people require of healers, we must be al­ Touch treatments (Meehan, 1993). There are a growing number of drumming lowed to use our own primary process and that of our clients in an effective circles and native American healing circles, some of which meet regularly. manner. Like the shaman, we need to be willing to create special treatments or These trends demonstrate that people are seeking out treatment that is not based combine treatments creatively for each individual. We must attain to be like on logic or problem-solving approaches. shamanistic practitioners as described by Scott (1991, p. vii), willing to use In many cases, people also seek out the primary process state in ways that are "whatever tools and techniques that seem to work." This takes creativity on not therapeutic. Substance addiction often begins as a desire to experience an the part of the therapist. It means that we must have and use techniques on islicrcd state of consciousness. There seems to be a human need to experience ourselves and on our clients, empirically proven or not, that enhance the ability ihc primary process state; if healthy means are not available, many people will to achieve the primary process state. We must also be able to help clients to resort to unhealthy means. If a recovering addict can take on a healthy, grdwth- integrate what was discovered there. Because our training has emphasized iwhnncing method of regression, it can prevent the desire to resort to substance secondary process, we may have an advantage over many alternative healers in use and can assist in relapse prevention. The newly recovered addict benefits helping the client to integrate the experience. But our ability to help clients do ILi'cntly from problem-based treatment like Alcoholics Anonymous because in the cognitive, integrative work (elaboration) is dependent on their having ac­ ilk- initial stages of treatment, the person has recently spent too much time in cessed the primary process state (regression). An effective therapist would be 11 ic primary process state. This requires compensation by the application of able to assist with regression, guiding it to keep it "in the service of the ego. It secondary process treatment methods to achieve balance. At later stages of will be interesting to see if the profession continues to over-emphasize empiri­ 11cniment, those who maintain recovery often begin to seek more than what AA cism for the sake of empiricism or if it can begin to regain some balance by tins to offer and respond well to depth methods like dreamwork. acknowledging the importance of the irrational.

Modem Training Models in Psychology References Modern graduate training in psychology (and the other mental health profes­ Arrien, A. (1993). The fourfold way: Walking the paths of the warrior, teacher, sions) is generally a secondary process endeavor. Most graduate training pro- healer, and visionary. San Francisco: Harper-Collins. Hi urns accept students based primarily on grades, GRE scores, and signs of Freud, S. (1965). The interpretation of dreams. (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York: hi it ward achievement. Students must do well in academic courses. Those who Avon Books. (Original work published 1900) Fox, J. (Ed.). (1987). The essential Moreno: Writings on psychodrama, group method, pioduce quantitative research are rewarded. Since quantitative methods are and spontaneity by J. L. Moreno, M.D. New York: Springer Publishing Company. \ cry secondary process in nature, this does not assess the student's comfort in Harner, M (1990). The way of the shaman. San Francisco: Harper. tlealing with primary process material (his/her own or the client's. The expec- Jilek, W. G. (1974). Salish Indian mental health and culture change- Psychohygenic iniion that students undergo therapy or training analysis is a thing of the past. and therapeutic aspects of the guardian spirit ceremonial. Montreal: Holt, Rinehart and in general, as long as the student is able to conform to the outward persona of Winston. ihe rational and logical psychologist, is succeeding academically, and can dem­ Jung, C. G. (1969a). On the nature of the psyche (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read, M. 74 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Fordham, & G. Adler (Eds.), The collected works ofC J. Jung (vol. 8, pp. 159-236). New York: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1954) Jung, C.G. (1969b). The transcendent function (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read, M. Fordham, & G. Adler (Eds.), The collected works ofC. J. Jung (vol. 8, pp. 67-91) New Searching For the Meanings of Art York: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1958) Jung, C.G. (1969c). Yoga and the west (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read, M. Fordham, Pavel Machotka & G. Adler (Eds.), The collected works ofC. J. Jung (vol. 11, pp. 529-537) New York: University of California, Santa Cruz Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1936) Kneger, D. (1979). The therapeutic touch: How to use your hands to help or to heal. These notes form an attempt to look at the shape that my work has taken— Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. the queries that it has tried to answer and the methodological threads that tie Kris, E. (1952). Psychoanalytic explorations in art New York: International Univer­ sities Press. it together. At the outset of one's career, it is impossible to foresee that shape, Lipke, H. (1994. August). Survey of practitioners trained in eye movement desensitiza- and even difficult to be aware of the steps one is taking toward attaining it; tion and reprocessing. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association annual one can see vague outlines perhaps, but they become fully clear only in retro­ convention, Los Angeles, CA. spect. Martindaie, C. (1981). Cognition and consciousness. Homewood, IL: The Dorsey I was aware at the close of my second year of graduate study that I would Press. try to bring together two realms of experience that were important to me, the McCrae, J. (1987). Therapeutic touch: A practical guide. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. psychological and the artistic. And as vague as that was, it already had a Mednick, S. A. (1963). The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review, 69, 220-232. history: in my adolescence I had become curious about the relation of the Meehan, T. C. (1992). Therapeutic touch. InG. M Bulechek (Ed.), Nursing Interven­ individual to society and, at the same time, puzzled by the strength and depth tions: Essential Nursing Treatments. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company. of my aesthetic response to art. So in graduate school, studying personality Meehan, T. C. (1993). Therapeutic touch and post-operative pain' A rogenan research and social psychology and looking ahead to doing my dissertation, I asked study. Nursing Science Quarterly, 6, 69-78. myself if I could use my training to understand the aesthetic process, and 1 Mendelsohn, G. A. (1976). Associative and attentional processes in creative perfor­ asked my mentor, Gordon Allport, if that was a reasonable thing to do. He mance. Journal of Personality, 44, 175-203. said, "yes," and, without knowing it, conferred legitimacy on my research Moreno, J. L. (1985). Psychodrama. Ambler, PA: Beacon House, Inc. Neumann, E. (1970). The origins and history of consciousness (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). interests. I am grateful to him and to the liberal atmosphere of the Social Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1949) Relations Department at Harvard for this tacit permission—not so easily given Schultz, D. P. (1965). Sensory restriction: Effects on behavior. New York: Academic in present graduate schools—to find myself. Press. Scott. G. G. (1991). Shamanism and personal mastery. New York: Paragon House Development, culture, and aesthetic evaluation Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, What resulted was a developmental, cross-cultural dissertation on children's protocols, and procedures New York: The Guilford Press. aesthetic criteria, ultimately published both in France and in the U.S. Shapiro, F. (1998). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Acceler­ ated information processing and affect driven constructions. Crisis Intervention, 4, 145- (Machotka, 1963, 1966). The findings—that there were stages in the aes­ 157. thetic response that paralleled the Piagetian stages of development, and that Shapiro, F., & Forrest, M. (1997/ EMDR: The breakthrough therapy for overcoming culture contributed certain emphases but did not alter the stages—confirmed anxiety, stress, and trauma. New York: Basic Books. for me that I could do this kind of work and have it contribute to understand­ Singer, J. C. (1994.) Boundaries of the soul The practice ofJung' s psychology. New ing art. I was not to continue in this line, however, until later. York: Doubleday. Solomon, P., Kubzansky, P. E., Leiderman, P. H., Mendelson, J H., Trumbull, R, & Role of fantasy in nonverbal communication Wexler, D. (Eds,). (1961). Sensory deprivation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Right after doing that study I joined John Spiegel, a former teacher and now van Etten, M. L., & Taylor, S. (1998). Comparative efficacy of treatments for post senior colleague, for what might have been a detour but became, instead, part traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 5, of my development. He had developed a scheme for understanding nonverbal 126-144. communication and wondered if it could be tested empirically. We first had van der Kolk, B. (1994). The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolving psycho- people look at body movements represented in Renaissance paintings (a rich biology of post-traumatic stress. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 1,253-265. source of figures!) and asked them to give us their interpretations (a good Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. 'Wetzel, W (1989) Reiki healing: A physiologic perspective. Journal of Holistic source of hypotheses); we then had pen-and-ink drawings done which varied Nursing, 7, 47-54. our illustrated the variables we were interested in, and had new subjects make Williams, A. (1989). The passionate technique: Strategic psychodrama with individu­ precise ratings them. Because all of this came together rather well, we pub­ als, families, and groups. New York: Tavistock/Routledge. lished the studies as a book (Machotka, 1974). It was early for its time, I think, Wilson, S. A., Becker, L. A, & Tinker, R. H. (1995). Eye movement desensitization being one of the first empirical studies of nonverbal communication motivated and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for psychologically traumatized individuals. Journal by a consistent theoretical scheme. of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 928-937. Wilson, S. A., Becker, L. A., & Tinker, R. H (1997). Fifteen-month follow-up of eye Our idea, and the supporting findings, was that the meaning of nonverbal movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for PTSD and psychologi­ movements resides in the kind of real orfanlasied approach they allow to the cal trauma. Journal of Consulting and. Clinical Psychology, 65, 1047-1056. human body. The ratings gave us good statistical confirmation, and the narra­ Winson, J. (1985) Brain and psyche: The biology of the unconscious. New York: tives told us how easily people engage with the figures in fantasy. Apart from Doubleday/Anchor Press the satisfaction of doing the work, I came to appreciate the role of fantasy, and Wirth, D. (1992). Effect of non-contact therapeutic touch on the healing rate of full- began to glimpse the conflicts that fantasy was meant to master. In that respect thickness dermal wounds. Cooperative Connection. Newsletter of the Nurse Healers, 13, the study turned out to be a direct contribution to my development: the mas­ 3-7. tery of inner conflicts would turn out to be one of the variables I would look Zubec, J. P. (Ed.). (1969), Sensory deprivation- Fifteen years of research New York: Appleton-Cenfury-Crofts. for in the future for explaining any deep involvement with art. And I began to appreciate the role of conflicts and fantasy through undergoing—and later prac­ Anne E. Martindaie. tising—therapy myself. Trauma & Addictions Recovery Associates 80) Bedford Road Coping style and aesthetic attachment: catharsis vs. arousal Schenectady NY 12308 After doing some experimental studies of emotional arousal in relation to preferred form (Machotka, 1967, 1970), I began to think that correlational Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 75

meihods had yielded as much as I could ever expect them to, and should be attention to the data of vision. This gave us a view of Cezanne as a painter icplnced with more complex and immediate—though less quantifiable—data; who coped with an unstable disposition, and problematic contacts with oth­ ihis meant switching to clinically derived measures of personality. The latter ers, by attachment to vision; this symbolized for him a natural order in things, should not only yield more complex information on the person's coping style, and led him to search for the complex interrelatedness among them. hut also show the context and history within which it developed. This led me Naturally, psychodynamics in general, and coping mechanisms in particu­ to formulate a more ambitious research project, over several years, which dealt lar, explain only part of a painter's work. Inherent talents, conscious pur­ with the emotional complexities of aesthetic attachment. To work with an poses, the visions of close colleagues, the complex strands of personal devel­ emotional object of attachment I chose the nude in art. opment, all help determine how a painter will work. How they interweave in To reap the advantages of clinical information I also had to have a clear any particular life can only be reconstructed in part; past records are the least design. I picked subjects who were statistically extreme in their preferences satisfactory, and even contemporary observations leave much to be desired. lor the aspects of the nude that interested me, and then studied them through a Nevertheless, one can feel a temptation to make close observations of prac­ blind, psychodynamic interview; the purpose was to look for differences be- tising painters—at work, through projective tests, and through a reconstruc­ Iwccn the groups extreme on each dimension, such as "sentimenal— tion of their lives—and an opportunity soon presented itself with two paint­ nnnscntimental". The results leaped to the eyes; they were also complex and ing companions. |iii\i i lying. Each extreme preference (for the many dimensions that were stud­ ied in the book) was markedly different in its psychodynamics from its direct Painting style, cognitive style, and biography opposite. In general, the subjects revealed their opposing coping mechanisms Shortly after completing the Cezanne research, then, I began a study of two clearly, and their preferences could then be understood as part of the coping. well known landscape painters with whom 1 painted. I was able to base it on The human nude might be a universal aesthetic object, but what aspect of it a natural experiment that was there asking to be done: two painters painting Wiis "aesthetic" to given individuals depended on the specific needs it served en plein air side by side. Since their subject matter was shared, I could seek for lhem. 1 believe that this was the first thorough attempt to test—and further to explain the differences in their style—something that had not yet been OKplorc—what had been mostly a theoretical point of view (Machotka, 1979). done. I observed them paint, established their biography through interviews, I Ihink that for me die book had another significance. It confirmed that and studied their cognitive style through the Rorschach (administered blind). [Hssihctic phenomena should not be subjected to single-factor explanations; I found differences in their history, but above all I found pronounced cogni­ (hey are multiply caused. I prefer to explain a single phenomenon by the tive differences: this helped me show that the way they approached the can­ vmTables that can be found to account for it, rather than see what multiple vas—the initial conception, the progress, the correction, the use of the brush— effects a favorite single factor might have. This is a choice; I admire many was intimately related to their cognitive style. The dynamics of each style Oitlleagues who do it differently. Fortunately, I have also found that the expla- were, however, different, allowing for different painting freedoms, and I specu­ tliilions have a coherent shape, and that this is as true of individuals as of the late on the functions and opportunities of a number of other personal and yrmip that they are classified with. If subjects are carefully selected, patterns painting styles (Machotka, 1999). nf personality variables do emerge that explain aesthetic choices clearly. Sub- intuitively, the findings converge on a new understanding of aesthetic choice: Image-making style and psychodynamics, again, in a controlled study While in general aesthetic choice serves to strengthen the coping mechanisms Once more overlapping with the preceding work, I undertook what I in­ (jf the individual, specifically it responds to a felt deficit in the person which tended to be, for me, a culminating long-term study of the psychology of St'iuis him or her either in search of replenishment, or support for his/her self- image making. It brought the making of images back into the laboratory, but image, or control over an inner conflict. it differed in one ambitious respect: it attempted to understand each of the 72 Building on that chapter, and taking a more distant view of the matter, I subjects individually as well as making sense of the creative process of the proposed a theory of aesthetic choice. I argued that neither Aristotle's and group as a whole. Frond's notion of catharsis, nor the opposed Berlynian notion of arousal, are Following the image making process of participants on the computer (which sufficient as psychological bases of aesthetic choice (Machotka, 1981). They made it accessible to untrained as well as trained students), and again using *eein artificially opposed; they are better viewed as being at work simulta­ psychodynamic interviews to assess personality, we first related the image of neously, or as two sides of one process. Reviewing the evidence, I put it this each subject, and the process that went into making it, to the dynamics re­ wny "As one looks at the object and decides—usually in the briefest mo- vealed in the interviews. These individual interpretations, satisfactory in mem—that one likes it, one is simultaneously aroused by one's warm feeling themselves, connected the principal concerns expressed in the image, and the \\n" it and satisfied that one has encountered it. In that very simultaneity one salient dimensions of its form and process, to the history and dynamics of the fun sec that the usual distinction between arousal and catharsis is artificial; subject. The next question was whether the interpretations would stand sta­ what has happened during the moment of attachment is that one has met a tistical scrutiny. wmhol of one's method of coping and found that meeting hopeful" (p. 121). We grouped the images into clusters by means of a cluster analysis of their attributes; we reasoned that the individual interpretations would be verified A great painter: his vision and its psychodynamic component if they were similar within clusters and different between clusters. This sec­ A research project that led me more directly into art, as I began to think ond part was the crucial one, and we did find, as we had hoped, clear consis­ nboiit creating art rather than merely appreciating it, was the nature of the tency within the clusters and differences between them (and verified this i ('presentation of landscape in the painter Paul Cezanne. I began by studying with a blind reanalysis of the data). Taken together, the results offered a ihc black and white photographs that had been taken in the 1920s and 30s of coherent picture of seven psychological approaches to image making. Bring­ the -

76 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts!

Return to development and to Cezanne study but of less importance to the understanding of the mind. If aspects of personality are embodied in the art one makes, then we should At the beginning of my term, I set five main goals that I hoped to achieve for! find that the development of personality will be reflected in changes in one's the division. These were not goals that I meant to impose on the division. At art as well. This is the next area to look at, and I am completing a four-year every step, I have sought the advice of the Executive Committee as well as that study of undergraduates in which we look at the images they make, and their of former officers of the division and that of members, associates, affiliate' personality and circumstances, during each of the four years at the university. I members, and fellows. I have tried to reach these goals not merely by simple also believe that there is much more to be said about Cezanne's painting than majority votes but by consensus. A sixth unstated goal has always been on my 1 has been said so far, and I have begun to draft a new work about that; but as mind: to end any divisiveness and to bring members together. Here are the! happens in the course of development, I am led to do this by something I had goals I set and my sense of how well I have done at achieving them: | not foreseen: what I had learned from painting. It is a new thread, not part of an Special book, journal issue, or journal section on creativity. I discussed anticipated shape. various possibilities with the executive committee. The consensus was that the i best way of achieving the most recognition of Division 10 activities would be j to try to get a special issue or section of an issue in a major APA journal. I was! References not able to get an entire special issue but was successful at getting a section of Machotka, P. (1963). Le developpement des criteres esthetiques chez l'enfant. a forthcoming issue of The American Psychologist that will be devoted to cre­ Enfance, 16, 357-379. ativity. A number of people have been invited to submit articles for this sec­ Machotka, P. (1966). Esthetic criteria in childhood. Child Development, 37, tion. Submission does not mean acceptance, as all articles will be strictly re­ 877-885. viewed. We want to put our best face forward. Machotka, P. (1967). Defensive style and aesthetic distortion. Journal of Person­ Formation of ad hoc committees. The Division 10 by-laws provide for ality, 35, 600-622. only one committee to take care of everything, but they do allow formation of Machotka, P. (1970). Ego defense and aesthetic distortion: Experimenter effects. ad hoc committees. One committee may have been sufficient several decades Journal of Personality, 1970, 38, 560-580 ago, but a small group of people cannot be asked to take care of everything. A Machotka, P. (1979). The nude: Perception and personality. New York: Irvington. secondary goal of forming ad hoc committees was to get more people involved Machotka, P. (1981). Aesthetic choice and coping with conflict. In D. O'Hare, [Ed.], Psychology and the Arts, Sussex, England: Harvester Press. in the governance of the division. To this end, in the last issue of this Bulletin, Machotka, P. (1999). Style and psyche: The art ofLundy Siegriest and Terry St. I asked people who would like the serve on a committee to contact me. Every­ John. Hampton Press, Cresskill, NJ. one who contacted me is now serving on one of the following committees j Machotka, P. (in press) Why people paint. (chairs are listed elsewhere, so to save space, I shall not repeat them here): Machotka, P. & Siegel, J.P. (1974). Messages of the body. New York: Free Press Membership: The function of this committee is to get new members for the division (see below). Fellows: We had been a bit lax in elevating distinguished members to fellow Pavel Machotka status.' The committee has done an admirable job in taking care of this. Psychology Department Publications: This committee was named to oversee our newsletter and to University of California look into the possibility of upgrading it to a journal (see below). 1156 High Street Awards: Division 10 has three awards: The D.E. Berlyne award for junior Santa Cruz CA 95064 scholars, the Arnheim award for senior scholars, and the Farnsworth award for exceptional service to the division. Divisional Newsletter. At the beginning of my term, I raised the possibility of forming a divisional journal. The executive committee felt that this was overly ambitious for several reasons. First, the division could not afford it. Second, there are not enough articles in our field to warrant formation of a new journal. However, the feeling was that, on the way to a journal, we could upgrade to a Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts that would publish substantive articles. The Newsletter has been abolished as a separate entity, and we have upgraded to the Bulletin you are now reading. Membership drive. Membership in the division has been falling across the last few years This is a trend that must be reversed, as the number of hours the division is allotted at APA conventions depends upon our membership. The membership committee has been posting to various listservs to tiy to gain new members. You should recently have received a letter from the committee ask­ ing you to help them in recruiting new members. The timing was not coinci­ dental. You will be able to show people a copy of this Bulletin so they can see President's Message that they will actually get something for the modest divisional dues that we charge. Robert J. Sternberg D.E. Berlyne Award. This award has been interpreted in different ways Yale University over the years. Everyone agreed that it should be formalized as an early-career award. My congratulations to Gregory Feist, the winner of this year's D.E. This will be my final official message to you as President of Division 10. I Berlyne Award. hope that I have served you well as president. I shall certainly remain active in Soon after becoming president, it became clear that some people had served the division, as I have made many new friends and met many new and stimulat­ the division far beyond the call of duty. In consultation with the executive ing colleagues during my term of office. Beyond that, I see a bright future for committee, the awards committee, and a number of past presidents, it was Division 10. Our topics of interest—psychology of the arts, creativity, and agreed that an award for such service was needed. It has been designated the aestiietics—have for too long been relatively neglected in psychology. For a Farnsworth Award in honor of P.M. Farnsworth, the first president of Divi­ long time, I have argued that psychologists should invest more of their time in sion 10. My congratulations to Stephanie Z. Dudek, the first winner of this these important topics and less of their time in topics that may be easier to award. That she is the first to receive the award will be no surprise to those Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 77 who are aware of her long and selfless service to the division. and the Schizophrenia Spectrum." It is based on a symposium at the APA Ii lias been an honor to have served as president of Division 10. I hope that I convention in 1997, and is guest-edited by David Schuldberg and myself. I hisve served you well. 1 cannot begin to thank all of you who have helped me. would like to take this opportunity to alert Division 10 members to this forth­ I mvc a special debt of gratitude to the executive committee and our president- coming issue by presenting part of the introduction to the special issue (co- oIih i, Sandra Russ. I would also like to thank personally past presidents Gerald written with David Schuldberg) below. ("upehik, Stephanie Dudek, Colin Martindale, Louis Sass, and Dean Keith ^imonton for advice they gave me both during my year as president-elect as Introduction to the forthcoming Special Issue of Creativity Research yvdl .is my year as president. Journal: "Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum " For much of this century, scholars interested in the age-old question of the relationship of mental illness to creativity and genius have emphasized the President-Elect's Message connection with schizophrenia and related disorders. Although some attention was paid to depression, it was primarily the cognitive rather than affective char­ Sandra W. Russ acteristics of personality and psychopathology that were assumed to account Case Western Reserve University for the connection between creativity and madness. Many prominent conceptualizations of schizophrenia were highly influenced by psychoanalytic APA Program Highlights assumptions. Accordingly, schizophrenia was viewed as a "primitive" disorder We have an excellent and varied APA program planned this year. There is a involving fixation-at or regression-to early, instinct- and affect-dominated modes ytuul mix of theoretical, empirical, clinical, and artistic presentations. The full of experience that are relatively devoid of the capacity for self-consciousness Division 10 program is included in this edition of the Bulletin. First, or of a sense of differentiation between self and world. there are outstanding talks by renowned scholars. Bob Sternberg will give his In recent years, there have been some radical changes in this area of research Presidential Address, "Creativity is a Decision". There are invited addresses and theorizing. Apparently coinciding with greater psychiatric interest in bipo­ try Jerome Singer on "Children's Imaginative Play and Adult Daydreaming and lar disorder (including its cognitive aspects), with a return to nosological as­ Precursors to Creativity", David Schuldberg on "Creativity and Chaos in Posi­ sumptions grounded in Kraepelin's distinction between dementia praecox and tive Psychology", and Colin Martindale on "How Does the Brain Calculate affective psychosis, and with the narrowing of the American diagnostic criteria Aesthetic Preference." Tobi Zausner is giving an invited address on "Whole- for schizophrenia, attention has shifted to bipolar'disorder's role in creativity fiess and Perfection: Special Challenges, Art and Creativity." and eminence. This change can perhaps be traced back to Nancy Andreasen's Wc have three awards and accompanying addresses this year. The recipient 1974 paper on writers, a paper that also marks.a transition towards interest in Of the Arnheim Award for Distinguished Contribution to Psychology and the writers as a representative creative group. Arln is Ellen Winner, who will be speaking on "Learning in the Arts: Implica­ Coinciding with Andreasen and her colleagues' apparent shift from interest tions for our Understanding of the Mind." Stephanie Dudek is the first recipi­ in cognitive aspects of psychosis to interest in affective disorder and creativity, ent of the Famsworth Award for Service to Division 10. Her talk is "Under the the preponderance of some rather impressive research data (gathered by Kay Henri's Regime." Gregory Feist will receive the D.E. Berlyne Award for Early Jamison and Ruth Richards, as well as Andreasen and others) began to point Cftfecr Achievement. His talk is on "Integrated Intelligence and the Origins of toward an empirically greater role for affective disorder rather than schizo­ Cfcntivity." phrenia. Notably, Kay Jamison, in her eloquent and widely read book, Touched There are four symposia this year: with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament (1993), has Enriching Therapy Through the'Expressiveness of Art Forms. Co-Chairs: argued that the creativity/psychopathology overlap is mostly due to the creative Cltrolc Ann Rayburn and Irwin M. Blank potential of manic-depression and related affective illnesses. The previous be­ The Development of Creativity. Chair: John C. Houtz lief in the creative potential of schizophrenic disorders has been said to result Emotion-Emotion Interaction in Creativity: Toward a New Research Para­ from misdiagnoses based on the overly broad conceptions of schizophrenia digm. Chair: Louise Sundararajan that prevailed in the United States prior to the advent of DSM-III. This recently 20,h Century Art: Time Bound and Universal. Chair: Stephanie Z. Dudek popular perspective on madness and creativity is congruent with current em­ Wc shall also have a number of paper sessions and a poster session. The phases on the "negative" or deficit aspects of schizophrenia, as well as with a Hnuinl Hour is again combined with Divisions 24 and 26 and is on Saturday neo-Kraepelinian view of schizophrenia as mere dementia — that is, as a con­ Ihvm 6 to 8X Please come and meet other members of the Division. Less fun dition that lacks creative potential as well as rationality. hid m important an event is the Business Meeting for the Division on Monday The articles in the special issue seek to reexamine the relationship between morning, following the President's Address. This is a good opportunity to hear creativity and the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders in the wake of this re­ ihws of the Division and share your ideas about the activities of the Division. cent research and theorizing. They revisit both empirical and conceptual find­ I ii addition, we are co-sponsoring with Division 52 the presentation of a ings and issues regarding connections between the schizophrenia spectrum of l^lny, "The Strange Affliction of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: A two-act play on disorders, schizotypy, psychotic-like traits, and creativity. It should be noted Monday, August 7, from 5 to 7. As noted elsewhere in this Bulletin, we that the schizophrenia spectrum has both a "horizontal" and a "vertical" di­ me co-sponsoring with APA an art exhibit at APA Headquarters displaying mension — the first including different types of disorders on approximately the pjilniings and drawings created by individuals with serious mental illness. same level of severity (i.e., schizoaffective and schizophreniform disorders), I urn looking forward to this APA Convention and hope to see you there. the second encompassing milder conditions such as schizotypal and schizoid personality disorders, as well as more severe disorders. Past President's Message

Louis A. Sass Rutgers University

I ii"M( I would like to congratulate Robert Sternberg and the current executive hnni'ii of Division 10 for the various innovations and initiatives of the past year. I he division has been in very good hands. My own recent work on topics lulling under the Division 10 rubric has consisted largely in helping to prepare n special issue of the Creativity Research Journal, with the title, "Creativity 'i»J»1WW'

78 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

None of the authors in the special issue wish to deny the creative potential of Election Results many persons with bipolar or other affective disorders. Taken together, how­ Frank Farley has been elected to the position of President-elect of Division ever, the articles in this issue argue for a "rehabilitation" and re-evaluation of 10. The new member-at-large to the Division 10 Executive Committee is Paul the role of schizophrenia and related conditions in creativity research. We hope Locher. this collection will encourage people interested in the psychology of art and creativity not to write off schizophrenic subjects and other "residents" of the Division 10 Lists erv schizophrenia spectrum. The papers fall into two groups: one focusing on empirical issues, the other Division 10 now has a Listserv. To join, send email to Sarah Benolken emphasizing conceptual issues concerning the relationship between schizo­ ([email protected]), who manages the Listserv. Because the Listserv is new, phrenia and creativity. only about 10% of Division 10 members are aware of it and have joined. None­ We hope that this collection of papers and commentaries will have a signifi­ theless, some lively and collegial discussions have been carried on. Clinicians cant influence on future discussion, research, and theoretical work concerning and academicians couldn't think of anything to fight about, so have been hav­ the relationships between two complex and contested domains: psychopathol- ing fun getting to know each other and learning from each other. As a result of ogy and creative process. discussions on the Listserv, Heather Snyder has organized a conference to be The articles are listed below. held at Fordham University in January of 2001 (see below). — The Editors: Louis Sass and David Schuldberg Creativity Research Journal, Special Issue, forthcoming: Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum; Table of Contents. Division 10 Web Site Thanks to Jonathan Plucker, the division now has a beautifully designed web Part One: Re-Evaluation and Empirical Findings site (http://www.apa.org/divisions/divlO). The site has seven sections: infor­ Six Subclinical "Spectrum" Traits in "Normal Creativity" —David Schuldberg mation about the Division 10 APA program, announcements of interest to mem­ Creativity in Offspring of Schizophrenic and Control Parents: An Adoption bers, information about division awards, links to sites of interest to members, Study —Dennis K. Kinney; Ruth L. Richards; Patricia A. Lowing; Deborah selected articles from the Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts, listings of recent LeBlanc; Morris E. Zimbalist; Patricia Harlan dissertations and articles relevant to Division 10, and information about the Primary Process Thinking and Creativity: Affect and Cognition —Sandra W. division including a downloadable and printable membership application form. Russ If anyone has ideas about the site or information to be added, please contact Commentary: Eccentricity, Conformism, and the "Primary Process" Jonathan Plucker ([email protected]). Printed material is also welcome. It —Louis A. Sass Part Two: Theoretical and Critical Reflections should be sent to Jonathan Plucker, Indiana University, 201 N. Rose Avenue, The Association of Creativity-and Psychopathology: Its Cultural-Historical Bloomington IN 47405. Origins —George Becker Schizophrenia, Modernism, and the "Creative Imagination": On Creativity Forthcoming Conferences and Psychopathology—Louis A. Sass The 16lh Congress of the International Association of Empirical Aesthetics Reply to Louis A. Sass —Kay Redfield Jamison (IAEA) will be held in New York from August 8-12, 2000. The Congress was Romanticism, Creativity, and the Ambiguities of Psychiatric Diagnosis: Re­ organized by Division 10's new Member-At-Large to the Executive Commit­ joinder —Louis A. Sass tee, Paul Locher. More information may be found at http:// On Self Conceiving: Philosophical Yearnings in a Schizophrenic Context — James Ogilvie www.chss.montclair.edu/psychology/iaea2000.html and at IAEA's web site, Mental Illness and Roots of Genius —Robert Prentky http://www.ume.maine.edu/~iaea/. Like Division 10, the name of IAEA is a Commentary: Creativity and Psychopathology: Categories, Dimensions, and bit misleading. Papers and symposia on creativity, psychology of the arts, and Dynamics —David Schuldberg aesthetics are all welcome. The 2002 Congress of IAEA will be held in Japan, Commentary: Creativity and the Schizophrenia Spectrum?: More and More and the 2004 Congress will probably be held in Portugal. Interesting —Ruth Richards A Conference on Art, Science, and Creativity will be held on January 6, 2001 at the Rose Hill Campus, Fordham University, Bronx, New York. Details will be forthcoming in early Fall 2001 on the Division 10 listserv, and may also be obtained by sending an email (after September 9th) directly to Heather Snyder at [email protected]. Announcements Call for Nominations Bulletin Division 10 has opened nominations for the editorship of the Bulletin oj Please send Bulletin correspondence to: Psychology and the Arts for the years 2002-2004. Candidates should be mem­ bers or eligible for membership in Division 10. To nominate a candidate or to Tom Ettinger self-nominate, send a statement of 1-2 pages to: Department of Psychology, 8lh Floor Sandra Russ, Chair New York University Publications Committee 6 Washington Place Case Western Reserve University New York NY 10003 Psychology Department Email: [email protected] Cleveland, Ohio 44106-7123 Reminder: Material intended for publication should be accompanied by a We shall be in touch with individual candidates for further information. disk containing the manuscript as well as a paper copy of the manuscript. Deadline for nominations is October 1, 2000. 79 Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2)

Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - Thou Rose of all Roses From the collection of Fred and Sherry Ross 80 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Art?

Division 10, 2000 APA Convention Program

Friday, August 4

9:00-9:50 Paper Session: Content in Artistic Productions Donald R. Baird: Depictions of Psychotherapy in Television and Film Stuart A. Oring: Associations in Art and Photography: Their Role and Their Validity \ M.L. Corbin Sicoli: Segregation, Sexism, Sexuality and Spirituality in Best Selling Songs Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 12 •

10:00-10:50 Paper session: Creative Process in Art Will W. Adams: William Blake's Vision of Transformation. Vishwa M. Mishra: Bipolar Mood Disorders, Creativity, and Suicidality of Ernest Hemingway Mohir Saleh: Incubation and the Moment of Creation: Eastern and Western Perceptions. Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 24

11:00-11:50 Paper session: Empirical Studies of Creative Problem Solving Jonna Kwiatkowski, et al: Creativity and Event Related Potentials During the Word Association Test Dennis R. Brophy: Creative Problem Solving Attributes of Divergent, Convergent, and Combination Thinkers Katherine N. Saunders: Beliefs, Activities and Attitudes Related to. Creativity in Gifted Adolescents Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 3

1:00-2:50 Symposium: Enriching Therapy Through the Expressiveness of Art Forms Co-chairs: Carole Ann Rayburn and Irwin M. Blank Speakers: Stephanie Z. Dudek: Creative Block: Unlocking Sources of Expression Irwin M. Blank: Psychotherapy as Theatre Anita Solomon: Group Therapy Using Music, Poetry, Bibliotherapy for Elderly Mentally 111 A.J. Wice: Body Movement Therapy: An Alternative Discussant: Joanna K. Tabin Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 31

3:00-3:50 Invited Address Tobi Zausner: Wholeness and Perfection: Special Challenges, Art, and Creativity Washington Convention Center, Meeting Rooms 1 and 2 Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 81

Saturday, August 5

10:00-10:50 Paper Session: Motivation and Creative Production Valeria Biasi et al.: Further Studies on Dancers' Motivations, Coping Styles, and Defense Mechanisms Stephen P. Joy: Innovation Motivation: The Need to be Different Lauren Seifert et al: Visual Arts Production: Individuals with Alzheimer's Disease as Collaborators Anna Maria Giannini et al.: Alarming and Reassuring Colors: Use, Meaning and Psychological Effect Grand Hyatt Washington Hotel, Constitution Ballroom E

1:00-1:50 Invited Address Jerome L. Singer: Children's Imaginative Play and Adult Daydreaming and Precursors to Creativity Renaissance Washington D.C. Hotel, Renaissance Ballroom West B

2:00-3:50 Symposium: The Development of Creativity Chair: John C. Houtz Speakers: Sandra W. Russ et al.: Development of Creative Processes in Pretend Play Giselle Esquivel et al.: Young Children's Conceptions of Creativity Beth Hennessey: The Intrinsic Motivation Principle of Creativity Rena Subotnik: Talent Development for the Musical Elite Discussant: Robert J. Sternberg Renaissance Washington D.C. Hotel, Renaissance Ballroom West B

4:00-4:50 Arnheim Award Ellen Winner: Learning in the Arts: Implications for our Understanding Of the Mind Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 22

6:00-7:50 Social Hour (with Divisions 24 & 26) Capital Hilton, South American Room B

8:00-9:50 Executive Committee Meeting Renaissance Washington D.C, Hotel Meeting Room 6 . .»•-* Ml »>,->.

82 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Sunday, August 6

9:00-10:50 Symposium: Emotion-Emotion Interaction in Creativity: Toward a New Research Paradigm Chair: Louise Sundararajan Speakers: Sandra W. Russ: Affective Expression in Children's Play: Affect States and Affect Themes Isaac Getz et al.: Emotion-Emotion Interactions in the Emotional Resonance Model of Creativity Louise Sundararajan: Beyond Mood-Inductions: Toward a Process Model of Background-Affect in Creativity Discussant: John D. Mayer Grand Hyatt Washington Hotel, Farragut Square Room

11:00-11:50 Berlyne Award Gregory J. Feist: Integrated Intelligence and the Origins of Creativity Grand Hyatte Washington Hotel, Roosevelt and Wilson Rooms

1:00-1:50 Invited Address David Schuldberg: Creativity and Chaos in Positive Psychology Grand Hyatt Washington Hotel, Roosevelt and Wilson Rooms

2:00-2:50 Farnsworth Award Stephanie Z. Dudek: Under the Heart's Regime Grand Hyatt Washington Hotel, Independence Ballroom H and I Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 83

Monday, August 7

9:00-9:50 Presidential Address Robert J. Sternberg: Creativity is a Decision Washington Convention Center, Meeting Rooms 13 and 14

10:00-10:50 Business Meeting Washington Convention Center, Meeting Rooms 13 and 14

12:00-12:50 Poster Session: Creativity, Art, and Psychology Washington Convention Center, Hall A

1:00-1:50 Invited Address Colin Martin dale: How Does the Brain Calculate Aesthetic Preference Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 25 and 26

2:00-2:50 Paper Session: Emotional Responses to Art and Music David Rawlings: Enjoyment of Painting Eliciting Negative Emotions Benjamin Meade: Graphic Violence Special Effects in Film: A Call for Realism Anthony F. Lemieux: Emotional Responses to Heavy Metal Music: Considering Individual Music Preferences Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 36

3:00-4:50 Symposium: 20,h Century Art: Time Bound and Universal Chair: Stephanie Z. Dudek Stephanie Z. Dudek: The Demise of 20th Century Art and the Discourse of Modernity Fred Martin: Personal and Social Catastrophe: The Roots of Creativity in Time Marisa Zavalloni: The New Subjects in an Ultra-Modern World Discussant: Will Wadlington Washington Convention Center, Meeting Room 23 and 24

J 5:00-7:00 "The Strange Affliction of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: 84 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

Emile Mumer - Girls Proving. From the collection of Fred and Sherry Ross Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 85

On Exhibit at APA: priately branching out with a show of Native American Healing Art-'a col­ orful collection of artworks that address the themes of physical, emotional The Outsider Art of HAI and spiritual healing' [Fowler, March 1998, p. 3]" (Ettinger, 1998, p. 14). The current HAI exhibit, emerging from Fowler's longstanding interest in Tom Ettinger, Editor psychologically-oriented art, securely establishes for APA an agenda that will be of special interest to Division 10 in the years to come. Preface The next article in this sequence is Jamie Chamberlin's "Art for Inspira­ tion," reprinted from the June 2000 APA Monitor (pp. 22-23). She provides Tom Ettinger an informative overview of HAI's mission, based on interviews with HAI New York University executives (Michael Jon Spencer, founding director, and Elizabeth Marks, workshop program director and exhibit curator). Chamberlin's discussion Our August 2000 APA Convention features an extraordinary art exhibit of the exhibit itself is excellent. She takes a sensitive psychosocial look at un display at the Washington DC headquarters building. The exhibit, on serious mental illness while portraying outsider art as a legitimate and potent loan from HAI (Hospital Audiences, Inc.),offers a breathtaking selection of aesthetic genre. We are grateful to Jamie and APA for permission to repro­ creative works by twenty artists, many of whom have achieved international duce the Monitor article, recontextualized in our own Psychology and the recognition and critical acclaim. Over the past thirty years, HAI has devel­ Arts forum. oped a variety of art-based programs designed to enhance the lives of indi­ Tobi Zausner's "Psychological Revelations: The Outsider Artists of HAI" viduals afflicted with serious mental illness, while fostering mainstream ap­ follows Jamie's article, in sequence and in spirit. Tobi is our resident Divi­ preciation of their creativity. As curator Elizabeth Marks recounts, "Over sion 10 expert on outsider art. She offers detailed interpretations of selected twenty years ago, professional artists leading HAI's arts workshops recog­ works, integrating biographical information (provided by Elizabeth Marks), nized the artistic value of participants' work, providing the impetus for HAI psychological theory (focusing on the reparative, compensatory, and inte­ MP preserve it.... HAI works to bring public recognition to the artists and to grative functions manifest in the artworks), and iconology (ranging from [preserve representative bodies of art by this major group of contemporary Jungian symbolism to Renaissance motifs, which are at times consciously • A mcrican Outsider artists in permanent museum collections" (curator's state- adopted by the artists). Tobi will be lecturing on the HAI works in her in­ Inient, HAI / APA exhibit catalogue, in press). vited address, "Wholeness and perfection: Special challenges, art, and cre­ jL The exhibit presents a broad range of themes, from cryptic, apocalyptic ativity" (Friday, August 4th, at 3:00 p.m., in the Convention Center, meeting jt visions to comical pop icons. A refreshing originality unites these works; rooms 1 & 2). f pven the most familiar motifs pulse with uninhibited personal embellish- Finally, this section concludes with a complete list of works from the HAI &' flicnts. The stylistic diversity is wondrous too, from painstakingly detailed / APA exhibit. | Compositions (where every square inch is part of a complex story) to rapidly On behalf of Division 10, I'd like to thank Elizabeth Marks and Michael executed expressions (where sweeping gesture and abundant color convey Jon Spencer at HAI, a truly inspiring organization. We'd also like to thank ' emotion with a raw immediacy). Emotion runs deep in these works, span- Ray Fowler for realizing this fourth APA exhibit, Elizabeth Kaplinski (Di­ ping melancholy and fear to joy and laughter. Many works radiate mixed rector of Special Projects); and Judy Strassburger (Senior Director of Gov­ emotions: fear and desire, anger and idealization, often transmuted into ar- ernance Affairs). And thanks again to Jamie Chamberlin for the Monitor Ohclypal death/rebirth motifs. Each artist has a distinct personal style, amply coverage. It is an honor for Division 10 to cosponsor such an auspicious demonstrated by the inclusion of some half dozen key works from each oeuvre. event. Il is fascinating to compare and contrast these invented pictorial worlds. Both Last but not least, we thank the artists, without whom there would be no Commonalties and differences unfold. It is quite common to see signatures, exhibit. To those still with us, and those departed., your creative achieve­ (cki, and signs commingled with pictorial imagery; typically they are deco- ments expand and enrich our lives. Fiuive and animated, participating in the overall aesthetic of the composition. Ak for differences, psychological traits and states profoundly impact on the­ Tom Ettinger rmit ic content as well as style. Generally, outsider artists are quite heteroge­ Department of Psychology neous with respect to representational skills. The most "childlike" works are New York University iioi painted with a tutored eye, but they are painted with the heart, and so are 6 Washington Place rmlcaring. In the most "sophisticated" works, where talent, training, and New York NY 10003 practice shine through, pictorial expertise can serve to organize and strac- 11 ire even the most eccentric content and the most unmodulated affects. These Introduction i imcless aesthetic qualities distinguish the best outsider art from generic psy- cliopathological expressions, such as those manifest in projective drawing Raymond D. Fowler K'sis. For this reason, curator Elizabeth Marks explicitly avoids diagnostic American Psychological Association liibels, and cautions the viewer not to overindulge. This section opens with an Introduction to the exhibit by Ray Fowler, APA is very pleased to co-sponsor with Division 10 the exhibll of Q»\» APA's Chief Executive Officer. Dr. Fowler has demonstrated an enduring sider Art on loan from Hospital Audiences, Inc. (HAI). APA llOfidcpineFP ic rommitment to the arts; this is the fourth exhibit that APA has sponsored at the ideal place to showcase this unique exhibit thai features GflwerJc grofitCf! (lie Washington DC building. The HAI project, he writes, "seemed like a by artists with serious mental illnesses. Throughout APA'fl 1)^(0% ppilOJQ* mi! ural fit for APA's membership." Indeed, it is a perfect fit, as was the most gists have been interested and involved in the am. APA'f* third fifld \WU ii'ccnt exhibit of Native American Healing Arts. A bit of history from our known president, William James, was a pointer long hfiftiJ'O isO 130SBIT16 0 Summer 1998 issue of Psychology and the Arts: "Dr. Raymond Fowler's well-known psychologist. And as you know. Division 10 W0S 0I10 of 19 APA Monitor commentary, 'The Healing Arts,' reflect[s] on a successful charter divisions established by APA in 1945. . program inaugurated at APA's Washington DC Headquarters in 1992: the My interest in the arts has been longstanding and when 1 beenme APA'fl chief inhibition of artworks by member artists/psychologists. APA is now appro­ executive officer, J looked for ways lo highlight psychology's relationship 86 Vol 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

with the arts. During our centennial year, the American Psychologist, APA's flagship journal, got a new look featuring art on the cover. Since 1992, we have tried to show work by artists who are not widely exhibited in museums and artwork by psychologists and others interested in psychological phe­ nomena. Some of our artists have experienced physical and psychological disabilities. The October 1998 cover of AP featured a painting by Jennie Maruki, one of the artists from HAI, and in honor of the current show, AP will feature artwork created by another HAI artist during the coming year. Many APA members are talented in the visual arts and this fact was dem­ onstrated by the two consecutive exhibits of psychologists' artwork that were displayed in the APA headquarters building beginning in 1992. Our first show was established in honor of the APA centennial shortly after we moved to our new building. It featured about 30 paintings, sculptures, drawings and photographs, all created by members and affiliates and selected by a panel of local artists, critics and gallery owners. The success of the first show prompted Carl Greenberg - The Boat Rrom the collection of HAI us to sponsor a second exhibit of members' work that also was on display for two years. And building further on our success, in February 1998, APA launched a third two-year exhibit. This exhibit, Healing Art, was a collection of Native American Art curated by Suzan Harjo, president of the Morning Star Insti­ tute, a nonprofit organization in Washington, DC. APA first met Ms. Harjo through a Heritage Day program for staff sponsored by APA's Affirmative Action Committee. Healing Art included a colorful collection of artworks that addressed the theme of physical, emotional and spiritual healing. It in­ cluded work by renowned Native American artists, some of whom had ex­ hibited at the Peabody Essex Museum and in the White House Sculpture Garden. APA first learned of HAI when Elizabeth Marks, workshop program di­ rector and curator, wrote to me about her organization and its program in the visual arts in response to one of my columns in the Monitor. For over 30 years, HAI has been sponsoring experiences in the arts for people with seri­ ous mental illnesses and those isolated from the cultural mainstream. The project seemed like a natural fit for APA's membership. And so, until May Roy Hamilton - Pigs and Chickens From the collection of HAI 2001, the 6th floor reception area and executive offices will be graced with the Outsider Art show on loan from HAI. We are currently working on a catalog for the show that will feature short biographies of each of the artists as well as photographs of some of their work. Further information about the show and about HAI is included in the article "Art for Inspiration" that is reprinted in this Bulletin from the June 2000 issue of the APA Monitor. The Outsider Art show will be open to APA members any time during normal business hours and I hope that you will stop by to see it when you are in town. During this year's APA convention in Washington, DC, we will sponsor an Open House at the APA building on August 5th from 4 to 8 p.m. Elizabeth Marks and Michael Jon Spencer, founder of HAI, will be on hand to discuss the artwork. In addition, all Division 10 members are invited to attend an opening reception for the exhibit on Saturday, August 5th at 6:30 p.m. in the Executive Office reception area. If you would like to attend, please RSVP Kim Talley, APA Special Projects Assistant by July 21 st. She can be reached by e-mail at [email protected] or by phone at 202-3§6-6060. I hope you can join us. APA is very grateful to Elizabeth Marks and Michael Jon Spencer from Mercedes Jamison - Untitled From the collection of HAI HAI for making this show possible, to Division 10 for its cosponsorship, and to Tom Ettinger and Tobi Zausner of Division 10 for sharing their time and expertise with APA as consultants. I would also like to thank Liz Kaplinski, Director of Special Projects, APA Executive Office, for all her work in coor­ dinating the APA art exhibits.

Raymond D. Fowler American Psychological Association 750 First Street, NE Washington DC 2002 Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 87

Art for inspiration

4f

KENNY MCKAY "Birds with a cup of coffee" Watercolor, marker and crayon on paper

A new exhibit at A PA will offer psychologists an opportunity from 4 to 8 p.m., during APAs 2000 to see that people who are mentally ill Annual Convention in Washington, showcases the creative often find "their inner wholeness" by D.C. As a prelude to, the viewing, APA painting and drawing, says Tobi will screen the documentary, "Not Like talents of people with Zausner, PhD, a member of Div. 10. in the Movies: A Portrait of Six Mentally 111 Artists at Work," Friday, Aug. 4, at serious mental illnesses. 4 p.m. The film depicts the lives of six of "This is a visually the artists featured in the show. beautiful exhibit with the A perfect medium BY JAMIE CHAMBERL1N capacity for inspiration The artwork is on loan to APA for one Monitor staff year from the New York-based nonprofit and an opportunity to organization Hospital Audiences, Inc. Kenny McKay, whose teeth were see the workings of the (HAI). Directed by its founder, Michael removed in a mental institution as Jon Spencer, HAI offers a chance for peo­ "preventive dental care," draws and human mind." ple with mental illness to attend concerts, paints figures with prominent teeth. Tobi Zausner dance and theater performances and Paris-born Frances "Lady Shalimar" sports events and to participate in hands- Montague, who had an early career in Div. 10 (Psychology and the Arts) on visual art workshops. Funding for the performing arts in Europe, paints HAI s programs for the mentally ill is elaborate ballet, theater and circus cos­ provided by New York City's Department tumes embellished with straight pins, "Mental illness, which can be con­ of Mental Health. Participants come glitter and sequins. sidered a handicap in some areas, may from day-treatment programs for serious Their art is among the more than become a focusing tool in the creative mental illnesses or live in group resi­ 60 paintings and drawings created by process," says Zausner. "This is a visual­ dences in the community. people with serious mental illnesses, ly beautiful exhibit with the capacity for Fifteen participants contributed to ranging from schizophrenia to bipolar inspiration and an opportunity to see the APA display. Most were born in the disorder, that are being displayed on the workings of the human mind." 1920s and 1930s, and several lived in APAs sixth floor through May 2001. APA and Div. 10 will host a view­ mental institutions for more than 20 Sponsored by APA and Div, 10 ing of the artwork during an open house years before they moved into the com­ (Psychology and the Arts), the exhibit at APA headquarters, Saturday, Aug. 5 munity and joined the HAI program. 88 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

ETHELJARET page and produced beautiful pieces of "Untitled" work," Marks says. "Each of the artists Watercolor and marker on paper speaks with a unique voice. Anyone who looks with an open mind can be touched to showcase and support by it." this unique work, says The HAI exhibit is APA's fourth art Raymond D. Fowler, display. From 1992 until February 1998, PhD, APA's Chief APA sponsored two consecutive exhibits Executive Officer, who is of paintings, sculptures, photographs and a long-time promoter of drawings by APA members. From the link between psychol­ February 1998 through April, APA dis­ ogy and art. played a collection of Native American "In addition to its artwork titled "Healing Art." artistic merit, the new None of the artwork on display at exhibit will express the val­ the HAI exhibit is for sale.*? ues and commitment of APA to understanding and Tobi Zausner will discuss and show other helping people with serious examples of art created by people with men­ mental illness," says tal and physical illnesses in the invited Fowler. address, "Wholeness and perfection: special Adds Thomas challenges, art and creativity," on Friday, Ettinger, PhD, editor of Aug. 4, at 3 p.m. during APA's 2000 Div. 10s Bulletin of Annual Convention. In addition, she will Psychology and the Arts: lecture on eminent artists with disabilities "This exhibit offers psy­ at the National Gallery of Art Saturday, chologists the rare oppor­ Aug. 4, at 10 a. m. For more information tunity to behold psy- on the lecture tour, contact Sarah Jordan at chopathology from a fresh sjordan @apa. org. Given the opportunity to paint and draw, perspective, one that transcends the habit­ these particular participants quickly ual focus on diagnosis and dysfunction. revealed a talent for and devotion to creat­ These gifted artists have ing art, says Elizabeth Marks, the HAI transformed misfortune workshop program'director and curator. and conflict into evoca­ "These artists are the superstars of tive cultural artifacts, our program," says Marks. "They are a imbuing their lives with unique group, and their work really has a meaning and purpose." significant place in the genre of outsider art"—an increasing popular style that is Unique voices created by untrained artisans, including While the artists in the folk artists and mentally ill artists. show have HAI in com­ "Outsider art encompasses those who mon, each brings a dis­ listen to their inner voice to the exclusion tinct style to his or her and, sometimes, to the contradiction of work—reflecting differ­ mainstream trends," she says. ent interests, senses of Several of the featured artists have humor, cultural back­ earned international recognition for their grounds or experiences skill. Montague has a painting in the per­ with mental illness, says manent collection of the Museum of Marks. American Folk Art, two others have art in "These artists are or the London Outsider Archive and many were incredibly sponta­ others have sold their work to private col­ neous—most worked lectors. A painting of a woman's face by without sketches or a HAI artist Jennie Maruki appeared on the plan, they just put their cover of the October 1998 issue of pencil or brush to a American Psychologist, and another HAI painting or drawing will adorn the cover FRANCES MONTAGUE of the July issue of the journal. "Moscow circus" APA headquarters is an ideal place Marker, crayon and glitter on paper Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 1(2) 89

Psychological Revelations: The Ootsider Artists of woman. After twenty-five years in Pilgrim State Hospital where she was treated Hospital Audiences, Inc. for schizophrenia, Phillips spent the last twenty years of her life in a group home. (Marks, 2000b; Freeh and Marks, 1996). But the restrictions of her Tobi Zausner life are eliminated in her art. In the acrylic painting, Leopard, a large yellow Saybrook Graduate School spotted animal rushes from a dense green background into the open space of blue sky. A veiled self-portrait of the outspoken energetic Phillips, it symbol­ Art is a mirror reflecting the world of the artist. And in no other art, is the izes both her inner strength and her determination to move quickly, a capac­ creator as visible as in the works of the self-taught. Now called outsider art- ity seen in her creative process where she could finish a large canvas in an isls, they have no formal training and little concern for social convention. In hour. iheir art, emotion is raw, illuminating the inner aspects of the psyche. Look­ The leopard, whose under-painting of red adds to its intensity, may refer to ing at works of outsider artists is like seeing the topological eversion of a the artist's temperament, her inner energy that may at times be hard to con­ uphcre (Morin, 1987). In the mathematical discipline of topology, a sphere trol. That she succeeds is evident from the painting, where the leopard al­ win be turned inside out without ripping any of its parts. As a result its inner though running free, is held securely by the outline of its figure and by the Hmface, normally hidden from view, becomes visible. Similarly, the inner rows of vegetation both above and below its body. Phillips was also an excel­ life of outsider artists becomes visible through their art, an activity that does lent singer, who sang as she painted and was very gratified by the sale and not rip but is both healing and revealing. exhibition of her art (Freeh and Marks, 1996). This painting has had particu­ The outsider artists exhibiting in the current show at APA headquarters, lar success and may become part of a museum collection (Marks, 2000a & prated by Elizabeth Marks, live in New York and participate in the art work- b). v Shops offered by Hospital Audiences, Inc., known as HAI (Freeh and Marks, \1996). They come from a variety of backgrounds but all have suffered mental Images of Anxiety jUncss. Many of them have been institutionalized, some up to twenty-five Along with compensation, the art of the mentally ill may also reveal their fycnrs, and some live in assisted environments. As a result, they do not have anxieties as it does in the work of Kenny McKay (b. 1941). McKay, who is [(lie amount of personal freedom that most people take for granted. But mak­ schizophrenic, has had emotional problems since childhood. Now living in a ing art gives them an experience of autonomy. It is a chance to create a world group home, he was formerly an inpatient with periods of catatonia (Freeh [PifU grants their wishes, a place where they feel whole and in control. and Marks, 1996; Marks, 2000b). During his time in a mental institution, McKay had his teeth extracted as form of preventive dental hygiene (Marks, Art as Compensation 2000a). As a result he mourns his teeth in his art, often giving them promi­ j;. Artists have historically used their work as compensation for what they nent display as a compensation for their unwanted removal. In his painting, [perceived to be missing from their lives. As the painter, Frida Kahlo said, Birds With a Cup of Coffee, the birds, which in actuality only have beaks, are •jjniflny things prevented me from fulfilling the desires which everyone con­ shown with prominent humanoid teeth, both upper and lower rows. In some siders normal, and to me nothing seemed more normal than to paint what had paintings, McKay displays as many as three or four rows of teeth. Pint been fulfilled" (cited in Herrera, 1983, p. 75). In works of art, a neglected McKay, an intelligent man with an interest in Renaissance art, often uses fnOrson can become center stage, a weak person strong, and dreams can be historical themes in his work (Freeh and Marks, 1996). This painting refers [pictured as actualities who gave herself the name of "Lady Shalimar.".She to a popular Renaissance image of birds drinking from a chalice or fountain, pHd she was born backstage at the Paris Opera House and then led an excit­ symbolizing the soul receiving nourishment from a divine source. But unlike ing theatrical life on the American and European stage (Freeh and Marks, images from antiquity where birds are seen taking nourishment, in McKay's V\I996). Marks (2000b) has noted that Montague's images are similar to the painting they are near the cup but none of them are close enough to drink. ,-,' fni'ly twentieth century ballet costume designs by Leon Bakst, suggesting Instead, their arrangement at the four corners of the cup suggests that they are ' i.Mhnt the artist did have a former life on stage. guardian figures. Rather than drink from an infinite source, they instead care K» Like most individuals in the HAI program, Montague had never made art for its fragile condition. Having roles as guardians may explain their promi­ /^before she entered their workshops. She came to HAI as an older artist living nent humanoid eyes, ears, and teeth, which enable them to better serve as lild an assisted care facility and painted until her death at age ninety-one. Al­ protectors. though Frances Montague was older and agoraphobic, Lady ShaHmar In this work the chalice that appears in Renaissance images has been con­ Montague, the subject of her self-portraits, as shown in the painting, Rajah, verted into a coffee cup. McKay enjoys painting images of food and one of Indian Elephant, is young, sitting on top of an elephant and traveling exten­ his earliest sources of inspiration was the coffee cup, which he has painted in sively. In the painting, she proclaims, "3 World Tours" with the names of the many variations. Unlike a Renaissance chalice, the cup in this painting is Indian cities, Raj an and Benares, written nearby. In real life, she rarely left composed of jagged pieces. The lines on the cup are not a design but a weak­ home and had no visitors except for the people from HAI, but in her art she ness in its structure because the artist has shown it in a three-dimensional wns a world traveler and the center of attention. view and at its rim, breaks may be seen on the inside of the cup as well. Its Although Montague used compensation in her art, it could not continue to multiple cracks may refer to splits in the schizophrenic personality. That nmkc amends for her increasingly difficult surroundings as she aged. Marks cracked cup still holds together says that the artist, despite his fragilities has (2000b) said when Montague first came to HAI, she was in an assisted living managed to maintain his psychological integrity. environment and at that time had long hair and wore about ten rings on her Other elements of optimism in the painting come from its color scheme. lingers. When the artist was transferred to a nursing home, the staff, in an The background is sunshine yellow and the birds are blue, which in out cul­ effort to "clean her up," reduced the number of rings and cut her hair. ture suggests the bluebird of happiness. In addition, each bird has a patch of Montague's art changed. Previously creating figures with long flowing hair, green, a color traditionally associated with healing. Green is also McKay's Mhc made turbaned images like the one in Rajah, Indian Elephant. Then, even favorite color (Marks, 2000b) and one of the birds, at the upper right, is sit­ 1 hough Montague was able to walk, she was placed in a wheelchair, because ting on the cup's green handle. The cup rests on a prominent patch of green, I he staff found it easier to manage her that way. Marks said that although which in turn sits on a table. The green support to the jagged cup extends Montague never protested verbally her art changed again. Gone were the beyond the boundaries of the table, giving it a feeling of precariousness, and long legged graceful bodies of her earlier work. They were replaced by leg­ indicating that even with a health giving support there is continued concern less figures because Montague herself had stopped walking. for the artist's stability. Irene Phillips (b. 1925-1997) was another artist who used compensation in Jennie Maruki (b. 1917) is another artist who paints her anxieties. Maruki, her work. Born in Virginia, Phillips came to New York when she was a young born in California, was interred in a camp for Japanese Americans during 90 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

World War II (Marks, 2000b). Her emotional problems may have begun dur­ his life. There is another dark area behind the figure, a black shape with both ing the internment, because afterwards, when Maruki came east she was di­ positive and negative connotations. As a negative image, it suggests a dark agnosed as schizophrenic and hospitalized. In Untitled, a self-portrait done hole, a chasm into which the figure could tumble backwards, but as a positive with watercoior and marker on paper, Maruki reveals herself as a woman in image it is reminiscent of the cape of Superman and other comic book heroes. danger. Her face seems agitated and her hand is raised as if to ward off some­ The artist has further emphasized the super hero aspect of the figure through thing she does not see but senses. attention to the anatomy of its extremely muscular body. By emphasizing the That danger appears to be personified in the black demonic head at the top of strength of the figure, Gonzalez may be saying that even a strong man can the painting, which is fused with her black hat and dark hair. The brim of the have an accident. hat, which forms its arms enhances its sinister aspect. As the highest object in Although the man in the painting appears to be struggling, he is still man­ the painting, the image dominates the human figure below. Its blackness sur­ aging to hold the world. Other signs of optimism are the two white stars rounding Maruki's head implies that it controls her thinking. Because the shining in the in the upper left and right corners of the dark blue sky. They arc way we think is how we see the world, this figure controls Maruki's world. connected to the world by the white arc at the top of its rim and appear to help Psychologically, it appears to be what Jung (1977) would call the shadow, keep it aloft. As lights in the darkness, they suggest hope and as visual an­ which is a dark negative aspect of the personal unconscious that when faced, chors in the corners of the work, they exert a stabilizing influence on the can become positive. But if not confronted, the shadow can control the per­ painting's composition. Also as symbols of optimism, they are strength in the son, as is happening in this painting. Its appearance in profile further sug­ artist's life. In addition, white stars on blue refer to the American flag, a sign gests an unavailable hidden nature. of freedom. The artist has won a degree of freedom in his struggle with men­ That Maruki's experience is overwhelming is also intimated by the bril­ tal illness. With the help of his sister, Gonzalez has his own apartment and an liant blue background reminiscent of water, which runs into the blue blouse, independent life. obliterating the outline of her body. The painting's association with drown­ ing is further emphasized by the shadow around the face, making it appear as The Creative Process if it is just peering up from a body of water, which is almost engulfing her. Oscar Brown (1933-1995), who lived in Brooklyn, came to HAI when he The eyes are staring and out of alignment, suggesting the out of aligned eyes was attending a mental health facility day program (Freeh and Marks, 1996; in Kabuki portraits, which are part of Maruki's heritage as a Japanese Ameri­ Marks, 2000b). Intensely absorbed in art, Brown created work every day by can. In Japanese prints, out of aligned eyes were used to show intensity in a applying color on black paper. Among his subjects were African faces, such figure. Her nose with its nostrils is dry so she is still breathing air but the as Untitled, which shows a man's head wearing a hat. The painting may be a water line is advancing towards her mouth. self-portrait reflecting the artist's reverence for and intuitive understanding Water, symbolic of the unconscious, shows she is in danger of being over­ of the creative process. Brown shows the head as transparent, except for its whelmed by primary processes. Her blue shirt, partly obliterated by the wa­ upper portion where lines of white chalk have grayed the black. Because tery blue background, has black lines outlining creases in the fabric. On ei­ their color and position suggest a brain, the portrait may indicate the artist is ther side of her neck the creases form two blue shapes suggesting genitalia. a thinking person, whose mental faculties are active during the creative pro­ On the left is a phallic shape, which points sexually towards the vaginal shape cess. oh the right. Both genitalia touch the bottom of her hair, which is also the The coloring of the work also suggests creativity, with light lines emerging body of the menacing shadow figure, suggesting unconscious sexual anxi­ from darkness, like inspiration from the unconscious. By using metallic marker eties. on black, the face becomes a totemic image. Its glowing eyes surrounded by Maruki made this painting with her left hand after her dominant right arm radiant lashes are solar symbols, enhancing the suggestion of a divine being. was broken. According to Marks (2000b), Maruki's work with the left hand Because artists create worlds on canvas, Brown may have associated the cre­ is bolder both in color and line than her previous and subsequent right-handed ation of a work of art with creation by a divinity. Although the painting may creations. That Maruki continued to paint despite her disability shows the be seen as self-aggrandizing, it actually serves a positive function, giving the artist's perseverance and how much she values her self-expression. artist self-esteem and focus in a life made more difficult by mental illness. Self-esteem was very important to Brown. He unable to read but held news­ Trauma and Determination papers open on the subway so that no one would suspect he was illiterate Artists not only paint their anxieties but they can also portray their (Marks, 2000b). strengths, as seen in the work of William Gonzalez (b. 1927-) Gonzalez, who grew up in Spanish Harlem was hit by a car when he was in his twenties References (Freeh and Marks, 1996; Marks, 2000b). The accident resulted in a head Herrera, H. (1983). Frida: A Biography ofFrida Kahlo. New York: Harper injury so severe that he was placed in a state mental hospital for sixteen & years. The acrylic painting, When I Picked Up the World the Axle Fell Off, Row. may refer both to the accident and his attitude towards coping with the result­ Jung, C. G. (1977). Mysterium Coniunctionis. (Trans. R. F. C. Hull). ing disability. It suggests the difficulty of living with mental illness but also Princeton: the determination of the artist to triumph over his problems. Bollingen Series, Princeton University Press. The painting is based on an experience the artist had of picking up a globe Marks, E. (2,000a). Personal communication, April 5, 2000. of the earth and having its axle fall off (Marks 2000b). But the image, my- Marks, E. (2,000b). Personal communication, June 9, 2000. thologized by an Atlas figure holding up the world, has strong psychological Morin, B. (1987). Sphere eversion. A computerized sequence of images connotations. Gonzalez writes on the painting, "When I picked up the world, generated by the University of Illinois at Chicago may be found at: the axle fell off." As the shaft that supports and holds a wheel in place, an http://www.mri.uchicago.edu/~rg/Morin/MorinSphereEversion.html axle is the pivot, the center around which the wheel spins. So in losing his Freeh K. R. and Marks E. (1996). Outsider Artists of Hospital Audiences, axle, Gonzalez lost his center. Because a round wheel suggests the round Inc. world, it may mean that the artist lost a firm grip on the world after his acci­ (HAI). New York: MJS/HAI. dent. The figure in the painting holds a world that is dark gray with some Tobi Zausner light patches of blue, inferring that the artist sees his environment as largely 137 East 38th Street, 6J obscured. The gray, which is put on over the blue may refer to dark clouds New York NY 10016 over a clear sky and the problems Gonzalez has had after the accident clouded Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol. 1(2) 91

William Gonzales - When 1 Picked up the World, the Axle Fell off

Frances Montague - Rajah, Indian Elephant

Irene Phillips - Leopard

-•»i

KennyMcKav Buds unit./ < up <>/ < ., ,,i h',<,t n iiTifihJ 92 Vol. 1(2) Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts

List of works on exhibit McKay, Kenny. Bugs Bunny, c.1990. Watercolor, crayon and marker on paper, 13 x 10. McKay, Kenny. Mickey, c 1997. Acrylic and metallic marker on paper, 14 x 17. Elizabeth Marks McKay, Kenny. Knight, c.1989. Watercolor on paper, 10 x 15. American Psychological Association McKay, Kenny. Knight and Unicorn, c. 1989. Watercolor and marker on paper, 19 x 13. Curator's Note. Many titles are descriptive, and supplied by HAI, as the artists rarely McKay, Kenny. Angel, c.1989. Watercolor and marker on paper, 13 x 14. formally entitled their work. Dimensions are given in Height x Width. McKay, Kenny. Knight on Horse, c.1989. Watercolor and marker on paper, 19 7/8 x Brown, Oscar. Angel, c.1988 Oil pastel and metallic marker on black paper, 12 x 9. 14 7/8. Brown, Oscar. Byzantine Tree, c.1988. Watercolor and metallic marker on black McKay, Kenny. Face, c.1992. Watercolor and oil pastel on paper, 11 x 14. paper, 12x9. McKay, Kenny. Birds with a Cup of Coffee, c. 1989. Watercolor, marker and crayon Brown, Oscar. X. 1993. Gouache and metallic marker on black paper, 24 x 18. on paper, 10 x 13. Brown, Oscar. Purple Wave, c.1995. Gouache, oil pastel and metallic marker on Mertna, Gaetana. Man between Buildings, c. 1982-1987. Colored pencil on paper, black paper, 18 x 14. 12 Brown, Oscar. Garden of Eden, c.1995. Oil pastel and metallic marker on black xl8. paper, 17 x 14. Menna, Gaetana. Man on Sidewalk, c.1982-1987. Colored pencil on paper, 10 x 14. Brown, Oscar. Design, c.1990. Metallic marker and gouache on black paper, 9 x 6. Menna, Gaetana. Man with Palm Trees, c.1982-1987. Colored pencil on paper, 12 Brown, Oscar. Design, c.1990. Metallic marker and gouache on black paper, 9 x 6. x Brown, Oscar. Design, c.1990. Metallic marker and gouache on black paper, 9 x 6. 18. Brown, Oscar. Face, c.1990. Metallic marker and oil pastel on black paper, 9 x 6. Menna, Gaetana. Figure and Tree, c.1982-1987. Colored pencil on paper, 12 x 18. Brown, Oscar. Portrait, c.1995. Oil pastel and metallic marker on black paper, 17 x Menna, Gaetana. Copy of The Annunciation by Fra Angelico. c.1995. Watercolor 14. and ball-point pen on paper. 15 x 20. Daddea, Patirna. Tulip, c.1988. Watercolor and crayon on paper, 13 x 10. Menna, Gaetana. Copy of Unknown Eighteenth Century British Painter, c.1992. Daddea, Patirna. Tulip, c.1988. Watercolor and crayon on paper, 13 x 10. Watercolor and marker on paper, 15 x 11. Daddea, Patirna. Flowers, c.1988. Watercolor and crayon on paper, 13 x 10. Menna, Gaetana. Copy of The Musicians by Caravaggio. c.1988. Colored pencil on Daddea, Patirna. Flowers, c.1988. Watercolor and crayon on paper, 13 x 10. paper, 14 x 17. Fama, Rocco. Dockside Cityscape. c.1995. Colored pencil on paper, 21 x 30. Montague, Frances. Lady Shalimar: Rajah, Indian Elephant, ell989. Watercolor, Fama, Rocco. Building with a Flag, c.1995. Colored pencil on paper, 15x12. ' marker and glitter on paper, 13x18. Fama, Rocco. Building with a Flag, c.1995. Colored pencil on paper, 15 x 12. Montague, Frances Lady Shalimar: Beautiful Flamenco Dancer, c.1989. Gonzalez, William. Parfum. c.1990. 'Watercolor on paper, 23 x 17. Watercolor, marker and sequins on paper., 18 x 13. Gonzalez, William. What's the Secret* Jennie Maruki? c.1993. Acrylic on canvas, .Montague, Frances. Lady Shalimar: Mexican Hat Dance, c.1989. Watercolor, 18x24. marker and sequins on paper, 18x13.. Gonzalez, William. When I Picked Up the World the Axle Fell Off. c.1995. Acrylic Montague, Frances. Lady Shalimar: French Trained Dog Act. c.1989. Watercolor, on canvas, 36 x 24. marker and glitter on paper, 23 x 18. Gonzalez, William. Samson ? Deliaie. c.1995. Acrylic on canvas, 36 x 24. Montague, Frances. Lady Shalimar: La Vie en Rose, c.1989. Gouache and puff Gonzalez, William. From NY. c.1993. Acrylic on canvas, 36 x 24. paint on paper, 23 x 17. Gonzalez, William. The Greatest, c.1995. Acrylic on canvas, 24 x 36. Montague, Frances. Lady Shalimar: Moscow Circus, c.1985. Marker, crayon, gold Gonzalez, William. Head First, c.1995. Acrylic on canvas, 24 x 36. and silver ink, glitter on paper, 23x17. Greenberg, Carl. Barber Songs, c.1989. Acrylic on paper, 16 x 14. Phillips, Irene. Face, c.1993. Acrylic and collage on paper, 24 x 18. Greenberg, Carl. Grosery [sic] Songs, c. 1985. Marker and crayon on paper, 14x11. Phillips, Irene. Face, c.1990. Ink and marker on paper, 14x10. Greenberg, Carl. Clown Songs, c.1988. Acrylic on paper, 14 x 16 5/8. Phillips, Irene. Face, c.1990. Ink and marker on paper, 23 x 18. Greenberg, Carl. Casel [sic] Songs, c.1984. Marker and acrylic on paper, 18 1/8 x Phillips, Irene. Domingo Deers. c.1993. Acrylic on paper, 36 x 24. 12. Phillips, Irene. Alligator, c.1988. Ink, watercolor and marker on paper, 15 x 21. Hamilton, Ray. Blue Bird. c. 1980-85. Watercolor on paper, 16 x 20. Phillips, Irene. Leopard, c.1993. Acrylic on canvas, 24 x 36. Hamilton, Ray. Faces, c. 1990. Pencil and red ball-point face, 15 x 22 Phillips, Irene. Rooster, c.1987. Ink and watercolor on paper, 16 x 14. Hamilton, Ray. Face. c. 1995. pencil and pen on paper. 15 x 10. Rodriguez, Ana. Witch on a Bike, c.1988. Watercolor and marker on paper, 14 x Hamilton, Ray. Dog. c.1990. Lead pencil on paper, 15 x 22. 17. Hamilton, Ray. Animals, c.1990. Ball-point on paper, 10 x 13 Rodriguez, Ana. Boat, c.1988. Watercolor and marker on paper, 14 x 17. Hamilton, Ray. Dogs, c.1990. Ball-point and watercolor on paper, 17x14. Rodriguez, Ana. Dog. c.1988. Watercolor and marker on paper, 14x17. Hamilton, Ray. Man and Fish. c. 1980-85. Watercolor and marker on paper, 11 7/8 x Rodriguez, Ana. Twin Smokers, c.1988. Watercolor and ball-point pen on paper, 13 17 7/8. x20. Jamison, Mercedes. Lion c.1993. Watercolor on paper, 17 x 23. Scalisi, Lena. Fish, c.1994. Watercolor, oil pastel and marker on paper, 15 x 21. Jamison, Mercedes. Face, c.1995. Acrylic on paper, 18 x 18. Scalisi, Lena. Scarecrow, c.1989. Marker and crayon on paper, 13 x 20. Jamison, Mercedes. Face c.1995. Acrylic on paper, 13x14. Thornblad, Rodney. Last Supper. 1999. Colored and lead pencil, 25 x 39. Jamison, Mercedes. Happy Heart Day. c.1988. Watercolor and marker on paper, 12 x 18. Curator's Note: The Statue of Liberty series was executed during two events: The Jamison, Mercedes. Tropica, c.1994. Watercolor on paper, 17 x 13. 1986 Centennial of the Statue, and its restoration. Jamison, Mercedes. Bell and Candles, c.1994. Watercolor on paper, 24 x 18. Jamison, Mercedes. Santa Claus. c.1988. Watercolor and colored pencil on paper, Prendergast, James. Statue of Liberty 18 x 12. Prendergast, James. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Harlequin, c.1992. Watercolor and ink on paper, 17 x 14. Jaret, Ethel. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Shadow Figure, c.1992. Watercolor and ink on paper, 15 x 11. Kossoff, Helen. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Figure, c.1990. Watercolor on paper, 16 x 12. Lerner, Gilda. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Hello My People, Hello My Fans, c.1997. Ink and watercolor on Glatt, Benita. Statue of Liberty paper, 12 x 9. Scalisi, Lena. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Face, c.1990. Acrylic and pen on paper, 12 x 9. Jamison, Mercedes. Statue of Liberty Maruki, Jennie. Figure and cradle floating over black figure and animal. 1993. Watercolor and marker on paper, 24 x 18 Bulletin of Psychology and the Arts Vol 1(2) 93

1 " . _ '&">••%

William Ailolj'hf fiuiirjii n-nii Jriuir I' I ,.;,, ll„ . •//, . U.'it -'I I > .1 r: I 'J , • , If Join Division 10! (Just fill out this form and mail it back to APA)

Membership Application ¥ Division 10

Ps^@to@ll@§jy m<& QOq® $W&

Name:

Mailing Address: e-mail address:

Phone: (Work) * (Home)

Applying to Division 10 as (circle one):

Fellow Member Associate Affiliate Student Affiliate

APA Membership Number (if already a member)

Annual Dues: $15.00 for Members, Associates, and non-APA-Affiliates; $10.00 for Student Affiliates

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION Non-Profit DIVISION 10 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ARTS 750 FIRST STREET, NE U. S. Postage WASHINGTON, DC 20002-4242 PAID Washington, DC Permit No. 6348

Dr Paul J Locher Depi of Psychol Honfcclsir State llniv Upper iloBtclair, H-J mm-UM

litgisistillhitiifjliillfti litiSliieclelefiiS