Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

Rabeya Rowshan Riaz Uddin Khan

Nagorik Uddyog & Bangladesh Dalit and Excluded Rights Movement

1 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

Research Team Rabeya Rowshan Riaz Uddin Khan Shameem Akter Jahan

Research Assistants Sawpna Rani, Aduri Robidas, Bithi Sarkar, Sonu Rani, Pakhi Rani Robidas, Gita Rani Chowhan, Urmila Das, Sonu Rani, Usha Rani, Sumitra Rani, Rita Rani Robidas, Sawmpa Robidas, Radha Mondal, Pampa Das, Songeeta Robidas, Smriti Ran, Kobita Rani, Eit Sarkar, Mijanur Rahman, Shayamoly Zannat Doly, Suchitra Rani, Purobi Sarkar & Usha Rani, Tamanna Singh Baraik, Saroti Robidas

© Nagorik Uddyog & Bangladesh Dalit and Excluded Rights Movement

December, 2016

Published by Nagorik Uddyog & Bangladesh Dalit and Excluded Rights Movement House no. 8/14, Block-B, Lalmatia, Dhaka-1207 Tel: 88 02 9143636, Fax: 9141511 E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.nuhr.org

Cover Photo GMB Akash

Design and Illustration Barek Hossain Mithu

Printers Chowdhury Printers and Supply 48/A/1, Baddanagar, Pilkhana, Dhaka-1205

Supported by Christian Aid

2 Contents

Acknowledgement 5 Acronyms 7 Executive Summary 9

Chapter-1: Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges 13 1.1. Introduction 13 1.2. Objectives 14 1.3. Conceptualizing Dalit 15 1.4 Significance of the Study 15 1.5. Methodology 15 1.6. Limitations of the study 16

Chapter-2: Review of Literature 17 2.1. Literature Review 17 2.2. Gaps in Laws and Their Implementation in Bangladesh 19 2.3. A Theoretical Framework 20

Chapter-3: Socio-Economic Conditions and Cultural dynamism 23 3.1 Education and Literacy 23 3.2 Livelihood Options 23 3.3 Income 24 3.4 Health and Hygiene Scenario 25 3.5 Kinship and Marriage 25

Chapter-4: Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit woman in Bangladesh 27 4.1. Multiple Forms and Causes of Marginalization of Dalit Woman 27 4.2. Exclusion in Public Space 27 4.3 Access to Education 28 4.4 Access to Land 32 4.5 Access to Economic Resources and Loss of Traditional Jobs 34 4.6 Limited Access to Social Safety Net Programmes 35

Chapter-5: Dalit Women and Empowerment 39 5.1 Discourse on Dalit Women Gender Identity 39 5.2 Role in Decision-making 41 5.3 Mobility of Dalit Women 42 5.4 Gender-based Violence and Dalit Women 43 5.5 Dalit Women in Panchayat 46 5.6 Political Participation of Dalit Women 48

3 Chapter-6: Reviewing relevant policies, Law and constitution 49 Constitution 49 Anti-Discrimination Act (Draft) 50 Policy Related to Higher Education Quota 50 Bangladesh Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plan (2011-2015, 2016 – 2020) 50 Sixth Plan Progress with Inclusion Regarding Dalit 50 Inclusion Strategy for the Seventh Plan 51 The Vision for Social Security System in the Seventh Plan 52 Policy Related to Employment 52 Policy of Distributing State Owned Land to the Landless 52 Policy to Distribute Agricultural Khas Land 53 Safety Netting Programmes of the Government 53 Other Policies 54

Chapter-7: Recommendations and Conclusion 55 1 Recommendations 55 7.2 Conclusion 55

References 57

4 Acknowledgement

Nagorik Uddyog commissioned this study titled Our deepest appreciation also goes to Mr. “Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities Zakir Hossain, CEO of Nagorik Uddyog for his and Challenges of Dalit Women.” professional guidance. We whole-heartedly extend our sincerest thanks to all the leaders of The study team conducted this study using survey BDERM who helped us by providing information and participatory techniques, which required the based on their life experiences. Additionally, we active participation and involvement of a variety would like to thank the respective data collectors of stakeholders. During the course of its data from Dalit communities for their efforts and collection and information generation, the team support to our field data collection. met with a large number of Dalit women, men, girls and boys to learn from their experiences in Last but not the least, we would like to acknowledge this field. Although it is practically difficult to name all the respondents who participated in the study everyone who gave their kind input for the study, through questionnaire surveys, Focus Group we are deeply grateful for their contributions and Discussions (FGD) and Key Informant Interviews active participation in the study process. First of (KII). They were our guides and friends throughout all, we would like to extend our sincerest gratitude our journey. We enjoyed their friendship and to the staff of Nagorik Uddyog, who gave their their smiles. They were tireless in fulfilling all our valuable time in sharing their knowledge and requirements. It is important to point out that, observations with us and who responded to without their full and friendly support, it would our many queries with patience and utmost have been impossible to conduct this meaningful professionalism. It is worth mentioning that it study. We extend our deepest gratitude to them. would have been impossible to complete the task on time without the dedication and services of Research Team Ms. Afsana Amin of Nagorik Uddyog.

5 6 ACRONYMS

ALRD Association for Land Reform and Development BD Bangladesh BDERM Bangladesh Dalit and Excluded Rights Movement BDEWF Bangladesh Dalit and Excluded Women’s Federation CA Christian Aid CEDAW Convention for Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CSO Civil Society Organisation DHRD Dalit Human Rights Defenders NGO Non-Government Organisation NHRI National Human Rights Institutions. NSSS National Social Security NU Nagorik Uddyog SHED Society for Health Extension and Development SSNP Social Safety Net Programme UN United Nations UNO Upazila Nirbahi Officer UP Union Parishad

7 8 Executive Summary

There are approximately 160 million people in This report also aims to provide a strategic Bangladesh. Although more than 80 percent of direction for future development interventions to the population are Bengali Muslims, there is still empower Dalit women. significant diversity in terms of ethnicity, religion, Different studies have found that Dalit women language, etc. The Dalits are one category among in Bangladesh, who occupy the bottom of both these diverse groups who have received special caste and gender hierarchies, face multiple attention in recent years, both internationally and forms of violence and discrimination (as Dalits; nationally. Development agencies and activists as members of an impoverished underclass; as are working on Dalit issues, while the literature women), and are particularly vulnerable. The on the Dalits continues to evolve, conceptually endemic gender and caste discrimination and and empirically. violence faced by Dalit women is the outcome The Dalit are one of the most marginalized of severely imbalanced social, economic, and groups in Bangladesh and are often subject political power equalities. Dalit communities are to discriminatory treatment. Historically, they patriarchal with deeply conservative values about have been oppressed by dominant groups in gender roles, which lead to severe restrictions of mainstream society. The majority of Dalits are women’s rights, mobility, and freedoms. very poor, underprivileged, and possess limited In contemporary market-based societies, three job opportunities. Moreover, they are politically forms of capital are necessary for any individual underrepresented and many are forced to live in to make a decent living: economic, social, and inhumane conditions. They are socially excluded, cultural. Dalit women lack all three. Unfortunately, stigmatized, and isolated from mainstream they have little guarantee of accessing these society. forms of capitals while dwelling in bounded and Among the Dalit as a social group, women are patriarchal Dalit communities. They have limited the most marginalized of the marginalized. They access to land, credits, and loans from formal face a kind of double marginality: First, they are institutions, and cannot access other economic marginalized as Dalits, and second, they are resources. Their social capital is limited to kinship marginalized as women. networks within their communities. They are not allowed to gain other forms of social capital Sadly, until very recently, Dalit issues have through cultural institutions such as schools, been ignored or denied by the Government clubs, associations, alumni networks, etc. of Bangladesh, donors, and civil society. Dalit women’s issues have received scant national The study on Dalit women has been conducted or international attention, and little empirical using a mixed method approach to the collection research has been undertaken to define and of primary data. The study team conducted a understand them. With this situation in mind, this quantitative survey through a closed-ended research has been undertaken to understand questionnaire with 500 respondents distributed the nature of the cultural, social, economic, in eight locations across eight administrative and political vulnerabilities of Dalit women in divisions of the country. The respondents Bangladesh, and the factors that define them. were Dalit women from eight different Dalit

9 Executive Summary

communities: Bashfor, Telagu, Domee, Robidas, income earning activities are cleaning (17.2 Rishi, Kawra, Malo/Barmon/Jele/Jaladas, and percent), tea plantation labour (15.4 percent), tea labourer communities. pig rearing (5 percent), and agricultural labour (4 percent). Sweeping/cleaning has been the main To collect qualitative data, the research team source of earned income for Dalit women for conducted a total of 32 Focus Group Discussions generations. (FGDs) around the country. In each of the eight locations, four FGDs were held. The FGDS The monthly incomes of Dalit households in this included four types of participants: a) women of the study ranged from under Taka 2,000 to over Taka Dalit community; b) men of the Dalit community; 10,000. Of the 500 households surveyed, 28 c) girls of the Dalit community, and d) boys of Dalit percent have monthly incomes of Taka 10,000 community. A total of 32 Key Informant Interviews or above; 20 percent are in the Taka 4,000-Taka (KII) were conducted as part of this research 6,000 range; 17.8 percent are in the Taka 6,001- study. KII respondents were chosen from upazila Taka 8,000 range; 17.6 percent in the Taka 8,000- administration representatives tasked with Taka 10,000 range; 8.6 percent in the Taka 2,001- delivering services to Dalit communities. Here, Taka 4,000 range, and 8 percent households have officials included upazila social welfare officers, monthly incomes of less than Taka 2,000. The upazila women’s affairs officers, and upazila pattern of expenditure varied across households, youth officers. depending on the number of household members and the nature of their occupations. Dalit women The different chapters of the study describe the complained that male household members socio-economic conditions and cultural dynamism, spent less on household needs and more on marginalization and vulnerability, grander identity, their personal needs, i.e. alcohol and smoking. political participation and empowerment of Dalit Alcohol-related expenditures made by husbands woman in Bangladesh, based on findings from was found to be higher in some households. both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The general health awareness of respondents Of the 500 Dalit women interviewed by the study, was satisfactory. They reported that NGOs only 44.4 percent had attended school. Among and government community clinics run health them, 63.1 percent had completed the primary awareness Programmes on different primary school level; 5.9 percent completed the secondary health issues in areas where they live. In school level, and none of the respondents had discussion, Dalit women said that their children completed the HSC level. Dalit girls’ educational are immunized. They also reported visiting health aspirations are shadowed by the extreme poverty complexes for antenatal and postnatal services of their communities, compounded by factors during and after pregnancy. But the overall such as lack of educational awareness, early unhygienic conditions in their community leaves marriage, etc. them vulnerable to health risks and diseases. Livelihood options for Dalit women are very Scarcity of safe water, inadequate sanitation limited. This section of the report highlights the and drainage systems, lack of hygiene, lack major sources of income for Dalit women in the of knowledge of proper menstrual hygiene chosen study areas. The field data shows that, management, lack of solid waste disposal out of 500 respondents, 47 percent work at home management systems, and congested and and not involved in any economic activities. The unhygienic living spaces are some of the severe rate of unemployment among Dalit women is problems and health hazards faced by Dalit thus quite high. For those who do work, the major women and children in this study.

10 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

Early marriage is a problem hindering the women, and around 2 percent of Kawra and development of Dalit girls. 38.6 percent of Dalit Jaladas women reported problems moving within girls are married off between the ages of 16-18. the larger community and accessing different According to respondents, poverty and social public spaces. insecurity are two major reasons that parents In general, Dalit people own very little land and arrange marriages for their under-18 daughters. reside mainly in government colonies and, in rural The practice of dowry is very common. areas, on government lands. Dalit women rarely Dalit communities are male-dominated. Dalit own land unless it has been donated by others women’s political influence in the clan or caste or inherited from their parents or their husbands. — namely, the panchayat structure — is so low Nevertheless, a few women in this study had that they are excluded from any decision-making access to land, which is considered the most process at the local level and, due to patriarchal important economic resource in create positive cultural norms and ideologies, are not allowed to change in life. represent their communities at the national level. As citizens of the state, Dalit women are entitled This lack of political and social power leaves to government services in Bangladesh. Moreover, them unable to challenge their marginalization they most often work for local government bodies and exclusion. All these factors feed into each such as municipalities that deliver such services other, perpetuating the low economic and social to citizens. Yet their access to these services status of Dalit women and reproducing it over ties is limited. When interviewed for this study, generations. Therefore, the marginalization of the local government officials claimed concern for Dalit woman is multidimensional. the wellbeing of Dalit communities. In reality, With rare exceptions, Harijan (sweeper) women however, Dalits receive very little access to social and men are not allowed to enter local restaurants services. where their occupation is known. They are Historically, Dalit communities are patriarchal, required to stay outside, and restaurant staff and women and girls live at the edge of society. hand food to them there. They are not allowed Families are run by strong patriarchal values, to use any utensils belonging to the restaurant, which often limit Dalit women’s freedom of and must carry their own plates and glasses to choice or self-expression in household decision- eat/drink. Sweepers belong at the bottom of the making. The data shows that women accept their bottom among the Dalit, and they face extreme subordinate position within the household and exclusion— specifically in restaurants within their do not believe they have a right to participate localities. However, sweeper women of different in family decision-making, or to freely express castes said that hiding their identities may allow themselves. them to enter restaurants far from their localities. They added that Dalit men, especially younger Dalit women’s mobility and their public role is ones, can sometimes enter restaurants, but that defined by male family members and the rules of the Dalit woman’s distinctive style of wearing the clan. Their mobility is limited within their own the sari (which is considered an identity marker) communities and requires the permission of male prevents them from doing so. This is the key family members i.e. father, brother or husband. reason that women of younger generations do The family will determine how far a girl or woman not wear saris in their traditional distinctive style. can go alone, depending on her age and marital According to the study findings, around 5 percent status. of Bashfor women, less than 5 percent of Rishi

11 Executive Summary

As members of a patriarchal community, Dalit to Dalit women to help them find alternative women from all eight castes reported being means of income. victimized by violence. They are physically and • Development interventions for Dalit women mentally tortured by family members. should be long-term and should focus on The Bangladesh Government has taken several future generations and youth. Ensuring proper steps to ensure the well-being of Dalit men and education and facilitating decent income- women. It has introduced special Dalit, Harijan earning opportunities could be the most and Bede allowances, but these allowances are effective way to empower future generations inadequate to address their practical conditions of Dalit women. and needs. This study offers a number of recommendations to promote the well-being and empowerment of Dalit women who are the most marginalized of the marginalized in Bangladesh society.

Recommendations: • Positive, effective, and meaningful interaction between Dalit women and Dalit men should be organized and encouraged through different advocacy programmes to reduce domestic violence. • Government and NGOs programmes should target young Dalit men and boys to positively change their attitudes towards women and violence against women. • Focus should be given to promoting positive interaction between Dalit and non-Dalit children at school, and raising non-¬Dalit children’s awareness of the dignity and rights of the Dalit. • Further advocacy and lobbying efforts are needed to pressure line ministries to ensure Dalit women’s access social safety net programmes. • The active participation of Dalit women in life beyond the family, including local community power structures, should be promoted and encouraged. • In addition to government efforts, NGOs and other institutions should provide skill-training

12 CHAPTER-1 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

1.1 Introduction The term ‘Dalit’ was first used by the oppressed communities of Maharashtra in the 19th century There are approximately 160 million people in (Syam Sunder, 2015). Mahatma Gandhi Bangladesh. Although more than 80 percent of introduced the term ‘Harijan’, meaning the ‘Child the population are Bengali Muslims, there is still of Hari (God)’, to refer to the same groups of significant diversity in terms of ethnicity, religion, people. So, to some extent, the terms ‘Dalit’ and language, etc. The Dalits are one category among ‘Harijan’ are used interchangeably. The Dalit are these diverse groups who have received special exposed to and destined to undertake ‘inferior’ attention in recent years, both internationally and types of professions such as leather-working, nationally. Development agencies and activists butchering, cobbling, sweeping, etc. The term are working on Dalit issues, while the literature ‘Dalit’ has come into general usage in Bangladesh on the Dalits continues to evolve, conceptually via different development organizations, activists, and empirically. and academics mainly from the last decade. There is disagreement about the size of the Dalit Although ‘Dalit’, as an identity, has been popular population in the country. Some sources estimate in India and Nepal since the 1960s, the term a population of half a million Dalits (Parvez & ‘Scheduled Caste’ is still used for official purposes Islam, 2014:24), while others estimate the number instead of ‘Dalit’. to range between 3.5 to 5.5 million, to even Among the Dalit as a social group, Dalit women 1 percent of the total population (Chowdhury, are the most marginalized of the marginalized. 2009:1-2). The Department of Social Welfare They face a kind of double marginality: First, survey claims the number of Dalit in the country they are marginalized as Dalits; second, they to be around 4.35 million (Fair: 2015). Similar are marginalized as women. Dalit women face to the dispute regarding the number of Dalits discrimination in every sphere of their lives. in the Bangladesh, there is a debate regarding High rates of illiteracy, child marriage, and early who should be identified as Dalit. The ancestors motherhood characterize today’s Dalit women. of many of the current population of Dalits were Though Bangladesh has achieved commendable brought to what is now Bangladesh mainly from progress in education, especially in primary the current Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, education, the status of education of Dalit Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh by the communities — and, more specifically, of Dalit British colonial administration during the first women — is not compatible with the national half of the 19th century. The Dalit are one of the average. The dropout rate of Dalit girl children is most marginalized groups in Bangladesh and are high. Enrolment of Dalit girls in secondary, higher often subject to discriminatory treatment. The secondary, and higher education appears to be majority of Dalits are very poor, underprivileged, rare. Families are run by strong patriarchal values, and possess limited job opportunities. Moreover, which tend to limit Dalit women’s freedom of they are politically underrepresented and many choice or self-expression in household decision- are forced to live in inhumane conditions. Socially making. excluded, they are stigmatized and isolated from mainstream society.

13 Chapter-1 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

Livelihood options for Dalit women are very The constitution of the People’s Republic of limited. Forty-seven percent Dalit women work at Bangladesh, the supreme law of the land, home and not involved in any economic activities. Sections 27, 28 and 29 declare equal rights The rate of unemployment among Dalit women is for all disadvantaged groups of citizens and quite high. As Dalit men are the bread winners, the ratification of numerous international and Dalit women are economically dependent on UN conventions (e.g. Civil and Political Rights, them. Rights of the Child, Elimination of all forms of The Government does not provide regular and Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and adequate utility services to Dalit communities. all forms of Racial Discrimination) allowing In addition, the overall unhygienic conditions Dalit women to pressure the Government of in their communities leave them vulnerable Bangladesh to materialize its national and to health risks and diseases. Scarcity of safe international obligations and commitment. Sadly, water, inadequate sanitation and drainage until very recently, Dalit issues have been ignored systems, lack of hygiene, lack of knowledge of or denied by the Bangladesh Government, proper menstrual hygiene management, lack donors, and civil society alike. Dalit women’s of solid waste disposal management systems, issues in particular have received scant national and congested and unhygienic living spaces are or international attention. some of the severe problems and health hazards There is little empirical research on the issues faced by Dalit women. of Dalit women. Thus, the focus of this current Early marriage is a problem hindering the research is to assess the situation of Dalit development of Dalit girls. 38.6 percent of Dalit women to provide recommendations for future girls are married off between the ages of 16-18. programming and advocacy strategies that may According to respondents, poverty and social improve the situation of Dalit women. insecurity are two major reasons that parents 1.2 Objectives arrange marriages for their under-18 daughters. The practice of dowry is very common. The focus of this study has been developed Dalit communities are deeply male-dominated. based on the following specific objectives: Dalit women’s political influence in the clan • To understand the nature of and the key or caste — namely, the panchayat structure factors contributing to the cultural, social, — is so low that they are excluded from any economic, and political vulnerability of Dalit decision-making process at the local level and, women in Bangladesh. due to patriarchal cultural norms and ideologies, • To identify their perception of social inclusion Dalit women are not allowed to represent their and exclusion. communities at national levels. This lack of • To identify the scope to reduce inequality and political and social power leaves them unable to marginalization of Dalit woman. challenge their marginalization and exclusion. • To provide a strategic direction for future If a Dalit woman is widowed or abandoned by development interventions to empower Dalit her husband, she finds it very difficult to survive. women. In some sub-castes, a widow is not allowed to • To generate recommendations for possible remarry. Incidences of domestic violence are advocacy opportunities for Dalit women’s common. Women are often yelled at and beaten issues. by their husbands, especially when husbands are • To generate recommendations for national drunk or run out of money. level advocacy and policy provisions to

14 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

change the lives and livelihoods of Dalit the complex and dynamic relationships of Dalit women. women within and beyond Dalit communities. It is • To analyse the legal and policy frameworks expected that the findings of this study will provide of women’s right protection (e.g. CEDAW, input to help design appropriate programmes for National Women Development Policy) and Dalit women in the future. their implementation, and other related policies to protect Dalit women’s rights. 1.5 Methodology The study adopted a mixed-method approach 1.3 Conceptualizing the Dalit through a combination of interview surveys, In Bangladesh, Dalit is very loosely used as an FGDs, KIIs and participant observation. Thus, the umbrella term that includes members of Hindu analytical approach applied both quantitative and and Muslims communities involved in certain qualitative techniques. professions viewed as unclean or degrading 1.5.1 Sample Design and Sample Size (Uddin, 2015; Chowdhury, 2009). Therefore, the Dalit are those who are oppressed, excluded, We consider the population proportion p is 0.75 marginalized, and structurally subjected to and find the smallest sample size n that will inherited inequality because of their occupation, provide the confidence level is 95, i.e. margin of descent, caste, or group identity, based on the error of +/- 5percent. We use the following formula notion of ‘untouchability’. This notion derives from when the population size N is known. religious ideas of purity/pollution. n = [(z2 * p * q) + ME2] / [ME2 + z2 * p * q / N]; when the confidence level is 95 percent, i.e. 1.4 Significance of the Study margin of error of +/- 5 percent. The available information on the Dalit in While the population size N is unknown and large Bangladesh mostly concerns their social and then we would consider the standard sample size historical trajectories, lack of access to basic 384. services, the nature of their marginalization and its processes. However, research on the Dalit in To select an equal number of respondents relation to broader social and cultural forces is from each sub-caste, a total of 500 samples rare, and research on the status of Dalit women were determined by considering the standard in relation to their gendered position within their statistical method among the total target own community and the larger mainstream beneficiaries of 20 districts and eight sub-castes community is non-existent. No attempt has of the Dalit population. The interviewer selected been made to understand the inner dynamics of one or more residential area for each caste and, the Dalit community and the position of women through systematic random sampling, selected within it, which is vital information for any future a household and respondent from that area. development interventions. For seven sub-castes, 20 respondents were randomly selected from different districts, to total The present study provides systematic quantitative 60 respondents from each of the seven sub- and qualitative information about Dalit women castes. Finally, we selected 80 respondents from residing in 20 districts and belonging to different an eighth sub-caste. This brought us to a total of ethnic groups within the Dalit. This study has been 500 targeted respondents to be interviewed for designed to provide quantitative and qualitative this research. as well as analytical information to illuminate

15 Chapter-1 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

1.5.2 Data collection method provide any documentary-based information. The following quantitative and qualitative The research team also found that a number of techniques were applied to collect field data: the selected officials were reluctant to respond to Survey: The study team conducted a quantitative interviewers, and some officials outright refused survey through a close-ended questionnaire. Five to respond. As a result, we estimate that 25 hundred respondents were distributed in eight percent of the KIIs could not be conducted. locations across all eight administrative divisions In the study design, the team had planned to of Bangladesh. The respondents were all Dalit conduct KIIs with Union Parishad (UP) chairmen. women from eight separate communities or sub- However, most of the chairmen of the areas castes within the Dalit population. surveyed were away at a national meeting of Focus Group Discussions: A total of 32 Focus the Awami League, Bangladesh’s ruling party. Group Discussions (FDGs) were conducted Because of limited time and resources, it was not around the country. In each of the eight locations, possible for research team members to extend four FGDs were held. The FGDS included four their stay and try to make the missing interviews types of participants: a) women of the Dalit upon the chairmen’s return. community; b) men of the Dalit community; c) There were also limitations in conducting the girls of the Dalit community, and d) boys of Dalit survey at the community level. In some cases, community. female respondents in FGDs were shy and less Key Informant Interviews: A total of 32 Key responsive when discussions of reproductive Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted health issues were led by male facilitators. In as part of this research study. KII respondents other cases (for example, among the Telagu in were chosen from upazila administration Dhaka, and tea garden labourers in Srimangal), representatives tasked with delivering services language acted as a barrier. The task of collecting to Dalit communities. Here, officials included quantitative data through survey questionnaires upazila social welfare officers, upazila women’s was also formidable. The team was able to affairs officers, and upazila youth officers. conduct the FGDs smoothly but faced difficulties gathering the Dalit community members at particular times of day. Therefore, they had to 1.6 Limitations of the Study wait for long periods prior to the interviews. Despite the sincere and rigorous efforts of Despite these factors, the research team was Nagorik Uddyog, the organization leading the lucky to be introduced to the respondents by research, it was not possible to complete the trusted project personnel, which made it possible targeted number of KIIs in the allotted time. to collect rich data within a relatively short period In many cases, the absence of the relevant of time. government officials at their desk during the time of the study was a major hurdle. Some of these officials were away in Dhaka or at their divisional headquarters for their official assignments. Other positions were vacant. The research team attempted to collect the appropriate information from officers in immediately junior positions, but this often proved difficult; many junior officers were apprehensive to talk to researchers, or to

16 CHAPTER-2 Review of Literature

2.1. Literature Review According to different studies1, Dalit women in Bangladesh — who occupy the bottom of both In India and Nepal, there has been a significant caste and gender hierarchies — face multiple amount of research on castes, ‘untouchables’, forms of violence and discrimination (as Dalits, and the Dalit. The research has focused on the as members of an impoverished underclass, and historical and sociological trajectories of caste as women), and are thus particularly vulnerable. systems in the Indian subcontinent. Similarly, As Cosimo Zene writes: “one particular group anthropological research on social inequality, and among Dalit worth mentioning… are Dalit women social and economic justice issues is not new. who, having challenged the double burden of Sociologists and anthropologists have devoted oppression, firstly within their own group as time and energy to understanding the production well as the oppression coming from the rest and reproduction of inequality in different societies of the society, have also been able to offer a across time, space, and gender. In many critical, alternative approach to ‘feminism’ in a studies, researchers have also sought theoretical post-colonial setting” (Gramsci and the religion understandings of the intersection of gender and of the subalterns: the case-study of the dalits caste in Indian Dalit communities. As a dynamic (untouchables) in south asia: 2012). The endemic social site, research into Dalit communities can gender and caste discrimination and violence help unpack many of the theoretical concerns Dalit women face is the outcome of severely existing in poverty, social justice, resistance imbalanced social, economic, and political power studies, as well as studies on power and agency, equalities. Dalit communities are patriarchal and etc. hold deeply conservative values about the roles In Bangladesh, in recent years, a large number of women, leading to severe restrictions of their of research reports on the Dalit have begun to rights, mobility and freedom. Many girls are forced emerge, mostly carried by various national and to marry young (age 10-12), are unable to leave international NGOs, UN agencies, and other their homes without being accompanied, and lack donor agencies. These studies focus mainly on any financial independence. As in many societies, understanding the situation of the Dalits and the notions of purity are used to control women, and problems they face, such as the process of their they are unable to marry outside their caste. marginalization and issues of their human rights. Dalit women who work are employed mainly In these studies, the findings concerning Dalit as sweepers or cleaners, and they face regular women and their lives are more or less the physical, verbal and sexual abuse from both same. Dalit women are treated as a homogenous employers and the public. The standard category, and the differentiating dynamics of age, government maternity leave is six months but role, educational background, social status, and Dalit women only receive two months from cultural differences among sub-castes are not the Dhaka City Corporation. In reality, in most considered. municipalities, they must return to work just few

1 See Islam & Parvaz: Parvaz 2013; 2014, Mazharul Islam & Das: 2008, Islam: 2011, Nagorik Uddyog: 2015; 2013, Pal: 2015; UPR 2009

17 Chapter-2 Review of Literature

days after childbirth. Maternal mortality rates are one study (Altaf and Islam, 2014), it was found also higher than average among Dalit women and only 5 percent of Dalit settlements had separate the level of education is far lower. A recent survey latrines for women. Around 96 percent of women conducted in 2011 in a number of tea gardens respondents expressed concerns about privacy in the Chittagong area found that Dalit women’s while using shared latrines. Unhygienic conditions awareness of general health and healthy lifestyle around latrines also pose various health hazards. topics was superficial. Home delivery was most Separate Nagorik Uddyog (2013, 2015) studies common in all tea gardens (93 percent), and found that Dalit women often experience the majority of deliveries (82 percent) were discrimination as a result of their distinct style of attended by traditional birth attendants. Mothers wearing the sari. Known as the Hindi style, this did not exclusive breastfeed for six months, and particular draping makes it easier to identify them complementary food given to the children was as Dalits. As a result, they suffer ‘untouchability’ often nutritionally inadequate. A United Nations in the form of teasing, barred entry to restaurants, independent expert on water and sanitation and etc. Non-Dalits do not allow them to enter their an independent expert on human rights and homes. The practice of ‘untouchability’ is so deeply extreme poverty visited a Dalit colony in 2011 embedded in our society that discriminatory in Bangladesh and reported that they had no customs toward Dalits are considered normal. access to water and safe sanitation. Dalit women This study found that Dalit children face social and girls had to carry the water up several flights problems in greater society when going to school of stairs, posing a serious threat to their physical and also within school because of their low caste wellbeing. In addition, the women’s toilet area had status in society. They are refused admission, a hole in the ceiling, which boys used to watch forced to sit on separate benches or on the floor, the girls, depriving them of privacy2. barred from drinking water from common glasses, Dalit women also face higher levels of rape and made to clean schoolrooms, and subjected to sexual assault than average. For example, in humiliation by teachers and classmates for their July 2009 in Dakatia Village, Jessore, a Dalit families’ social and cultural identity, etc. In many girl was raped and, in the same month, a young places, Dalit are not allowed to enter restaurants Dalit woman (19) was gang raped. Islam (2011) or temples, buy or sell in public marketplaces, shows that Dalit girls feel insecure as non-Dalit ride public transport, enrol in schools, eat from boys feel that it is almost their ‘right’ or ‘privilege’ common plates, rent or buy flats, find decent to touch or push up against a Dalit girl when employment etc. they see her on the street. The insecurity arising from this constant abuse discourages Dalit girls The existing studies3 found that Dalit from venturing too far from their homes. Thus, communities have their own governance system, this paper recommends that special attention known as panchayat, which decides internal be given to these groups of women. Issues and external socio-economic, political, cultural, faced by Dalit women need to be prioritized, and gender practices as well as communication as it is clear that their situation will not change with mainstream society. Women are largely unless issues such as their right to property, absent from the traditional Dalit panchayat reproductive health, early marriage, dowry, and system, which rarely includes governing female lack of financial independence are addressed. In members. Women are not allowed to enter 2 See Islam & Parvaz: Parvaz 2013; 2014, Mazharul Islam 3 Please see Islam & Parvaz: Parvaz 2013; 2014, Mazharul & Das: 2008, Islam: 2011, Nagorik Uddyog: 2015; 2013, Islam & Das: 2008, Islam: 2011, Nagorik Uddyog: 2015; Pal: 2015; UPR 2009 2013, Pal: 2015

18 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

into family arbitration. Instead, male members multiple forms from multiple members of general represent female household members, who are society as well as within their own communities. bound to submit to panchayat arbitration without The practice of caste discrimination and violence question. Dalit women do not play any role in create a heightened level of vulnerability in their decision-making processes, and they cannot everyday lives. However, the condition of Dalit make decisions regarding their own personal women cannot be understood in isolation from issues. They have no alternative but to accept the the overall deprivation, exclusion, and neglect decisions of male family members (i.e. husband, to which Dalit communities are subject. In this father, brother, etc.) regarding marriage, paper, the author also identifies the following childbearing, or traveling anywhere outside gaps in policies: the home. According to religious stricture, Dalit women do not have divorce rights, and thus many 2.2. Gaps in Laws and Their women stay with violent and patriarchal husbands Implementation in Bangladesh and continue to suffer abuse. Girls are blamed, even when they are tortured by their husbands. There is little understanding of the additional Cross-caste and cross-religious marriages vulnerabilities of Dalit women to gender violence are not accepted by the Dalit community; as a and exploitation due to their intersecting caste result, men and women who are marry outside and gender identities, and the different ways that their caste or religious group, are forced by the this violence manifests. panchayat to leave each other. After being forced The rights and entitlements of Dalit women are not to separate, the women are treated very badly specifically addressed by any of the government and humiliated by the community. mechanisms to ensure their development and Tea workers generally wake up early in the empowerment. morning, complete all household tasks, and As education is not recognized as a fundamental arrive at the tea gardens by 8:00 am. Some right, the state is not obliged to protect and walk 4-5 miles to reach their workplace. They fulfil the right of girls to education with specific are generally employed in plucking tea leaves measures to achieve gender equality. The Primary or trimming tea shrubs, which is unusually hard Education (Compulsory) Act of 1990 deals and hazardous labour. Young women workers more with mechanisms to ensure compulsory often become victims of sexual harassment. As education, and not with issues of gender and the perpetrators are typically their superiors, caste equality and non-discriminatory access to they remain silent about these incidents to retain education. Consequently, only a few Dalit girls their jobs. Neither the Government nor tea estate attend schools, and the majority drop out before owners have initiatives for the betterment of tea completion. workers. No disaggregated data by gender and caste In Dalit Human Rights in South Asia; Regional exists on the educational status of Dalit women. Synthesis Report, Dr. Gobinda C. Pal (2015) writes that, in Bangladesh, no specific government The draft Education Act of 2013 states that measures address the nature of caste and gender- primary education will be recognized as a right based violence and the vulnerabilities faced by for every child, but issues related to gender and Dalit women, nor tackle the situation of Dalit caste equality and non-discrimination are not women within wider gender measures. As a result, clearly built into this draft law. Dalit women continue to experience violence of

19 Chapter-2 Review of Literature

Lately, the Government of Bangladesh has begun through access to education, health, and other to include issues of Dalit marginality in its policy basic services, and their entitlement to these discourse. However, this discourse is limited to services as human beings and citizens. maintaining quota systems for Dalit employment. This inclusion school of thought is popular and Serious theoretical and academic literature dominant, and attempts to include the Dalit in on urban Dalits has recently begun to emerge. mainstream society are driven by many national Studies by Uddin (2015) are worth mentioning. and international NGOs and donors. Lately, the Uddin (2015) attempted to shed light on the Government of Bangladesh is taking minimal vulnerability of the Dalit using a theoretical lens initiatives toward inclusion in the form of declaring proposed by Nancy Fraser (2007). Uddin argued quota systems to secure traditional Dalit jobs. that, unless and until the Bangladesh nation- Despite these attempts, a viable framework of state and the dominant mainstream society inclusion programmes is yet to be achieved. recognize the identity and cultural diversity of Following a Bourdieuan model (1977), in Dalits, initiatives to reduce the sufferings of the contemporary market-based societies, three Dalit (most by international donors) cannot be forms of capital are necessary for any individual successful. to make a decent living: economic, social, and cultural capital. Dalit women lack all three and 2.3. A Theoretical Framework have no guarantee of accumulating any of the There is a need to theorize Dalit’s social inclusion three while dwelling in bounded, patriarchal Dalit and exclusion. The concept of social exclusion- communities. They fear not having a decent living, inclusion was prominent in policy discourse in and being overruled by the patriarchal ideology France in the mid-1970s. Then, the concept and social structure. They have no access to was later adopted by the European Union in the land, credits and loans from formal institutions, late 1980s as a key idea in social policy and, in and cannot access other economic resources. many instances, replaced the concept of poverty They have limited social capital through kinship (Rawal, 2008). If we are allowed to perform an networks within their communities. They are not oversimplification of popular and dominant theories allowed to gain other forms of social capital through of inclusion, by and large, most scholarships on institutions such as schools, clubs, associations, social exclusion argues that marginalized people alumni networks, etc. Lastly, cultural capital refers need access to economic resources to become to marketable skills and knowledge that enable productive members of society. In this way, their one to make a living. Most Dalit women lack this marketable skills and knowledge can be utilized also, particularly as they lack enough education which, in turn, helps them improve their socio- to get non-traditional jobs in a competitive market economic conditions. These theories view poor such as that of Bangladesh. or marginalized people as victim of larger social Like other scholars, I see the Dalit community processes. Lack of state intervention and the and Dalit women as a dynamic and complex dominance of market logic are viewed as the two social site which is heterogeneous and requires main villains for the domination and subjugation a holistic understanding that is attentive to and of marginalized peoples. In this framework, informed by theories of power, agency, and marginalized people are seen as victims of resistance. As a very first step in that direction, institutionalized domination and subordination, I have tried to unpack the complex dynamics in lacking any agency or power to fight against it. women’s lives in selected Dalit communities and Thus, scholars advocate a framework of inclusion

20 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

suggested that Dalit communities as a social site deserve long-term anthropological and sociological research using a gender lens — which, in turn, might provide useful theoretical insights to a reassessment of dominant theories of social inclusion/exclusion, markets, and issues of power and agency. Therefore, any practical or strategic changes (such as increasing their control over resources and, concurrently, accumulating the social capital necessary to change the patriarchal social structure of Dalit communities, as so needed by Dalit women) requires an understanding of the community as a complex gender, social, economic, political, and ideological field where different intersections within the field constantly orient and reorient the norms, beliefs, and consciousness of Dalit women and men in their daily life experiences.

21 22 CHAPTER-3 Socio-Economic Conditions and Cultural Dynamism

In this chapter, the general socio-economic including lack of awareness, early marriage, etc. background of the study population is discussed, Field data also shows that 33.3 percent of Dalit such as their education and literacy, income, women have experienced discrimination while expenditure and savings, and the problems they students. face in their daily lives, especially in regard to Though Bangladesh has achieved commendable their health and hygiene. This chapter contains progress in education, especially in primary qualitative and quantitative information about the education, the status of education of Dalit study population’s lives and livelihood. communities — and, more specifically, of Dalit women — is not compatible with the national 3.1 Education and Literacy average. The dropout rate of Dalit girl children The Equity Watch 2014 survey suggests that is high. Enrolment of Dalit girls in secondary, almost half of Dalits (44.9 percent) never attended higher secondary, and higher education appears school, only 36.4 percent attended primary school, to be rare. However, all parents with children we 12.5 percent attended secondary school, and only spoke to, irrespective of gender, wanted to send 4.3 percent attended the higher secondary level. their children to school. They expressed their A HEKS baseline survey in 2013 found literacy dissatisfaction and frustration at past difficulties rates among male and female Dalits to be 48.3 in gaining admission for their children at nearby percent and 38.7 percent respectively. Survey mainstream private or public schools. However, results shows that 84.3 percent of respondents they also said that acceptance of their children in mentioned poverty as the main reason for not schools is gradually increasing. attending school. Other causes included the distance of schools, parents’ negligence, and 3.2 Livelihood Options practices of discrimination in school. Livelihood options for Dalit women are very Field data shows that, among 500 Dalit women limited. This section highlights the major sources surveyed, only 44.4 percent went to school; of livelihood for Dalit women in the study areas. among them, 63.1 percent completed primary The field data shows that, out of 500 respondents, level education, and 5.9 percent completed 47 percent of Dalit women work at home and not secondary level education. However, none of the involved in any economic activities. Their rate respondents of this study completed HSC (Higher of unemployment is quite high. For those who Secondary Certificate) level education. The do work, the major income earning activities study found that the rate of literacy among the are cleaning (17.2 percent), tea plantation Dalit women has increased, and that enrolment labour (15.4 percent), pig rearing (5 percent), in primary education has significantly increased. and agricultural labour (4 percent). Sweeping/ But the rate of further education (i.e. higher than cleaning has been the main source of earned the primary level) has remained almost constant. income for Dalit women for generations. Only a Dalit girls’ aspirations toward higher education few holds permanent positions as cleaners or remain shadowed by the extreme poverty of weepers in government sectors such as railways, their communities, and other additional factors municipalities and hospitals.

23 Chapter-3 Socio-Economic Conditions and Cultural Dynamism

Office hours for government cleaning jobs are Taka 2,000 to over Taka 10,000. Of the 500 usually in the early morning, between 6:00-8:00 households surveyed, 28 percent have monthly am. Thus, in theory, whoever holds a permanent, incomes of Taka 10,000 or above; 20 percent are part-time government job can finish their job by in the Taka 4,000-Taka 6,000 range; 17.8 percent 10:00 am and then be free to work a second are in the Taka 6,001-Taka 8,000 range; 17.6 cleaning job in a private home or business to earn percent in the Taka 8,000-Taka 10,000 range; additional income. In reality, Dalit women said in 8.6 percent in the Taka 2,001-Taka 4,000 range, discussion that they cannot work two jobs to earn and 8 percent households have monthly incomes more money because they need to manage their of less than Taka 2,000. On the other hand, the households and care for their children. pattern of expenditure varies across households, depending on the number of household members Dalit women are also involved in pig-rearing, and the nature of their occupations. Dalit women a traditional occupation passed down from complained that male household members generation to generation. Due to various reasons, spent less on household needs and more on the living spaces of Dalits are gradually shrinking; their personal needs, i.e. alcohol and smoking. hence, pig-rearing has become a challenge for Alcohol-related expenditures the husbands were Dalit women. A few women of the Bashfor caste found to be higher in some households. The are involved in alcohol production. largest percentage of households had monthly Apart from these traditional jobs, Dalit women incomes above Taka 10,000. The sub-castes of have no alternative source of income. Data these households included: Bashfor (4.8 percent), shows that a small number of Dalit women (14 Telagu (4.8 percent), Domee (7.2 percent), percent) received skill training from NGOs and Robidas (2.2 percent), Rishi (1.4 percent), from upazila youth development offices. The Kawra (1.8 percent), Jaladas (5.6 percent), women believed that could earn income through and tea labourer (0.6 percent). Of households poultry-rearing, but lacked the capital to do this, with monthly incomes of less than Taka 2,000, and could not access capital or loans because of 3.8 percent were Kawra, and 3.6 percent were their low caste identity. They also lacked adequate Robidas. land for any type of farming. They were aware of The study found that a few Dalit women have a opportunities to generate income from sewing, tendency to save money, but a large number of but they had little access to sewing instruction or Dalit women depend solely on their husband’s sewing machines. income. The findings show that Dalit women have a mixed attitude towards savings. The willingness 3.3 Income to save or not to save depended on whether the Over all, Dalit women and men do not have diverse Dalit woman had control over her own income sources of income. Generally, their only income and had surpluses after meeting basic needs and is derived from their traditional occupations — expenditures. though other sources can include money lending, liquor selling, and pig-rearing. The study findings show that Dalits who work in government hospitals, railways, and in private organizations as cleaners or sweepers mostly have a fixed monthly income. The monthly incomes of Dalit households in this study ranged from under

24 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

3.4 Health and Hygiene Scenario There are hanging latrines in some selected areas and sludge is directly disposed in the The Government is the basic service provider in nearest long ditch through a pipeline which, in Dalit communities, but does not provide regular turn, creates unhygienic conditions. 48.8 percent and adequate utility services. Also, the overall of households have access to hygienic latrines, unhygienic conditions of their communities leave and the rest use unhygienic latrines. Among them vulnerable to health risks and diseases. 500 respondents, 24.4 percent household have Scarcity of safe water, inadequate sanitation attached toilets, 9.4 percent have enclosed and drainage systems, lack of hygiene, lack latrines with walls and a roof, 35.2 percent have of knowledge of proper menstrual hygiene fenced latrines with no roof, and 64.8 percent of management, lack of solid waste disposal households do not have access to any toilet. A management systems, and congested and Danida study found that going to open spaces far unhygienic living spaces are some of the severe from home for bathroom purposes brings hazard problems and health hazards faced by Dalit in girls’ and women’s lives. There was evidence women and children in this study. that women and girls were sexually harassed The finding shows that the majority of while using toilets. respondents (59 percent) reported suffering from fever, cold, and coughs. They normally 3.5 Kinship and Marriage ignore general sicknesses like fevers or colds. Kinship ties play a significant role in the lives and In the case of a serious sickness, they go to the livelihoods of Dalit women. Two forms of kinships upazila health complex. Most (25.4 percent) had are dominant among Dalits: kinship through gone for treatment at some stage of sickness, marriage and kinship through blood. Also, if the money could be arranged. But many of fictive kinship known as patano relationships is them experienced inappropriate behaviour or practiced but is not very common. Monogamy is attitudes by hospital employees and doctors. In the dominant practice. As a bounded community, these cases, they said, a group of middlemen marriage is permitted only among themselves, will try to extract from them whatever sum of in line with their respective clans. However, data money they can offer from selling the last of their suggests that, although very rare, inter-caste or family valuables. The general health awareness inter-religious love affairs and marriages do occur of respondents was satisfactory. They reported between Dalit boys and girls. that NGOs and government community clinics run health awareness programmes on different Only 3.6 percent of the women and girls in this primary health issues in areas where they live. In study married a boy from a different caste or discussion, Dalit women said that their children religion. Seventeen out of 500 women married are immunized. They also reported visiting health out of their caste/religion. Although it took time, complexes for antenatal and postnatal services gradually 77 percent of families accepted these during and after pregnancy. marriages after permission was granted from the panchayat. Early marriage is a problem hindering In urban areas, the water and sanitation facilities the development of Dalit girls. 38.6 percent of Dalit colonies are very poor and inadequate, girls are married off between the ages of 16-18. directly impacting health and hygiene. Facilities According to respondents, poverty and social include tube wells, open bathrooms, and toilets. insecurity are two major reasons that parents Some tube wells are installed near the latrines. arrange marriages for their under-18 daughters. Some latrines are unhygienic and without tanks.

25 Chapter-3 Socio-Economic Conditions and Cultural Dynamism

The practice of dowry is very common. The amount of dowry depends on various factors. Along with material possessions such as wristwatches, bicycles, televisions, and phones, cash dowries are quite popular among the Dalit. The amount of cash varies from household to household, depending on income. Boys with jobs in public sectors demand high amounts of cash at the time of dowry negotiations. Respondents had relatives across Bangladesh’s Dalit community. Some families entertained relatives from India as well. These kinship networks play an important role in their lives. These days, they are connected through mobile phones. Close kin help each other during times of dire need, and Dalit women specifically feel secure living with relatives.

26 CHAPTER-4 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

In academic literature, some scholars consider Dalit women’s political influence in the clan, caste social exclusion to be synonymous with poverty, or panchayat structure is so low that they are while others consider it as a means to explain excluded from any decision-making process at the poverty. Social exclusion can be defined as the local level and, due to patriarchal cultural norms “inability to participate effectively in economic, and ideologies, are not allowed to represent their social, political, and cultural life and, in some communities at the national level. This lack of characteristics, alienation and distance from political and social power leaves them unable to mainstream society” (Duffy, 1995: 17). It challenge their marginalization and exclusion. All should also be noted that social exclusion is a these factors feed into each other, perpetuating multidimensional concept (Room, 1995: 3). The the low economic and social status of Dalit literature on Dalit communities explores how Dalit women and reproducing it over the generations. women struggle to survive in Bangladesh, without Therefore, the marginalization of the Dalit woman adequate housing or basic services. Researchers is multidimensional, and has to be understood need to consider the following. within the interconnection of economic, social, and political phenomena. 4.1. Multiple Forms and Causes of In the following section, the different dimensions Marginalization of Dalit woman of their marginalization are discussed. Deprivation and exclusion are the everyday reality of Dalit women of Bangladesh. Dalit women rarely 4.2. Exclusion in Public Space work outside their established boundaries. They ‘Public’ space is not always open to everyone. mostly work as cleaners and are very low paid. Hierarchies and discrimination are clearly visible With the help of NGO credit interventions, some in places that are supposed to belong to all4. have found employment outside their traditional jobs, but do not earn much from this work. With rare exceptions, Harijan (sweeper) women Moreover, Dalit women who work lack control and men are not allowed to enter local restaurants over their earnings. where their occupation is known. They are required to stay outside, and restaurant staff Dalit women’s traditional occupations (e.g. hand food to them there. They are not allowed cleaning, pig-rearing, or tea labouring) are to use any utensils belonging to the restaurant, caste-based, which makes it difficult to change and must carry their own plates and glasses to occupations. This is a serious barrier to their eat/drink. Sweepers belong at the bottom of the upward economic mobility and, along with other bottom among the Dalit, and they face extreme structural barriers of poverty, perpetuates their exclusion— specifically in restaurants within their impoverished condition. In addition, their mobility localities. However, sweeper women of different is restricted, as their status and social capital is castes said that hiding their identities may allow deemed very low in their patriarchal communities. them to enter restaurants far from their localities. These communities are totally male dominant, and women occupy the bottom rung of the social 4 In case of tea labourers, mobility is restricted within tea strata. gardens, and they cannot go the areas where managers live.

27 Chapter-3 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

They added that Dalit men, especially younger In general, a positive attitude toward Dalits in ones, can sometimes enter restaurants, but that increasing among mainstream, non-Dalit people. the Dalit woman’s distinctive style of wearing For example, in Srimongal, one government the sari (which is considered an identity marker) officer said that, even 10 years ago, it would have prevents them from doing so. This is the key been impossible for his family to welcome any reason that women of younger generations do Dalit woman or man inside their house. But now not wear saris in their distinctive traditional style5. they are not hesitant to let a barber or a cobbler inside. However, it will take a long time for people To access public places and gain acceptance in like him to accept sweepers inside their homes. mainstream society, younger generations of Dalits said that they like to move freely about. Women However, some of the young Dalit women reported that they typically did not have trouble participants of this study expressed their frustration in public places or in public festivals like Bengali to the researchers, partially blaming their fellow New Year, because non-Dalits often cannot Dalit men for such exclusion. They said that the identify them by looking at them or listening to their Dalit men go to the restaurants on their way to Bangla. According to the diagram below, around or from work, carrying their cleaning instruments, 5 percent Bashfor women, less than 5 percent of and generally exhibiting an untidy appearance. Rishi women, and around 2 percent of Kawra and Thus, they don’t present an impressive sight. If Jaladas women said they faced problems moving they appeared more neatly, they might be treated around within the larger community or accessing in a better way by the restaurants. different public places. 4.3 Access to Education 5 This extreme exclusion of sweepers is more prominent in the northern part of Bangladesh. The southern parts and There is no doubt that Dalit women have been coastal areas are more progressive and the gap has been left behind by the education system. Two major reduced remarkably in these areas, according to Uttam causes of their low participation in education Voktho, a Dalit leader from Barisal. Mr. Voktho belongs to the Dome cast. are patriarchal ideology and poverty, and

28 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

there are many other causes that also need to In tea gardens, the situation is different. Every be addressed. Among our respondents, the tea estate has a primary school located inside majority of Dalit women did not go to school. the garden, thus 100 percent of children attend Out of 500 respondents, 56 percent of women primary school. In government-run primary are literate. Among them, 63 percent completed schools, children receive all the facilities the primary level; 23 percent completed class mandated to them by national education policy. eight; 10 percent completed the SSC level; and In addition, Dalit children residing in tea gardens 8 percent completed the higher secondary level. have access to NGO-run primary, pre-primary The graph chart below shows the distribution of and non-formal schools. reasons given by the 500 Dalit women and girl respondents for their poor access to education. In patriarchal communities and in poor families, the father or the brother makes decisions One girl living in the Srimongal’s Vurvuria regarding a girl’s education. In most cases, boys Tea Garden cried when we asked about her dreams. Her parents are tea workers, are considered assets for future as boys are the and their economic status is very low. Two source of social power. So, if a situation arises sisters and one brother depend on her that forces families to choose between sending parents’ income. She studied up to grade a boy or a girl to school, the boy will be chosen. five in the tea garden’s primary school, which was free. However, her parents Dalit women and girls’ lack of access to education could not afford the cost of sending all forces Dalit women to remain a muted group three children to high school, so they within the Dalit community. They can speak decided to continue the education of their their voice within the family, but not within their son and their younger daughter. As the larger community. They rarely participate in the eldest, the girl was required to sacrifice panchayat or other social meetings, apart from her dream of studying and, instead, stay NGO organized groups or committees. Because home to take care of the household. of their illiteracy, they face the following problems in their community:

29 Chapter-4 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

A fair number of girl children also attend high We also found that discriminatory attitudes vary school in the main upazila and do not face by location. According to the findings, Dalit school problems in school. Some girls from tea gardens children are more vulnerable in the Khulna and also attend colleges in Sylhet or in Maulvi Bazaar, Rangpur divisions of Bangladesh.6 . In this study, but the number is not very significant. the Rishi, Bashfor and Kawra respondents were selected from these areas. The diagram below Dalit children are gaining increased acceptance shows discrimination faced by school children by at school and discriminatory attitudes are slowly caste. changing, but they continue to face discrimination at school to varying degrees. Many children In some areas, the harsh school environment reported being hurt by the harsh treatment of forces children to drop out of school. non-Dalit children and teachers at school. The In Kashebpur, Jessore, the math teacher of class following diagram shows the different forms of four in Kaliari Govt. Primary School of Kashebpur discrimination faced by Dalit children at school: told 27 children of the Rishi community that they Findings show that seating arrangements are a are dirty, smelly, and should not come to school. major source of exclusion at school: 41 percent of Afterwards, the Dalit community complained to non-Dalit children do not like to sit next to a Dalit the Upazila Executive Officer (UNO) that their child, and 23 percent of respondents said that children had been badly treated by this teacher. Dalit children are not allowed to sit on the front But, but the insecurity caused by this incident bench at school or other educational institutes. led parents to stop sending their children to the Bullying and name-calling is another major school (Prothom Alo: 25 July, 2016). In another problem. Fifty-five percent of respondents said case, in the northern part of Bangladesh, a girl they were bullied by teachers or other students, 6 Uttam Vokto and Bivutosh Ray, two prominent Dalit using insulting terms such as ‘Methor ar Meye’, leaders, said that Dalit communities living in northern ‘Muchir Meye,’ ‘Bagani’ etc. Bangladesh are more vulnerable and victimized by discrimination than Dalits living in southern Bangladesh and southern coastal areas.

30 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

named Soma Das of the Fakirpara Harijan colony Afsana’s mother later discovered that a mobile was physically assaulted by another student’s phone was missing. Afsana’s mother came to mother and brother in the classroom. Soma, a school, accused Soma of stealing the mobile, and student of class ten in Ayub Ali Girls’ High School beat her to get it back (The Daily Star: October 7, in Thakurgaon town, visited her classmate 2016). Afsana’s home and, according to her statement,

31 Chapter-4 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

Prevailing attitudes towards the Dalit discourage age. Because of the nature of their jobs, parents them from pursuing education. Girls, in particular, typically leave home very early in the morning feel insecure, and this sense of insecurity and return late. Children are left home alone, and prevents their parents from sending them to the older children have to look after their younger school. Poverty, combined with social insecurity siblings. This is a big cause of low attendance and the discriminatory attitudes of non-Dalits and high dropout rates among Dalit girl children. in mainstream society are identified as major reasons that Dalit girls do not attend school — 4.4 Access to land which ultimately contributes towards low literacy In general, Dalit people own very little land and rates among the Dalit women. No matter how reside mainly in government colonies and, in rural much they study, they fear that they will always be areas, on government lands. Historically, they treated as ‘untouchables’; their identity will always were brought from different parts of India during be limited to ‘Rishi’, ‘sweeper’, ‘bagani’, etc., and the British period and confined to specific areas that they will always face discrimination in finding to live as ‘untouchables’, away from mainstream decent employment because of their ‘Dalit’ social society. Dalit women rarely own land unless it identity. As a result, there is an increasing trend has been donated by others or inherited from of parents or children themselves changing their parents or their husbands. Nevertheless, their family names when enrolling in school to a few women in this study had access to land, hide their Dalit identity, in the hope that this will which is considered the most important economic help them avoid exclusion. This creates further resource in create positive change in life. The complications: First, they may have problems following diagram shows the distribution of Dalit during identity verification; second, they will face women who have access to land by caste. difficulties claiming reserve quotas and stipends held for Dalits and other ‘disadvantaged’ groups. In total, 6.8 percent of women have land in their own names. Out of this 6.8 percent, less than .05 Another cause of exclusion from education is that percent of women from Bashfor, Domee, Jaladas children, especially girl children, have to assume and tea labourers have their own land. Around 1 certain household responsibilities from an early percent of Telagu women, and around 2 percent

32 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

of Robidas, Rishi and Kawra women have their The following advantages are enjoyed by Dalit own land. Respondents said that having land women who own land: in their own names had a positive impact on With the exception of tea workers, access to land their personal and family lives, as shown in the raises status within the family for Dalit women of following diagram. all castes. According to the findings, land-owning According to respondents, the social position of Dalit women’s opinions regarding family matters land-owning Dalit women is higher compared to are more valued by other members. But owning other women in the community. Having access land or other economic assets does not prevent to land or other economic resources improves physical violence perpetrated by male family their status within the family, though the women’s members or in-laws. For members of the Kawra position within the larger community of their caste caste, the study found, physical violence has or the Dalit community in general remains same. been reduced for these women but not abolished.

33 Chapter-4 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

However, the majority of men and women do training to Dalit women and given them sewing not really believe that women have any right to machine. In Srimongal, the upazila social welfare parental property after marriage. For example, office provided sewing training and loans toa among tea workers, parents choose one of their number of female tea garden workers. This gave children to inherit their job in the future, and that Dalit women and girls an alternative income- child is allowed to remain in the family house. earning opportunity, but their tailoring endeavours They are reluctant to assign their jobs to their resulted in little success. As poor women of the daughters, even if the son has a poor ethic and is tea garden labourer caste working out of their unlikely to properly look after the parents in their own homes, they received few orders. Some old age. In group discussions, none of the men other young tea garden women work as salesgirls nor women stated that they were willing to give in the shops of Srimongal. Most of these shops their jobs to their daughters. This is also true of are run by members of the Monipuri ethnic group. other Dalit sub-castes. Thus, Dalit women have And some Kawra and other Dalit women work in virtually no way to inherit land from their husbands the fields as agricultural labourers. Dalit women or fathers. However, the findings show that land complained that they are not offered maid servant ownership or access to land can bring positive jobs in the neighbouring areas. change to their family life. Dalits, in general, are losing their traditional 4.5 Access to Economic Resources jobs as cleaners and sweepers. Although the and Loss of Traditional Jobs Government has renewed its directive to reserve 80 percent of cleaning and sweeping jobs for Dalit women have no access or very limited access Dalits, the quotas are often not practiced in reality. to means of production such as land and capital. Lately, recruitment for cleaning and sweeping Thus, they find it very difficult to find employment jobs in government hospitals and railways has or start a small business of their own. Also, the become more formal: announcements are fact that Dalit communities are patriarchal in published in national and local newspapers; the structure and ideology combined with insecurity minimum educational requirement has been caused by the Dalit’s status as a low or no power moved up to the completion of class eight (08); holding social group, means that they are scared and, in the recruitment process, the Government to allow their women to travel outside of their own has introduced a written examination followed by community. The movement of unmarried and an oral examination. As the findings show, Dalit newly married young women within is also very women are often very poorly educated; thus restricted by male family members. This lack of many Dalit women even do not qualify to apply for social mobility and the family’s strict rules prevents their traditional jobs. In addition, a lack of social Dalit women from accessing employment other mobility and communication competence act as than their traditional professions. In cleaning and major constraints preventing Dalit women from sweeping jobs, Dalit women mainly work where going outside their locality to attend written or oral their male family members work. According to the examinations, which are often held in big cities data, Dalit men believe that limiting Dalit women like Dhaka. Because Dalit women are mostly to working within the community ensures social employed as cleaners and sweepers, these security and women’s physical safety. recent shifts in policy badly affect them. Also, Dalit women lack the start-up capital, required to get cleaning and sweeping jobs in hospitals, knowledge, skills and capacity to start their own railways and municipalities, one needs to either businesses. Some NGOs have provided sewing

34 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

bribe or ask a favour from government officials and now work as agricultural labourers. But the or politicians. The findings show that many Dalits qualitative data reveals that many Kawra women struggle to meet their daily expenses. They are do not work outside the house and have no thus unable to arrange the money to pay bribes opportunity to earn income. and are thus being deprived of the traditional jobs To fill the gaps left by the loss of these traditional to which they are entitled. Dalit men can capitalize jobs, NGOs offer different skills-training on good relationships with government officials programmes to create alternative options of and other influential local politicians such as MPs earning a livelihood. But these trainings only or Ministers to secure cleaning or sweeping jobs, cover a few Dalit women, and a majority of Kawra but Dalit women lack the social relations to do women are left behind, unable to economically this. Thus, Dalit women are gradually losing their contribute to their families. Similar scenarios are traditional occupations. unfolding in Dalit communities where women are Another important economic activity for the traditionally employed as sweepers or cleaners. Dalit woman is rearing pigs. Pigs, in addition to It is difficult for a Dalit woman to find new being a source of protein, play a significant role employment. in Dalit culture. Pork is considered a necessity for arranging feasts for almost every ceremony, 4.6 Limited Access to Social Safety such as marriages, funerals, etc. Therefore, Net Programmes pigs are high demand in the community and As citizens of the state, Dalit women are entitled are a lucrative source of income. However, to government services in Bangladesh. Moreover, rearing pigs is gradually becoming a challenge, they most often work for local government bodies as many Dalits do not have the space required such as municipalities that deliver services for pig farming. Most Dalit sub-castes rear pigs, to citizens. Yet their access to these services but it is the traditional occupation and one of the ties is limited. When interviewed for this study, major economic activities of the Kawra caste in local government officials claimed concern for particular. the wellbeing of Dalit communities. In reality, In Naogaon, Kawras are gradually giving up however, Dalits receive very little access to social pig rearing in order to make themselves more services. The data shows that they are aware of acceptable to mainstream society. As a majority different government schemes for the welfare of Muslim country, the mainstream population of citizens, but rarely take advantage of them. Bangladesh considers pigs and pig-rearing to be The data shows that they know the names of dirty and undesirable. The Kawra women who government service programmes, and are even participated in the group discussion said that, aware of the procedures required to access because they no longer rear pigs, they are no them. According to the data, the tea workers are longer considered dirty by their neighbours. Of the least knowledgeable, followed by the Robidas the study respondents, only 6.4 percent still rear caste, who know little about how to get an aid card pigs. Among that 6.4 percent, 4.9 percent are from for access to different services. Domee women’s the Bashfor caste, 3.9 percent are from the tea awareness level is similar to the Robidas’. worker caste, and 41.8 percent are Kawras who Ironically, among the eight groups surveyed for still rear pigs. Pig-rearing is traditionally done by this report, the tea workers are the only group women, though men take the pigs to market and with locally elected members and chairmen of the have control over the earnings. A large number Union Parishad and upazila level from the local of Kawra women have changed their occupation Dalit population.

35 Chapter-4 Marginalization and Vulnerability of Dalit Women in Bangladesh

Tea worker women actually prefer not to leave specifically created for their communities, such the tea garden, as they receive rations as tea as allowances for Dalits, Bedes, Harijans. Dalit workers, have free government schools inside women not only lacked awareness of general the tea estates, and have access to free health education and disability allowances, but were also centres run by the estate owners. The following unaware of the special Dalit women’s education diagram shows the awareness levels of different stipend. groups regarding how and where to access The data reveals that, despite awareness of government programmes. various government programmes and benefits, The study respondents were mostly aware of social few Dalit are enrolled. welfare schemes benefiting widows and elderly The Dalit women surveyed for this study reported people, but they lacked knowledge of schemes that Union Parishad (UP) members who submit

36 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

lists of programme recipients often, for political data shows that Dalit allowances are also given reasons, fail to include Dalit women’s names. to non-Dalits. However, we found that Dalits Instead, because Dalit support is not vital to receive aid cards such as elderly allowances, winning elections, these UP members include the widow allowances, etc. According to the study names of poor non-Dalit women from mainstream team’s observations, the number of aid cards is society — instead of Dalits — to buy the votes of often inadequate for community demand. A few that particular family. In discussion, Dalit women Dalit women also receive employment through told us that they are unable to secure programme schemes such as the UP’s 100-Day Employment aid cards because UP members request bribes, Programme, Food for Work, etc. which they cannot afford to pay. In addition, they are sometimes deprived of social safety net programmes dedicated to them. In some areas,

37 38 CHAPTER-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

In this chapter, specific aspects of Dalit women’s lives are described, with the aim of showing the Within the study area, a boy from Dalit community as a living space and interrogating the Telagu caste married a Telagu notions of Dalit women’s belonging within culture girl from a lower clan. His family and society. The discourse that arises is a reminder never accepted the girl, and the that the patriarchal community is a social site that couple had to live in a separate continually forces women to reproduce, reinforce, room in the colony where the boy’s and internalize patriarchal norms and values, and family resided. But this created a it requires them to negotiate different strategies socially difficult situation for the for existence within the Dalit community and co- boy’s family, so the couple recently existence with the dominant mainstream Bengali moved to Dhalpur where the girl’s society. family lives. Her family has made 5.1 Discourse on Dalit Women Gender a separate living arrangement for identity their son-in law. Dalit men and women have multiple identities, such as caste, clan, national, and class. These identities have been historically and culturally does not accept the girl, and the panchayat will constructed, and thus must be understood in send the boy to live with the girl’s family. If this context. Within caste, Dalit women and men’s couple refuses to live with the girl’s family, they identity are related to their clan affiliation7. There can arrange their own living situation. But when are multiple clans within each caste, and there is an upper clan girl marries a boy from the lower a hierarchy among clans within the socio-cultural clan, according to the rule of the panchayat, the and political context of a given caste community. girl must move to the boy’s family. According to For example, there are eight clans in the Bashfor the culture of the caste, it is the woman who must caste, and Bashfor women and men are known change her clan identity by changing her title, by their clan identity. even if they marry a lower clan boy. These rules In general, Dalit women’s role have been defined of inter-clan marriage and inter-caste marriage by the social rules of their clan, and this clan have historically has been imposed by the clan’s identity exists only within the caste of the Dalit headmen and the panchayat. Women lack women. The clan identity of Dalit women restricts representation and participation in the panchayat 8 their social life and marriage within their own system in most castes . caste; to secure their existence within their Additionally, social hierarchy among castes caste and geographical area, they are prohibited means that Dalit women from lower castes are from acting against the wishes of their clan. For not allowed to take food with upper caste families. example, when a boy from an upper clan marries 8 Recently, the Telagu caste has included women members a girl from a lower one, the boy’s family generally in the panchayat. The Kawra caste also has two female 7 Dalit people are known by their clan identity in castes panchayat members. This is the outcome of church-based where they only have clan in those communities. NGO intervention over a long time-frame.

39 Chapter-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

Katapally Sorothsoti is a Dalit girl Merry, a second-generation converted from the Telagu community living in Christian woman from Telagu Gubtoli. This year, she was admitted community, has been working at an in an honors program She and her NGO as cook. Her given name is sister started using the Das title when Kakkara Merry, where Kakkara is they enrolled in school, dropping the title of her clan but, to hide her the title of their clan Katapally. Their caste identity from the mainstream mother, who works in a private office population, she no longer uses her as a cleaner, also does not use their clan title. Her family members who clan title. live in Bangladesh also hide their Dalit identity by dropping the clan title from their names.

If a social programme like a sraddho is arranged, It is also said that the Dalit cannot speak ‘proper’ upper caste Dalits rarely invite lower caste Bengali. Dalit women and girls are depicted as Dalits. However, class can make a difference: bare-foot, confined, and hesitant people who A few Dalit men have become acceptable to all rarely venture outside. There is a strong belief castes due to their class status, but lower class that these characteristics are so rooted within Dalit women are rarely acceptable to Dalits of that they have become part of the Dalit persona. higher castes or clans due to their caste or clan Dalit women can be easily identified by non- identity. In terms of Dalit identity, ‘women’ is not Dalits by their dress9 and language. To avoid an essential category; rather they have different discrimination at different places and institutions, clan and caste identity. Dalit women of younger generation continuously In mainstream Bangladesh society, non-Dalits negotiate how they present themselves. Most tend to link their identity to occupation, not to no longer dress in their traditional style, and caste. Different non-Dalit dominant groups they speak Bangla as spoken by mainstream often construct the identity of Dalit as ‘other’. Bangladeshis. Many also change the title of their This narrative of ‘otherness’ attains deeper, clan or caste when enrolling in school. Educated broader meaning and significance in the political, Dalits or working Dalit women are identified by social, and economic spheres that encompass their religious identity. At the same time, older Dalit lives in general and Dalit women’s lives Dalit women still dress in their traditional style, specifically. Indeed, such narratives lead to speak their traditional language, and not willing to different forms of vulnerability, exclusion and change their identity through negotiating culture injustice. They are commonly depicted as ‘dirty’, and tradition. both in reference to their profession and personal Through the strategic construction of their image hygiene. They are said to be ‘unclean’ and to live and identity vis-à-vis how they appear to non- in ‘unclean’ residential areas. The practice of pig- Dalits, young Dalit women are continuously rearing, considered ‘dirty’ by dominant Muslim negotiating their cultural and social identity and groups and others, emphasizes this narrative of 9 ‘uncleanness’. Pig-rearing has historically been a Dalit men do not have a distinctive style of dress and thus cannot be identified on the basis on their clothing. Dalit women’s job, though it is now being replaced Their traditional language, however, is the same as Dalit by other activities, especially among the Kawra. women’s.

40 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

trying to minimize discrimination by members of mainstream Bangladeshi society. In a FGD with Dalit women of the Telagu community, participants 5.2 Role in Decision-Making said: “We are not educated, and Historically, Dalit communities are patriarchal, have no or very little knowledge and women and girls live at the edge of society. about the outside world. So we are Families are run by strong patriarchal values, not the right people make decisions regarding our children and other which often limit Dalit women’s freedom of household matters”. choice or self-expression in household decision- making. The data shows that women accept their subordinate position within the household and do not believe they have a right to participate in family decision-making, or to freely express themselves. women are illiterate, girls are becoming educated) Consequently, male are the bread winners, and and participation in politics is gradually changing Dalit women are economic dependent on them. their lives — though the change is very slow and Among our respondents, a large number are not yet visible. For example, in three tea estate- homemakers and not earning. Dalit women are based unions in Srimongal (Satgao, Kalighat, and mostly illiterate and their mobility is very restricted. Razghat Unions), nine female tea garden workers However, FGD data reveals that attitudes have been elected to UP membership positions. towards the woman’s role in decision-making in A tea garden woman also participated in an the family and other social sites are changing. upazila-level election for a vice president position More and more men now discuss family matters in Srimongal, but did not win. We have not come with women of the household before making final across of a single case of Dalit women standing decisions. This change in attitude mainly prevails for elections in other areas of Bangladesh, among Dalit men who are educated, who have though a woman from another minority group (the been exposed to the outside world through work, Adivashi, or indigenous tribes) participated in a and who are also involved in NGO activities. UP election. Factors that contribute to women speaking up in the family social site, and also in larger In the event that a woman is widowed or society include education, access to economic abandoned with small children, she becomes resources, political power, and social capital. the key decision-maker in most areas of her The data shows that, although only 6.8 percent children’s lives. Still, the wider kin network and of Dalit women own land, that land ownership clan members must be involved when single has a positive impact on their family life. With the mothers arrange their adult children’s marriages. exception of the Jaladas and tea worker Dalits, In families where widows and single mothers all female respondents cited ownership of land as have adult sons, women cede the key decision- the most valuable asset to help raise their status making role to their sons, and the sons control the in the family and to give them a voice in decision- mothers’ lives. Old women typically have no voice making. in the family. However, mothers-in-law usually exhibit power over their daughters-in-law; in most Dalit women in tea gardens are an exception. Women’s education (though many tea worker

41 Chapter-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

cases, without the mother-in-law’s permission, ‘dirty’ their work is seen in the eyes of non-Dalits. young married women cannot go anywhere. Freedom to roam around within the locality does not necessarily mean that they can move 5.3 Mobility of Dalit Women fearlessly. The following diagram shows the problems women face or fear they will face when Dalit women’s mobility and their public role is they leave their homes. defined by male family members and the rules of the clan. The number of working Dalit women Verbal abuse or eve teasing is a very common is low, and those who work are mainly employed type of harassment faced by Dalit women and in cleaning or sweeping, agricultural day labour, girls. School-going girls are especially vulnerable pig-rearing, and tea garden labour. These women to this harassment on their way to school. The go to their work places on their own, but they problem of eve teasing is more prevalent in need permission from male family members to go districts and semi-urban areas. Thus Bashfor, anywhere else, even to roam within the boundary Rishi and Jaladas women and girls reported this of their own community areas. Often, Dalit women problem more than other groups in this study. hardly leave the house. In public places where Parents feel insecure to send their girls to school, they cannot easily be identified as Dalits, neither as the perpetrators of the harassment are often men nor women experience problems. The data mainstream, non-Dalit boys with links to local shows that the young Dalit generation is able to ‘musclemen’. A negative consequence of such move between different places — the market, eve teasing is that parents may stop sending their Boishakhi Mela (Bengali New Year Festival), girls to school. For example: etc. — without issue. According to the survey, Dalit women’s mobility is limited within their own the problem of mobility within the community’s communities and requires the permission of male locality has been reduced: family members i.e. father, brother or husband. The mobility of different Dalit castes varies partly The family will determine how far a girl or woman because of their varying occupations, and how can go alone, depending on her age and marital

42 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

status. School-going girls travel to school in groups and, after school they usually move in own community as a group. Before puberty, girls Suma Jaladas, a high school student are allowed to move around freely. After puberty, in Chakaria, said: “On way to my however, teenage girls are not allowed to go school every day, local bad boys tease anywhere in their community alone, without first me and my female schoolmates. I feel getting permission from their father or brother. insecure and am always scared while Young married women also have very limited going to school. I shared this with my movement within their own community. After family. Now I am under pressure by my marriage, they cannot do anything of their own parents. Very soon, my parents may choice. After giving birth to two children, Dalit stop my education. They are trying to women no longer have the social status of ‘young arrange my marriage and, if they find women’. This changes their freedom of mobility, a good groom, they will marry me off.” as old and widowed Dalit women no not have the same restrictions on moving around within their locality. The key reason for Dalit men to control their women’s movement within the community is to control their sexuality and ensure that their victimized by violence. They are often physically unmarried and young married women do have and mentally tortured by family members. having unsanctioned sexual contact. The honour Most of Dalit women believe that they have a right and status of a Dalit family are partly dependent to access food, shelter, clothes, and education. on their women and girls’ character and modesty. They say they are poor and do not have access to their basic needs as human being. Apart from 5.4 Gender-Based Violence and Dalit basic rights, however, they have no idea what Women ‘right’ means. They do not consider freedom of As members of a patriarchal community, Dalit choice, control over their own income and property, women from all eight castes reported being or freedom from physical or mental torture to be

43 Chapter-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

Purnima Rani, a Rishi woman, said, In an FGD, Bashfor women said: “Conflict between the husband and “Bashfor women are regularly beaten wife is a regular incident. The husband by their husbands even for very silly beats his wife, then loves his wife reasons. Men do not value women in again.’ the family or society.”

their right. The data shows that there is degree addiction. They spend half their income drinking of variation in the ways Dalit women of different alcohol. One consequence is that they remain castes face domestic violence; irrespective of poor. However, they said they cannot speak up caste, however, all Dalit women experience against their men’s drinking because it is not the males domination and physical harassment as women’s income; as for the women who do work, daily facts of life. have are not allowed control over their income or how it is spent. The following graph shows In Dalit communities, women rarely initiate debate the reasons for which women are verbally and or conflict with their men or their in-laws. They physically abused: are in constant fear of being beaten or mentally tortured by other family members. The graph Dalit women say that, even if they can be saved shows that women are mainly assaulted by their from abuse by the outside world, they cannot husbands after marriage. be saved from the mental and physical abuse of their own family and community members. In the discussions, women of different castes Kawra, Telagu, Bashfor, Rishi, and tea garden said that their men’s major problem is alcohol women and girls said that the women of their

44 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

communities are more subjected to violence by and their family members and clan members fail their families than by the society outside. In many to resolve the problem themselves, do they bring cases, verbal quarrels turn to physical assaults. it to the panchayat. The following graph gives the reasons women are unwilling to complain against In most cases, women try to hide these incidents their men and in-laws: from outsiders and keep it within family — unless the abuse becomes unbearable. They rarely take We found that owning property, such as land, did steps to prevent their men from beating them not reduce the level of violence the women face, other than to inform their parents, neighbours, or though it did significantly influence the women’s the panchayat. ability to voice their opinions in the family. According most respondents, violence against Unless the violence becomes severe, Dalit women persists because men control their lives. women are reluctant to take the issue to the Another cause of violence against women is panchayat. Only when women are badly beaten alcohol or drug abuse. Wine is produced in the

45 Chapter-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

communities and is widely consumed by men. 5.5 Dalit Women in Panchayat Sometimes, when they drink too much, Dalit men lose control and engage in disputes with The panchayat system is a community space their women, which often result in violence. where Dalit women might play an important role After informing their parents and clan members, beyond their immediate households. Historically, Dalit women must wait for their clan members Dalit women did not participate in the panchayat to try to resolve the problem. They can only go in any caste, neither as members of the body the panchayat to seek recourse when their clan nor as subjects of arbitration. Recently, the members’ efforts have failed. situation has changed. Now, most castes have female panchayat members. Many castes have two female panchayat members, and some

46 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

have three female panchayat members. The participating. The following diagram shows the following diagram shows the reasons why women distribution of women’s contribution to panchayat previously were not allowed in the panchayat: sessions by caste: However, the study shows that Dalit women’s The Bashfor caste does not believe in women’s participation in these arbitration sessions remains rights, and Bashfor women are the most almost non-existent. Panchayat committees may marginalized of all Dalit women. The Jaladas include female members, but they are not actively recently allowed two women to participate in

47 Chapter-5 Dalit Women and Empowerment

panchayat committees as observers, but Jaladas discussed in the previous sections and in this and Rishi women do not have a right to express section, Dalit women lack capital of any kind. their opinions during panchayat sessions. They have little economic activity, and those who Female panchayat members have a long way do work lack control of their own incomes. They to go to reach full and equal participation, but have only their role in the family, and they are shut the inclusion of female members is a major step out from roles that would allow them to change forward and represents a significant shift in the their material condition in a way that might also mind-set of Dalit men. bring positive change to their social lives. Dalit women have a long way to go to become 5.6 Political Participation of Dalit Women empowered. Apart from the panchayat, women have no other role in public. Neither Dalit men nor women participate in mainstream politics, as they are Gita Goswami is a woman from Srimongal’s excluded by their Dalit identity. Mainstream Hosenabad tea garden. She completed politicians not allow Dalits to participate in her SSC and she joined a tea garden elections, even if they are engaged in actively level trade union. As a trade union leader, working for the party. However, Dalit women do she formed a mothers’ club in Srimongal cast votes in recent days, which they did not where she worked to raise tea garden before. women’s awareness of critical issues, including health, children’s health, and The situation of Dalit women of the tea gardens the need for women to come of the house is different, however. Like other Dalit women, tea and participate in the community activities. garden Dalit women recently received the chance After working as a trade union leader for to become members of their local panchayat, but 28 years, Gita Goswami now leads the they have a long history of participating in national Committee of Concerned Citizens group of politics. Transparency International-Bangladesh in the Srimongal area. There are many male chairmen and members of Union Parishads and Upazila Parishads in Srimongal who come from tea worker families. These men inspired women of their caste to participate in local government elections at the union and upazila levels. In three tea estate- based unions (Satgao, Kalighat, and Razghat), nine seats have been reserved for women. Tea worker women been elected to all nine seats. The term empowerment contains the word power, often invoked as an explanation for many different types of events and phenomena. Power is broadly defined as the ability of a person or a social unit to influence the conduct and decision- making of another through control over active forms. Thus power means control over material assets, intellectual resources, and ideology. As

48 CHAPTER-6 Reviewing Relevant Policies, Law, and the Constitution

Various policies that guarantee the rights of The State shall not discriminate against any marginalized populations, including the rights citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, of the Dalit, are included in the Constitution of sex or place of birth. Bangladesh. These policies eliminate of all forms Women shall have equal rights with men in all of exploitation10, guarantee free and compulsory spheres of the State and of public life. primary education11, guarantee special provisions/affirmative actions for children12, and No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, prohibit forced labour13. Moreover, a number of race, caste, sex or place of birth, be subjected policies are in force in Bangladesh dealing with to any disability, liability, restriction or condition the protection, maintenance, and well-being of with regard to access to any place of public citizens in general that also specifically cover entertainment or resort, or admission to any disadvantaged, marginalized, and ethnic minority educational institution. groups. In addition, some new policies affecting these populations are to be implemented. The Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from policies most relevant to Dalits and Dalit children making special provision in favour of women or are as follows: children or for the advancement of any backward section of citizens. Constitution Section 29. The constitution of People’s Republic of There shall be equality of opportunity for all Bangladesh, the supreme law of the land, citizens in respect of employment or office in the unequivocally guarantees that all its citizens service of the Republic. are equal and so shall exercise equal rights. This is one of the basic safeguards against No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, discrimination and exclusion. In this connection, race, caste, sex or place of birth, be ineligible relevant sections of the constitutions articulate: for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office in the service of the “Section 27. Republic. All citizens are equal before law and are entitled Nothing in this article shall prevent the State to equal protection of law. Section 28. a from making special provision in favour of any 10 Article 14, though it focuses on peasants and workers, backward section of citizens for Republic; giving could be widened to include Dalits and Dalit children. The effect to any law which makes provision for article states: ‘It shall be a fundamental responsibility of reserving appointments relating to any religious the state to emancipate the toiling masses — the peasants and workers — and backward section of the people from all or denominational institution to persons of that forms of exploitation.’ religion or denomination; reserving for members 11 Article 17 of one sex any class of employment or office on 12 Article 28 (4) states: ‘Nothing in this article shall prevent the ground that it is considered by its nature to be the state from making special provisions in favour of women or children or for the advancement of any backward unsuited to members of the opposite sex.” section of citizens.’ 13 Article 34

49 Chapter-6 Reviewing Relevant Policies, Law, and the Constitution

It is clear from the mentioned sections of the students in educational institutions. Constitution that the law and fundamental policy of This quota policy has not yet been implemented the state do not support any form of discrimination in these institutions under the National University, against any citizen based on religion, race, caste, and the Education Ministry has not yet issued sex, place of birth, or profession. It also allows an official circular regarding it. The educational affirmative actions for disadvantaged sections of institutions impacted by this policy also do not the population such as Dalits. However, in reality, reference Dalit quotas in their advertisements Dalits are discriminated against and excluded (Fair, 2015). from most of their rights and opportunities. The 15th amendment of the constitution states, Bangladesh Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plan “The people of Bangladesh shall be known as (2011-2015, 2016 – 2020) Bengalis as a nation and citizens of Bangladesh Sixth Plan Progress with Inclusion Regarding shall be known as Bangladeshis.” Dalit The amendment on one hand claimed to ‘restore Dalit status or identity is historically associated secularism’. On the other hand, it kept Islam as with occupations that are regarded as ritually the State religion. ‘impure’. In Bangladesh, Dalits are categorized with respect to their work, religion, and ethnicity. Through the inherently contradictory statements The Dalit have been confined to specific jobs in the 15th amendment, religious minorities and segregated from full participation in the are marginalized. Also, by making “Bengali” a mainstream society. Dalit communities are some national identity, those of different ethnicities of the most economically marginalized and are also marginalized. Thus, the Dalits, who are socially excluded groups in Bangladesh. Despite minorities in Bangladesh both in terms of religion their long presence in traditional Bangladesh and ethnicity, become even more vulnerable in society, Dalit communities do not receive focus this way. in development interventions, and are hence Anti-Discrimination Act (Draft) are often referred to as the ‘missing poor’. Economic disparity is not the only problem faced To eliminate ‘untouchability’ and “discrimination by these marginalized groups, but also non- based on caste and profession”, the Law economic problems, some of which include: (1) Commission has drafted the “Boishammya Bilope ‘untouchability’ and the hatred associated with Ain - 2014” (Elimination of Discrimination Act - social exclusion; (2) lack of self-esteem and 2014). The significance of this law lies in the fact dignity; (3) estrangement from most livelihood that it addresses the issues of Dalits, which is the activities; (4) forced eviction from land; (5) first official recognition of the term “Dalit” by the insecurity within family and society; (6) ignorance state. It has now become a moral obligation on and lack of information; (7) environmental part of the Government to enact the law as soon disasters; (8) lack of access to legal aid services; as possible. But there is no specific mention of (9) lack of access to government services. Social Dalit women in the draft law. boycotts and forced labour are often imposed Policy Related to Higher Education Quota on Dalits as a means to control and exploit their labour. Considering the severity of their situation, The Prime Minister of the Government of the the government of Bangladesh first included the People’s Republic of Bangladesh gave an order issue of the Dalit in the Sixth Five Year Plan. on 29th May 2012 to reserve quotas for Dalit

50 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

Sixth Plan Strategies: The Sixth Plan aims to students will be created in government include these disadvantaged individuals in the schools and colleges, and access of Dalit socio-economic realm and protect their rights adolescents and youth to all government- through different strategies. First, the Plan aims to owned skill training institutions be ensured. cooperate with local bodies and NGOs to identify - Local Government Institutions, i.e. Upazila the disadvantaged people and enable them to and Union Parishads, along with NGOs will participate in development activities. Then, priority be involved to locate disadvantaged Dalit will be given to the disadvantaged communities people and help enable them to participate in in khas land allocation. Tea garden owners will development activities. Dalit representation in also be encouraged to assign some land within all committees of political parties at national their tea garden estates to their extremely poor and local level will be ensured. workers as a means for them to build their own gardens. Finally, all government functionaries will - The Ministry of Land will give priority to allotting need to coordinate their activities at all levels to khas land to people of Dalit communities for ensure the effective governance of this issue. settlement under the Asrayan type housing project. For tea garden workers, planters/ Implementation: The Government remains owners will be encouraged to earmark land committed and highly sensitive to the needs of within the estates so that they can build these marginalized groups. Legal provisions their own dwelling. Special programmes are in place to protect them against social and like construction of sweeper colonies will be political discrimination. Yet the weakness in public implemented. administrative capacity and the absence of strong local governments has limited the implementation - Massive awareness raising to stop all kinds of government policies. The new National Social of discrimination and untouchability against Security (NSSS) puts considerable emphasis on Dalit and excluded communities will be bringing these marginalized groups under the undertaken. umbrella of social protection. The adoption and eventual implementation of the NSSS would be a - The Government will form a special considerable step forward. commission on Dalit to evaluate current environment and level of discrimination and Inclusion Strategy for the Seventh Plan provide key recommendations on improving the socio-economic conditions of Dalit The vision of the Government is to erase the communities in Bangladesh. discrimination and exploitation faced by Dalit communities in Bangladesh, so that they can - The Government will review the allotment take their place as full citizens of the country. policy of colonies under every City Corporation and municipality and ensure that marginalized - The Government will uphold the right to groups of Dalits are allotted harassment free education for children from Dalit communities access to electricity, gas and water supply with the expectation to ensure schools services. becomes non-discriminatory and inclusive spaces for all children. This recognizes the - Dalits will be given preferential access to increased interest and conviction among the cleaning jobs in municipalities, including marginalized that education holds the key lease of public toilets of City Corporations to for socioeconomic mobility. In this regard, a Dalit sweepers. special quota for Dalit and other excluded

51 Chapter-6 Reviewing Relevant Policies, Law, and the Constitution

- Proper resettlement will be provided for the Government used the term ‘Dalit’ as a generic evicted Dalit families. term and did make any specific mention of Dalit women or men. - Dalit households will be given preferential access to social security programmes. Such Policy Related to Employment affirmative action will be combined with The Prime Minister of the Government of People’s capability enhancement and confidence Republic of Bangladesh gave an order on 29th building, to empower these groups to have May 2012 to reserve 80 percent of all cleaner a voice and make claims, and an effective and sweeper jobs of in all the government, grievance mechanism. autonomous. and non-government institutions for - Massive public education against the Harijans and Dalits. This was published in the discrimination and towards equity-inclusion Bangladesh Gazette on 4th April 2013. However, will be promoted, building greater transparency in reality, the system is not being maintained and through social audits and public hearings. members of non-Dalit dominant groups occupy those posts instead. In addition, this policy did not The Vision for Social Security System in the consider the various occupations of different Dalit Seventh Plan sub-castes. A range of socially excluded populations face Apart from above mentioned jobs, no quotas various social discriminations based on religion, or affirmative action programmes have been ethnicity, profession, or illness. The Government implemented by the Government to ensure Dalits is highly sensitive to ensuring the elimination of equal access to any other type of employment. all kinds of socio-economic discrimination against these groups through legislative and other Policy of Distributing State Owned Land to affirmative actions. This is a major agenda item for the Landless. the Government’s broader Social Development Ownership of land in Bangladesh is vested in Framework. The Government will also ensure that either private individuals or entities of the State. these minority groups have equivalent access to Khas land is government owned land, including all Social Security programmes and to all publicly agricultural and non‑agricultural land, and water provided basic services in education, health, bodies. There is no up-to-date data about the nutrition, population planning, water supply, and amount of khas land in Bangladesh. The estimates sanitation as the rest of the population. The of khas land are open to contestation, since land Government believes that these two strands records are poor and open to legal challenge of public policy are the best way to support the (Shah B.K, 2010). According to a report (2005) of development of these groups. the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Land, The Government is aware that special efforts there is 5,000,000 (50 lac) acres of khas land in will be needed to reach many of the members the country; a major portion of landless families of these groups. This will involve sensitizing the can receive settlement of this land (AlRD 2015) staff of Social Security agencies as well as relying The estimated amount of total identified (based on local government and NGOs for identifying on offcial sources) khas land in Bangladesh is 3.3 potential beneficiaries. A mechanism for effective million acres, with 0.8 million acres of agricultural grievance redressing will also help bring members khas land, 1.7 million acres of non‑agricultural of these excluded populations into the Social khas land, and 0.8 million acres of khas water Security network. In the Seventh Five Year Plan, bodies (ALRD 2010). Of immediate relevance to

52 Bringing Dalit Women to the Forefront: Realities and Challenges

agrarian reform, 0.8 million acres of agricultural were expropriated by the government. According land (4 percent of Bangladesh’s total agricultural to these polices, it is very hard for Dalits to get land) and 0.8 million acres of water bodies, an access to government khas land as landless important economic resource, can be put at the poor, because their livelihood is not dependent service of the nation’s resource-poor (Shah B.K, on agriculture. But in the Seventh Five Year Plan, 2010). In a campaign brief, Land Watch Asia the Government specifically mentions the rights of states that khas land and khas water bodies the Dalit to receive government khas land. In the cover some 2.1 million hectares, 24 percent of same policy, the Government also encourages which are agricultural. Agricultural khas land owners of tea gardens to allocate land to poor tea covers some 321,323 ha, of which 43.47 percent labourers for homestead gardening. has reportedly been distributed to landless households (ALRD & SHED 2011). Safety Netting Programmes of Governments The Bangladesh Government has more than a Policy to Distribute Agricultural Khas Land hundred social safety net programmes run by After Bangladesh’s independence, the three ministries: Ministry of Local Government, instruments of khas land distribution became Ministry of Social Welfare, and Ministry of Women the Bangladesh State Acquisition and Tenancy and Children’s Affairs. The major of social safety (Fourth Amendment) Order 1972, the Bangladesh net programmes (SSNPs) in Bangladesh can be Landholding Limitation Order 1972, President’s divided into four broad categories: (i) employment Order LXI 1975, and the 1984 Land Reform generation programmes; (ii) programmes to cope Ordinance. The most important Government with natural disasters and other shocks; (iii) notifications relating to the settlements of khas incentives provided to parents for their children’s land are the Land Reform Action Program 1987 education; and (iv) incentives provided to families and the Agricultural Khas Land and Settlements to improve their health status. The SSNPs can Policy 1997. also be grouped into two types depending on whether they involve cash transfers or food To assist the process of khas land identification transfers. and its equitable distribution, government policies and the regulatory framework — especially the The Government has specific SSNP programmes 1984 Land Reform Ordinance and the khas land for the Dalit, Harijan, and tea worker communities. management and distribution policies of 1987 In the case of the Dalits and Harijan programmes, and 1997 — provided concrete directions towards cash is provided to eligible poor families of the establishing national and local level committees Dalit and Harijan communities. The eligibility for overseeing khas land identification and criteria states that old, widowed, single, or poor distribution, identification of landless persons, Dalit and Harijan women receive preference. In and a prioritization process as well as a the tea garden social welfare programme, food procedure for raising public support for securing is provided in three instalments over a year to access to khas land. One enabling law was the one family, the economic value of which food policy instituted in 1997 to distribute khas land to relief should be not more than Taka 5,000 per landless peasants, defined as landless families year for each family. The eligibility criteria for this dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. This programme also states that old, widowed, single, also prioritized certain groups, such as families or poor female tea labourer are given preference of free Domee fighters, families that had lost for food relief. their land to erosion, and families whose lands

53 Chapter-6 Reviewing Relevant Policies, Law, and the Constitution

Apart from these two specific schemes, the Agricultural Policy 1999 and Draft Agriculture Ministry of Social Welfare and Ministry of Policy 2010, National Population Policy 2011, Women and Children’s Affairs run two separate Draft National Housing Policy 2008, National stipend programmes for at risk children, funded Food Policy 2006, National Water Policy 1999 by UNICEF. A member of a community-based and National Social Welfare Policy 2005 barely child protection committee selects children for mention the needs of marginal groups, let alone this stipend programme. The Ministry of Women the Dalit. and Children Affairs provides Taka 30,000 in two instalments to families whose children are at risk of dropping out of school, or who are working as child labourers. As per the conditions of the stipend, families are required to start some small business and send their children back to school. In another stipend programme, the Ministry of Social Affairs provides Taka 2,000 per month to families to reduce household level poverty and to bring children back to school. But none of these programmes select children from Dalit communities — despite the fact that, among the Dalit, school dropout rates are quite high, and most Dalit families are poor and thus lack the economic capacity to bear their children’s educational expenses. According to the Constitution, Dalits are entitled to receive any government SSNP as long as they meet the eligibility criteria. Some programmes cover a number of tea labourers, but Dalits are not covered by other SSNPs apart from the specific ones allotted for them. Other Policies In addition, other national policies such as the National Education Policy 2010, National Health Policy 2011, National Women Development Policy 2011, National Children Policy 2011, and National Labour Policy 2012 mention “marginal social groups”, “minor ethnic groups”, “backward groups”, etc., and recognize the need to give special attention to their development. The Dalit are not specifically mentioned, but they are potentially covered under these groups. However, some of the nation’s most important policies such as the National Land Policy 2001, National

54 CHAPTER-7 Recommendations and Conclusion

7.1 Recommendations the term ‘Dalit’ is taken outside its specific context, there is scope to exclude real Dalits For Government and Legislative Bodies from the social welfare schemes. • As citizens, Dalits are entitled to receive allowances under different social welfare For Sector Players (NGOs, INGOs, and schemes provided by the Government. Development Partners) However, quotas must be allocated for Dalit • No existing programmes specifically target women under the schemes appropriate for Dalit women and children. Sector players them. BDRM and other sector players must need to start specific interventions for them. engage in lobbying and advocacy work with the line ministries, i.e. MOWCA and MOSW. • Child-rights based INGOs and NGOs need to have specific programmes for Dalit children’s • There is a lack of accurate data on the Dalit issues — specifically, to stop their sexual community. The Bureau of Statistics needs abuse. to conduct a census on the Dalit population, including gender disaggregated data. • Development interventions for Dalit women should be long-term and should focus on • The education policy needs to ensure Dalit future generations and youth. Ensuring proper children’s right to education and their right to education and facilitating decent income- be free from discrimination within educational earning opportunities could be the most institutions. effective way to empower future generations • Ministry of Education along with the Ministry of Dalit women. of Social Welfare need to jointly ensure that • Dalit women are losing their traditional jobs stipends for Dalit children go to the right and households are suffering from poverty. families at the right time. INGOs, NGOs, and DPs need to take • Ministry of Social Welfare needs to redefine interventions on livelihood development and re-conceptualize the concept and term options related to the market value chain. ‘Dalit’ to ensure that the right people are • Sector players need to provide integrated getting the allowances reserved for Dalits. development programmes for Dalit • Many laws and policies include the broader communities so that Dalit women can term ‘marginalized and disadvantaged’, accumulate social, economic and cultural which excludes Dalits by not mentioning them capital. in particular. So it is recommended that the • In addition to government efforts, NGOs and existence of the ‘Dalit’ and of ‘Dalit women’ other institutions should provide skills-training is specified with the appropriate meaning in to Dalit women to help them find alternative those laws and policies. means of income. • It is necessary to define the term ‘Dalit’ in the • Government and NGOs programmes should documents of social welfare schemes. When

55 Chapter-6 Recommendations and Conclusion

target young Dalit men and boys to positively 7.2 Conclusion change their attitudes towards women and violence against women. The status and situation of Dalit women belonging to marginalized communities must be understood • Focus should be given to promoting positive by taking into account the different dimensions interaction between Dalit and non-Dalit of inequality that shape their lives: class, caste, children at school, and raising non-­Dalit culture and, of course, gender. Dalit women face children’s awareness of the dignity and rights discrimination both as women and as members of the Dalit. To accomplish this, INGOs and of marginalized communities. They also suffer NGOs needs to begin initiatives to engage gender-based discrimination and violence within with school teachers, PTAs, and mainstream their own households and communities. In light non-Dalit children. of these issues, it can be said that Dalit women occupy the bottom rung of society. High rates For Dalit Networks and Dalit Communities: of illiteracy, child marriage, early motherhood, violence of multiple kinds, economic deprivation, • Network leaders must engage in policy etc. are common struggles they face daily. advocacy with the appropriate parliamentarian standing committees in order to ensure Therefore, as a social group, Dalit women face education for Dalit children, increase a double vulnerability: First, they are vulnerable the number of allowances for Dalits, and as women living on the margins of a historically appropriately define the term ‘Dalit’ in policy male-dominated minority community; second, as documents. Dalits, they are vulnerable to abuse and exclusion by members of mainstream society. • Community networks must work with men and youth to reduce gender inequality at the family and clan level, and stop gender-based violence in family and society. • Dalit networks and civil society organizations must foster positive, effective, and meaningful interaction between Dalit men and women. Advocacy programmes to reduce domestic violence must be organized and promoted. • Dalit networks and civil society organizations need to take initiatives to ensure the active participation of Dalit women in local power structures and in the panchayat.

56 References

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